By Celene Adassa Gyles

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A FOLLOW -UP STUDY OF THE SELF-DETERMINATION, EDUCATIONAL,
TRANSITIONAL, AND ATTRIBUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH
EMPLOYMENT SUCCESS OF PEOPLE WITH BLINDNESS AND
VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES
by
Celene Adassa Gyles
Dissertation Committee:
Professor Dennis E. Mithaug, Sponsor

Professor Virginia S. Stolarski
Approved by the Committee on the Degree o f Doctor of Education
Date: -OCT I 4 m
Submitted in partial fulfillment o f the

requirements for the Degree o f Doctor o f Education in
Teachers College, Columbia University
2002
UMI Number: 3068057
Copyright 2002 by
Gyles, C elene Adassa
All rights reserved.
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ii
A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF THE SELF-DETERMINATION, EDUCATIONAL.
VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES
by
Celene Adassa Gyles
Dissertation Committee:
Professor Dennis E. Mithaug, Sponsor

Professor Virginia S. Stolarski
Approved by the Committee on the Degree o f Doctor o f Education
Date: OCT 1 < 2002
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Degree o f Doctor of Education in
Teachers College, Columbia University
2002
ABSTRACT
A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF THE SELF-DETERMINATION, EDUCATIONAL,
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES
Celene Adassa Gyles
This study examined the association between educational experience, school-to-
work transition training, attributions for success, and levels o f self-determination and the
employment success experienced by adults with blindness and visual impairment that
graduated from a school for the blind in Jamaica, West Indies between 1980 and 2001.
The sample included 28 males and 16 females who were between the ages o f 19 and 51
years o f age at the time of the study. A questionnaire administered during personal
interviews with the 44 respondents yielded information on their backgrounds, their
ratings on school experience, transition training, success attributions, and levels o f self-
determination, and their post-school employment status. Results indicated that there were
significant employment success differences for respondents based on their gender and
their disability. Male respondents were more likely than female respondents to report
higher income levels more job satisfaction and fewer problems with work, and
respondents with less severe vision loss were more likely to have problems at work. For
the variables o f the study, the results indicated that although there were significant
positive correlations between educational training and transition training, transition
training and levels o f self-determination, educational training and social attributions for
success, social attributions for success and personal attributions for success, and between
social attributions for success and educational attributions for success, the only
significant predictor o f employment success was respondents’ levels o f self-
determination. According to this finding, the higher the respondent’s ratings on their
levels of self-determination, the greater were their employment successes, as measured
by income level.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express sincere gratitude to my advisor Professor Dennis Mithaug, for his patience,
guidance and support during the period o f this study. I also want to thank Dr. Virginia
Stolarski for her advisement and expertise in her area o f specialization and more so for
her moral support. Thanks to Professor Linda Hickson for her advisement during the
earlier stages o f the research. My sincere appreciation goes to Marilyn Audain in the
Office o f Doctoral Studies who provided valuable information and support.
To my friend Genevieve John and fellow students who shared in the seminar
meetings with Dr. Stolarski, I will always remember the times we had together.
Special appreciation to Mr. Arvel Grant. Executive Director o f the Caribbean
Council for the Blind in Antigua. West Indies, for the valuable support provided through
the Council and for the encouragement to complete this project. My sincere thanks also,
to Mr. Conrad Harris, Program Officer o f the Jamaica Society for the Blind, who gave
enormous assistance in the selection and contact o f the participants in the study. To my
colleagues from The Mico College in Kingston, Jamaica, your help made all the
difference.
My family deserves very special expression o f gratitude for the abundant support
that they gave. For the continuous prayers, encouragement and always being there for me
in so many ways, I just give you so much thanks.
My many friends in Jamaica, other Caribbean Islands and in the United States, who
supported me so well, I want to thank you all.
C. G.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... 1
Individuals with Blindness and Visual Impairments............................. 3

Disabilities and Visual Impairment in Jamaica .................................... 5
Comparison o f Individuals With and Without D isabilities.................. 8
Indicators for Successful Post-School Adjustment................................ 9
Indicators o f Poor Post-School Adjustment........................................... 10
Better Prospects for Some.......................................................................14
Statement o f the Problem........................................................................16
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..........................................................................18
Early Follow-up Studies........................................................................... 18

School-to-Work Transition R esearch................................................... 23
Self-Determination Research..................................................................30
Other Factors Affecting O utcom es........................................................33
Family Factors...................................................................................33
School Factors....................................................................................35
Community Factors........................................................................... 37
Personal Factors................................................................................ 38
Self-concept and self-esteem .................................................... 39
Self-advocacy.............................................................................. 42
Social skills..................................................................................43
Communication skills.................................................................47
Status o f Post-School Outcomes in Jam aica.........................................49
Summary and Rationale.......................................................................... 54
Research Q uestions..................................................................................5 5
III. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN............................................................... 57
Locations and Data Collection Situations............................................. 5 8

Data Collectors..........................................................................................59
Design o f the Study.................................................................................. 60
Instrument Validation.......................................................................61
Instrumentation........................................................................................ 62
Survey Instrument............................................................................. 62
Background Characteristics............................................................. 62
Attributions for Success....................................................................63
Educational Training......................................................................... 64
Transition Training........................................................................... 64
Self-Determination............................................................................ 6 5
Employment Information..................................................................68
iv
Chapter Page
Employment Success.......................................................................... 70
Participants..................................................................................................7 I
Procedures...................................................................................................7 2
Analysis.......................................................................................................73
IV. R ESU LTS......................................................................................................... 74
Demographic and Background Information.......................................... 74

Civil Status........................................................................................... 75
Living Situation...................................................................................75
Visual Status........................................................................................ 76
Reading and Writing M edium ...........................................................77
Family Member with Visual Problems.............................................78
Education Level Completed............................................................... 79
Still in School.......................................................................................80
Employment History, Problems, and Activities.................................... 81
Research Questions....................................................................................8 6
Research Question O ne.......................................................................8 6
Research Question T w o ......................................................................9 1
Research Question T h ree................................................................... 9 3
V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION................................................................. 9 5
Summary o f Results...................................................................................9 6
Demographic and Background Information.................................... 9 6
Research Question One............................................................................. 100
Research Question T w o............................................................................106
Research Question T hree..........................................................................108
Implications................................................................................................110
Direction for Future Research..................................................................113
Lim itations.................................................................................................114
REFERENCES ...............................................................................................116
APPENDICES
Page
A. Definition o f Operational Term s................................................................... 130
B. Survey Q uestionnaire..............................................................................................133
C. Volunteers T lier...................................................................................................... 145
D. Participant’s C onsent..............................................................................................147
E. Response from A gency.......................................................................................... 149
F. Response from Association.................................................................................... 151
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution o f Respondents in Five Data Collection Locations......................... 59
2. Number o f Respondents per Data Collector........................................................... 60
3. Background Questions............................................................................................... 62
4. Attributions for Success............................................................................................ 63
5. Educational Training.................................................................................................. 64
6. Transition T raining.................................................................................................... 66
7. AIR Self-Determination S cale ................................................................................. 68
8. Employment Inform ation......................................................................................... 70
9. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Age by Age G roups............................ 75
10. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Civil S ta tu s.......................................... 75
11. Frequency Distribution o f Current Residence....................................................... 76
12. Frequency Distribution o f Visual Status................................................................. 77
13. Frequency Distribution o f Reading and Writing Media and Print

Type U sed................................................................................................................. 78
14. Frequency Distribution o f Completed Levels o f Education................................ 79
15. Level o f Education Being Pursued ......................................................................... 80
16. Program of Study Being Pursued............................................................................ 81
17. Employment H istory................................................................................................. 82
18. Employment Problems.............................................................................................. 83
19. Employment A ctivities............................................................................................. 84
20. Employment Success................................................................................................ 84
21. T-test Comparison o f Gender and Living Situation with Study Variables
of School Preparation, Transition, Attributions for Success (Personal,
vii
Social, Educational Attributes) and Self-determination in Terms o f Their
Differences in Effect................................................................................................ 87
22. One-Way Analysis o f Variance Comparison o f Age Group, Civil Status,

Visual Status, Reading and Writing Media and Education Completed
with Study Variables o f Educational Training, Transition, Attributions
for Success (Personal, Social, and Educational Attributes for Success) 89
23. Correlation Matrix for Study Variables and Employment Success.................... 92
24. Regression Analysis o f the Background Variables on Employment

Success .................................................................................................................... 93
25. Regression Analysis o f the Study Variables on Employment Success.............. 94
viii
1
Chapter I
INTRODl CTION
The post-school adjustment o f students with disabilities is considered an important
outcome measure. Adjustment relates to the ability to cope with life and the interacting
personal, social and environmental elements that people encounter (Gerber & Reiff,
1991). Adults with disabilities who are well adjusted have been found to be more self-
fulfilled, socially competent and integrated into their communities (Vaughn, Bos, &
Schumm. 1997). In contrast, those who are less well adjusted seem to encounter problems
that negatively impact on the quality o f their Ii\es ( I fellendoom & Ruijssenaars, 2000). A
number of follow-up studies have been done to track graduates and "school leavers*' to
examine adult outcomes o f people with disabilities. The list o f outcomes includes,
employment status, living arrangements, postsecondary educational access and social and
community integration (Blackorby & Wagner. 1996: Mithaug, Martin. & Agran, 1989:
Munk & Repp, 1994; Park & Gaylord-Ross. 1989; Wehmeyer & Kelehner, 1995;
Wehmeyer & Schwartz. 1997).
Employment status has been a primary concern o f the transition from school-to-
work movement for individuals with disabilities (O 'D ay, 1999). Although success in
employment does not necessarily correlate with success in other facets o f life, it is a
major factor in economic stability and is necessary for independent living (Blackorby &
Wagner, 1996; O ’Day, 1999). Research shows that the employment rates o f youth with
disabilities lag significantly behind those o f youth in the general population (Blackorby &
Wagner. 1996). In the United States, a nation-wide longitudinal study tracked students
with disabilities who were out of secondary school for 2 to 3 years. Post-school outcomes
o f adjustment were analyzed using broad outcome areas o f (a) employment;
(b) postsecondary education; and (c) movement toward independence. Although the
1996 data indicated that rate of employment for youth with disabilities had risen 11
percentage points over previous studies (Affleck, Edgar, Levine. & Kortering, 1990;
D'Am ico. 1991; Hasazi. Gordon. & Roe. 1995; Mithaug, Horiuchi, & Fanning, 1985;
Sitlington & Frank. 1990), it was still relatively low, with the gap between the rate o f
employment for students with disabilities and those without disabilities remaining wide
(Blackorby & Wagner. 1996).
Post-school research in the U.S. during the 1990's indicates a variety o f results. It
has been reported that as time passed after high school, many more youths with
disabilities had found competitive jobs, which were mostly full-time positions. Yet. the
overall positive trend was contrasted to findings that, nearly 1 in 5 youths with
disabilities who were out o f school 3 to 5 years, were unemployed and not seeking work.
The trend for young people with visual impairments, a term inclusive o f the range o f
visual disorders, indicated low percentages o f employment relative to the other categories
o f disabilities. For example, youths with learning disabilities or speech impairments were
employed at virtually equivalent rates to the general population o f youth 3 to 5 years after
high school (70% and 65% vs. 69% for youth in general). Only 29% of their peers with
visual impairments were employed in competitive employment positions despite having
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout permission.
3
completed more schooling than their peers with other disabilities (Blackorby & Wagner,
1996; Sommerfeld, 1993).
Individuals with Blindness and Visual Impairments
Young people with blindness and visual impairments often experience difficulties in
their adjustment from school to work. In the U.S., where established rehabilitation
programs exist, where policies designed to eliminate discrimination are implemented, and
where over 25 years o f disability rights legislation has been in place, about two-thirds o f
working-age individuals with disabilities are unemployed and only 20% of the population
have full employment. Notably, about 74% o f working-age people with significant visual
impairments (i.e. those with visual impairments who cannot read print) are employed,
indicating that people with blindness and visual impairments are doing much better than
people in other categories o f disabilities (O ’Day, 1999). Traditionally many education
systems looked to postsecondary education to solve social problems, redress inequality
and to provide opportunities.
In the early 1990’s postsecondary education including vocational training in the
United States was of particular importance, because students with disabilities were often
leaving school poorly prepared for work (Wagner, Blackorby, & Hebbeler, 1993).
Students with disabilities dropped out o f high school in large numbers (Wagner et al.,
1993). O f the youths with disabilities who had been out o f school for up to two years only
a mere 14% attended some type o f post secondary schools, compared with 53% o f youths
in the general population who had been out o f school for the same period (Blackorby &
Wagner, 1996). From follow-up study three years later, the results indicated that an
additional 13% o f people with disabilities were attending or attended post secondary
4
schools. This increase in enrollment in post secondary school was still less than that o f
the general population, which increased by 15%. Although the enrollment o f people with
visual impairments in post secondary schools showed a higher enrollment percentage rate
than people in some other categories o f disabilities (e.g. 30% versus 4 % for youth
classified with multiple disabilities), they were less likely to attain post secondary status
than the general population (Blackorby & Wagner, 1996).
School-to-work transition preparation programs focus on an assortment o f self-
sustaining skills and competencies that indicate success in adulthood (Affleck. Edgar.
Levine. & Kortering, 1990). Data highlight the extent to which these skills and
competencies are apparently central to adjustment in adult living (US Department of
Commerce). Since economic and social independence are tied to employment status a
significant number o f people with disabilities do not live fully independent lives (O'Day.
1999). Graduation from high school is the primary indicator o f later social and vocational
advancement for youths with disabilities (National Longitudinal Transition Study - A
Five-Year Plan, 1993). One study indicated that, young adults with disabilities made
"significant movement” toward economic and social independence within five years after
leaving high school, but clustered in low-skill, low-wage jobs, and earning incomes
typically below the poverty line (Sommerfeld, 1993). If high school graduation is the
expected level and not tertiary graduation, it might be argued that the attainment o f high
school standard is good enough. However, the question is whether earning incomes
typically below the poverty line is acceptable for full independence?
The rehabilitation literature has presented several explanations for high
unemployment rates. Some have focused on the individual’s inadequacies, such as, the
lack o f training, physical or mental limitations, and discouragement. Others have
highlighted societal issues, including labor force trends, architectural barriers, public
attitudes and discrimination (O'Dav. 1999). Yet, these are the not the only barriers that
are said to challenge people with disabilities. Emphasis also has been placed on both
personal and societal barriers (Feller. 1996a). Educators have identified the following
barriers that affect the everyday experiences o f people with visual impairments: deficits
in skills or education. lack o f work experience, individual characteristics, such as, the
lack o f information, motivation, or job preparation skills, and deficits in social interaction
skills (Emener & Marion-Landais. 1995: Hill, 1989; Kirschner & Harkins, 1991: Mather,
1994; Sacks & Wolffe, 1992; Young. 1996). Although students with disabilities have
been afforded opportunities to enter the workforce and improve their economic and social
independence, the research results indicate that graduates with disabilities often live in
the margin of society, because the rate o f employment is still below that of graduates
without disabilities, and incomes are generally below the poverty line.
Disabilities and Visual Impairments in Jamaica
The traditional approach toward disability in Jamaica was mostly one o f health care,
rehabilitation or charity (M inistry o f Labor and Social Security, 2000). A well held belief
was that basic physical care; food shelter and clothing were the primary needs o f people
with disabilities (Committee on Disabilities, 1993). Further documentation by the
Committee on Disabilities records that, since 1981, which was the International Year o f
Disabled Persons (IYDP); people with disabilities were thrown into the “spotlight.” The
outcome in Jamaica was the formation o f many agencies and organizations of and for
6
people w ith disabilities, which offered a variety o f services. Several educational
programs for students with disabilities displayed mottos featuring the theme o f life long
learning.
Information and survey results on disability in Jamaica seem mostly to be
documented in regional reports and documentaries. As a result, individual country studies
are often discussed from a Caribbean Regional perspective. The indicators suggest that a
variety o f programs and services exist across the Region that caters to the welfare of
people with disabilities. However, it could be said that young people with disabilities,
who live in Jamaica, face many challenges in their adjustment to adult life. The 2001
Needs Assessment Survey of the Disabled Peoples’ Organization o f the Caribbean,
reported the challenges in the Region as: (1) inadequate funds to procure specialized
materials and resources; (2) a paucity o f trained specialists to teach vocational skills;
(3) an inadequate number of mentors and career counselors with knowledge about the
needs o f people with special needs; and (4) inadequate communication, and
transportation. It appears that within the population of people with disabilities, there may
be variations in the unique needs o f differing sub-groups. This would itself create
additional difficulties. For example, students with visual impairments seem to encounter
many problems with communication, particularly in the use o f Braille (Bergsma. 1994).
In reference to provisions and facilities for children with special needs in the
Commonwealth Caribbean Region. Bergsma’s (1994) Netherlands Regional Education
Survey Report mentioned that many children with special needs were excluded from
access to regular secondary education. The report further stated that those who entered
the secondary system often encountered problems with completing this level of education
7
and/or moving on to higher levels. For students with visual impairments in Jamaica, the
main barriers to successful progression through secondary school included a lack o f
materials and equipment, a limited number o f teachers specifically trained to work with
people who have visual disorders; and, a public perception that they cannot guarantee the
safety o f people with visual impairments in the workplace (The Jamaica Society for the
Blind. 2000). According to data from the rehabilitation program affiliated with The
Caribbean Council for the Blind (2001), another problem for adolescents and young
adults with visual impairments is finding and maintaining employment at the end o f the
cycle o f schooling, in order to live as independently as possible.
The situational analysis report included as preamble to the 2000 Jamaica National
Policy for Persons with Disabilities highlights the factors o f concern in the situation o f
persons with disabilities in the country (Jamaica National Policy, 2000). It cites negative
perceptions and attitudes toward disability, resulting in the isolation and exclusion of
people with disabilities from the mainstream o f the society. The report further presents,
that, people with disabilities face a number o f problems, especially in the area of
education, training, employment, medical care, housing and recreation. The Jamaica 1991
census data showed approximately 111,000 persons with at least one disability. Although
the highest proportion o f people with disabilities were in the 65 and over age group
(48,800), economic activity indicated 13.951 persons, and approximately 14% o f the total
population with disabilities had a job (National Policy for Persons with Disability, 2000).
The Jamaica Council for Persons with Disabilities associates adult adjustment status
with economic activities. The 2000 National Policy for persons with Disabilities indicates
that a large proportion o f persons with disabilities live their lives in poverty, because o f
8
their inability to find jobs. Some who were able to find jobs were paid at lower rates than
were non-disabled people. Although there were no data for comparative employment
rates o f people with and without disabilities, a higher rate o f employment was reported
for males (19.5%) than females (8.8%). The nature o f the disability also contributed to
the ability to gain employment. The data indicated that unemployment was highest
among those who were classified as slow to learn (2.3%). The rate of employment for
those with visual disorders was 12%.
Comparisons of Individuals With and Without Disabilities
While adults with visual impairments experience varying degrees o f difficulties in
their post school adjustment and in their pursuit o f employment, adults without visual
impairments experience better prospects in their adjustment and employment status
(Koenig & Holbrook. 2000). In the United States, some educators urged caution with
traditional ideas concerning psychosocial development and adjustment o f children and
young adults with visual impairments (Koenig & Holbrook. 2000). Based on findings o f
follow-up studies (Freeman, Goetz. Richards. & Groenveld. 1991; Sacks & Wolffe. 1998;
Wolffe & Sacks, 1995, 1997), young adults with visual impairments showed minimal
differences in major life areas when compared to their sighted peers. Results in the
academic area indicated that the difference in performance and achievement showed little
discrepancy. In the vocational area, youths with blindness and visual impairments
secured employment in clerical and other office jobs, while overall there was a more even
distribution o f job types and work activities among those who were sighted. For activities
o f daily living, the young adults with visual impairments experienced success was
comparable to their sighted peers in some activities, but there were marked differences on
aspects of travel and home management. According to the reports, the individuals who
were sighted experienced greater success in social activities and interactions than peers
with visual impairments (Wolffe & Sacks, 1995, 1997).
In general, people without disabilities have scored high on school-based and work-
based components that are commonly associated with school-to-work programs that
actually predict better employment and engagement outcomes in skilled labor and
vocational employments, suggesting better measured outcomes for people without
disabilities (Benz, Yovanoff. & Doran. 1997). On the other hand, students with blindness
and visual impairments show deficits in particularly those components related to better
employment and engagement outcomes (Crudden & McBroom, 1999; O'Day. 1999;
Russello & D'Allura, 2000).
Indicators for Successful Post-School Adjustment
What are the factors that are responsible for successful adjustment? People who
experience successful adjustment are believed to possess certain social and work related
skills for the transition from school to work. McBroom and Tedder (1993) include the
following skills for positive adjustment: (1) maintaining and expanding ties with parents
and adults in the workforce and learning how to act in a mature fashion; (2) learning
about the range o f jobs and how to gain access to work and training; (3) acquiring
knowledge about educational and vocational resources; (4) developing skills in career
decision-making, planning, and problem-solving; (5) becoming cognizant o f their
abilities, interests and values by understanding different activities; (6) increasing their
10
self-control; (7) strengthening their constructive work habits; and (8) developing the
desire to work.
There is increased emphasis on self-determination as an important outcome for
youth with disabilities after they leave school. Research has shown that in order to
complete most tasks for positive adjustment, it is necessary to acquire self-determination
skills (Wehmeyer & Schwartz. 1997). Self-determined students are more likely to
achieve positive adult outcomes, including being employed at a higher rate and earning
more than their peers who are less self-determined (Wehmeyer & Schwartz. 1997).
An array of skills is also suggested for successful transition from school to work,
and for adult adjustment. These include: social skills, career employment skills,
communication skills, independent/daily living skills, academic skills, problem-solving
skills, choice making skills, leisure and recreational skills, generalization skills, and
orientation and mobility skills and visual efficiency skills for people with visual disorders
(Bowe, 2000; Gresham. Sugai. & Homer. 2000; Hallahan & Kauffman. 1997; Koenig &
Holbrook, 2000; Meier-Kronick, 1993).
Indicators o f Poor Post-School Adjustment
A factor that may be responsible for poor adjustment after school for individuals
with disabilities is illiteracy. Illiteracy is defined as the inability to read and write or
having little education (Random House Webster’s Dictionary, 1998). DelaGarza and Erin
(1993) argued that elements such as, school failure, school dropout, underachievement
and learning deficiency might be attributed to illiteracy. Longitudinal information about
employment and quality o f life in the adult years indicates the difference in outcomes for
11
a group o f school leavers with visual impairments. The individuals who successfully
completed secondary school and those who moved on to post-secondary education
showed higher employment rates and quality o f life indicators. On the other hand, the
individuals in the group who dropped out of school, who performed poorly academically,
who were poor readers and writers, and had little education, were found to have lower
employment rates and quality o f life indicators (DelaGarza & Erin, 1993; McBroom &
Tedder, 1993; Robinson, 1993; Sacks, Wolffe. & Tierney. 1998). An analysis o f the
employment status and life satisfaction of individuals with visual impairments, suggests a
relationship between educational experiences and transitional outcomes (DelaGarza &
Erin, 1993).
In Jamaica, negative perceptions and attitudes toward disability have resulted in
isolation and exclusion o f many people with disabilities from the mainstream o f society.
In the area of education, the isolation and exclusion o f students with disabilities have
resulted in high rates o f illiteracy within the population, primarily due to their limited
education (Ministry o f Labor and Social Security, 2000).
Another factor considered to be contributive to poor adult adjustment is inadequate
educational training. Sommerfeld (1993) claimed that educational training (i.e.,
education and training) brings gains not equally shared by lack o f preparation. The
researcher contended that youths with disabilities who graduated from high school were
more likely than dropouts to be employed or to continue their education, and more likely
to fully participate in civic life. Research provides data indicating the extent to which
instructional components and outcomes associated with school-to-work programs,
actually predict better post school outcomes for students with and without disabilities. In
12
general the data support the inclusion o f school-based and work-based instructional
components in the curriculum (Benz. Yavanoff, & Doran. 1997). Poor and inadequate
educational training put all students at a disadvantage when exiting school, but the
greatest impact was on the students with disabilities (Robinson. 1993). A post-school
comparison of youths who had gone through structured school-to-work transition
programs, career education programs or life skills programs, and youths who did not.
indicated that the preparation program may have influenced the potential success o f the
youths who experienced the training (Sacks, Wolffe. & Tiemev, 1998).
The improvement of public awareness, the readiness o f school leavers and the
competitiveness o f the workforce are all high national priorities in the United States
(Wehmeyer & Schwartz. 1997). Several reports (e.g.. National Center on Education and
the Economy, 1990; U.S. Department o f Labor. 1991; William T. Grant Foundation.
1998) document the need for a more effective school-to-work transition system for
students. Factors such as. the changing nature o f the workplace and the increasing
demands for employees that possess sound academic and occupational skills, the growing
number of students leaving school without these skills, and the failure o f the high school
curriculum in providing these skills for many students, contribute to poor school to work
transition (Benz et al., 1997).
Often times, there are factors relating to systems’ resources and policies that
influence the types o f adjustments adults experience after leaving school. Are there any
aspects to be considered to clarify the education context and system analysis o f Jamaica
and its uniqueness as a Commonwealth Caribbean nation? Indeed there seems to be.
According to the W orld Bank Regional Study (1993), CAR1COM Study (2000), and
13
Bergsma (1994), children in Commonwealth Countries at the elementary level have close
to universal access to education in all countries. Access to secondary education is less
universal and varied in description, since the selection process is based on performance
on different entrance examinations making admission extremely competitive. The
performance on the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) and the General Certificate
Examination (GCE), on which entry criteria for tertiary (higher education) is established,
is much more rigorous. Bergsma (1994), in reference to a World Bank Caribbean Report
(1993), states that secondary education does not seem to be as effective as elementary
education and there is relatively less opportunity for tertiary education in the
Commonwealth Caribbean Countries.
According to Bergsma (1994), because most countries in the Commonwealth
Caribbean have variations o f "Education for AH” legislations, special education
provisions and facilities are included in the offering o f the education systems. However,
the facilities and level o f service provisions are relative to the robustness o f each
country's economic status and its understanding o f exceptional education. The extent to
which attention can be given to individuals with special needs is often used as a moral
judgment or argument, but can also be used as a quality indicator for education,
especially in terms o f “ Education for All” (World Conference, Thailand 1990). It also
serves to determine the extent to which the regular school system caters to learners with
special needs.
Concern about the growing number o f unemployed people in Jamaica, as well as,
other countries o f the Region, was cited in Caribbean Studies (CARICOM Study, 2000;
World Bank Country Study, 1993). The studies show that, some countries have higher
14
unemployment rates than others. A number o f the unemployed are also unemployable,
because they are uneducated and or unskilled. In many instances however, a significant
percentage of the unemployed are people who have completed secondary and or tertiary
education, but are unable to find a job. This is the situation in which people with
disabilities find themselves and in which they must bring meaning to their lives
(Caribbean Council for the Blind, 2001). In reference to the situation, agencies for the
blind point to the growing number school leavers on the streets who will not move on to
higher education or get jobs (Caribbean Council for the Blind. 2001; School for the Blind
Old Students Association. 1999).
Better Prospects for Some
Many people with blindness and visual impairment are faced with various
challenges in their adulthood and they express concerns about lack o f opportunities and
limited capacity to obtain and maintain employment and integrate into the society
(Robinson, 1993). Despite the challenges to adjustment, some people with visual
impairments seem to experience success. The question is why do they succeed? In a
study o f the psychosocial adjustment o f Dutch youths with and without visual
impairments (Kef. 2002), the overall results indicated that the problem o f psychosocial
adjustments usually discussed in literature, did not apply to these youths with visual
impairments. The following psychosocial characteristics o f youths with visual
impairments were used as indicators o f psychosocial adjustment: self-esteem, locus of
control, coping strategies, and acceptance o f the impairment. Happiness and loneliness
were also included. The results showed only a small percentage o f the subjects with
15
visual impairments (about 14%) experienced relatively more problems in this regard, but.
in general, the findings on these psychosocial characteristic variables were similar for the
sighted youths. Both groups showed more similarities than differences in the
characteristics indicators, and the few differences that were found were small. According
to the researcher, the difference between youths with visual impairments and their sighted
peers proved to be small, but significant. In general, the findings showed that social
support, especially support o f peers, was important to the youths with visual impairments
(Kef, 2002).
Although still at a considerable disadvantage, many people with disabilities in the
United States have been experiencing positive outcomes in employment and life
adjustments (Berry & Meyer, 1995; Schall. l ‘)‘)X). These people credit their success to
the availability o f assistive technologies, increased awareness o f their capabilities by the
public, benefits gained from the American Disabilities Act. and skills training (Candela &
Wolffe. 2000). Additionally, socialization, career development reinforcements, and
personal attributes are believed to be responsible for the success of some people with
blindness and visual impairments (Sacks et al.. 1998). Research on the component
elements of self-determination and transition behaviors indicates that quality o f life for
people with disabilities is not just related to the environment and the external
circumstances o f an individual’s life, but whether these factors constitute a major share o f
an individual’s well-being (Wehmeyer. Agran. & Hughes, 1998). Adults with visual
impairments who achieve successful independent living and employment appear to score
high on self-determination and transition behaviors skills (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1997).
16
The reports have shown that although people with visual impairments face many
challenges, some have surmounted them and gained successful experiences
Statement o f the Problem
Research identifying the factors that make some people with blindness and visual
impairments more successful than others in their adjustment to adult life is limited and
almost non-existent in the Commonwealth Caribbean in general and in Jam aica
specifically. However, it is necessary to understand the factors that facilitate the
successful post-school adjustment for people with visual impairments. Sacks, et al.
(1998) stated that the potential for success for youths with visual impairments, as they
transition from school environments into adult life, is dependent on significant programs
that build capacities and provide opportunities for societal integration.
In conclusion, an understanding of the factors associated with adult adjustment will
clarify ways through which successful post-school adjustments o f people w ith blindness
or visual impairments may be given more attention. The purpose of this study is to
identify the factors that are associated with successful post-school adjustment for people
with blindness and visual impairments in the Jamaican context. The primary assumptions
are (a) that all individuals go through a process o f adjustment to adulthood after school,
to a different extent, and in different forms; (b) that many factors work together to
determine successful post school adjustment; and (c) that the extent to w hich people who
are blind or who are visually impaired are successful in their post-school adjustment,
depends a great deal on the awareness and attention to those factors which are perceived
to be associated with successful post-school life. If specific factors are identified to be
important determinants o f successful post school adjustment for people w ith blindness
17
and visual impairments, data support would be available to aid the establishment o f a
school-to-work transition program in Jamaica, for adolescents and young adults who are
blind or who have visual impairments. The program could focus on post school
adjustments with skills for success as the theme.
Definitions o f relevant operational terms are presented in Appendix A.
18
Chapter II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter reviews research on post-school outcomes o f students with disabilities
in general and students with blindness and visual impairment in particular. This review
covers early follow-up studies that led to a congressional mandate for the nation-wide
follow-up of students enrolled in special education programs in the US during the 1980s;
school-to-work transition research to improve post-school outcomes; research on self-
determination that might help youth with disabilities during the transition; and other
personal factors affecting outcomes. The findings from this review are related to the post
school outcomes o f students with disabilities in general and students with blindness and
visual impairment in particular living in Jamaica. Additionally, the review relates to how
findings could be used to conduct a follow-up study in Jamaica, an environment that is
substantially different from the U.S. The chapter concludes with a summary and rationale
and the research questions.
Early Follow-up Studies
Early research such as Hasazi, Gordon, and Roe (1985) examined the factors
associated with employment status o f youth with disability exiting high school from 1979
to 1983. The study was prompted by the heightened concern o f parents, educators and
rehabilitation professionals during that period. Their work involved a statewide sample o f
youth with a variety of disabilities who left or graduated from high school between 1979
19
youth with a variety o f disabilities who left or graduated from high school between 1979
and 1983. The 462 students drawn from nine Vermont school districts were randomly
chosen. All the students had graduated, dropped out. or left high school during the period
and had received special education services. Interviews were designed to solicit
information on current occupation, employment history, post-school education and
vocational training experiences, social service utilization and current marital and
residential status. Other information regarding wages, number o f hours and job
satisfaction was also gleaned. The result obtained showed that over one half o f the
sample was employed; that most o f the youths found jobs through a network of
family/friends; that educational and vocational experiences (e.g., vocational education,
graduation from school, work experience in high school, and summer job during high
school) were more likely to predict successful employment outcomes. Bellamy (1985).
commenting on the study by Hasazi et al. (1985), submitted that the research was a
necessary contribution to information on transition progress and school-to-work
adjustment.
Researchers explored the importance of special education services to students with
disabilities. M ithaug, Horiuchi, and Fanning (1985), in their statewide follow-up survey
o f graduates from 26 special education programs in Colorado, found that special
education programs had been influential in preparing students with disabilities for post
school adjustment in their communities. The finding indicated that in as much as most
graduates were employed, many o f them were low wage earners and were still dependent
on their families. The need for more training in specific areas such as socialization, and
job search were highlighted.
20
Later studies, such as Mithaug, Martin, and Agran (1987), Rusch and Phelps (1987),
and Brown, Halpem, Hasazi, and Wehman (1987), focused on instructional models and
practices to assist students their adapting to changes which they confronted as they
adjusted to adult living and the workforce. The various research teams claimed that the
basis for designing an adaptability instructional model was hinged on the recognition that
students' failure to adapt to dynamic work environments would result in unsatisfactory
work experiences and jo b terminations. Additionally, failure to adapt to dynamic home
and community environments would also result in unsatisfactory relationships and daily
living activities (M ithaug, Martin, & Agran. 1987). The adaptability instructional model
established problem-solving skills that students needed to perform during different work
tasks in a variety o f settings. It was determined that if students were able to problem
solve they would have dynamic relationships with their work environments. This skill
would enable them to identify problems that may affect their success, define alternative
solutions to those problems, determine a course o f action, take that action, evaluate the
consequences o f their ow n performance, and then determine the need for adjustments and
different decisions (M ithaug et al., 1987).
The research o f Rusch and Phelps (1987) focused on a review o f the previous 15
years of Federal and state legislations that forced educators and service providers to
address economic, educational, and community adjustment difficulties o f youth with
disabilities to produce significant educational and rehabilitative services. They claimed
that the transition initiative in the United States, motivated by legislative mandates (The
Rehabilitation Act, 1973; The 1983 Amendment to the Education o f the Handicapped Act
o f 1973 [EHA P.L. 98-199]) directed attention to transition from school-to-work
21
programs for students with disabilities. The researchers reviewed the data o f a Harris
telephone survey of 1985 that was conducted with a cross-section o f 1,000 people with
disabilities, aged 16 and over; Owings and Stocking’s (1985) longitudinal study of
30,000 sophomores and 28.000 seniors, including students with mild disabilities and
other research findings. From the review Rusch and Phelps (1987) reported that there was
considerable evidence to suggest that individuals with disabilities would not make any
major gains in the world o f work unless there was a concerted effort to identify and
introduce interventions that would lead to their employment. They concluded that without
better preparation, the likelihood o f improving students’ employment prospects and
adjustment to living in their home communities would have been minimal at best.
The question of whether secondary programs in special education were justifiable?
was explored by Edgar (1987). He and colleagues conducted similar studies to those o f
previous researchers (Halpem, 1990; Hasazi, Gordon. & Roe. 1985; Hasazi, Gordon.
Roe, Hull, Finck, & Salembier, 1985; Mithaug, Horiuchi, & Fanning, 1985) to look at the
link between special education preparation programs for students who were mildly
disabled and the eventual post-school adjustment o f these students. The results indicated
that the transition process was incomplete and that secondary special education programs
appeared to have little impact on students’ adjustment to community life.
In a further study, Edgar (1987) tracked all school leavers from 11 school districts in
the state o f Washington. The number included dropouts, graduates and aged-out students.
Through the process of interviews with hundreds o f human service workers who had
direct contact and first-hand knowledge o f the experiences o f the graduates, and
interview's with the school leavers themselves, data were collected. The first trend o f the
data showed that although 75% o f the school leavers were working, their salaries were
dismally low. Edgar (1987) commented that earning less than minimum wage does not
permit one to live independently. The researcher referred to the second trend related to
the dropouts or those that he termed as "elbowed-ouf* from special education. The result
indicated that these students left school before completing a program o f study or reaching
maximum age for service. Edgar concluded that the participants lack the skills that were
necessary to be successful and they were not adjusting well to adult life in the
community.
Historically services and programs for people with blindness or visual impairment
spans over 200 years. The initial services were provided by advocates who despite, the
prevailing negative societal attitudes o f the time, believed that children and youth with
blindness or visual impairment were capable o f success in education and in their adult
lives (Koenig & Holbrook, 2000). According to Scholl (1986). throughout the recorded
history there have been stories o f remarkable talented blind people who managed to
educate themselves and make valuable contributions to their societies. Barraga and Erin
(1992) further state that the commitment and dedication of many people (such as pioneers
Valentine Hauy and Samuel Gridley Howe) prior to the 1900s laid the foundation for the
knowledge and understanding that helped professionals today to develop strategies and
implement programs to educate students with visual impairments in meaning ways.
According to Sacks and Pruett (1992), follow-up studies were done on post-school
adjustment o f students with blindness and visual impairment, which focused on a variety
o f issues relating to after school activities and outcomes.
Freeman, Goetz, Richards, and Groenveld (1991) reported on the results of a
1987-88 follow-up study o f 69 out o f 92 children who were legally blind from the
original 1973-74 study. The focus o f the original study was on social/emotional
functioning, health, vision, mannerisms, family, and cognitive functioning. The later
study focused on additional effects o f education, employment, leisure activities,
relationships, sexuality, transportation, and religion. The studies w ere based on the
prevailing prediction that children who are blind and who have unusual degrees or
patterns of developmental delay, multiple disabilities, or signs o f neurological
abnormality on physical examination, often created low expectations in professionals. An
alternative program was implemented based on the description o f various levels of
functioning, rather than long-range predictions o f outcomes. The results o f both studies
showed outcomes for the subjects that were more varied than expected.
Miller (1991) examined the challenge surrounding upward mobility for people with
visual impairments. He worked with the American Foundation for the Blind Taskforce in
exploring the issues. The Findings suggested that although the opportunity for upward
mobility may have been denied individuals with visual disorders for a variety o f reasons,
indications showed that the lack of career development and counseling in the area was the
main factor. M iller (1991) stated that the revelation could be useful in giving direction for
developmental strategies in future program planning.
School-to-Work Transition Research
Throughout the 1990s, significant effort was made to provide programs, services
and resources to foster the smooth transition from school to work for students with
24
disabilities. Brown, Halpem, Hasazi, and Wehman (1987) posited that although it would
be a difficult task, the coordination o f public schools, post-21 agencies, and local
vocational rehabilitation offices would foster improvement in the successful transition
from school to adult life for students with disabilities. Current studies on the post-school
outcomes o f students with disabilities have directed attention to experiences o f people
with disabilities after they leave school, factors that predict successful adult adjustment,
the importance self-determination in transition planning and adult adjustment, and social
and economic activities after school.
Heal and Rusch (1995) extended previous findings from earlier studies o f Hasazi,
Gordon, and Roe (1985), Wagner, Blackorby, and Hebbeler (1993), and Sommerfeld
(1993) by adjusting for community, family, and youth's characteristics prior to estimating
the association between youth's post-school employment and their secondary school
programs. The method involved a stratified, random sample o f students with disabilities
attending U.S. high schools in 1985, and gathering in-school and out-of-school
information about them in 1987 from three data sources: their school records, school
personnel, and parents. The new finding revealed that individual competencies and
family characteristics were salient predictors o f post-school employment. The researchers
claimed that these factors dominated school program characteristics in predicting who
will secure jobs and maintain employment. They concluded that the finding would
perhaps invoke controversy, since policy makers could suggest modification in the formal
preparation o f students with disabilities for post-school employment.
Data o f the congressionally mandated National Longitudinal Transition Study
conducted by Blackorby and Wagner (1996) indicated that the evidence for the
25
importance o f the preparation for high school graduation was compelling. The study
included more than 8,000 youth ages 13 to 21 who were in secondary special education
programs in 1985. Data were collected by telephone interviews focused on many aspects
o f families and youth, their services and their in-school and post-school experiences, and
including employment status, wages, postsecondary education, and residential
independence. The results obtained showed that although graduates who were exposed to
strong school-to-work transition programs academically lagged behind their peers in the
general population, they were m ore successful in finding employment than those who had
less exposure to formal and structured transition programs. They were also found to live
■‘quality o f lives” that were personally and socially satisfying (Blackorby & Wagner,
1996).
Research investigating school-to work components that predict post-school success
for students with and without disabilities was carried out by Benz. Yavanoff. and Doren
(1997). A total o f 422 students with disabilities from two states and 131 students without
disabilities from one state were selected as sample. The underlying demographics of the
students with disabilities from the two states were virtually identical. Similarly, there
were few differences between the sample and population distributions o f the sample
without disabilities. The findings were based on parent and student interview information
collected while students were in their last year o f high school. The main predictor and
outcome variables were selected based school-based, work-based experiences and
competitive employment. Although the sample o f students with and without disabilities
in the study differed significantly on several o f the predictor variables that were studied,
the issue explored by the study was whether the instructional components and skill
26
outcomes envisioned as part o f school-to-work programs for all students, actually predict
better outcomes for all students. The findings suggested that an emphasis on career
exploration and counseling during high school years had positive influence on those
students who had this exposure. Students without disabilities had more exposure to career
development and education and were two times more engaged in productive schooling
and work activities than their counterparts with disabilities after they left school.
Frank and Sitlington (2000). relating to previous follow-up studies o f Blackorby and
Wagner (1996). Edgar (1987). Frank. Sitlington. Cooper, and Cool (1990), and Frank and
Sitlington (1993), posed that the focus on community adjustment and social skills of
various categories o f youth with disabilities, provided valuable information for improving
program components on community adjustment and socialization. However, although
there was overall improvement in the community adjustment and socialization of the
youths in these studies, Frank and Sitlington (2000) suggested that none o f the follow-up
studies reported satisfaction with outcomes related to the community adjustment and
socialization for former special education students with mental retardation. As a result of
United States legislative mandates included in the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA), 1990 and its reauthorization, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Amendment (1997). the concept of transition services was broadened to include:
instruction, community experiences, development o f employment and other post school
adult living objectives, and acquisition o f daily living skills and functional vocational
evaluation, when appropriate (Frank & Sitlingtonn, 2000). National transition initiatives
created by the legislative mandates o f the 1990s, brought positive changes to the
transition planning and implementation process.
27
Based on the prem ise that the transition planning concept had been in existence long
enough to begin to determ ine whether efforts are making a difference in the lives o f
young adults with disabilities. Frank and Sitlington (2000) carried out an investigation to
compare the adult adjustm ent of individuals with mental disabilities from the class o f
1985 and the class o f 1993 in the state o f Iowa. The class o f 1993 graduated after the
passage of IDEA and had the benefit of transition planning efforts emanating from state
and federal initiatives as well as local efforts. The study was designed to address two
questions: (a) were graduates from the class o f 1993 "better o f f ' after a year out o f school
than their counterparts from the class o f 1985? and (b) should we be satisfied with the
status of these individuals? The results showed that the individuals from the class o f
1993. who had graduated after the passage o f the IDEA, demonstrated significantly better
outcomes than their counterparts from the class o f 1985 in the areas of postsecondary
education and em ploym ent. The researchers concluded however, that the level o f
adjustment o f these individuals was not completely satisfactory. They suggested that
there is more to be done before there can be total satisfaction with the preparation being
provided for students w ith disabilities.
Love and M alian (1997) referred to reviews and surveys (e.g. Blackorby & Wagner.
1996; Edgar, 1987; H eal & Rusch, 1995; Wagner et al., 1993) conducted over the past
decade that assessed the post-school outcomes associated with post-school adjustment o f
people with disabilities. They submitted that a number o f the studies indicated that
students who exited from special education (i.e., either completing special education
programs or leaving prior to completion) frequently experienced significant difficulty in
making the transition from school to work. Love and Malian (1997) developed a follow-
28
along project during the final year o f high school to one year after, to assess the impact o f
special education on the education and post-school outcomes o f students with disabilities
who had left special education services. The participants were all enrolled in special
education in Arizona between the ages o f 17 and 22 years. The Oregon follow-along
method with a computer-assisted telephone interview and data analysis technique resulted
in a system-wide approach to interviewing students, parents, and teachers o f individuals
who had left special education. Overall, the data suggested that achievement and
independent functioning were attained, suggesting that students were functioning well
after exiting school. The reported academic achievement seemed to favor students who
had completed their high school special education programs (Love & Malian, 1997).
McBroom and Tedder (1993) studied the problems related to moving from school to
work o f 12 young people aged 19-21 with visual impairments. Through their examination
18 services were identified that provided educational-based and rehabilitation-based
transition programs. They had very little differences among them and only varied
according to the abilities o f the youths for whom they were providing services. The
conclusion of the researchers was that there were no identifiable set of factors that led to
employment. They suggested that the key to successful transition from school to work
involved working with a number o f people including both clients and their parents when
possible, careful planning, and ongoing support.
Geruschat (1993) claimed that the assessment o f the status o f schools’ graduates is
an approach to aid program evaluation. Graduates, parents and teachers have concerns
about employment and housing for individuals who are blind and visually impaired.
Geruschat (1993) described the findings o f a study that evaluated the employment and
29
housing status for five years o f graduates from a residential school for the blind. A high
rate o f job placement was achieved, but many graduates did not receive competitive
wages. Graduates who were not capable o f competitive or supported employment also
experienced a high rate of job placement. However, most o f the graduates lived at home
with their parents and were not looking to change that arrangement. According to
Geruschat. the emphasis on successful transition seemed to work, but the area o f
independent living should be re-examined to elevate the rating in that area.
Similar research on employment status and quality o f life o f 70 graduates o f a state
residential school for students with blindness and visual impairment by DeLaGarza and
Erin (1993) indicated high levels o f satisfaction, independence and community
integration. A structured interview form was developed to gather information about the
respondents’ adjustment as adults, based on several measures and questionnaires. The
interview included questions on employment and training in high school as well as after
graduation. The success here was attributed to the focus o f the transition program on
adjustment in the community (DelaGarza <fc Erin. 1993).
Mather (1994) looked at the impact o f technology on the formation o f skills and the
career advancement of people who are blind and visually impaired. Although, the thought
was that the dependence on technology might trap people with blindness and visual
impairment into narrow career paths, the importance of the use o f technology to facilitate
continuous enhancement of skills, was not ignored. The solution given was training in
multi-skills and access to socialization and training possibilities that were enjoyed by the
non-disabled.
30
A British nation-wide study by Robinson (1993) surveyed people who were blind
and partially sighted, to ascertain the challenges they faced in their adult lives and to
provide better services to them based on the specific concerns identified in England. The
result showed significant gaps in the provision o f services, difficulty in one or more daily
living skills and at least half o f the individuals especially those in the older age group
lived in poverty and isolation. Training and support were suggested as possibilities for
improving the individuals' quality o f life.
Self-Determination Research
Ward and Kohler (1996) cited the definition o f self-determination by a working
group from the O ffice o f Special Education and Rehabilitation Services (OSERS) as "the
attitudes and abilities, which lead individuals to define individual goals, and take the
initiative in achieving those goals.” Ward and Kohler (1996) added that the focus is on
concepts of self-actualization, assertiveness, creativity and pride, which are important
ingredients for success in the workplace. According to Kennedy (1996). self-
determination is not the same for each person, but depends on a person's circumstances
and what the disabilities are. Kennedy indicated that for a person who needs physical
assistance with all physical care, self-determination is not about physical independence,
but rather about knowing what is needed, when it is needed, and being able to explain the
needs to personal providers, so that help can be derived it is necessary for daily living.
Another aspect o f self-determination is to know about resources that are available and
how to access these resources to meet desired needs (Mithaug, 1993). Self-determination
is a process where an individual keeps learning how to be self-determined, growing more
31
as things change, so it becomes an on-going process (W ehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes.
1998).
Bowe (2000) suggested that individuals with disabilities should be encouraged to
make as many decisions by themselves as possible. Bowe claimed, this is empowerment
and "even children, youth, and adults who cannot achieve full independence can decide
what will be done, when it will be done, and how it will be done'’ (p. 76).
W ehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) contended that more recent research has shown
increased emphasis on self-determination as an important outcome for youth with
disabilities if they are to achieve positive adult outcomes after they leave school.
Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) and Momingstar. Kleinhammer-Tramill. and Lattin
(1999) examined the causal link between self-determination and positive adult outcomes.
Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) conducted a follow-up study o f students with mental
retardation o r learning disabilities for whom data regarding self-determination had been
collected prior to their high school exit. Data relating to adult outcomes for these students
one year after graduation were collected. The study was undertaken based on previous
findings that, on measures o f four essential characteristics o f self-determination namely:
autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment and self-realization, there were
significant differences between individuals who engaged in behaviors reflecting self-
determination and those who did not. The study participants were 80 students with
cognitive disabilities (mental retardation or learning disabilities) for whom permission
w as obtained to administer measures o f self-determination and to conduct follow-up
survey during the subsequent year after they left school. The follow-up survey was
conducted using an adult outcomes instrument containing questions pertaining to student
32
living arrangements, current and past employment situations, post-secondary education
status and community integration outcomes. From the research, we learned that self-
determined students were more likely to have achieved more positive adult outcomes,
including being employed at a higher rate and earning more per hour than peers who
were not self-determined.
Some researchers contended that much o f the information regarding best practices
had not been well substantiated with empirical evidence o f improved outcomes (Kohler,
1996. 1998: Kohler & Chapman. 1999; Patton & Dunn. 1999). Momingstar et al. (1999)
carried out a survey o f literature in the field of transition programming to determine best
practices. They identified student self-determination and student involvement as key
components throughout the literature and emphasized the role that they played in
transition planning. The authors stated their belief that self-determination is a cornerstone
o f quality school programs, and that it is intrinsically related to issues o f quality o f life.
Wehmeyer, Agran, and Hughes (2000) conducted a national survey o f teachers'
opinions regarding the value o f self-determination and issues relating to teaching skills
leading to this outcome. The targeted audience of the survey was teachers providing
instruction to students with disabilities between the ages o f 14 and 21, who were eligible
for transition-related services through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA). The respondents included teachers from all 50 states and two U.S. territories.
The findings showed that the majority o f the respondents believed that instruction in self-
determination was important, but they differed in their responses concerning the
strategies taught and the extent and type o f instruction provided based on the student’s
disability.
Researchers Wehmeyer. Palmer. Agran, Mithaug. and Martin (2000) determined
that there was an emerging core o f materials and methods to enable teachers to promote
self-determination in children and youth with disabilities. Although the methods and
materials were focused on teaching students to set goals, make decisions and choices,
solve problems, and self-advocate, the critical element o f teaching students to take greater
control over their own learning were seen to be missing. A self-determined learning
model o f instruction, which would enable teachers to teach students to become causal
agents in their own lives was field tested with students with disabilities. Twenty-one
teachers who were responsible for the instruction o f adolescents receiving special
education services in the states o f Texas and Wisconsin used the Self-Determination
Learning Model o f Instruction. The result showed that the students who received
instruction from teachers using the model, attained educationally relevant goals, showed
enhanced self-determination, and communicated their satisfaction with the approach. The
teachers who used the model also indicated their satisfaction with the approach and
determined to continue the use.
Other Factors Affecting Outcomes
Family Factors
According to Hallahan and Kauffman (1997), parents’ perceptions and expectations
have some influence on the development o f their children in many ways. Some parents
tend to expect less o f their children with disabilities (McConnell, 1999). O ther
researchers add that low expectations often lead to the children’s lesser accomplishment
and slower development. The works o f Ferrell (1985) and Tuttle (1984) submitted that
over-protection and over-assistance, denial and negative parental attitudes may inhibit the
34
development o f initiative, independence and realization o f abilities o f children with visual
impairments. Pierro (1995) opined that today, knowledgeable professionals who work
with learners with disabilities are aware o f the importance o f the family. They recognize
that the family o f the person with a disability, especially parents, can help them in their
effort to educate learners.
McConnell (1999) suggested that parents influence the development o f their
children in many ways. He carried out a study in British Columbia, in which parents and
adolescents with visual impairments completed a series o f exercises. The specific aim
was to determine the effects of a parent-guided program on adolescents' career decisions
and plans, communication between parents and adolescents, and the importance o f work
roles for adolescents with visual impairments. Through a survey o f itinerant vision
teachers and student services supervisors, a sample of 20 student-parent pairs was
selected. Parents and their adolescents completed a Partner's Program model, consisting
o f an activity exploration workbook, parents’ guidance manual, career-decision
framework, and planning manual. The findings o f the study suggested that a structured
career-exploration program that includes parents was a viable method to consider as part
o f a transition plan for students with visual impairments. The information obtained can be
useful in discussions with career counselors and rehabilitation professionals. McConnell
(1999) concluded that although parents’ involvement does not replace specialized
placement services, it does provide an opportunity for a more collaborative relationship
with those who play significant role in career development process.
The aspirations and expectations o f parents and family often have profound effects
on the career-choices behavior o f young people with and without disabilities (McBroom,
Tedder, & Ji, 1992). Momingstar (1997) noted that one important factor was that children
and adolescents ask their parents’ advice on career choices most frequently. According to
high school students in the United States, their parents offered more help with career
planning than did teachers, counselors or peers (Dowdy, Carter, & Smith, 1990). Perhaps
the role o f teachers in career guidance and school programs designed to prepare students
for the workforce should be given more attention.
School Factors
Reports on empirical research on post-school adjustment have placed particular
emphasis on practices directed toward positive outcomes for students w ith disabilities,
other special needs, or those otherwise at risk (K ohler & Chapman. 1999). The
researchers reviewed published materials o f 1990 to 1997 on school factors affecting
school-to-work transition. They stated that they found positive outcomes as well as
identifiable problems. The authors claimed that across the United States, a number of
programs seemed to incorporate many approaches in their school-to-work framework by
incorporating input o f the home, the school and the community. They stated further that
the preparation for the world of work was a com plex matter, which was far-reaching and
embraced factors that contributed to successful transition and the human resource
involvement on which the preparation depended. Kohler and Chapman further reported as
positive, the situations where programs stressed individualized student planning, made
attempts to facilitate student and family involvement in planning and career development
process, and focused on the development o f im portant skills identified as being important
elements for successful transition and adult adjustment (such skills as, daily living skills,
personal social skills and occupational skills). The assessment o f students’ functioning
36
and needs, to assist in planning and prov ision o f support services, was included as critical
to the overall success o f students. The programs, which took a long-term approach by
focusing on a gradual building o f skills over the school years, were viewed as the most
beneficial approaches. The greatest problem cited in the review was follow-up
evaluations. Many evaluations were reported as poorly designed and utilized instruments
o f questionable reliability, validity, and provided questionable interventions, and very
limited range o f outcomes.
How any particular student with disabilities will fare in the transition to adult living
is difficult to predict (Hallahan & Kauffman. 1997). Several researchers have
investigated the factors that contribute to successful adjustment to adulthood for people
with disabilities (Brolin. 1995: Gerber & Reif. 1991; Hallahan & Kauffman. 1997; Patton
& Dunn. 1999). They have consistently pointed to at least five factors that have
distinguished people who were successful in their transition from those who were not:
1. A primary' characteristic o f those w ho have succeeded was their extraordinary
degree o f perseverance. As a college graduate with visual impairment explained.
"I have had to work hard daily to get what I wanted ... I just could not stop,
because I knew if I did, I would always be dependent on my family ... and that
was never my desire” (Caribbean Council for the Blind Conference, 1999).
2. Successful people set goals for themselves (Gerber & ReifF, 1991).
3. Successful people have realistic acceptance o f their weaknesses coupled with the
attitude o f building on their strengths. Brolin, (1995) suggested that one way to
help students build on their strengths was to guide them in selecting occupations
that matched their abilities and minimized their difficulties.
37
4. Those who succeed tend to have strong network o f support. They have been able
to draw help from parents, family, friends and community members at various
stages during and after their transition to adulthood.
5. Adults with disabilities have more likelihood for success if provided with
intensive and long-term educational intervention at school (Patton & Dunn.
1999).
Community Factors
The focus on community factors is crucial to post-school outcomes. It takes into
account the range o f context to reference in looking at how an individual participates in
community affairs. It also allows the individual to participation through continued
learning, living arrangements and lifestyles, recreation, work, career development and
other facets o f citizenship (Kohler & Chapman. 1999). Benz, Yavanoff. and Doren
(1997) posed that the development o f the skills to achieve successful adult outcomes is
essential to the implementation o f services. How students receive the instruction should
be as varied and diverse as the students themselves and should be offered in a range o f
settings including school-based programs, community experiences, post-secondary
education and training, and through natural supports and extracurricular activities. It is
stated that adequate facilities and available opportunities make post-school adjustment
easier and fulfilling for students and adolescents with disabilities (McConnell, 1999).
Employment is another important element o f adult adjustment after school. For
Americans with disabilities, it is a sensitive issue for public service entitlement. Bowe
(2000) discussed the issue o f Americans with disabilities and the sensitivity o f public
service entitlement. He pointed to the authorization o f congress and state legislatures on
38
universally available public education up to secondary school, for every child and youth
with a disability, at a cost o f over $30 million a year in state and federal spending.
Protection is also ensured for individuals with disabilities who seek employment, through
outlawing unjust discrimination. Pieces o f legislation have been enacted which provide
access to transportation, public accommodation and barrier free environments. According
to Bowe (2000) employment and adult living status for people with disabilities have
improved significantly over the past three decades. Employers must offer the same
benefits packages to workers who have disabilities, as that offered to those who do not.
Bowe also claimed that healthcare and housing benefits have much improved.
Wolffe (1999) found that although educational facilities and services are generally
adequate for students with blindness and visual impairments, few teenagers with
blindness and visual impairment have any work experience outside the home before they
graduate from secondary school. Hence, many o f them have not learned job-related skills
and behaviors and are less prepared than their sighted counterparts to integrate into the
work community (Wolffe, 1999). It is suggested that education for students and adults
with blindness and visual impairments ought to focus on independent living, social life
and employment skills to equip them to successfully integrate into society, to achieve
personal fulfillment and contribute to the growth and development o f the community
(Sacks. Wolffe, & Tiemey, 1998).
Personal Factors
Henderson (2000) posed that despite people’s unique qualities and different
backgrounds, all people exhibit multiple strengths in various psychological domains,
which are central to their happiness and success in life. Literature on factors that affect
39
post-school outcomes, broadly include personality attributes o f self-concepts, self
acceptance. self-determination and self-advocacy, as playing a major role in adult
adjustment (Henderson, 2000; Koenig & Holbrook, 2000; Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996;
Vaughn, Bos. & Schumm. 1997; Wehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998).
Self-concept and Self-esteem. Vaughn, Bos, and Schumm (1997) stated that when
individuals possess positive self-concepts they feel worthwhile, competent, and deserving
o f others' respect and caring. This personal attribute engenders personal well-being. It is
widely viewed by advocates o f people with blindness and visual impairments that,
positive self-concept is the foundation on which social skills are developed. How a
person feels about him self or herself is central to the development o f a positive self-
image (Sacks & Silverman. 2000). Fitts (1967) defined self-concept as "the perceptions
and feelings that the individual has about the self, whether realistic or not." (p. 618).
They claimed that the image, the picture, the set of perceptions and feeling that an
individual have o f himself/herself are reflected through self-concept. Tuttle and Tuttle
(1996) contended that dimensions o f personality influence the development of
components o f self-concept, such as: the cognitive component, which relates to factual
information about oneself (such as height, hair, color and gender) and the affective
component, which relates to how one feels about oneself (such as, “I’m too tall or I’m too
short”). They further posited that children acquire and maintain a positive sense o f
themselves through the help o f family members and professionals.
Perhaps a close relation to self-concept is self-esteem. It focuses more on the
affective dimension o f self-concept. Self-esteem is evaluative, and according to
Coopersmith (1967), it is the evaluation that the individual makes and customarily
40
maintains with regards to himself: It expresses an attitude o f approval or disapproval and
indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself capable, significant,
successful and worthy. In essence, self-esteem is considered a personal judgm ent o f
worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds toward himself.
Studies have been done on various factors in determining the levels o f self-esteem.
Research carried out by Rustige (1990) looked at maternal care, home influence and self
esteem. A questionnaire was administered to eight children with blindness and visual
impairments ages five to eight years to determine their levels o f self-esteem. The
researcher hypothesized that children who perceived their home environment as nurturing
and who had parents who accepted their visual impairments would have better feelings
about themselves than children who had less nurturing and negative parents' acceptance.
The results showed positive relationships between perceptions o f nurturing and parents'
acceptance of their children's blindness and visual impairments and high self-esteem.
A study by Beaty (1991) focused on the relationship between blindness and visual
impairments and the self-concept of 15 adolescents with blindness and visual
impairments and 15 sighted adolescents in an urban environment. The Tennessee Self-
concept Scale was utilized in data collection. The results showed lower positive scores on
moral and ethical self-scores, and family self-scores, for the adolescents with blindness
and visual impairments than for those with sight. Although there were significant deficits
in self-concept for the adolescents with visual impairments, other components on the
scale indicated strengths.
Wolffe and Sacks (1997) conducted a study o f the performance o f youth with and
without blindness and visual impairments to compare their performance in daily living,
41
recreation, leisure time and work or vocational experiences. The study involved 32
participants with blindness and visual impairments and 16 sighted participants ages 15-21
years. Results o f the study showed many similarities and some differences between the
groups.
Bowe (2000) opined that the disability population is one that anyone can become a
part of, since diseases, accidents and other natural occurrences o f the human experience
may impose limitations. The argument forwarded by some authors is that not all
individuals with disabilities consider themselves as having a disability. They claimed that
some people with disabilities even deny the existence of any limiting conditions, in order
to avoid the label. Vaughn, Bos, and Schumm (1997) suggested that when people with
disabilities accept themselves, who they are. and what is possible in spite o f their
limitations, they could make unimaginable strides in integrating in society and living
fulfilled independent lives.
Belensky. Clinchv. Goldberger. and Tarule (1997) suggested that the instability and
flux that people often feel when they contemplate their future, is due in part to a lack o f
grounding in a secure, integrated and enduring self-concept. They further stated that the
reactions of others are often contributing factors to the diminished self-worth o f people
with disabilities. It becomes difficult for some people with disabilities to focus on the
inner self and who they really are, in order to define their roles in life, and in their
communities. Flemming (1989) determined that an individual’s self-acceptance is
integral to any degree of success in the process o f transition, especially for people with
disabilities.
42
Self-advocacv- Self-advocacy is the means by which people effectively
communicate and negotiate their interests, desires, needs and rights (Vaughn, Bos, &
Schumm, 1997). It involves making informed decisions and taking responsibility for
these decisions (Van Reusen, Bos, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1994). Literature claimed that
skills of advocacy have enabled individuals with expressed needs to have a voice and
engage power brokers to listen and pay attention. The self-advocacy movement started as
a civil rights movement by people w ith developmental disabilities who rebelled against
being underestimated, deprived of choices, treated like eternal children and thought to
lead lesser lives (Shapiro, 1994). Self-advocacy is associated with the Swedish educator
Bengt Niije (1972). Based on his work and experience with children and adults with
mental retardation, he came to believe that these individuals could and should have a role
in their own choices. Shapiro (1994) stated that self-advocacy and self-determination
both grew out o fN iije 's 1972 normalization principle. The principle was, making
available to people (with mental retardation) the patterns and conditions o f everyday life,
as close as possible to the norms, and patterns o f the mainstream o f society (Niije. in
Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996).
McConnell (1999) argued that self-advocacy has become an important component
in the process o f transition from school to work for people with disabilities. The author
claimed that the goal o f self-advocacy for students and adults is to assist them to take
inventory o f their learning strengths, and weaknesses that they need to improve, their
goals, and interests, and then to advocate for themselves with key persons (e.g., parents,
teachers, employers and service providers). Making specific mention of people with
visual impairments, Shapiro (1994) stated that people with visual impairments have had
43
to form strong advocacy groups to learn how to support one another and help one another
become active participants in decisions that affect their lives.
Social skills. It is said that, the ability to interact successfully with peers and
significant adults is one o f the most important aspects o f adult and student development
(Parker & Asher, 1993). According to Kupersmidt. Coie. and Dodge (1990), the degree to
which students were able to establish and maintain satisfactory interpersonal
relationships, gain peer acceptance, establish and maintain friendships, and terminate
negative or pernicious interpersonal relationships, defined social competence and
predicted adequate long-term psychological and social adjustment. Parker and Asher
(1993) further explained that social skills were necessary ingredients for successful
transition experiences. As people moved from school to the workforce their social
competence became a fundamental criterion for obtaining and maintaining employment.
A number o f professionals have noted the importance o f determining social competence
deficits o f students with disabilities (Gresham. l lW2: Gresham & Elliot, 1989. 1990:
La Greca & Stone, 1990). This is considered the prerequisite for providing intervention
approaches to remediate social skills deficits and for carrying out social skills training.
Although many definitions and conceptualizations o f social competencies have been
chronicled in literature, Gresham, Sugai. and Horner (2001) defined social skills as
socially significant behaviors exhibited in specific situations that predict important social
outcomes. Socially significant behaviors are behaviors that treatment consumers (e.g.,
parents, teachers peers, and students) have considered important outcomes. The outcomes
are considered to be adaptive and functional. In short, socially important outcomes make
a difference in terms o f an individual’s functioning or adaptation to environmental
44
demands and age-appropriate societal expectations (Gresham, 1983. 1998b). Socially
important outcomes may include peer acceptance and friendships, teacher and parental
acceptance (Gresham, 1992, 1998a; Walker & McConnell, 1995). and school adjustment
(Gresham & McMillan, 1997).
The results o f narrative reviews o f social skills training literature involving students
with disabilities, conducted over the past 16 years were discussed by Gresham, Sugai.
and Homer (2001). They pointed to the important distinction between social skills and
social competence. They explained that social skills are specific behaviors that an
individual uses to perform competently or successfully on particular social tasks (e.g..
starting a conversation, giving a compliment, entering an ongoing interaction). Gresham
et al. (2001) posed that on the other hand, social competence is referred to as an
evaluative term or outcome based on social agents* judgments, given certain criteria that
a person has performed competently on social tasks. Social skills are therefore skills that
must be taught, learned and performed, whereas, social competence represents judgments
or evaluations o f these behaviors in different situations.
In a synthesis o f empirical research in the United States, focusing on dimensions o f
social skills for students ranging from 3 to 18 years of age, Caldareila and Merrel (1997)
compiled the following five broad dimensions o f social skills: (1) Peer relation skills
(e.g., complimenting others, offering help or assistance, inviting peers to interact) these
occurred in over one half o f the studies; (2) Self management skills (e.g., controlling
temper, following rules, compromising in conflict situations) were found in 52% o f the
studies; (3) Academic skills (e.g., completing work independently, listening to teachers’
directions, producing acceptable quality work) were found in approximately 48% o f the
45
studies; (4) Compliance skills (e.g.. following directions, following rules, using free time
appropriately) occurred in 38% o f the studies; and lastly. (5) Assertion skills (e.g..
initiating conversations, acknowledging compliments, inviting peers to interact) were
found in one third o f the studies. The conclusion o f the findings provided useful direction
for selecting specific social skills for assessment and intervention. The authors pointed to
the usefulness o f the taxonomy: (a) in providing a classification system to refer to typical
social skill patterns; (b) in identifying a profile o f social skill dimensions on which people
may have relative strengths and weaknesses; (c) for designing interventions to teach
social skills; (d) for measuring the outcomes o f social skills interventions; and (e) for
facilitating theory development concerning the cause, prognosis, and responsiveness of
students to social skills interventions.
As Cartledge and Kiarie (2000) explained, misconceptions o f situations,
inappropriate behaviors, social incompetence, failure cycles, poor social outcomes, and
poor adult outcomes are a litany which points to a vicious circle that is all too familiar to
educators of many children with disabilities who experience difficulty in interpreting
social events and in behaving appropriately. Social incompetence can lead to failure
cycles and eventual poor school and adult outcomes. Bauer and Balius (1995) suggested
that, although the need was obvious there was little evidence that social skills were
systematically taught in schools. The authors posed that social skills were learned skills
that ought to be taught directly like other skills such as, academic, athletic and vocational
skills, if they were to be learned.
Sacks and Silverman (2000) claimed that social relationships formed the foundation
for harmonious living. These relationships included peer contacts at school, in the
46
community and at work. A successful social relationship was dependent on networking,
and involved dialogue, discussion, and interaction with persons with or without
disabilities. A few studies have examined the lifestyle and social network of adolescents
with blindness and visual impairments (Sacks. Wolffe, & Tierney, 1998; Wolffe & Sacks.
1997). The findings presented suggest that adolescents with blindness and visual
impairments required social skills intervention that promotes interdependence, assertive
behavior, clear decision-making, advocacy skills, and strategies to enhance the likelihood
o f dating and successful employment in adulthood. According to Sacks et al. (1998).
adolescence is a time when children move from the protection and influence o f their
families and begin to structure lifestyles that are highly influenced by input from peers
and by community values. They are expected to make decisions and take greater
responsibility for their actions and belongings, than they did when they were younger.
Social contacts and social networks have been the focus o f a number of studies.
K ef s (2002) finding from the nationwide study o f Dutch adolescents with blindness and
visual impairments aged 14-24 that was conducted 1994-1999 at the university o f
Amsterdam focused on the meaning o f social support. Personal interviews were
conducted with 950 adolescents and the result compared with previous results o f the
sighted adolescents in two reference projects. The functional aspects o f the networks
proved to be important for the adjustment and well-being o f the adolescents with visual
impairments. The perceptions o f support from peers had positive association with
adjustment and well-being and the quality o f relationships (Kef, 2002).
Sacks, Wolffe, and Tierney (1998) compared how adolescents and young adults
with blindness and visual impairments aged 15-21 years, and sighted youth spent their
47
time engaged in academic, social, daily living and vocational pursuits. Direct attention to
social network and socialization indicated that, overall many students with blindness or
visual impairment particularly those with low vision, required extensive support to
succeed academically and socially in integrated environments. However, the
opportunities for social integration and acceptance o f individuals with blindness and
visual impairments by sighted age-mates appeared limited at best. The researchers
pointed out that those participants with blindness and visual impairments who had
friendships with sighted peers had to work hard to maintain their relationships. Many
students with blindness and visual impairments spent their time alone, while the sighted
mostly spent their time in many recreational and social activities. According to Kenny
and Stryker (1994), social networks influenced people's learning, and adjustment in
school and adult living. The authors suggested that effort should be made to increase
individuals" self-esteem because it can be counted on in times o f need and in building
significant interaction and friendships.
Communication skills. One o f the most basic skills necessary for people to exercise
control over their environment is the ability to clearly communicate (Sands & Wehmeyer,
1996). Historically, attempts to teach people with disabilities new communication skills
were confined to highly structured programs. Interventions o f this nature did not often
lead to the development and use o f functional communication (Sands & Wehmeyer,
1996). More recently, a variety o f approaches to instruction in this area have been
developed that now promise to enhance basic communication skills and also lead to
increased self-determination. Effective communication skills are considered critical
components for self-advocacy (W ehmeyer, Agran, & Hughes, 1998). Students with
48
disabilities would need these skills to improve interactions and to achieve self-selected
goals (Sands & Wehmeyer, 1996). The developm ent o f good communication skills is an
integral component o f home, school and community education for students with
blindness and visual impairments. According to Koenig and Holbrook (2000), students
with blindness and visual impairments need good communications skills to gain control
over their environment and acquire information to perform functional tasks. These skills
are also important for different work roles in their adult life.
The relationship between reading and writing medium and economic success of
adults has been difficult to establish by research. However. Ryles (1996) conducted
research as part o f a larger study on reading habits and employment o f legally blind
adults. Based on the commonly held view that the primary indicators o f socioeconomic
status in the United States society are employment and education, Ryles hypothesized
that if higher education, employment, and financial self-sufficiency are considered
indicators of success in adult life, the following questions were evident: (1) What impact
does early Braille training have on the employment rates o f adults with blindness and
visual impairments? (2) Do the skills o f early Braille reading influence the reading habits
o f adults with blindness and visual impairment? and (3) Do adults with blindness and
visual impairments who learned to read Braille as their original reading medium have
higher rates o f economic independence? A structured interview design with a variety of
open-ended, multiple-choice free-answers, and dichotomous questions were used to
gather information. It was found that those who learned to read using Braille had higher
employment rates and educational levels, were more financially self-sufficient, and spent
more time reading than did those who learned to read using print.
49
Reid (1998) extended the considerations that jo b analysis, combined with
communication skills and working methods o f people with blindness and visual
impairments have much to do with representativeness. Reid reviewed research related to
the definition o f literacy and the implications for assessing persons with blindness and
visual impairment. The study specifically addressed the degree to which the constructs
measured the reading media used and the content o f tests appropriate to the assessment of
individuals with blindness and visual impairments. The findings suggested that the
characteristics o f literacy, together with the media and working methods used in criterion
situations, represented assessment tasks. The researcher concluded with a
recommendation for the review o f content validity o f literacy tests to ensure that they
reflect the literacy demands of adults with blindness and visual impairments before
assessment.
Status o f Post-School Outcomes in Jamaica
Jamaica is a small independent island state with a population of approximately
2.5 million people. A former British Colony, it gained independence in 1962, but
maintains cultural and historical links with the Commonwealth Caribbean and the wider
British Commonwealth family o f nations. (International Federation of Library
Association and Institutions, Copenhagen. Denmark. 1998).
Students with special needs in Jamaica are given exposure to educational
opportunities that are designed to maximize their academic potentials. Meredith (2000)
reported that the schools for students with hearing impairments, visual impairments,
mental retardation and physical disabilities address the preparation of students for
employment, independent living and community living. These schools have designed
50
their curricula to equip graduates with the skills necessary for competing for highly
skilled jobs in the work force. According to the report, in addition to the traditional
academic courses, vocational and technical courses such as: typing, information
technology and computer studies, office procedures, food and nutrition, clothing and
textiles, cosmetology, art and crafts, technical drawing, woodwork, auto mechanics,
welding and child and elderly care, shoe making and repair and personal and social
development, are included to offer a well-rounded preparation for life after school.
Educating young people for work is not a simple job. It involves the provision o f a wide
array o f skills and competencies that are necessary for the integration into the
marketplace. This is especially the case for students o f higher education, whose training
must be more than the traditional subject content curriculum. The need for contemporary
training that is broad-based, calls fora change o f focus from exclusively pre-professional
concentration to encompass skills that are necessary to function in our complicated world
(Ministry o f Education & Culture. Green Paper. 1999). If teachers are going to be the
medium through which students will be prepared to take their places in the workforce,
teacher training programs need to be mandated to produce graduates who are skilled in
communication, counseling, career guidance, conflict resolution and concepts o f self-
determination (Teacher Certification Regulation: Joint Board o f Teacher Education,
1998).
Teacher training programs in Jamaica adhere to certification regulation o f The Joint
Board o f Teacher Education. According to the guidelines, teachers’ competence
embodies the following: academic knowledge or content - personal and professional; skill
development; pedagogical expertise or methodology and personal qualities. The
51
fundamental premise, as specified by the regulation is that the teacher should be child-
oriented. On the matter o f individual development and nation building, the Ministry o f
Education teacher training programs' manifestos assert that the education programs in
colleges should give the teachers in training sound understanding o f their role in the
society in which they will work. The programs should also convey to them the way in
which they can prepare their students to set goals, work towards them and achieve them.
In doing this, they would be ensuring a degree o f preparation for young people in their
transition to the world o f work. Generally, teachers are equipped to teach the skills and
reinforce the attributes that are essential for the adjustment o f young adults as they move
from school to work. This situation is not considered the same for students with special
needs.
Historically, a residential school that was established in 1927 in Kingston, generally
provided education services for students with visual impairments in Jamaica. There had
been instances where some blind students completed parts o f their education in public
secondary school (Jamaica Society for the Blind. 2000). During the period o f the 1960s to
the 1990s. many people with visual impairments benefited from secondary and tertiary
education in Jamaica. Some had the opportunity to travel abroad to countries such as.
England, Canada and the United States to pursue tertiary education. Many have qualified
as physiotherapists, teachers, audio-typists, clerks, professional musicians, social
workers, administrators in both private and public sector offices, computer programmers
and other professional careers. Initially, it was the encouragement from sighted mentors,
and later the efforts o f support and service agencies o f and for the blind that made strong
representations and advocated for comparable provisions and equal opportunities for
52
individuals w ith visual impairments (School for the Blind Old Students Association:
Report. 1999).
It is suggested that the absence o f documented information relating to the activities
o f adolescents and youths with special needs at the secondary and postsecondary level,
presented limitations to any attempt to create the environment for self-development and
capacity building (Hall & Figueroa. 1995). In their study. Hall and Figueroa (1995)
surveyed 51 Jamaican secondary schools in five o f the 14 parishes in the island to
determine the enrollment of students with disabilities in those high schools. The project
was developed out o f concern regarding the low percentage o f people with disabilities
who pursued postsecondary education. Ultimately, the result from the study was intended
to clarify perceptions of the existing needs and services, and provide recommendations
for solutions to any problems presented. During the period 1988 to 1994. of a total o f 103
students with disabilities that were enrolled in secondary schools o f all types, 13 were
students with severe visual impairments (i.e., students who had to use Braille as their
medium o f reading and writing). Approximately 80% o f all the students felt that
preparation for their postsecondary education and adult living was adequate, but they
were reluctant to elaborate on the nature o f the preparation. However, the students with
visual impairments indicated the disadvantages o f inadequate resource materials, teaching
methods that failed to address their unique needs and inadequate help in adjusting to
environmental demands outside o f school. Hall and Figueroa (1995) further
recommended the adaptation o f the “carousal model” used in the United Kingdom. They
explained that the model is one in which specialists offering a variety o f skills pooled
resources to maximize the use o f limited resources, and facilitated the monitoring and
delivery o f support that students needed.
The regional report o f the Caribbean Council for the Blind (1999) recommended the
inclusion o f pre-vocational skills suitable to each student's needs and abilities. The report
added that the core focus o f the school programs in the countries o f the Region should be
to equip students with visual impairments to secure and maintain employment in the local
workforce and to foster experiences for successful adult adjustment.
The new perspective o f the career education curriculum in Jamaica that was
implemented for grades seven to nine in the reform o f secondary education goes beyond
vocational choices to include lifespan concerns. T he curriculum embraces work and
family roles, work and leisure, work and mental health and lifestyles. The aim o f the
curriculum is to produce individuals who will be knowledgeable, flexible, multi-skilled,
and who will possess skills for their own advancement (Ministry o f Education and
Culture: Career Education-Curriculum Guide, 1998). Many concerns have been raised by
agencies o f and for the disabled regarding the specific inclusion o f strategies and
approaches for addressing the unique needs o f students with disabilities and particularly
the needs o f students with blindness and visual impairments (Old Students’ Association -
School for the Blind, 1999).
An article entitled "Choosing a Career the M ultiple Choice Way” by senior high
school student Petulia Clarke (referenced in the M inistry o f Education & Culture -
Jamaican Career Education Curriculum Guide, 1998) summed up the influence o f parents
and family on career choice and transition to adulthood in the Jamaican context. Clarke
stated that a few students without natural talents are usually aware o f what they want.
Their parents have little or no impact on their choices; they serve only to sanction any
decisions that are made. Some parents encourage their children saying that whatever
choices they make would be accepted and approved. However, these students are in the
minority. M ost students try to resolve the conflict between what they want for themselves
and what their parents want. Clarke (1998) posed that working class parents tend to
expect their children to become traditional high status professionals, such as, lawyers and
doctors. In advancing to postsecondary education, the children who might not have
interest in these careers are often threatened with de-financing if they choose to enter
fields o f lower status. However, there are those who wished that their parents and
families had contributed more to their career development and choices. Clarke related the
situation o f regular children and youth. The question is whether the situation is similar for
adolescents and youth with disabilities and especially those with blindness and visual
impairments? Due to the absence o f documented information on the issue o f family
involvement for people with disability in general and people with visual impairment in
particular, there are limitations to any attempt to describe the situation further.
Summary' and Rationale
As illustrated in this review, post-school outcomes o f students with disabilities are
important to the adjustment in adulthood. Results from follow-up studies o f adolescents
and youth attest to the critical role that training and educational preparation play in the
successful transition from school to the workforce. School-to-work transition programs
focus on outcome measures that will enable students to adjust successfully to adult living.
Transition is also considered a critical variable in people’s adjustment. Future roles in the
workplace and in the society are important aspects o f the development to adulthood. The
55
school has a role to play in building the skills that are necessary to enable the successful
transition to the workforce and the prospect for an independent and fulfilled adult life.
Although family factors, school factors and community factors are essential
considerations for successful adjustment, the role that personal factors play is no less
important. The specific factors to be investigated in this study are: educational training,
transition training, self-determination, attributions for success including: personal factors
- e.g., self-efficacy and self-advocacy: social factors - e.g.. elements o f support (i.e., o f
family, friends, etc.); school factors - e.g., skills and behaviors; and employment status
including: income level, job satisfaction and problems on the job. A synthesis of the
research results on post-school adjustment gives supporting evidence that these contribute
to successful post-school outcomes.
Research in outcome measures for post-school adjustment is near non-existent in
Jamaica. This line o f investigation has not been pursued for people with blindness and
visual impairment in the country. In this study an investigation will be carried out in
Jamaica to identify the factors that are associated with successful post-school adjustment
of adults with blindness and visual impairments, measured by employment success.
Research Questions
This study addresses three research questions:
(1) What is the relationship between respondents’ background characteristics, their
educational training, transition training, self-determination, attribution for success
and their employment success?
56
(2) What is the relationship between respondents' educational training, transition
training, self-determination, perceived attributions for success and their
employment success?
(3) What is the best predictor o f respondents’ employment success?
57
Chapter HI
METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
The purpose o f this study was to identify factors associated with o f post-school
adjustment - measured by employment success o f people who are blind and visually
impaired in Jamaica. The absence o f research information on disability outcomes in
Jamaica necessitated empirical research to support advocacy, program planning, and to
inform policy for maximizing the potential o f people with disabilities in the island. Based
on economic and employment activities, some people with blindness and visual
impairment appeared to be financially self-sufficient and portrayed economic well-being
while others seemed not to fare so well. A questionnaire was designed to gather data
pertaining to educational and transitional training, attributions for success, self-
determination and employment status. This study gathered responses from questionnaire
items from individuals with blindness and visual impairment who. graduated from the
school for the blind, the country's residential educational facility for the education of
students who are blind and visually impaired and from regular secondary school during
the 1980’s to 2001. The questionnaire covered variables o f background characteristics,
perceived attributions for success, educational training, transition training, self-
determination skills and employment activities.
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Locations and Data Collection Situations
There were three on-site centers utilized in the data collection, namely: (1) the
offices o f the Jamaica Society for the Blind (JSB) in St. Andrew. (2) the Abilities
Foundation in St. Andrew, and (3) The Craft Center in Kingston, Jamaica. (Note:
Permission was granted by agencies associated with the study for the use o f their names
in this study and the use of their premises as interview location sites). A total o f 22 (50%)
o f the total number o f respondents (N= 44) were interviewed at the Jamaica Society for
the Blind. The Jamaica Society for the Blind is a non-governmental organization that
provides rehabilitation training and support, plans and organizes leisure and business
ventures for its clientele of individuals with blindness or visual impairments. Due to their
geographic locations, eight of the 44 respondents (18.2%) found that it was most
convenient to travel to Abilities Foundation and the Craft Center, which are located at
northern and southern points o f Kingston. (Note: The two parishes o f Kingston and St.
Andrew are combined and zoned as one metropolitan city according to corporate area
zoning laws and is often referred to as Kingston.
Two respondents (4.5%) had requested that they be interviewed in two different,
•‘alternate” meeting places; the first was a corporate office and the other an office o f a
government ministry. Each location was considered in relation to the respondent’s
convenience and the weather situation that prevailed during the data-gathering period. In
several instances, due to an inability o f the participant to travel to the previously named
sites or a mutually agreed upon alternate site, telephone interviews were carried out from
the respondents’ homes at the expense o f the researcher. Telephone interviews were
conducted with 12 (27%) participants. The agreement for the telephone interviews was
59
made in instances where flooding caused by severe weather conditions made travel in and
around the city extremely difficult and unsafe for some o f the respondents. Others
preferred the convenience and the privacy o f speaking from their homes. There were a
number o f respondents in these locations. Table 1 presents the distribution of the
respondents in the data collection locations.
Table 1. Distribution o f Respondents in Five Data Collection Locations
Locations/S ituations Frequency Percentage

(N=44)
Society for the Blind 22 50.0
Abilities Foundation 5 11.4
Craft Center 6.8
Telephone Interviews (necessitated for 12 27.3
safety reasons)
Telephone Interviews (for privacy &
convenience - divided the number into two
categories).
Other Locations 2 4.5
Total 44 100.0
Data Collectors
The data collection was carried out by three individuals, the researcher and two
lecturers in special education employed by a major teacher training institution in the
capital city of Kingston, Jamaica. All data collectors accommodated telephone interviews
during the process for gathering data. Parallel interview sessions were possible for
collecting data, because each data collector was able to be in a different location from her
colleagues. Table 2 indicates the number o f respondents for each data collector and
shows the researcher collecting data for 24 (54.5%) of the 44 respondents.
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Table 2. Number o f Respondents per Data Collector
Collectors_________ 1 Frequency | Percentage

Collector 1 (Researcher) 1 24 1 54.5
Collector 2 27.3
12
Collector 3 1 8 18.2
Total 1 44 I 100.0
Design o f the Study
This follow-up study of adults with blindness and visual impairments targeted
individuals who graduated or left the school for the blind and secondary school, in
Jamaica over the past 21 years. The study utilized a survey to compare the background
characteristics o f adults with blindness and visual impairments to post-school outcomes.
The investigation sought to identify the factors that are associated with post-school
adjustment - measured by employment success. The behaviors, traits and characteristics
o f the participants were described without experimental treatments.
This study utilized a three-part instrument for data collection and information
gathering. Graduates and “school leavers" with blindness and visual impairment were
asked to respond to items in: Part I o f the questionnaire which related to demographics
and background information; Part II which focused on attributions for success,
educational training and, transition training; and Part III which tapped into the
respondents’ self-determination behaviors and skills.
The three-part questionnaire on post-school outcomes comprised five subsections.
The first subsection consisted of basic background questions designed to gather the
information on the respondents: gender, age by age group, civil status, visual status.
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living situation, place o f residence, medium for basic communication, and level of
education completed. The last nine items were not considered background information,
but provided information about employment and economic activities and included
income level, years o f work, job satisfaction, and problems at work.
Instrument Validation
The first two subsections o f Part II of the instrument, labeled Attributions for
Success and Educational Training were designed and refined through professional
consultations. The questions were given to four professionals in the field o f special
education to determine whether the items were useful for measuring what they were
intended to measure. The items were adjusted and refined to address attributions for
success and educational factors. Content validity was established through the creation
process. Consistency o f the subsections utilizing the coefficient alpha, yielded high
results as follows: Attributions for Success .74; Educational Training .86. The reliability
o f item consistency to the total score was computed utilizing coefficient alpha, which
yielded high scores as well (.78). Total score included the combination o f all indicator
variables. Reliability scores were obtained for each o f the three categories subsumed
under Attributions for success using coefficient alpha as follows: Personal factor, alpha =
.81; Social factor, alpha = .78; Educational factor, alpha = .91.
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Instrumentation
Survey Instrument
The instrument was designed to obtain answers related to the relationship between
respondents’ background characteristics, their educational training, transition training,
self-determination, attributions for success and their employment success.
Background Characteristics
The background information portion o f the instrument included questions gender,
age group, civil status, visual status, living situation, place o f residence, medium for
reading and writing, and level o f education completed. This section was felt to be
especially important to examine the variables effects on employment success. Each
question had categorically numbered and yes no responses, which served to describe the
respondent and identify the characteristics (see Appendix B). The gender item was not
posed as a question, but was completed based on the interviewer’s determination of
whether the interviewee was male or female. Table 3 lists these questions.
Table 3. Background Questions
1. In which age group do you fall?

2. What is your civil status?
3. Who lives with you?
4. In what parish, city, town or district, do you currently reside?
5. Are you a parent/have ever been a parent?
6. What is your visual status?
7. What medium do you use to read and write?
8. Do any other family members have either legal blindness or low vision?
9. Did you complete:
(a) Elementary education?
(b) Secondary education?
(c) Tertiary education?
10. During what calendar year did you leave school?
- If still in school, what level o f education are you pursuing?
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Attributions for Success
The next set o f questions focused on the respondents’ perceived attributions for
success. There were 10 items encompassing three factors: personal, social, and
educational, as attributions for success. It was important to know what the respondents
perceived were attributions for success. Based on previous research findings and
literature review (Brolin, 1995: Gerber & Reiff. 1991; Hallahan & Kauffman. 1997;
Patton & Dunn, 1999), the personal, social and educational attributions for success
selected as the focus o f these questions. The items were included in the 10-item
subsection o f the questionnaire. Items 1, 2, 3. 4. and 10 were included as personal
attributions. Items 7, 8 and 9 as social attributions and items 5 and 6 as educational
attributions. Respondents responded to each statement by indicating if the statement was
not applicable or if they strongly disagree, disagreed, agreed, or strongly agreed with the
statement. The response to these items, were scored to determine the respondents'
perceived attributions for success. Table 4 lists the items for attributions for success.
Table 4. Attributions for Success
1. I succeed in gen in g what I need and want, because o f m y ow n efforts

2. I succeed in gening what I need and w ant, because o f m y ability to find solutions to difficult
situations, using whatever resources are available
3. I succeed in expressing my needs and wants, because o f m y ability to com municate effectively
w ith others
4. I succeed in achieving my goals, because o f the w ay I feel ab o u t m yself
5. I succeed in securing and m aintaining em ploym ent, b ecau se o f the training I received in school
6. I succeed in developing my academ ic skills, because o f a teacher/teachers I had in school
7. I succeed in m y educational, social, em otional, physical life, and my plans, because o f the support
I received from my family
8. I succeed in achieving my educational goals and m y independence, because o f my fam ily ’s high
expectations o f m e
9. I succeed in m aintaining good social relationships, b ecau se o f the support o f my friends
10. I feel that I a m successful with regards to my post-school life: (Explain)
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Educational Training
The educational training items were used to examine the amount o f educational
training that the respondents received in career education and development while at
school. The items included lessons in career choices, work ethics, daily living skills,
problem-solving strategies, self-evaluation and action planning and community
involvement. The respondents were required to respond by indicating a number on a 5-
point scale, using scores of: 0 - not applicable: I - strongly disagree: 2 - disagree:
3 - agree: 4 - strongly agree. The amount scored on these items established the amount o f
educational training received. Table 5 lists the items on educational training.
Table 5. Educational Training
In school
1. I had lessons that prepared m e to m ake career choices
2. I had lessons that prepared m e to choose employ nient goals
3. I had lessons that prepared m e to choose p o s t-s c h o o l post-secondary school goals
4. 1 had lessons that prepared m e choose housing and daily living goals
5. I had lessons that prepared m e for community participation
6. I had lessons that prepared m e to lead m eetings and activities
7. I had lessons that prepared m e to report observations and outco m e activities
8. I had lessons that prepared m e to plan, take actions on my plan, evaluate my actions an d m ake
adjustm ent based on the outcom es o f my plan
9. I had lessons that taught me to use problem -sol\ ing strategies in a variety o f problem situations
1 0 .1 w as p rovided opportunities to go on job experience activities in my com m unity.
Transition Training
The Transition Behavior Scale-Second Edition (TBS-2) (McCamey & Anderson,
2000) was carefully designed and tested to establish its validity and reliability and
recommended as an efficient and effective resource for predicting successful transition
from school to work. Internal consistency o f TBS-2 utilizing coefficient alpha (Cronbach,
1991) was .99 for the total scale. Test-retest reliability yielded correlation o f over .84.
Inter-rater reliability was .90 for the total scale (McCamey & Anderson, 1995). Although
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the standardization population represented national percentages for gender, ethnicity,
residence geographic area and parental occupation in the United States, the scale items
were considered adaptable to other countries. The developers McCamey and Anderson
(2000) reported that the instrument received excellent reviews from educational
personnel and employees. The scale was developed in two versions: School Version for
educators and Self-Report Version for students, age 12-18 years. This instrument
appeared to be appropriate to identify factors associated with post-school adjustment. For
this study, then self-report version was adapted to relate to past school life.
The 33-item scale included items that addressed the respondents' attitude toward
assignments, their completion and accuracy level. Other items related to productivity
during group or individual work situations. A set of questions addressed time
management and the demonstration o f initiative in the absence o f directions. Various
questions addressed the interactions with work activities and the ability to resolve conflict
situations. Attentiveness was also examined in several questions. Respondents answered
each item by indicating a number on the 5-point scale, using the scores: 0 - no
opportunity to demonstrate the behavior; 1 - developed behavior over time;
2 - demonstrated the behavior or skill some o f the time; 3 - demonstrated the behavior or
skill most o f the time; and 4 - demonstrated the behavior or skill all o f the time. The
items are listed in Table 6.
Self-Determination
The 1994 AIR Self-Determination Scale and User Guide was developed by the
American Institute for Research - US Department of education in collaboration withy
Teachers College, Columbia University. It was normed on individuals up to 25 years o f
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Table 6. Transition Training
When I was in school:

1. I attem pted new assignm ents
2. I began assignm ents after receiving instructions, explanations, etc.
3. I com pleted assignm ents w ithin a specified tim e period
4. I com pleted assignm ents w ith an accepted level o f accuracy
5. I com pleted the required num ber o f assignments in a g iven period o f tim e
6. I was able to be productive in a group situation (e.g., w ork at a table with o th e r peers, work at
a desk w ith peers nearby, etc.)
7. I used tim e outside o f class appropriately (e.g.. did hom ew ork assignm ents, study, etc.)
8. I responded appropriately to redirection in academ ic situations (e.g., co rrected errors on an
assignm ent)
9. I m ade appropriate use o f free tim e
10. I follow ed brailled/w ritten directions (e.g., from teachers, principals, etc.)
11. I had the necessary m aterials that were needed for specified activities
12. I rem ained on-task for the required length o f tim e
13. I changed from one activity to another w ithout difficulty (e.g., stopped o n e activity and
began another, put m aterials aw ay, prepared for another activity, etc.)
14. I dem onstrated short-term m em ory skills (e.g., follow ed tw o and three ste p directions)
15. I follow ed directions w ithout requiring repetition, explanations, etc.
16. I m ade responsible decisions on my own (e.g., used com m on sense, logic, etc.)
17. I w as o rg an ized (e.g., used tim e wisely, did n o t w aste m aterials, had g o o d w ork habit, etc.)
18. I was d ependable (e.g.. in attendance, on tim e, prepared, ready to w ork, etc.)
19. I dem onstrated initiative in the absence o f directions (e.g ., took appropriate action rather
than rem aining inactive, used good judgm ent, etc.)
20. I was independent (e.g. w orked on own w ithout supervision, with lim ited encouragem ent,
etc.
21. I dem onstrated problem -solving skills (e.g., w as resourceful, found altern ativ e ways to deal
with situations, etc.)
22. I was attentive
23. I was p ersistent in seeking success (e.g. would stay w ith a task or activity until successful
24. I took responsibility for my ow n actions (e.g., learned from mistakes, recognized
consequences o f inappropriate behavior and responded appropriately, etc.)
25. I w as w illin g to assum e extra responsibilities, tasks, etc.

26. I responded appropriately to typical exchanges with p eers (e.g., being b um ped, touched,
brushed against, etc.)
27. I responded appropriately to friendly teasing (e.g., jo k es, sarcastic rem arks, nam e calling,
etc.)
28. I cared for m y personal appearance (e.g., groom ing, clothing, etc.)
29. I dem onstrated the ability to resolve conflict situations (e.g ., discussed, reasoned,
com prom ised, etc.)
30. 1 participated in extracurricular activities (e.g., sports, clu b s, societies, etc.)
31. I interacted appropriately in w ork activities (e.g., Involvem ent in discussions, projects, etc.)
32. I used com m unication skills to maintain positive interpersonal relationships with peers
33. I dem onstrated appropriate hygiene ((e.g., clean hands an d face, free o f bod y odor, changed
clothing w h en appropriate, etc.
age. The standardization population represented a wide racial and ethnic distribution, in
addition to a diverse population o f persons with and without disabilities. Reliability tests
yielded correlations ranging from .91 to .98. Internal consistency comparison yielded
correlations o f .95. The manual's description o f the AIR Self-Determination Scale and
User Guide (Wolman, Campeau, Dubois, Mithaug, & Stolarski, 1994) was that the
instrument could be used for planning and goal setting. It was designed to provide a
useful means for gathering information about individuals’ particular needs interests,
goals, and abilities. It further stated that it may be used by anyone mindful o f helping
students to be strong, independent and confident adults. Included are: educator, student,
parent and research forms that address the areas of: Capacity - Knowledge; Capacity -
Perceptions and Opportunities at school. For this study the student form was used to
measure self-determination as a variable factor associated with attributions for success.
The third section was adapted to relate to work and school where the original addressed
school only.
The respondents were asked to record their answers to the four-section scale o f 24
items. The first section asked respondents to respond to “Things I do Now”; the second
section asked for response to "How I Feel Now” ; the third section related to “What
Happens at Work/School Now”; and the final section, ‘‘What Happens at Home Now.”
The respondents answered each item by indicating a number on the 5-point scale, using
the scores: 0 - never occurs; 1 - almost never occurs; 2 - sometimes occurs; 3 - almost
always occurs; and 4 - always occurs. Scores obtained on total self-determination were
computed to determine the relationship and correlation with employment success.
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Table 7. AIR Self-Determination Scale
T hings I Do Now
1. I know w hat I need, w h at I like and what I am g o o d at.
2. I set goals to get w h at 1 w ant, o r need. I think ab o u t w hat I am good at when I d o this.
3. I figure out how to m eet m y goals. I make plans an d d ecide w hat I should do.
4. I begin w orking on m y plans to m eet my goals a s soon as possible.
5. I check how 1 am d o in g w hen I am working on m y plan. I f I need to, I ask o th e rs w hat
they think o f how I am doing.
6. I f my plan doesn’t w ork. I try another one to m eet my goals.
How I Feel Now

1. I feel good about w h at I like, w hat I want and w h at I do well.
2. I believe that I can set goals to gat what I want
3. 1 like to make plans to m eet my goals.
4. I like to begin w orking on my plans right away.
5. I like to check on how w ell 1 am doing in m eeting my goals.
6. 1 am w illing to try an o th er way if it helps me to m eet m y goals.
W hat H appens at W ork/S chool (postsecondary school) N O W

1. People at w ork/school listen w hen I talk about w h at I w ant, w hat I need, or w h a t I am
good at.
2. People at w ork/school let m e know that I can set my ow n goals to get what I w a n t o r
need.
3. At w ork/school I have learned how to make plans to m eet my goals and to feel g o o d
about them.
4. People at w ork/school encourage m e to start w o rking on my plans right aw ay.
5. I have som eone at w ork/school w ho can tell m e if I am m eeting my goals.
6. People at w ork/school understand when I have to change my plans to meet m y goals.
They offer advice and encourage m e when I am d o in g this.
W hat H appens at H ome

1. People at hom e listen to m e w hen I talk about w hat I w ant, w hat I need, or w h at I am
good at.
2. People at hom e let m e know that I can set my o w n goals to g et w hat I want o r w h a t I
need.
3. At hom e, I have learned how to m ake plans to m eet my goals and to feel g o o d ab o u t
them.
4. People at home encourage m e to start working o n my plans rig h t away.
5. I have som eone at hom e w ho can tell me if I am m eeting my goals.
6. People at home understand w hen I have to ch an g e my plan to m eet my goal. T h e y
offer help and encourage m e w hen I am doing this.
Employment Information
Although items 11-19 were included in the background section o f the
questionnaire, they were designed to glean information about the respondents’ current
employment activities, employment history and employment problems. In addition to
determining the respondents’ employment and economic activities, the items were further
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important to establish the respondents” employment success. Question 11 determined the
respondents’ employment status, whether they were employed o r not. The item also
determined the type o f employment - employed to the workforce, self-employed, not
employed and looking for a job or not looking for a job, or a homemaker. The hours o f
work in question 12 was also an important indicator to determine the level of
employment, part-time or full-time. Question 13 was asked to determine income level.
The response to this question was one o f the main criteria for determining employment
success. The income level would determine the respondents’ potential for satisfying their
economic needs and promoting their financial well-being. Job satisfaction and problems
with the jo b were supporting descriptions o f employment success.
Questions 14-17 related to respondents” employment history, covering the period
time in current and previous jobs, and the number o f jobs in which they had worked.
Question 18 asked the respondents to respond to whether there were problems at work
with doing good work, boss not being happy with their work, not getting recognition for
their work, people picking on them or any other problems. This question was also
examined to determine employment success. The final question in this section, question
19, enquired about the job satisfaction of the respondents. They were asked to respond to
how well they liked their jobs by indicating not well, adequately, very well, or extremely
well. The three main questions (questions 13,18, and 19) included in these items
provided the measure for employment success. Table 8 lists the items for employment
activities, employment history and perceptions o f employment problems/job satisfaction.
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Table 8. Employment Information
E m ploym ent A ctivities:

1 1. W hat is your present em ploym ent status?
12. Ho w m any hours per w eek do you w ork?
* (See Em ploym ent Success))
14. Ho w long have you been at y o u r present jo b ?
E m ploym ent H istory:

15. D id you have any job/s before y o u r present job?
16. Ho w m any jo b s have you w orked in before the present jo b ?
17. Ho w long did you work in y o u r previous job/s
P ercep tions o f Em ploym ent Problem s/Job Satisfaction:

18. A t w ork, have you ever had any problem s?
19. Ho w well do you like your jo b ?
E m ploym ent Success: *

13. W hat is your annual gross incom e in Jam aican dollars?
- W hat is your household incom e?
Employment Success
Question 13 was included in the items for employment information on the
instrument. However, this item was used to measure employment success, which was the
dependent variable o f the study. This factor was defined on a 5-point scale with:
1 < $86,000 Jamaican dollars (minimum wage); 2 = $86,000-200,000; 3 = $200,000-
500.000; 4 = $500,000-1000.000; and 5 > $1,000,000. Income levels above the national
minimum wage o f $86,000 gross annual income were used as criteria for employment
success. The income reported was used to determine the respondents' income levels
above and below the minimum wage level range. The median range of $200, 000-
500,000 was where most (over 61%) people fell. Employment success was determined as
income levels o f $200,000 and above.
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Participants
A list o f persons with blindness and visual impairment was obtained through the
organizational network o f the Jamaica Society for the Blind and the School for the Blind
Old Students Association. A flyer requesting the participation o f volunteers was sent to
these organizations because they were frequented by. people with blindness and visual
impairment. The individuals, who indicated a desire to participate, were further scheduled
for interview appointments with the interviewers. All arrangements were made by. the
Program Officer of the Jamaica Society for the Blind. Contact was made with 50 people
with blindness and visual impairment. Of the 50 contacts, 47 (94%) volunteered to
participate in the study. One volunteer (2.1%) completed 33.3% of the questionnaire then
withdrew without giving reason for discontinuing w ith the interview. Two volunteers
(4.3%) failed to show up for the appointment, indicating the inclement weather as cause
for not fulfilling the appointment. The data gathered from the remaining 44 respondents
included background information, employment status, attributions for success, education
and transition training and self-determination behavior and skills.
The 44 adults with blindness and visual impairments who participated in this study,
included students in tertiary education programs and people who were in the workforce.
The sample comprised o f graduates and/or school leavers o f the period 1980-2001. The
age range o f each participant, level o f education, and the number of years o f employment
were considered in the selection. The numbers in tertiary institutions, in the workforce,
the number o f employed and unemployed, were also included.
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Procedures
The study w as implemented in three phases. In phase I, there was consultation with
college advisors, a Caribbean Regional agency and the Ministry o f education in Jamaica
to determine the most recognized national institution/s through which to obtain approval
to carry out this study.
In phase II. the researcher collaborated with the Jamaica Society for the Blind an
agency that provides training, rehabilitation and social services for people with blindness
and visual impairment in the country, in order to contact members who were registered
with that agency. Additionally, the Jamaica Society for the Blind was asked to make a
recommendation to the Old Students' Association o f the School for the Blind on behalf o f
the researcher, in order to recruit volunteers. The participants were identified according to
the criteria stipulated, and schedule o f appointments was set up for the completion of the
questionnaires. The program officer at the Jamaica Society for the Blind and a designated
data collector arranged meeting sites for the researcher and the participants who had
volunteered to participate in the study.
In phase III. the questionnaires were completed using an oral, in-person
administration, sim ilar to a structured interview. This involved travel to the offices of the
Jamaica Society for the Blind and other locations in Kingston and the neighboring parish
o f St. Catherine. The original plan for in person interviews was modified to include
telephone interviews when there was an island-wide emergency due to heavy rains. This
made travel impossible for some o f the participants. The participants responded to oral
questions by indicating which response to check and dictating comments. Prior to the
interview a letter was sent to the participants who agreed to participate in the study,
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outlining the parameters o f the study, assuring confidentiality and detailing risk factors.
Follow up was provided by telephone, e-mail and fax and collaboration with the
collectors were given guidelines and careful instructions to follow. This was done only in
a few situations that necessitated the action. The researcher secured interview
questionnaires each day after the interview sessions, thus ensuring any breach o f
confidentiality and the return o f the instruments.
Analysis
This study utilized statistical analyses, which transformed a set o f numbers or
observations into indices that described or characterized the data. All data were analyzed
using the computer statistics program (SPSS). Measures o f central tendency in addition to
frequency distributions were calculated and presented to enable the researcher to
summarize the data, interpret the findings and support discussion. Analyses of variance
(ANOVA) were used to determine the relationship o f respondents’ background
characteristics, perceived attributions for success, educational training, transition training
and self-determination with employment success. It was also necessary to use Regression
Analysis to determine the best predictor o f employment success. Each research question
was analyzed according to the variable measures noted. The data and results are
presented in Chapter IV.
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Chapter IV
RESULTS
This chapter presents data on: ( I ) the respondents* background characteristics and
employment activities; (2) the relationship between various background characteristics
and educational training, transition, self-determination, attributions for success, and
employment success; (3) the relationship between educational training, transition, self-
determination. attributions for success, and employment success; and (4) the best
predictor o f employment success.
Demographic and Background Information
The demographic and background information in this study describe the
subgroups that participated in the research. The following is an analysis o f the data that
were reported by the respondents in the questionnaire. The information presented is
significant to the data review and discussion later in Chapter V.
The total number of respondents in this study was 44 adults. The adult respondents
included 28 males (63.6%) and 16 females (36.6%) representing a range o f ages from
under 20 years to 51 years and older. From Table 9, which contains the frequency
distribution by age ranges we see that the largest number (N=18; 40.9%) o f the
respondents fell in the 31-40 years age range.
75
Table 9. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Age bv Age Groups
A p of Respondents in Years Frequency Percentage

20 and under 7 15.9
2 1 -3 0 11 25.0
31 -4 0 18 40.9
4 1 -5 0 4 9.1
5 1 - older 4 9.1
Total 44 100.0
Civil Status
The civil status o f the respondents was categorized by single, married, widowed and
significant other. The predominant category represented was single, with 31 (70.5%) of
the respondents identified. Table 10 gives the total for the represented categories.
Table 10. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Civil Status
Civil Status Frequency Percentage

Single 31 70.4
Married 7 15.9
Widowed 1 2.3
Significant Other 5 11.4
Total 44 100.0
Living Situation
From the responses on the questionnaire, we see that the respondents lived in an
array o f situations reflecting variability. There were 7 (15.9%) respondents who indicated
that they presently lived alone, while 15 (34.1%) indicated that they lived with their
parents, and 11 (25%) with significant other. Two (4.2%) o f the respondents lived with
both parents and significant other. In this case it was a parent, either a mother or a father
who lived w ith the child and family. A total o f 14 (31.9%) lived with extended family.
The respondents who were parents numbered 12 (27.3%).
The study was concentrated in the metropolitan areas o f Kingston and St. Andrew,
and included the neighboring parish o f St. Catherine. The frequency distribution for place
o f residence showed that the largest concentration o f respondents (N=23; 52.3%) was
residents o f St. Catherine while 18 (40.9%) heralded from metropolitan Kingston and St.
Andrew (the two parishes are combined by city zoning law) Three (6.85) respondents
reported living in other parishes o f the island o f Jamaica "O ther" than those previously
noted. These data regarding place o f residence are represented in Table 11.
Table 11. Frequency Distribution o f Current Residence
Parish Frequency | Percentage

St. Catherine 23 1 52.3
Kingston and St. Andrew 18 | 40.9
Other J I 6.8
Total 44 | 100.0
Visual Status
In an effort to determine the level o f visual functioning o f the respondents, each
person was asked to indicate whether they met the Jamaican government's legal
definition o f legal blindness or low vision, defined respectively as: (1) A person who is
blind - any person with a visual acuity o f 20/200 and or visual field o f 15 degrees or less
in the better eye (after correction) and (2) A person with a visual impairment (in Jamaica
referred to as low vision) - any person who has a visual acuity o f 20/60 or a visual field
o f 30 degrees or less in the better eye (after correction). They also indicated what their
77
preferred learning medium was. By having both pieces o f information, it would allow the
researcher to extrapolate how this person functioned on a daily basis in his or her home,
work and community environments. O f the 44 respondents, 33 (75%) specified that he or
she either was experiencing legal blindness, while the balance o f 11 (25%) had low
vision (also known as a visual impairment). Although the category o f ‘‘Other" was
included in the questionnaire, none o f the respondents chose that category. Table 12
presents frequency for vision status.
Table 12. Frequency Distribution o f Visual Status
Visual Status N Percentage
Blind 75.0
Low Vision 11 25.0
Total 44 100.0
Reading and Writing Medium
As noted earlier the type o f media used was also o f interest because of its
significance when training an individual to transition to adult activities that may relate to
employability, community involvement and/or independent living. As part o f the
questionnaire, respondents were asked to identify the medium or media that they prefer to
communicate with. They were to note which medium or combination was/were utilized
when reading and writing. The categories included the use o f Braille, print, Braille and
print and “Other" which was included to account for computer-aided devices and other
high technology devices and solutions that may be used in reading and writing. The
utilization of Braille medium was significantly higher than other media with 31
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respondents using it as their only communication medium and another 8 using it in
conjunction with print for a total o f 39 (88.8%) Braille-users. The print-users, with the
assistance o f appropriate adaptive aids, read and wrote using "regular'” 12-point font, and
print enlarged beyond “regular’' print that was much smaller than "regular” font. Some
print users, benefited from combinations o f "regular” and enlarged font size, as well as all
three types. Table 13 presents reading and writing media and print type utilized by the
respondents.
Table 13. Frequency Distributions o f Reading and Writing Media and Print Type Used
M edia for R eading and W riting 1 Frequency %

: (N = 44)
Braille 31 70.6
Print 5 11.4
Braille and P rint 8 18.2
Total 44 100
Print Type Frequency %
Large 6 13.6
Regular ! i 2.2
Large and regular 1 3 6.8
All - Large, reg u lar & sm all i 3 6.8
Total i 13 29.4
Family Member with Vision Problems
Often, individuals with specific visual disorders like retinitis pigmentosa, Leber’s
Congenital Amaurosis just to name a few. have family members - parents, grandparents,
or siblings w ith the same or very sim ilar conditions. There is an awareness that
perception o f the disability (Stolarski, 1990) is a predictor of: (1) level o f stress in the
family; (2) the family’s ability to activate resources; and (3) expectations o f the child
with the disability and her siblings. Twenty (45.5%) respondents’ replied in the
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affirmative that they had other family members with legal blindness, low vision or other
vision problems whereas the balance o f the respondent pool did not have a family
member who was experiencing or who had experienced a visual condition.
Education Level Completed
According to literature, adults with disabilities are more likely to experience
success in their transition to adulthood when they complete at least the elementary level
of schooling (Brolin, 1995: Hallahan & Kauffman. 1997: Patton & Dunn. 1999). The
levels o f education for which response was elicited were elementary, secondary, tertiary
and other educational programs. The category of other educational programs included
vocational and skills programs, which provided certification for proficiency. These
include programs such as, music, art and crafts, information technology, horticulture,
secretarial and fashion designing. All respondents completed elementary education,
which covers the primary grades (1 -6). The frequency distribution for this and other
levels are presented in Table 14.
Table 14. Frequency Distribution o f Completed Levels o f Education
Level of Education Frequency Percentage

(N = 44)
Primary 44 100.0
Secondary 41 93.2
Tertiary 17 38.6
Other Educational Programs 11 25.0
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Still in School
The respondents who were still in school numbered 24 (54.5%). The age range
fell across all five age groups. Within the group o f respondents who w ere still in school,
the number pursuing tertiary education was significant 16 (36.4). The programs that the
respondents reported to be pursuing were certification in vocational education and
information technology. Bachelors. Masters, and Doctoral programs. Tables 15 and 16
respectively present distributions o f level o f education being pursued and program of
study being pursued.
Table 15. Level o f Education Being Pursued
Level N = 24 %
Secondary 4 16.7
Tertiary' 16 66.6
81
Table 16. Program of Studv Being Pursued
Program N = 24 %
*> *> ^
Vocational/Information Tech. Cert. 8 j j . j
Bachelors 4 16.8
Masters 8 j j .j
Doctoral 2 8.3
Employment History. Problems, and Activities
Since employment and economic activities are considered important to the
successful adjustment in adulthood, the respondents were asked to respond to variable
items pertaining to employment activities, employment history employment problems
and job satisfaction. Tables 17. 18, 19, and 20 summarize employment history,
employment problems, employment information and employment success, respectively.
Income level will be analyzed later as the dependent variable indicator o f employment
success - a measure for post-school adjustment.
82
Table 17. Employment History
Employment History Frequency Percentage

(N = 44)
Job/s Before Present Job
Yes 2 59.1
No 11 25.0
Not Applicable 7 15.9
Number of Jobs Before Present Job

1 12 27.3 |
2 -4 13 29.5
> 10 1 2.3
1st Previous Job

Less than 1 vear 11 25.0
1 - 3 years 8 18.2
4 - 6 years 2 4.5
7 - 1 0 years 3 6.8
> 10 years 1 2.3
2nd Previous Job

Less than 1 year 7 15.9
1 - 3 years 6 13.6
> 10 years 1 2.3
3rd Previous Job

1 - 3 years 1 2.3
4th Previous Job

> 10 years 1 2.3
83
Table 18. Employment Problems
Perceptions of Employment Problems Frequency Percentage

(N = 44)
Problem at Work: Doing good work
Yes 2 4.5
No 31 70.5
Problem: Boss not happy with work

Yes 2 4.5
No 31 70.5
Problem: Not getting recognition

Yes 11 25.0
No 22 50.0
Problem: People picking on You

Yes 11 25.0
No 21 47.7
Other Problems
Yes 10 22.7
No 22 50.0
How well do you like your job
No so well 6 13.6
Adequately 7 15.9
Very well 11 25.0
Extremely well 12 27.3
84
Table 19. Employment Activities
Em ploym ent Activities 1 Frequency Percentage

1 (N = 44 )"
Em ploym ent Status
E m ployed in industry/Service a g e n c y 32 72.7
Self-em ployed 1 2.3
N ot em ployed - looking for w ork 3 6.8
N ot em ployed - not looking for work 8 18.2
H ours o f W ork Per W eek

Full-tim e - over 40 hours 9 20.5
Full-tim e - 26-40 hours 19 43.2
H alf-tim e - 15-25 hours ->
4.5
Part-tim e - less than 15 hours 2 4.5
O ther 2 4.5
N ot A pplicable 10 22.7
Y ears at Present Job

Less than 1 vear 10 22.7
I - 3 vears 6 13.6
4 - 6 years 2 4.5
7 - 1 0 years 7 15.9
> - 1 0 vears 9 20.5
Table 20. Employment Success
A nnual C ross Income in Jamaican Dollars

1. B elow $86,000 (M inim um W age) 7 15.9
2. S86.000 - 200.000 10 22.7
3. $200,000 - 500,000 (M edian range) 11 25.0
4. $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 -1 ,0 0 0 0 0 0 4 9.2
5. S I ,000000 & above 2 4.5
6. N ot A pplicable 10 22.7
The employment history results in Table 17 showed significant result in the
number o f respondents who were employed to jobs previously, indicated that 26 (59%) o f
the respondents had at least one job previous to their current jobs. There was no previous
employment for 18 (41%) o f the respondents. The majority o f the respondents 24 (55%)
who were previously employed appeared to have spent less than one year at their jobs. At
85
least one respondent appeared to have been in four previous jobs for over 10 years.
Further investigation revealed that this respondent had been in the sam e job for much
over 10 years, but had receive several promotions, which took the respondent through a
range o f departmental positions. The issue o f problem at work indicated in Table 18, was
explored using five indicators, these were: doing good work, boss not being happy with
work, not getting recognition for work, people picking on the respondent and other
problems. The main problems identified were: not getting recognition 11 (25%). people
picking on the respondents 11(25%). and "other" problems 10 (22.7%). Other problems
were presented as inadequate salaries and physical and social barriers that respectively
hindered independent mobility in the work environment and in personal-social
interactions. The item relating to how well the respondents liked their jobs, showed that
the majority liked their jobs. The results showed 11 (25%) liked their jobs very well and
12 (27%) liked their jobs extremely well. The results in Table 19 showed a significant
number of the respondents employed to the workforce 32 (73%). The number of hours o f
work per week for the respondents who were employed was mainly in the full-time
category, 26-40 hours. The salary in Jamaican dollars, ranged from below the standard
national minimum wage o f $86,000.00 per annum upwards to above $1,000,000.00.
Some o f the jobs were: teaching with income range o f $300,000 to $500,000; social work
with income range o f $300,000 to $500,000; middle level administrators with income
ranging from $450,00 to 600,000. The result in Table 20 indicated 61.4% o f the
respondents earning minimum wage and above. At the highest level o f the salary
spectrum there were 2 (4.5%) o f the respondents. The item relating to the number of
years on the current jo b showed a significant number at both ends o f the range, 10 (23%)
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less than one year and 9 (21%) over 10 years. The fact that 27 (61.4%) o f respondents
earned minimum wage and more is a significant factor. This fact could explain one thing:
the minimum wage is considered a marker for poverty index, so 61.4% o f the respondents
may be considered as living above the poverty line. The income level o f $500,000 to
$1,000000 in the Jamaican context is considered substantial. This would be the average
salary range for middle and upper middle level working class people and professionals.
Research Questions
Research Question One
What is the relationship between respondents* background characteristics and
their educational training, transition training, self-determination, attributions for success
(personal, social, and educational) and employment success?
Significance tests were performed on the data obtained from the respondents. Prior
to this analysis all respondents were grouped according to their categories o f gender, age
group, civil status, visual status, reading and writing medium, level o f education
completed and living situation. Analyses variance (ANOVA) tests were done for age
group, civil status, visual status, reading and print medium, education level completed
and employment status. T-tests were conducted for two variables, gender and living
situation. Table 21 presents t-tests results for gender and living situation and Table 22
presents ANOVA results for group variables o f age, civil status, visual status, reading and
writing medium, and education level completed.
87
Table 21. T-test Comparison o f Gender and Living Situation with Study Variables o f
School Preparation. Transition. Attributions for Success (personal, social, educational
attributes) and Self-determination in Terms o f T h eir Difference in Effect
N =44
S ig. (2-tailed Significance at .05 level

B ackground V ariables/Study t
V ariables
G ender
E ducational training .211 .834 N ot significant
p > .05
T ransition training 1.316 .195 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success -.037 .970 Not significant
p > .05
Self-D eterm ination .953 .346 Not significant
p > .05
Lives W ith Parents
Educational training .719 .476 Not significant

p > .05
T ransition training -1.433 .159 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success -.168 .868 Not significant
p > .05
p > .05
Lives W ith Significant O ther
E ducational training -.943 .351 Not significant

p > .05
T ransition training -.308 .760 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success .950 .348 Not significant
p > .05
S elf-D eterm ination -.332 .742 Not significant
p > .05
Lives W ith C hildren
E ducational training -.422 .675 Not significant

p > .05
T ransition training -.243 .809 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success 1.033 .308 Not significant
p > .05
Self-D eterm ination -.403 .689 Not significant
p > .05
88
Table 21 (continued)
N =44
Sig. (2-tailed Significance at .05 level

B ackground V ariables/Study t
V ariables
Lives W ith Siblings
E ducational training 1.819 .076 N ot significant

p > .05
T ransition training .088 .930 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success .437 .025 N ot significant
p > .05
p > .05
Lives W ith Extended Family
E ducational training -.133 .895 N ot significant

p > .05
T ransition training .252 .802 Not significant
p > .05
A ttributions for success .091 .928 N ot significant
p > .05
Self-D eterm ination 1.635 .110 Not significant
p > .05
Lives A lone
E ducational training .764 .449 N ot significant

p > .05
T ransition training 2.675 .011 Significant
p < .05
A ttributions for success -.611 .544 N ot significant
p > .05
Self-D eterm ination -.177 .860 N ot significant
p > .05
89
Table 22. One Wav Analysis of Variance Comparison o f Age Group. Civil Status. Visual
Status. Reading and Writing Media and Education Completed with Study Variables o f
Educational Training. Transition. Attributions for Success (Personal. Social, and
Educational Attributes for Success)
Background V ariable/S tudy Variable MS F Significance at

.05 L evel
A ge G roup
Educational training 68.977 2.852 .036
Transition training 168.944 .994 .422
Self-D eterm ination 88.016 .610 .658
Attributions for success 4.556 .224 .923
C ivil Status
Educational training 10.295 .347 .792
Attributions for success 41.447 2.414 .081
Visual Status
Educational training .124 .004 .948
Transition training .201 .201 .656
Self-D eterm ination 17.355 17.355 .000
Attributions for success 1.919 1.919 .173
Reading and Writing M edium
Attributions for su ccess 21.642 1.156 .325
C om plete Secondary E ducation
Attributions for su ccess 15.883 .839 .365
C om plete Tertiary E ducation
Educational training 113.386 4.307 .044
A ttributions for su ccess 50.577 2.794 .102
Em ploym ent Status
Transition training 343.760 2.192 .104
Attributions for su ccess 31.571 1.763 .170
90
According to the results in Table 21, the effect o f gender on educational training,
transition, attributions for success and self-determination yielded no significant difference
for men and women. The effects o f living situation showed no significant difference on
the study variables for those who lived with parents, children and extended family.
However, social attributions for success was significantly different between groups
whether they had lived with siblings or not (t = 2.332, p = .025). Transition training was
significantly different between groups whether they lived alone or not (t = 2.675,
p = .011). Respondents who lived with siblings indicated more social attributions for
success than those who did not. The respondents who lived alone indicated more
transition skills than those who did not.
ANOVA results in Table 22 showed educational training as significantly different
among age groups (F = 2.852, p = .036) indicating more educational training for the age
group 31 - 40 years. The results also indicated significantly more self-determination for
those who were in the single group (F = 2.933, p = .045). Self-determination was
significantly different for vision status groups, with people who were without sight
having higher levels o f self-determination than people with low vision (F = 17. 355,
p = .000). Self-determination was also significantly different among reading and writing
medium groups, indicating that Braille users were more self-determined than print users
(F = 8.555, p = .001). There was no significant difference for secondary education among
the groups. However, on tertiary education, educational training was significantly
different for those who did not complete tertiary education (F = 4.307, p = .044). Self-
determination levels were significantly higher for those who completed tertiary education
than for those who did not complete this level o f education (F = 4.439, p = .041).
91
Research Question Two
What are the relationships between respondent’ educational training, transition,
self-determination, perception factors, and their employment success?
Correlations were conducted to identify the relationships among the variables o f the
study: school preparation, transition preparation, self-determination, attributions for
success (3 variables), and employment success. The result for the respondents on six
variable indicators of educational training, transition training, self-determination,
attributions for success - i.e.. personal, social and educational attributes for success, and
the employment success factor were used in answering research question number two.
The results o f the correlations are shown in Table 23.
The results in Table 23 indicate that there w ere a number o f significant correlations.
Transition training was significantly correlated with educational training (r = .393.
p = .008). Transition training was also significantly correlated with self-determination
(r = .377, p = .012). The three sub-factors o f attributions for success indicated
significance as follows: Social success was significantly correlated with educational
training (r = .352, p = .019). Personal success was significantly correlated with social
success (r = .423, p = .005). Personal success was indicated as also significantly
correlated with educational success (r = .540. p = .000). The employment success factor
showed significant correlations with self-determination (r = .517, p = .005).
92
Table 23. Correlation Matrix for Studv Variables and Employment Success
!
Personal Social Educational
■ Educational j Transition Self-
Attributions Attributions Attributions
Training i Training Determination
For Success For Success For Success
j
! .393* I
Transition
!
Training
P = 008
N = 44
Self- .186 .377*

Determination
P = 227 ! P = 012
N = 44 N = 44
Personal .190 .225 . 139

Attributions
for Success P = 222 P = 148 l> =
N = 43 N = 43 \ - 1 ■
'
Social
Attributions .352* .116 08S 423*
for Success
P= 019 P = 455 P = 5*2 P = 005
N = 44 N =44 N 44 \i = 4 3
. _ .
Educational
Attributions .185 .277 .250 .540* .156
for Success i i
P = 228 P = 069 P = I<>2 P = 000 P = 313
N = 44 1 N = 44 N = 44 N =43 N = 44
; 1
! i
i •
Employment .199 ; .525 1 .517* .3 9 6 j .248 i .209

Success 1 I
OO
~0
u>
P = .473 | P = .059 I P = 005 P = .087 : P = .467

II
N = 44 j N=44 ! N = 44 N = 44 ! N = 43 j N = 44
1 1 i
1 1
| * significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). |
93
Research Question Three
What is the best predictor of respondents' employment success?
A regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictive power o f gender, age
group, civil status, visual status, and reading and writing media on employment success.
The result in Table 24 indicated that only gender (F = 5.936. p = .022) and visual status
(F = 5.342. p = 0.29) were significant predictors o f employment success. This indicated
that gender and visual status more than background variables o f age group, civil status
and reading and writing media were significant predictors o f employment success
Another regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictive power of
educational training, transition training, self-determination, personal, social, and
educational attributions of success on employment success. The results in Table 25
indicated that only self-determination was a significant predictor o f employment success
(F = 9. 558, p = .005). Thus indicating that the higher the self-determination the higher
the employment success.
Table 24. Regression Analysis of the Background Variables on Employment Success
Variables N = 33 M SD F Sig.
Background Variables
Gender .61 1.732 5.936 .022
Age Group 3.03 .496 .015 .904
Civil Status 1.64 1.045 .011 .917
Visual Status 1.24 1.245 5.342 .029
Reading /writing Medium 1.67 .435 .238 .630
94
Table 25. Regression Analysis o f the Study Variables on Employment Success
Variables N = 33 M SD F Sig.
Study variables
Educational training 27.7562 5.563 .529 .473
Transition 90.5687 11.417 .415 .525
Self-Determination 89.0978 10.627 9.558 .005
Success Attributions:
Personal success 16.6667 2.354 3.168 .087
Social success 8.9697 1.704 .309 .583
Educational success 6.0909 1.011 .544 .467
95
Chapter V
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
The focus o f this present study was on the association between educational
experience, school-to-work transition training, attributions for success and levels o f self-
determination and the employment status o f adults with blindness and visual impairment
who graduated from a school for the blind in Jamaica. West Indies between 1980 and
2001. In generally, education and training o f children who are blind and visually
impaired from the kindergarten, elementary, to secondary levels, take place at a
residential school located in the capital city o f Kingston. Children leave their homes and
live in residence at the school during the school terms. They return to their homes during
public holidays and regular school breaks. The school is an "all-age school, which
accommodates three education levels - kindergarten (age 4-6 years), elementary (6+-12
years) and secondary (12+-18 years). A three-part instrument was utilized to examine the
post-school outcomes of people with blindness and visual impairments. Variables o f
educational training, transition training, self-determination and perceived attributions for
success, were surveyed to answer the research questions. A total o f 44 adults were
interviewed in this study. There were 28 males and 16 females ranging in age range from
20 and under to over 51 years o f age. The mean age range was 31- 40 years. The number
of respondents in this range was 18(41%). There were 33 respondents who were blind
and 11 with low vision. Although the data collection instrument was a questionnaire, data
96
were gathered through a structured interview process that ensured a timely and organized
completion o f the process.
Summary o f Results
Demographic and Background Information
The findings on demographic and background characteristics came from the
respondents* answers to the first part o f the questionnaire. The majority o f the
respondents were males, a total o f 28 (64%), while females numbered 16 (36%). Initially,
this outcome seemed unusual because the common belief was that there were more, blind
and visually impaired females than males. Reports from the 1993 national census
indicated the gender distribution o f people with blindness and visual impairment as:
males = 6,144 and females = 7.171. added to a total o f 13.315. The fact that there is no
recent research documentation o f data concerning these matters provided inadequate
frame of reference, and especially since the available data are now nearly 10 years old..
The fact that more males was reflected in the data may indicate three things (1) there
were more males who were willing to participate in the study; (2) there might be, in fact,
more males with blindness and visual impairment in the population; and (3) there may be
more males who were integrated in the society and as such were more accessible than
females.
Age range o f the respondents for five age groups showed the highest concentration
in the 31 - 40 age range with a total o f 18 (41 %). This was not an unusual outcome, since
the twenty-one year period from 1980 to 2 0 0 1 would give an average age for graduates
and ‘‘school leavers” during that time period o f approximately 38-40 years, if students left
school at approximately 18-20 years o f age. There were 4 (9%) o f the respondents each in
97
the 41-50 and over 51 years age range. Some respondents claimed to have left school
later than the standard age 18-20 years and others continued enrollment at the residential
school much over the standard age for graduation. Other respondents volunteered to
participate although they had graduated from the residential school and secondary school
before the 1980’s. They were included in the study since the period o f the 1970's were
critical to the special education program development o f the 1980s. Many programs were
conceptualized during the Compulsory Education Debates and the "Education For All”
legislation o f the mid 1970’s.
Civil status indicators covered five discrete categories. The significant difference in
the number o f respondents in the single category was 31 (71%). Although not alarming,
this was an interesting finding, since the number of those who lived alone was 7 (15%).
The fact is. most o f the respondents lived with children, siblings, parents or extended
family. Anecdotal comments from several respondents, was that, they had to provide
financial support and care for family members with whom they lived.
Living situations showed a significant number for those who lived with siblings and
children 23 (52% ) and with extended family 14 (32%). As indicated previously several
respondents claimed to have been responsible for supporting family members with whom
they lived or who lived with them. For place o f residence, the majority o f respondents
lived in St. Catherine in the Portmore residential development, an area that is known to
be a rapidly developing region in terms o f residential communities and industries. Many
explained that they owned their own homes. The fact that many owned their own homes
in this development may be attributed to two reasons (1) the government has mandated
that priority housing entitlement benefits be given to persons with disabilities through the
98
National Housing Trust claims, (2) the Portmore area o f St. Catherine has had vast
National Housing Trust Development Projects to provide homes for working class people
who work in the St. Catherine and the metropolitan city o f Kingston and St. Andrew. The
majority o f the respondents were working class people employed to the workforce who
were contributors to the National Housing Trust.
It was important that the respondents’ visual status was ascertained, since this is in
fact a critical factor in educational and transition training, workplace safety and
environmental safety issues. This is usually highlighted in literature as an area o f concern
for employment activities. A total of 33 (75%) o f the respondents were legally blind and
11 (25%) had low vision. Several respondents prefaced many o f their responses with. ”as
a blind person.” perhaps emphasizing the fact that being blind sets them apart from other
persons. Surprisingly, the respondents with low vision used the same expression in
prefacing many o f their responses, although at the same time they pointed out that they
could see enough to read large print and even regular print using visual aids. Previous
research indicated that students with severe visual impairments had educationally
significant conditions in addition to blindness (Geruschat. 1993). On the other hand.
Sacks, Wolffe, and Tiemey (1998) pointed out that, while trying to achieve academic
competence by keeping up with sighted peers, many people who are blind or who have
low vision have not had opportunity to participate in a range o f career experiences.
Although no specific item o f the questionnaire was directed to occupations or
professions, most respondents referred to their occupations and professions in response to
their employment activities, employment history and employment problems, and these
were noted. A significant number o f the respondents were employed to service positions.
99
It was noted that many respondents were trained as social workers and were pursuing
higher education studies in that area o f study. There was also a cluster o f receptionists
and telephone operators.
O verall, the data on reading and writing media and print type were not unusual. As
expected, Braille was the dominant reading and writing medium. However, it is
interesting to note that 8 (18%) used both print and Braille. Perhaps a reason may be the
long standing principle o f the residential school, where all students were taught to use
Braille and the prohibition of print use. regardless o f the level o f visual acuity and the
prognosis o f their eye conditions. On the item "print type” it was indicated that one
respondent used regular print type as the usual medium for reading and writing. The
indication was that it was not necessary to ha\e learned Braille, because it had never been
the m edium for reading and writing after graduation from school for more than 15 years.
This is an important aspect of educational training and transition training, to ensure that
the knowledge and skills that are provided, equip students to live as independently as
possible. This could be a frustrating outcome in every day communication.
All respondents completed elementary education. This was an important finding,
because it indicated that all of the respondents could be categorized as literate, since the
national standard for literacy is the successful completion o f the basic or elementary level
of education. Almost 100% of the respondents completed the secondary level o f
education, with the number being 41 (93%). An important finding was that 17 (39%) o f
the respondents completed tertiary education and 16 (67%) were still in pursuing this
level o f education. It was noted that a significant number o f those who had completed
tertiary programs were continuing in higher levels o f academic programs. O f the number.
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eight were pursuing Masters degrees in programs including social work, political policy
and administration, business, international law, teacher education and theology. Two
respondents were pursuing higher education at the doctoral level, one in theology and the
other in literature. The emphasis on academic achievement was significant.
Employment success was determined by. income levels above the national minimum
wage o f $86,000 Jamaican dollars per annum. A significant number o f the respondents 27
(61.4%) exceeded the minimum wage. The median wage level was $200,000-5500.000.
According to the results, employment success was experienced by, the majority o f the
respondents in the study.
The findings related to respondents' education training, transition training, self-
determination and perceived attributions for success, showed a relationship with
employment success and indicated that there was a correlation of the background
variables and the study variables, which further indicated their association with
employment success. Results o f the research questions and the relationship o f the
variables to the respondents’ employment success follow next.
Research Question One
Research question one examined the relationship between the respondents'
background characteristics and their educational training, transition training, self-
determination, attributions for success - encompassing personal, social and educational
factors and employment success. T-tests were performed on discrete variables o f gender
and living situations, while analyses o f variance (ANOVA) were conducted for group
variables o f age, civil status, visual status, reading and writing medium and education
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level completed. Results indicated that no differences between men and women on
educational training, transition training, self-determination and attribution for success.
There was also no significant difference o f the study variables among respondents who
lived with parents, children or extended family. However, respondents who lived with
siblings indicated more attributions for social success than did those who did not
(t = 2.332, p = .025). In addition people who lived alone indicated more transition skills
than those who did not live alone (t = 2.675, p = .011).
The fact that no significant differences existed on respondents’ educational training,
transition training, self-determination, and attributions for success suggests that they may
have received the same training. This may be reinforced in the fact that the education for
students with blindness and visual impairments in Jamaica traditionally was provided by
one school for elementary to secondary level. Students with blindness and visual
impairments in the island attended the residential school for the blind in the capital city o f
Kingston. They stayed in residence at the residential school during the school terms and
only returned to their homes during school holidays and breaks. The curriculum was a
standard curriculum, which was a modified version o f the national curriculum. Although
most o f the respondents described their educational training as intensively focused on
academics they referred to the lack o f community integration and social skills and
knowledge reinforcement. Many referred to the struggles that they had when they left the
sheltered school environment to the wider community environment and termed it “a
culture shock. Several o f the respondents emphasized that although they had to rely on
assistance from people to manage their affairs, their achievements came much as a result
o f their own efforts and perseverance to find what they needed.
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The respondents who lived with siblings indicated more social attributions for
success. In m ost cases the respondents gave descriptions o f outings with their siblings
and how they were aided in their interactions with people with and without disabilities.
The role o f siblings was described as a source o f keeping them informed and w ell
situated in the society. Many o f those who did not live with siblings claimed that siblings
did not necessarily assist them in their interactions with the community. Some suggested
that they were protected to an extent that m ade them rebel. It was indicated that it was not
that their siblings did not wish that they had enriching social experiences, but they were
concerned about their safety and negative feedback from the public, due to the stigm as
that are associated with blindness, e.g., blind people are to be pitied and they cannot help
themselves.
There were fewer respondents who lived alone. The data showed that respondents
who lived alone had more transition skills. The question is whether living alone as a
factor, had any bearing on the transition skills acquisition o f the respondents, since the
transition training that was received in school preparation would likely reflect in choices
concerning living situation, particularly living alone. Although the living situation for
some people w ith disabilities offers little variation in terms o f choices in the Jamaican
situation, it may be that some people with blindness and visual impairment would have
no more difficulty living alone than if they lived with someone. Being able to live alone
also suggests greater independence and self-determination. The respondents who lived
alone were not bound to their homes neither w as there any indication o f them being
limited in their social interactions. Like the overall population they had jobs, their own
homes, they w ere members o f associations, and traveled independently. Further study o f
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what could be responsible for the possession o f more transition skills for people living
alone who have had similar training backgrounds as those who did not live alone, could
give further insight into this occurrence.
The ANOVA results indicated that several o f the background variables had
significant relationships with the study variables. Educational training was shown to be
significantly different for the age groups (F = 2.852, p = .036). The age group most
affected was the 31-40 age group. A number o f the respondents indicated that there was
strong focus on academic excellence during their years at the school for the blind. Many
attributed their personal attainment in terms o f careers and professions, to the educational
training that they had during the formative years. Some age groups however, particularly
the younger age groups of under 20 and 21 to 30 years, indicated that there were limited
choices in academic subjects offered at the school. A number of respondents who were
currently pursuing higher educational studies referred to their present mode of learning
using technological aids and devices and indicated that learning would have been better if
they had access to those devices during their earlier school years. Significant difference
among the civil status group on self-determination (F = 2.933, p = .045) was identified.
The indication was that those who were single showed more self-determination. The
majority of the respondents were single and many were in the 31-40 age group. The fact
that so many o f this group had jobs and were also pursuing higher education may have
been a mitigating factor in why they were shown to be more self-determined. This may
relate to the claim that those who are more self-determined are likely to be more
independent overall and more likely to be working (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).
Although there wras no evidence that there were structured programs in the schools to
104
prepare students to be self-determined during their secondary school years, most
respondents indicated high levels of self-determination, because they knew what they
wanted, they adjusted to challenging circumstances and they sized the opportunities that
were available to satisfy their needs.
Self-determination was significantly less for the low vision group than that o f
respondents who were blind (F = 17.355, p = .000). This was an interesting outcome,
since with more vision it may be expected that people would be better able to meet the
challenges imposed by limited vision that may confront them. Social perceptions are
different, in that there is a school of thought that perceives children with low vision as
being better able to meet the physical and social challenges that confront them than their
peers with more severe vision loss. However, the majority o f the respondents who were
the ones with blindness were confident about what they needed and wanted, and how to
access what they needed from the resources that were available. They mostly perceived
that they had achieved their life goals.
It was also not unexpected that Braille users more than other media users were more
self-determined (F = 8.555, p = .001). The majority o f the respondents were blind and
used Braille as the primary reading and writing medium. A likely reason why other media
users may not have been more self-determined could be the lack o f general vision aids
and devices that would enhance print materials. There is a basic lack o f access to
resources due to high cost. Generally, the need for these resources is not a priority issue
even from funding sources that often provide aids and support for this area of disability in
the country. All students who graduated from the school for the blind were taught to use
Braille as their main reading and writing medium. Therefore, although there were
105
respondents who used print, even regular print with visual aids, they were proficient
Braille users and preferred Braille as the primary reading and writing medium.
There were no significant differences for secondary education am ong the
respondents. The reason may be the fact that the school for the blind provided one
standard curriculum for the students who attended the school. The school being an ‘"All
Age School,” taught elementary grades - grades 1-6 and secondary grades - grades 7-11.
Students might have attended other secondary schools after passing special achievement
tests, which qualified them for transfers to other types o f government secondary schools.
For tertiary education, there were significant differences for both educational
training and self-determination (F = 4.307, p = .044) and (f = 4.439, p = .041).
respectively. The relationship between these two study variables and tertiary education is
relatively linked to previous information that the majority o f the respondents were
employed to the workforce, earned income that allowed them to live a quality o f life that
on an average placed them in the middle level working class socioeconomic class
structure o f the country. A significant percentage was also pursuing higher education -
38.6% in tertiary programs and 25% in other educational programs, such as information
technology, music, and art. Researchers view these factors as avenues for financial
independence and successful adjustment (Sacks, Wolffe, & Tierney, 1998).
The implications for people with blindness and visual impairment regarding
background variables and the study variables o f educational training, transition training,
self-determination and perceived attributions for success are considerable. The
indications are that post-school outcomes for successful adjustment - measured by
employment success, may be influenced by background characteristics and the study
106
variables o f educational trainings transition training, self-determination and attributions
for success. It is important to note that all respondents completed elementary education,
which is the national standard for literacy. In addition, the majority o f the respondents
were employed, earning income above the minimum wage and completed secondary
education. Also, self-determination appeared to be high for most o f the respondents
regardless o f their background characteristics. Although some people with blindness and
visual impairments may live alone, it appears that they will never the less manage their
lives well, perhaps owing to their self-determination.
Research Question Two
Research question two addressed the relationship between respondents' educational
training, transition training, self-determination, attributions for success and their
employment success. Correlations were conducted to identify the relationship among the
variables and their relationship with employment success. Significant correlations existed
with transition training and educational training (r = .393. p = .008) and transition
training and self-determination (r = .377. p = .012). Research has shown that a functional
relation existed with transition training and educational training and self-determination
for students with disabilities. Sacks and Wolffe (1998) reinforced this in their research
finding that the sequence of activities provided for students with blindness and visual
impairment in transition training leads to competitive employment and independence.
The importance o f self-determination in transition planning is emphasized as a
coordinated effort in focusing on concepts o f self-actualization, assertiveness, creativity
and pride, which are ingredients for success in the workplace (Sacks & Wolffe, 1998).
107
The attributions for success factors showed significant correlations among
themselves and with educational training. Attributions for social success was positively
related to educational training (r = .352, p = .019), attributions for personal success
correlated with attributions for social and educational success (r = .423, p = .005),
(r = .540, p = .000), respectively. These findings are not unusual, since research has
shown that in most instances people who have attained a level o f educational
achievement are likely to be more socially and personally successful. This is actually no
different for people with disabilities. When people with disabilities are educated and
integrated in the workforce there are social benefits that are afforded them within the
work environment. Many people with blindness and visual impairments have the support
o f friends and co-workers as a result o f being in work settings. The result o f a study by
Lipkowitz (2000) indicated that students with blindness and visual impairment obtained
higher scores on prospect for self-determination opportunities to self-determine and self-
determination capacity to self-determine, self-esteem, and educational achievement, than
did students with other sensory disabilities when an examination o f self-determination
prospects for students with sensory impairments was carried out. At one time the
prevailing feeling of professionals was that people with blindness and visual impairments
were likely to have social and personal challenges that affect their adjustment. Most
authorities now agree that personality and social problems are not inherent o f blindness
and visual impairments. The employment success factor showed significant correlations
with self-determination (r = .517, p = .005). Several o f the respondents in this study
perceived themselves as successful and attributed this success to educational
achievement, being employed, having good social interactions and the feeling o f well
108
being as a result o f economic empowerment that they had. Additionally, research findings
have indicated that elements o f self-determination such as choice making, problem
solving, self-advocacy and self-regulation have contributed to employment success.
Research Question Three
Research question three addressed the question o f the best predicator of the
respondents' employment success. Regression analyses were used to analyze the data
from the respondents on two levels. In the first analysis the predictive power of
background variables: gender, age group, civil status, visual status, reading and writing,
medium were assessed. Gender (F = 5.936. p = .022) and visual status (F = 5.342.
p = .029) were the only background variables indicated as predictors o f employment
success. Males showed dominance in the income level criterion for employment success
with 16 (48.5%) o f those employed full-time earning several levels above the minimum
wage level. They indicated fewer problems at work and more jo b satisfaction. The
sample had more males (28) than females (16) and this could be a mitigating factor.
However, it was noted that males did in fact indicate income levels higher than females.
The two highest income levels indicated by the respondents' responses were that o f
males. More females than males indicated problems with the job. Both males and females
cited "not getting recognition for good work" as a problem, but more females named
"other problems” as inadequate salaries. In a study by Doren and Benz (1998) that looked
at employment inequality, fewer women with disabilities were competitively employed
than males after leaving school. These findings have been consistent with other studies on
109
this issue o f male dominance in employment success factors (Momingstar, 1997; O 'D ay.
1998; Wolffe, Roessler. & Schriner. 1992).
Vision status was also a significant factor. This also was not unusual because the
majority o f the respondents were legally blind, but blindness did not affect the
employment status o f "being employed.” The indications are that people with blindness
are no less likely to experience employment success than people with other visual status.
The second regression analysis assessed the predictive power o f the study variables;
educational training, transition training, self-determination, personal, social, and
educational attributions for success on employment success. The findings indicated that
only self-determination was a significant predictor o f employment success (F = 9.558,
p = .005). Although this finding was not totally unexpected for this researcher, it was in
fact a new finding in this field o f research. As far as this researcher is aware, no previous
study had examined the relationship between self-determination and employment success
for people with blindness and visual impairments. There have been previous studies on
self-determination differences between students with and without disabilities, self-
determination differences between students with and without disabilities in The Gambia,
West Africa and self-determination differences between students with sensory
impairments. Mithaug, Campeau. and Wolman’s (1995) study, compared prospects for
self-determination o f students enrolled in both special education and regular education.
The results indicated that there was no significant difference on levels o f self-
determination among the students by gender, ethnicity or age. Kebbeh's (2000) study in
The Gambia, West Africa, assessed the prospects for self-determination among students
with and without disabilities in that culture. The findings indicated that self-determination
no
prospects were significantly higher for students without disabilities. Lipkowitz's (2000)
study compared students with different sensory disabilities to determine whether
variation was associated with differences in prospects for self-determination. The finding
from the comparison o f students with blindness and visual impairments and students with
other sensory disabilities showed significant difference in self-determined adjustment
capabilities for the students with blindness and visual impairments where they scored
higher than students with other sensory impairments.
The results o f this present study directed the researcher to examine the effects of
other study variables. Although educational training, transition training and perceived
attributions of success factors were examined as contributing predictors o f employment
success, according to the results their effects were not as significant to the respondents’
actual employment success. Thus the indications suggest that the respondents' self-
determined capacities such as choice making, decision-making, problem solving and the
ability to situate themselves in regard to the available opportunities, contributed to their
employment success. It might be argued that there is an interesting phenomenon here. It
is a fact that there were no structured self-determination educational programs in Jamaica
that taught students with blindness and visual impairments skills for self-determination,
but they appeared to have had these skills that afforded most o f them employment
success. The question for further study is whether these skills may be developed without
formal structure and whether they may be acquired through other curricular subjects?
Implications
This study addressed an area o f educational development in Jamaica that has caused
concern in curricular development, program planning and policy design. It is also an
attempt to address the concern o f documented information on educational research to
build data bases for frame o f reference and further inquiry to find educational solutions
for general and special education. Since post-school outcomes for employment success
has been an area needing more attention for people with disabilities in general and people
with blindness and visual impairments specifically, clearly the educational programs
should emphasize aspects such as transition training, self-determination and attributions
for success in the structure and development. School programs for adolescents in special
schools, private and government secondary schools should include the requirement o f a
standard transition program consistent with the needs o f school leavers and the
opportunities available in the country.
Since the school for the blind is the main education center for the formative years of
schooling for students who are blind and visually impaired, the school ought to be pivotal
in structuring the curriculum to move beyond vocational choices and the focus on
limitations to address more life span and adult adjustment concerns. Several respondents
during the interview process emphasized that there was a strong academic focus when
they attended school, but suggested a m ajor weakness was not having a wider array o f
subject offering and the lack of a structured transition curriculum. The researcher is
mindful o f the findings that suggest that the respondents mostly possessed self-
determination skills although there were no indications o f them acquiring skills in formal
transition programs. It may mean that the career education programs had merit and
should be reinforced to broaden their scope. However, the results o f this and other studies
reinforce the importance o f self-determination knowledge and approaches to teach in
teacher preparation programs. Agran (1997) posed that dramatic changes are taking place
112
in educational practice for students with disabilities. He suggested that rather than
continuing with the traditional approach o f the teacher being solely responsible for
delivering and monitoring instruction, students ought to be taught to set their own
educational goals, select effective strategies to promote their own learning and to be in
effect engaged in managing their own lives. Therefore, teachers ought to be trained to be
facilitators of students’ learning, and to teach students to be self-determined learners.
Policy makers have a role to play in developing and implementing policies that will
ensure that all citizens receive an education that is broad-based and all encompassing to
maximize the potentials o f each individual regardless of abilities. Additionally, it serves
no purpose to provide resources without ensuring that the mechanisms to access the
resources are built within the network for smooth access. Many o f the respondents in this
study claimed that they could do more, but were unable to because o f bureaucracies and
barriers to surmount in order to get what they needed or desired.
Since the findings indicated that background variables o f gender and disability
showed a relationship with the populations' employment success, educators, program
planners, corporate planners and charitable organizations must factor these variables in
their programs. The evidence of the male dominance in employment activities and
income level could suggest the need for a closer look at equity issues in educational
training and transition training, existing opportunities and support. Many charitable
organizations and funding sources provide aids and services to people with blindness in
the country, but pay less attention to the needs o f the low vision individuals. Innovations
and technological advances in many countries have enabled people with visual
impairments to manage their lives on a “level playing field” in society. Many visual aids
113
and devices would enhance the prospects for more independence o f people with
disabilities in general and blind and visually impaired individuals specifically.
Finally, although this research examined \ariables that are identified as consistent
with special education such as: background variables, education and transition training,
self-determination and employment success, other variables that are directly related to
culture and practices in the Jamaican context may have played a role in the differences
that were observed. This possibility has implication for future research.
Direction for Future Research
The study has laid the foundation for future research in this area o f post-school
adjustment - measured by employment success for people with blindness and visual
impairment, but also for general special education. In the interview process the
respondents were asked to explain their responses to perceived attributions for success
and describe themselves in terms o f what they are like now. These qualitative data were
not included in this study. Perhaps future replications o f this study could include coding
for qualitative analyses on the topics. This would provide additional valuable information
to further clarify issues o f the study.
Perhaps future research in Jamaica with the population might include other variable
measures to assess employment success, measures such as career choices and professions
and their effects on employment. Further research is needed to explore predictors for
better employment success and post-school outcomes for (1) women with blindness and
visual impairment (see Doren &Benz. 1998); (2) other areas o f disabilities (see
Lipkowitz. 2000); and (3) people with and without disabilities (see Benz, Yananoff. &
Doren, 1997).
T his study focused on issues o f post-school outcomes primarily employment
success. The results indicated that self-determination has a positive effect on employment
success. This should be a point for consideration in future curriculum development.
Limitations
The limitations o f this study included the design o f the survey, the use o f research
assistants, and the sample size. The study was limited in its survey design, because the
selection o f the participants was carried out from a sample o f the population o f people
with blindness and visual impairments in a specific region o f the country, i.e.. the
m etropolitan area. The response may not be truly representative o f the population. The
population was in general, a highly successful group. As a result it may be considered
that background characteristics would not have been a factor. The feedback from two
graduates, who are currently serving in administrative positions in international
organizations overseas, is that they spearheaded a massive drive during the 1980s to get
many people with blindness and visual impairment to enroll in colleges and the university
programs. They attribute the achievement o f the participants in the middle age group to
that cam paign 15-18 years ago. The result indicated: (a) employment level at over 70%,
(b) incom e level above average, (c) therefore the socio-economic status was outstanding
and may have been a variable in the overall outcome. There may therefore have been a
social class background effect.
115
Because the questionnaire was administered as a structured interview, respondents
may have underrated or overrated their responses to reflect what they believed would
move in their favor. This was limiting. The utilization o f research assistants in the data
collection process limited the researcher’s control o f the process. Some items were not
answered and the researcher cannot be sure whether the respondents chose not to answer
or the items were omitted.
The sample size was small (N = 44). Although the field o f blindness and visual
impairments is a low incidence population, a larger number o f participants and more
equity in terms o f number o f males and females sample composition, may have been
found in an island- wide selection. This was a limitation. The location may have been a
limiting factor as well. Most o f the participants met at the Jamaica Society for the Blind.
This is the meeting place for services and recreational activities. Since the office staff and
other people with blindness and visual impairments were always around, many o f the
participants might have felt uncomfortable in the environment. The location might
therefore have been a limiting factor.
116
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Appendix A
DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS
Definition of Operational Terms
Operational meaning applied in the context o f this study.
Person Who is Blind: Any person with a visual acuity o f 20/200 and or visual field of 15
degrees or less in the better eye (after correction) is blind and is taught Braille as one
means o f communication (Policy Guide, The Caribbean Council for the Blind. 1999).
Person With a Visual Impairment: Any person who has a visual acuity o f 20/60 or a
visual field of 30 degrees or less in the better eye (after correction) is visually impaired
and is entitled to education materials in large print and other visual aids, as required
(Policy Guide, The Caribbean Council for the Blind. 1999).
Secondary Education: Secondary level o f education throughout the Caribbean Region
consists o f two cycles. The first cycle is provided for ages 12-16. in different types of
educational institutions. These institutions include comprehensive high schools (which
offer mainly academic subjects), agricultural and vocational schools and technical high
schools. The second cycle is provided for ages 16-18, in some of the previously named
types o f institutions. This cycle makes preparation for entry to higher education, inclusive
o f university'. Secondary education (age 12-16 or -1 8 ) is offered in public schools as well
as private or independent schools.
131
Students with Special Needs: This term encompasses students with mental, sensory,
physical and/or medical concerns. Also included, are students with learning challenges
that do not reflect diminished cognitive abilities, such as severe mental retardation, and
those who are intellectually advanced or gifted.
Tertiary Education: Tertiary level o f education is synonymous with higher education,
which is a broad and liberal definition. This level includes universities, liberal arts
colleges, vocational and technical colleges, schools o f health and related institutes,
schools of visual and performing arts and business colleges.
Commonwealth Caribbean: This is the name o f the English-speaking islands in the
Caribbean and the mainland nations o f Belize (formerly British Honduras) and Guyana
(formerly British Guiana) that once constituted the Caribbean portion o f the British
Empire. It includes: Jamaica. Trinidad and Tobago, the Windward Islands (Dominica. St.
Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada). Barbados, the Leeward Islands
(Antigua and Barbuda, St. Kitts ( formerly St. Christopher) and Nevis. The British Virgin
Islands, Anguilla, and Montserrat), and the so-called Northern Islands (the Bahamas, the
Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands). (Federal Research Division, Library
o f Congress. M editz& Hanratty 1987/1989)
Communication Skills: Communication is a natural part of life and is valuable both in
school and society. It includes the total process by which an individual listens, speaks,
thinks, reads and writes in receiving and transmitting thoughts and ideas. The skills to
develop and maintain contact and relationships with others, gain and give information,
control and persuade, create and imagine communicate feelings and monitor our own
behaviors when we talk to ourselves total good communication skills. These occur
through gestures, facial expressions, eye blinks, behavior, and through alternative and
augmentative communication (such as the high- and low technology communication
devices (Vaughn. Bos & Schumm, 1997).
Personal skills: These are skills that enable individuals especially those with disabilities
to perform expected behaviors more independently. Skills o f self-management and safety
skills are particularly included to relate to problematic situations and the ability to find
solutions to problems.
Visual impairments: This is an encompassing term that includes any degree o f vision
loss that affects the ability to perform tasks o f daily living.
I -* -»
Appendix B
SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
134
P O S T -S C H O O L O U T C O M E S FOR PO SITIV E A D JU ST M EN T
Q U E S T IO N N A IR E
- ■11 ■ ------------------------
Date:_________________ _____________________
j Location: _____________________
! Participant N um ber: _____________________
Participant's G ender: [l| Fcmnle J2 | Male
j Name of D ata C ollector:_____________________
T hank y o u ____________ (state the p e r s o n 's name but do not write it here) for
agreeing to speak with me today and consenting to participate in this
research. The rest of our time today « ill be spent discussing various aspects
of your education and employment to help me understand who you are as a
unique individual. I am going to r e a d questions to you please tell me
which num ber or response best d e s c rib e s » u . %our background, your
educational history or work history. IMenw feel Tree to stop me or slow me
down if I am reading too quickly. At times. I may need to ask vou to repeat
your response o r to slow down. Having >on repeat responses helps me
accurately record all the valuable information th a t you are providing. Also,
please let me know if you need to take a break at any time during our
discussion. R em em ber you may choose to discontinue participation in this
research at any time.
P a r t h B a c x g r o i m> o t t . s t i o n s
D ir ec tio n s f o r ex a m in e r s:
( i i Please put a C H E C K next to the response o f *he participant that most closely
reflects their information. Please u r h e down .my additional statements that
they supply directly onto tins document I sc die hack o f the page if you need
to continue the response making •■crt-ain 'o ind'cate the item number that the
narrative belongs.
i j . When readm e a question or statement, please substitute the person s name
.vhen vou see ( name' but o'ease in not write their name on the
135
document.
(3) Check all items. Do not leave any items blank. It'a person did not complete
an item begin by saying, "I'd like to go to an item . . . . and, then read the item.
If you still cannot elicit a response make a note next to the item.
____________ (n am e), th e follow ing qu estio n s r e la te to y o u r b a c k g ro u n d a n d c u r r e n t

em p lo y m e n t sta tu s.
Q uestions 1 2 3 4 5
1 tn w hich age group do vou i Z Lmler 20 3 21-30 7; 31-40 jr 41 - 50 j Z 51 - older
fall? j I
1 1
2. W hat is your civil status’’ i 2 Single 71 Married ' Z Divorced ' Z! Widowed : Z Significant
i other
3 . W ho liv es with y o u ’’
(1) Parents o r (2) C h ild re n /S ib lin g s (3 )E .\ten d cd F a m ily

S ig n ifica n t O th e r s
Z M other Z, Daughter! S' how m anv 2 G randm other. M aternal

Z fa th e r Z Sent si - how manv Z G randm other. Paternal
Z W ife J Sister! s i - how m any _ Grandfather. M aternal
Z H usband Z Brother!si - how m a n y _____ Z G randfather, Paternal
Z F em ale Partner ~ M aternal aunts - h ow m a n v _____
Z M ale Partner Z W hat is jo u r birth order____ ~ Paternal aunts- h ow m a n y ____
~ Maternal u n cles - h o w m a n y _____
1 Paternal u n c le s - h o w many ___
7 M aternal c o u sin s - h o w many
. Paternal c o u sin s - h o w m a n y ____
Maternal n ie c e s - how m a n y _____
Z Paternal n ep h e w s - h ow manv
Questions 1 i 2 3
In what parish, -ity. town, district Z v . Zntherine Xincsf.m-St Andrew Other. specif.
or coramunitv do .ott currentlv
residence?
5 Arc you a parent have yon ever "" Vos \ :p
been a parent’'
6 What is your visual sta tu s' ;.c«niiy !.o«- vision Z Other {specify»
•.Vh.a: medium d n ! > c read uid !lra;i!e i'rm: i • Larue. Z Other''specify *

■.rite: i l Smati. ------------ .
• Retadar
136
8. D o an y other fam ily m em b ers C Ves . . \ ’n
h a v e a n y o f the a b o v e visual
status?
9. With regards to your education. !
did you complete? Then ask.
Year o f Leaving)
"What y e a r did you leave this level
o f schooling?"________________ ___ school I
a. Elementary Education Yes N'o

b. Secondary Education ies No
c. Tertiary Education Yes
d. Other (specify-)___ Yes ~ No

10. During what calendar year did in
you leave sch o o l'
[ f still in school, what level o f
education are you
pursuing?_______________ (.if the
person is in tertian1education ask.
"what are \ on *tuih ing ‘ "
11 If the person answered Enipioveci Employed I lotremakcr .• Z

_ Not Z Not
"YES" to having left working working employed, emploved.
school (it71. ask :s outside tnv ■nside h e looking for not
home («n hame-self- a ork looking for
your presen t employment
to #15). smploved work
status ? "
(go to 15).
If homemaker or
unemployed SKIP -r> item
#15.
12 If presently employed, ask Tull-fime Full-time, Half-time 2 P.irt-ume Z
"How main hours p e r i eek r e osenrr.' no overtime i'-:.' hr. 'css than !5
do '. ou w o rk 1" - greater “i*\—1«i |tr<
than -*0 |ir.
13 What is your annual gross

income in Jamaican
dollar s'’ If not employ co
'hen. "What ts ;ou r
household income
!-! How long have you been at T -'o -.e ar; • :0 vears
. our present ;ob ~____
15 Did you have anv job yc* No
before the present job0 1:i
N o. SKIP to — ------------
!t :lov- m any 'obs have ~ io z
vou w orked m ••eforo ths
present jo b ''____________
I 7 H ow lo n e did vou work M onth*/
\ car*.
137
in your p revious jobs? i

2nd previous M onths/
, vears. I1
3rd previous M onths/
j years. i i !
i 1 j
I
i
1
_ ... ■ __L_
18. At work, have you ever had any p ro b lem s with

< 1) doing go o d w o rk (2) boss not b e in g h ap p y w ith y o u r w o rk (3 ) n o t g e ttin g
re c o g n itio n fo r y o u r w o rk (4) p eo p le picking on you
(5) o th e r ' specify _____________________________________ __________________
IQ How well do you like your job'’

(1) Not w ell (2) Not so well (3) A d e q u a te ly (4) V ery well (5 ) E x tre m e ly wMl
138
P A R T f l - A T T R IB U T IO N S F O R S U C C E S S
T h e follow ing item s re la te to th e a tta in m e n t o f y o u r life g o als. _________ (nam e) I a m g o in g

to re a d som e sta te m e n ts to you. P lease tell m e how m uch y o u a g r e e w ith th ese s ta te m e n ts .
T h e ra tin g s a r e as follow s:
[0 | N ot a p p lic a b le ..........indicates the sratem ent does not a p p ly to you

[1] S tro n g ly d is a g r e e ......... indicates .o u r s tro n g d is a g re e m e n t with the statement
i (2| D is a g r e e ......... indicates vour d is a g re e m e n t with the statem en t
' PI A g r e e ..........indicates \o u r a g r e e m e n t w ith the statem ent
i [4| S tro n g ly a g r e e ......... indicates \ m r s tr o n g a g reem en t w ith the statem ent
1
E X A M IN E R D IR E C T IO N S : C H E C K th e n u m b e r th a t m o st closelv reflec ts th e n e r s o n 's

re sp o n se . I f giv en tw o answ ers, p lease he c e r ta in to p robe fo r a d e fin itiv e response.
i NA = 0 SD = 1 D = 2 A= 3 SA = 4
I j I succeed in getting what 1need ami want 0 1 2 3 4

i because o f mv own efforts
2.i I succeed in getting what 1 need and warn. 0 I 2 3 4
because o f my ability' to find solutions • ■.hHioilt
situations, using whatever resources are :n ailable
3. 1 succeed in expressing my needs and wants, <l ! 2 3 4
because o f my ability to communicate elV.'cm elv
with others
4. I succeed in achieving my goals. ••ecau'C ■••'•be ‘I ! 2 3 4
way I feel about m yself
5 . I succeed in securing and maintaining 0 ! 2 3 4
employment, because o f the muninc ! ed m
school
6 ,: 1 succeed in developing my academic skills, !) t 2 3

t
**
i because o f a teacher/teachers ! had in school
7 ; I succeed in my educational, social, emotiouni <t I I 3 4
• physical life, and my plans, because o f the
1 support I receiv ed from ;nv familv
8 ; ! succeed in achieving my educational goals and d ! 2 > 4
• my independence, because my family s high
■ expectations o f me
9.1 I succeed in maintaining good sociai relationships 0 I 2 j 4
because o f the support o f mv friends
i r>‘ I fee! that ! ::m su ccessfu l v.irr regards r.r- •! ; : 3 4
post-sch ool !ife 'E xplain
1
EDUCATIONAL TRAINING/SCHOOL P R E P A R A T IO N
T h e fo llo w in g item s rela te to th e e d u c a tio n a l tra in in g a n d c a r e e r ed u catio n th a t y o u h a v e

re c e iv e d . _________ (nam e), like th e la st sectio n , I am g o in g to rea d som e s ta te m e n ts to y o u .
P le a se te ll m e how m uch you a g r e e w ith th e se sta te m e n ts . T o rem ind you, th e r a tin g s a r e :
! |(0 | .Not a p p lic a b le ........ in d icates the statem ent does n o t a p p lv to vou ;
fl| S tro n g ly d is a g r e e ........ in d ica tes vour stro n g d is a g re e m e n t with the statem en t
[2] D is a g r e e .........indicates yo u r d is a g re e m e n t with the statem ent
[3| A g r e e .........indicates your a g r e e m e n t with the statem en t ;
i [4| S tro n g ly a g r e e ........ indicates your stro n g a g re e m e n t with the statement J

:
E X A M IN E R D IR E C T IO N S : C H E C K th e n u m b e r th a t m o st closelv reflects th e p e r s o n 's

re sp o n se . I f given tw o answ ers, p le a s e he c e rta in to p ro b e fo r a d efinitive re sp o n se .
IN S C H O O L NA = 0 ; SD = lj D = 2 A = 3 SA=4
i : * 1
I.: I had lessons that prepared me to make career choices ii 1 2 3 4
2 j I had lessons that prepared me to choose employment o • I 2 3 4 >
{ goals I I
3! I had lessons that prepared me to choose p - ' s t - 0 1 2 3 4

school/post-sccondary school coals
4 • 1 had lessons that prepared me to c h o o s e h o u s i n g tad II I 2 3 4
daily living goals
5 I had lessons that prepared me for community 0 1 2 3 4
participation
6 f had lessons that prepared me to lead meetings and I) 1 2 3 4
activities
7 J 1 had lessons that prepared me to report observations (1 1 4
! and outcom e activities
S.: 1 had lessons that prepared me to plan, rake actions on 0 2 3 4 1
m y plan, evaluate my actions and make idjitsiment
| based on the outcomes o f my plan
.
9! I had lessons that taught me to use problem-solving (i ; 2 3 4
strategies in a variety o f problem situations
10; 1 was provided opportunities to go on job experience 0 i 2 . 3 ; 4
activities in my community
140
P a r t II: T r a n s i t i o n B e h a v i o r / S k i m ^
T h e fo llow ing item s r e la te to y o u r p ast school life. _________ (n am e ), this se ctio n is s im ila r
to th e la st in th a t I am g o in g to re a d so m e s ta te m e n ts to y o u . P lease tell m e h o w m u c h o f
th e tim e th a t you d e m o n s tr a te d th e skill o r b e h a v io r. R e m e m b e r th e r e a r e no r ig h t o r
w ro n g a n s w e rs . T h e r a tin g s a r e slig h tly d iffe ren t fro m th e e a r lie r sections so p le a s e listen
c a re fu lly . T h e ratin g s a r e a s follow s:
[0 | I had No O p p o rtu n ity to dem onstrate the behavior

111 I D eveloped the b eh a v io r or skill over time,
i (2] T D em o n strated th e b eh avior or skill S O M E o f the tim e
[3 | 1 D em o n stra te d th e b eh avior or skill M O ST o f the tim e

, [4] 1 D em o n stra te d th e b eh avior or skill Al l. o f ih e u m e
j
E X A M IN E R D IR E C T IO N S : C H E C K th e n u m ber th a t c o m e s closest to vou r
d e m o n s tra tio n of th e b e h a v io r o r sk ill. T h ere are no r i« h t o r w r o n g a n sw ers.
W h e n ! w a s in s c h o o l: No Opp nociiipcii s o m y MOST AM.

1 0 I 2 3 4
1 . 1attempted new assignments 0 i : 3 4
2 1 1 began assignments after receiving instructions. 'i 1 2 3 4
: explanations, etc.
_V 1 completed assignments within a specified time penr.! '1 1 2 3 4
4 1 completed assignments with in accepted level of a i 2 3 4
accuracy
5. 1 co m p leted the required num ber o f assignm ents il i a 3 4
in a given period o f tim e
6 l was able to be productive in a group situation i e.g . l> 1 2 3 4
j work at a table with other peers, work at a desk with
j peers nearby, etc. )
T I used time outside o f class appropriately'eg. did •) i 2 3 4
homework assignments, studv. etc..'
;i >
•S 1 responded appropriately to redirection m academic "~T
situations le.g.. corrected errors on an assignment!
d. i made appropriate use o f free time 0 J 4
! 1 0 :1 followed Braillcddvritten directions 'e g., from 0 I 2 3 4
teachers, principals, etc '•
!' i bad the nccessarv materials 'bar •vcr-' ceded i" t y 4
-
specified activities
2 i remained on-task for die required length o f time a 1 2 3 4
141
1 N-t < Ipp Doclnpfdl SOME MOST M .L ,

1 When f was in school:
.) 1 2
i 3 ! 4 ;
i . i
! 13. I changed from one activity to another without 0 i . 2 i 3 j 4 1
difficulty (e.g., stopped one activity' and began -’n.
put materials away, prepared for another activity. •
14 I demonstrated short-term m em ory skills ' e g . !> i 2 3 4 .
; followed two and three step directions)
• ! i
I followed directions without requiring repetition, I i 2 3 4
1 15
explanations, etc.
16 1 was organized (e.g.. used tim e w isely, did not « i-.ii* 0 l 2 3 4
materials, had good work habit, etc !
17.i I was dependable (e g , in attendance, on 'i;ne. 0 i 2 3 4 ,
1
j prepared, readv to work, etc )
18 | 1 demonstrated initiative in the absence o f d::cc*i ■*>. ) i “* 3 4
| (e.g., took appropriate action rather than rem nnrv i
: inactive, used good judgment, etc >
19.. I w as independent le u. w o rk ed on o w n w r:*.o r ; l 3 4
supervision, with iinnted e n c o u ra g em en t, etc i
2 0 . 1 demonstrated problem-solving skills ie g . -.v.v. il *>
i 3 4
resourceful, found alternative w a v s m deni w:r!<
situations, etc. i
i
21 i I was attentive i i 2 3 4
T
IJ
1 was persistent in seeking success te.g. would -'.r i i 3 4

with a task or activity until successful
I took responsibility for my ow n actions i « . •l i *> 3 4
23
from mistakes, recognized consequences o f
inappropriate behavior and responded npprorn i ■
etc.)
i was willing to assume extra responsibilities, ni-x- i 3 4
24i
"> 3 4
2 5 ! ! responded appropriately to typical exchanges wit1- l
1
peers (e.g.. being bumped, touched, brushed aaai.’-- .•
«t *» 3 4
26; : responded appropriately to friendly reasmg e
jokes, sarcastic remarks, name calling, etc '
"\n ■ I cared for my personal appearance (e g ., grooming 11 1 2 3 4
clothing, etc '
28 1 demonstrated the abiiitv to resolve conflict simat ; 3 4
'e.g.. discussed, reasoned, compromised, etc ’
2 9 . i i participated in extracurricular activities ’e a . -p<v- ) ■> 3 4
ctubs. societies, etc ,
30: 1 interacted appropriately in work activities ' e g 1 2 3 4
Involvement in discussions, projects. ’V
1 used communication skills to maintain •■vsi-i- • - 3 4
interpersonal relationships with peer-; ‘
*1 -1 -j
.' demonstrated appropriate hygiene i e g . dean :,ai*ds
i face, free o f body odcr. changed ciotlunu when
appropriate, etc !
I
142
P A R T H I: S E L F -D E T E R M IN A T IO N B E H A V IO R AND S K IL L S
T h e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts re la te to N O W . _________ (n am e), I a m g o in g to re a d som e

sta te m e n ts to yo u . P lease tell me how m u c h you a g re e w ith th e s e sta te m e n ts . T h e r a tin g s
a r e slig h tly d iffe re n t from th e e a rlie r se c tio n s so please listen c a re fu lly . T h e ra tin g s a r e a s
follow s:
I[0 | N e v e r ......... indicates that you n e v e r act like the stn'em ent
J 11J A lm o st N e v e r ............indicates that you alm o st n ev er act like the statem ent
| [2] S o m e tim e s indicates you so m e tim e s act like the statem en t
• (3 1 A lm o st A lw a y s indicates that you alm o st alw ay s act like the statem ent
[4| A lw a y s indicates that sou a lw a y s act bke rhe statem ent
E X A M IN E R D IR E C T IO N S : C H E C K th e mint r d in t m ost clo sely reflec ts th e person ’s

response. I f g iv e n tw o an sw e rs, please h e eert.n to n rn h e f i r n d e fin itiv e response.
Th in g s l D o v o w S, “= ' 1 w -= ! s = : \
1 1know what I need, what i like and what I am 0 I 2 3 4

good at.______________ ____ ___________________
2 ■ I set goals to get what 1 want, or need, i think ,1 : 2 3 4
about what 1 am good at when I do t i n s _______
3 I figure out how m meet my gm ls ! make ribn= if t 2 3 4
and decide w h a t: should do __
-I, i begin working on my plans to meet a n e o a i s as •i i 2 3 T
soon as possible.______________________________
5 ! check h o w [ am doing when i am working on 1) r 3........ i
my plan. If 1 need to I ask others what they think

o f how I am dome____________________________
i
6 if my plan doesn't work. • try another one :■' mee: I! 4

u
my goals
i
i
H O W I F E E L NO W \ ~ *i vs' - I S = 2 \a = 3 i = 4
i I feel good about w h at: like, what i wart inu II : 2 3 i
what 1 do well __
2 . i believe that i can set goats to get what i wan: u I , - J T
—i
3. ’ like to make plans to meet my goals 0 4

r
!
-» * like to b e g in w orking -*n mv elans 'igh i ;i 4

a was.
" ’ike to c h eek on >eii tm lo in c it i 2 3 1
m eeting :ny g c a is. ____ _ --
k • am w illin g to tr. :.n-.;re' way ! :: i'- u c 'm . ■1
j
to meet m v g oals
143
•<
W H A T H A P P E N S A T W O R K /S C H O O L \ = 0 \N = l; S = 2 AA = 5
11
(n o st-sec o n d arv sc h o o l) N O W
1. P eo p le at w ork/school listen w hen 1 talk 0 1 2 j J 1 4

about what I want, what I n eed , or what I am
go o d at.
2 J People at work/school let m e know tliat I can set ; 0 [ 2 3 4
t
1 mv own coals to get what 1 want or need..
At work;school 1 have learned how 10 make plans 0 1 2 3 4
! -v;
to meet my goals and to feel good about them.
People at wortcschoo! encourage me to start 0 1 2 3 4
4 i working on mv plans right awav
‘ 5 { I have someone at w orkschool who can tell me T 0 1 : 3 4
I am meeting mv goais
M
c
6 People at work/school understand when 1 have to 3 4
change my plans to meet my coals They ofTer
advice and encourage me w hen I am doing this.
|
l
W IIA T H A P P E N S A T H O M E \= 0 v.n =! S = 2 AA = 3 A = 4
i P eo p le at hom e listen w h en ! talk ahma ■ hut f> i : 3 4

I want, what I need, or w hat 1 am good at
*> People at home let me know that 1 can set irv. j 4
0 : 2
own goals to get what I want or need .
3 , At home, i have learned how to make oian< ■ t! ! 2 3 4
meet my goals and to feel good about them
4.: People at home encourage m e to start working on 0 > 2 3 4
m v plans right aw ay
I have someone at home who can tel! me f i am 0 ; 2 3 4
meeting tny goals.
6 People at hone understand when i have to change 0 i 2 3 4
m y plans to meet my goals They offer advice and
encourage me when I am doing this.
F ake a few m in u tes to refleet on w h a t you :>r<' like no" . ant! th en re ia te to :1m question: 5
th at fo llo w .
‘lease describe ycu rseif and teii wont ..m .ire ,':kr• now
—
----------
- - - ------------------- —
144
2. !s there anythin;; else voti w o u ld like tci tell that w ill give a better understanding: o f vour
thoughts and your feelin gs now '’ If yes. p lease state vour co m m e n ts below .
F.N!>
- ank v o i ::
145
Appendix C
VOLUNTEERS FLIER
Volunte e rs Needed
ATTENTION:
PERSONS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS
A L e c t u r e r f r o m T h e M i c o T e a c h e r s ' C o l l e g e is c o n d u c i n g r e s e a r c h
o n P O ST SC H O O L ADJUSTMENT [ i . e . , t h e a b i l i t y t o c o p e w i t h lif e a n d
t h e p e r s o n a : . :c c i a i o n e e r v ' : e e v e r t s * h a r o e o p ;e
e n c o u n t e r c f * e r ' e c t v f n g s c h o - V a n d > e « v * y o u r P A R T I C I P A T I O N ! Alt
t h a t :s r e q u i r e d :s ' c r y o o 4o ?:" -•» .* o r .•• r c :' ~ . 14 V
t a t s e o p p r o x i r - a t e t v T , V r ‘ v •>:.• O " . - d - - . •*<=•: 0 • c u i ; h e : r c a 1. 1
I n f o r m a t i o n w ill b e con fid en tial. r c fu h h e ' ^ ‘ o r m a t i c n o r fo I n d i c a t e
y e a r a g r e e m e r 1- v c c C i c p o r e o i e a s e ‘c o n •'••to C o n r a d
H a r r i s / M s . V i r q i n i a W o o d s a t t h e S o c i e t y f o r t h e B l i n d ( 9 2 7 - 3 7 6 0 / 9 2 7 -
o / 5 8 i o t iY«s. v . c r e v F h i i i i o o s c n e S c e d c : j e c a r t n n e n ? c r
"or*, ■* ~ -cco
•n a n i : y o u .
147
Appendix D
PARTICIPANT'S CONSENT
148
In fo rm e d C onsent P a n II:
P A R T IC IP A N T ’^ K K .H Py
IN D IV ID U A L W IT H V IS l \ [ , l Y I M P U R M T N T
Principal f m e s ii g n io r C c lc n e G v le b
Research Title A F o llo w - U p S tudy o f the P ost.-mli".- \_ i ■<. •::••■;• i " f P e o p le With
B lin d ness a n d V isu al Im n tu m - : ' r - a ' ;
’ I have read and d isc u ssed the r e se a r c h ! .• i le-'eiiicher ! h a \ •: had the

opportunity to ask q u estio n s about the r: ■-‘■-lures rega rd ing this Mudv
* My participation m research is ■.ohmtar. ! ■iM iiie-pale or w ith d raw from
p artic ip a tio n at nnv ti m e w i t h o i ! ' ■ • . •! .:ve. em p loy m en t, student
status or other en titlem en ts
' T he researcher m ay withdraw m e •>.- mi ’’ • -r • w f e s s m r a l discretion
* ff. diiruu! the course o f the stud-. _ ••• " P it lias 'ecu d e \ e 'o p e d
b e c o m e s availab le w h ich may relate ■ i.) participate, the
investigator will prm .ide the m form ation
’ A nv inform ation d e r h e d from the r-^ cir. 11 i!!v 'dcrnfied oie will nor
Ire voluntarily leased <'r d 'sc!esc i ■ • c v e e r t a; s p e c t tt c a lh
required i>\ lav-
If at atn tim e 1 :ia \e u u e fio n s mita: t . i ic i ra t io n . i can comae*
'.he r,\ estitta* ho Tl a n s v e - : . s r* ■ ".i.m.cer is i 5 7 ' '
;.»”C -3 1 15 '"/amaica i <r • 7 ! 2 . c ' ■’
* If at anv tim e i iuw e co m m en ts, or c e r e : .......... ;;.c: <f th.e rescarcii o r
qu estion s about m y rights as a re~ :ui : i ’ • ■ . ’ • t ! ca c k o rs Ceileue.
C o i t i m b i a I ' i n v e r s u s Institution'*! ? - > . ,, -.tl.n iv>r o f the !RU
.2 1 2 ) 6 ? S - 4 l t » ; V r. i ca n w rite !7 /? : : ‘cc. v oiunibia ' ’[]i ; r s i t \
525 W 120 ^ v i e c t . Now- V o tk . A.', I . . ' ~ .-* -
' ! shall re c e iv e a con;, o f the R e se a rc h Ac- ‘ ••(••eipar.t's Right .'document
’f a v ;d eo am i.o r a iid io in p in s': s -.-aii • ■ re io he audio, . i d e o taped
j. N O T ' ' u s e r . t ' o h e m e a-..u • i . f 1v l * * ' 1 ^ ' . ' *
m aterials wi l l be •>tew ed '.ini'. b \ lie n o m •• ■nd m e m b e rs o f the a d v is o r :

com m ittee
w ritten. *' b e - • m d'or audio • um •••• ■ . ii -e'tii'i: .-'its’ee the
research. ■ ■ma\ N O T b e v i e w ; d m mi - . m m : •msidc the -escairh
Mv signature m eans that ! agree I'lirtioTete > -:-
Prii'tieinaai - siu n atu t'-:

v .,...... •
149
Appendix E
RESPONSE FROM AGENCY
150
P A T R O N HIS E X C E L L E N C E
T H E M O ST H O N O U R A B L E
Ja m a ic a •i i s s o c ' J t ’D*' ‘. c l i r..v n h e i r
Ccunc1' for tf*e *3 "'J im
SIR HO W ARD C O O K n S o c ie ty for th e Ct*r»stoM<»t y ^ n d j r - t s s i c ' t
O . N . . G.C. M .G .. C D .
B lin d _________
I M n O l O HOPE «OAD. KI NG ST O N A J a / a a I C a •>/!
TElEPHONE 'H?*\ o?7.1TAQ ' i ’2 7 - 6 ? ^ s^’f P7V ^ 2 7 ••
Apnl 30 2002
Institutional Review Board

Teachers College. Columbia Umvers.tv
525W 120th Street
New York NY 10027
Box 151
USA
ERN
Dear Sir/Madam
This ietter is written to grant permission to Ms Cetene Gyles to conduct research

in Jamaica with adults who are visually impaired We nave a clear
understanding o f the proposed studv and civ? our approval pending that of the
Institutional Review Board
Yours sincere!1*-
Conrad Marris
Director a-ograrpioes
151
Appendix F
RESPONSE FROM ASSOCIATION
152
SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

OLD STUDENTS ASSOCIATION
P.O. Box 58
Kingston 10
May 22. 2002
Institutional R eview Board

T eachers C o lleg e, Columbia Universitv
525W 120 "1 Street
N ew York. N Y 10027
B o x 151
USA
T O W H O M IT M W f O N C E R N
D ear Sir/M adam
This letter is written to grant perm ission !;• ('d e n e Gyies to co n d u ct research in
Jamaica w ith adults w ho are visuallv mtp.ure i A have a clear understanding o f the
proposed study and g iv e our approval pendinu ‘hat ' ’he Institutional R ev iew Board
Yours sincerely.
.6 1 . o n
Pauline M cL ean
Chairman

By Celene Adassa Gyles

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Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by

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TRANSITIONAL, AND ATTRIBUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH

EMPLOYMENT SUCCESS OF PEOPLE WITH BLINDNESS AND

VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES

Celene Adassa Gyles

Professor Dennis E. Mithaug, Sponsor

Approved by the Committee on the Degree o f Doctor of Education

Submitted in partial fulfillment o f the

All rights reserved.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

All Rights Reserved

TRANSITIONAL, AND ATTRIBUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH

EMPLOYMENT SUCCESS OF PEOPLE WITH BLINDNESS AND

VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES

Celene Adassa Gyles

Professor Dennis E. Mithaug, Sponsor

Approved by the Committee on the Degree o f Doctor o f Education

Date: OCT 1 < 2002

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

A FOLLOW-UP STUDY OF THE SELF-DETERMINATION, EDUCATIONAL,

TRANSITIONAL, AND ATTRIBUTIONAL FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH

EMPLOYMENT SUCCESS OF PEOPLE WITH BLINDNESS AND

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT IN JAMAICA, WEST INDIES

Celene Adassa Gyles

This study examined the association between educational experience, school-to-

interviews with the 44 respondents yielded information on their backgrounds, their

significant predictor o f employment success was respondents’ levels o f self-

levels of self-determination, the greater were their employment successes, as measured

Office o f Doctoral Studies who provided valuable information and support.

Special appreciation to Mr. Arvel Grant. Executive Director o f the Caribbean

in so many ways, I just give you so much thanks.

supported me so well, I want to thank you all.

Individuals with Blindness and Visual Impairments............................. 3

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..........................................................................18

Early Follow-up Studies........................................................................... 18

III. METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN............................................................... 57

Locations and Data Collection Situations............................................. 5 8

IV. R ESU LTS......................................................................................................... 74

Demographic and Background Information.......................................... 74

V. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION................................................................. 9 5

A. Definition o f Operational Term s................................................................... 130

C. Volunteers T lier...................................................................................................... 145

E. Response from A gency.......................................................................................... 149

F. Response from Association.................................................................................... 151

1. Distribution o f Respondents in Five Data Collection Locations......................... 59

2. Number o f Respondents per Data Collector........................................................... 60

4. Attributions for Success............................................................................................ 63

7. AIR Self-Determination S cale ................................................................................. 68

8. Employment Inform ation......................................................................................... 70

9. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Age by Age G roups............................ 75

10. Frequency Distribution o f Respondents' Civil S ta tu s.......................................... 75

11. Frequency Distribution o f Current Residence....................................................... 76

12. Frequency Distribution o f Visual Status................................................................. 77

13. Frequency Distribution o f Reading and Writing Media and Print

14. Frequency Distribution o f Completed Levels o f Education................................ 79

15. Level o f Education Being Pursued ......................................................................... 80

16. Program of Study Being Pursued............................................................................ 81

17. Employment H istory................................................................................................. 82

18. Employment Problems.............................................................................................. 83

19. Employment A ctivities............................................................................................. 84