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INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree

of

Bachelor of Technology
in
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BY
Deepika Dhal

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
HAMIRPUR-177005, HP (INDIA)

OCTOBER 2018
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CONTENTS

1) Introduction to telephony

2) Switching Architecture

3) CCS7 Signaling and ISDN

4) Multi-protocol label switching

5) 3G and BWA services

6) Internet broadband
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1) Introduction to Telephony

Telephony Application Programming Interface (TAPI) provides a uniform set of

commands for any supported telephony device that is connected to your computer. TAPI
is implemented in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 by the Telephony service.
Programs that are compliant with TAPI do not have to know the specific hardware you are
using to communicate. The Telephony service and the appropriate telephony service
provider do all of the translating and interacting with the hardware on the application's
behalf.
How telephony works
When you use a Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008 family program to send faxes,
connect to a telephone, or perform other TAPI-supported activities, there are three layers
of software that enable you to use a telephony device: a TAPI-compliant program, the
Telephony service, and a telephony service provider:

 A telephony program enables you to make phone calls, or send and receive data or
faxes. Microsoft and independent software vendors provide programs that
incorporate TAPI-compliant functionality. For example, dial-up networking,
included with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, uses the Telephony
service to interact with your modem or ISDN hardware to dial phone numbers.

 The Telephony service receives TAPI requests from the program, and provides
common functions to those applications, such as dialing a modem.

 A telephony service provider translates the commands for a specific telephony

device or telephony protocol. Telephony service providers for modems and several
telephony protocols are installed with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008,
and others are provided by independent hardware vendors.
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The three layers of telephony on Windows

How telephony works with telephony hardware

In place of proprietary solutions that are difficult and expensive to implement, TAPI
defines a single set of commands allowing hardware and software to come from different
sources. When a telephony program requests an action, the Telephony service determines
which telephony service provider supports the device, and then the service provider sends
the appropriate commands to the device.
For example, the Unimodem (Universal Modem) 5 service provider is installed with the
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 operating systems. When a program on the
client computer initiates the dialing of a phone number, the Telephony service sends the
appropriate commands to the Unimodem 5 Service Provider, and it sends the correct
sequence of commands for dialing the number on the particular modem attached to the
client computer. The program does not need to know anything about the modem.
With the Telephony service and its telephony service providers, the Windows provides a
telephony platform. Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 serve as the operator that
interconnects computer and telephony resources to direct and manage calls. TAPI-
compliant telephony program can provide solutions ranging from complete small office
systems or home office systems to a PBX client interface that integrate the computer and
telephone networks of an organization.
How telephony makes resources available to users
Network users make calls over lines. They may also use phones for call management and
control. These calls are supported by the telephony service providers. A telephony
administrator makes telephony resources on a server, such as lines and phones, available
to users.
Lines
In telephony, a line is any media stream (data, voice, or video) supported by a telephony
service provider. For a modem, the line represents an actual telephone line. For other
devices, it can represent another media stream, such as a gateway to the Internet. Calls are
made by using a line provided by a telephony service provider. A single line can support
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more than one call at a time, such as with call waiting and conferencing. The telephony
service provider determines how physical devices are represented by telephony lines.
Phones
A phone in telephony represents terminal equipment that is supported by a telephony
service provider. In telephony, a "phone" closely models a physical telephone, but might
not be actual hardware. It includes the concepts of a hookswitch, handset, speaker,
microphone, display, lamps, and programmable buttons. As with an actual telephone on
your desk, a phone may be used without actually making calls to someone else. For
example, you can use a telephone handset to listen to or retrieve voice mail messages.
A phone does not have to represent actual hardware; it can be emulated in software. For
instance, this type of phone might be a program that uses TAPI or a telephony service
provider. A physical phone is not required to manage a media stream and, although all
telephony service providers support lines, not all telephony service providers support
phones.
How TAPI supports telephony
The Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 operating systems support computer-
telephony integration, from simple small office or home-based solutions to full-scale,
enterprise-wide solutions. Low-level telephony solutions enable an individual to:

 Use a computer as an answering machine or voice mailbox.

 Use a computer to send and receive faxes.

 Use a microphone and speaker or a speakerphone connected to a multimedia

computer as a phone system.

 Log on to a computer from a remote location.

These solutions are typically supported by a direct connection from a desktop computer to
a phone line with a modem. Enterprise-wide solutions rely on a network and enable an
organization to:

 Use a computer either as a multiline phone system or as a multifunction PBX

controller.

 Provide a voice mail system across your entire enterprise.

 Provide a fax system across your entire enterprise.

 Provide on-demand audio information services that allow callers to retrieve pre-
recorded or computer-generated text-to-speech information.

 Fax information to customers on demand, based on touch-tone keys or other input.

 Implement automatic, list-based dialing for telemarketing.

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 Deliver database information related to a call (such as a customer profile or account

information) at the same time it is switched to a desktop.

 Create a single, easy-to-use client program to manage all communications, such as

voice, pager, e-mail, and conferencing.

 Provide dial-up access to the network.

On a network, a hardware interface adapter on a server connects the LAN to a public or

private telephone network. The adapter is supported by a telephony service provider.
Programs running on the server provide calling features such as conferencing, transferring,
forwarding, holding, and automatic redialing. The server controls the calls going through
the network and out onto the PBX.
Client programs provide voice, video, fax, and data communications for the user. The
Telephony service on the client uses the Windows Remote Service Provider to
communicate over the network with the telephony service providers on the server, and the
actual telephony services are provided by the telephony service providers managing
telephony devices on the server.
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2) Switching Architecture

The circuit-switched PSTN opens up a continuous connection between two phones that
begins with a dial tone and ends when the phone is hung up.

To start you can have an individual subscriber, or a group of subscribers, like a business
that requires multiple access lines. Individual subscribers connect directly to the local
exchange, while businesses often use a private branch exchange (PBX) to manager all their
connections. So the call starts with the actual phone and either connects directly to the
Local Exchange or to the PBX and then to the Local Exchange, if the call comes from a
business with multiple lines.

From the local exchange network, depending on where the call is going, it is pushed to
international carriers, interexchange carriers, cellular providers, or internet service
providers.

The number of layers of technology a call passes through varies depending on where the
call is destined. This is one of the reasons that telephony can be so confusing, the sheer
number of variables involved in making a “simple” phone call.
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System Structure

Taking a step back and really looking at the pieces that comprise the PSTN puzzle makes
it abundantly clear just how far from “simple” telephony is.

The PSTN is comprised of a complex web of interconnection nodes and transmissions

links. Different infrastructures exist at the local, regional, and national levels, but
regardless of how each section is configured the pieces function in the same way. There
are four different types of nodes: customer premises equipment (CPE), transmission,
service, and switching. Transmission links constitute the physical wires or fiber, as may be
the case nowadays that interconnect the various nodes.

CPE

The CPE node is the equipment on site where the call originates. That could be an
individual subscriber line or a PBX.

Transmission

The transmission node consists of the equipment and media that carry information between
nodes of a network. This can include things like amplifiers, repeaters, multiplexers, digital
cross-connect systems, and digital loop carriers.

Service

The service node is responsible for signaling. This means determining when to setup, hold,
charge, and release connections, and getting that information to the correct outlets that
maintain and bill for each section of the network.

Switching

The real meat of the PSTN are the components of the switching node. In a PSTN setup
there are four different types of switches.

1. The Local Exchange has already been alluded to, and is the component of the
network that physically connects subscribers (the CPE node) to the rest of the
PSTN. This is where carriers terminate customer lines and keep the equipment that
interconnects those lines. A single exchange traditionally had the capacity for
10,000 lines (0000 to 9999) and a local exchange consists of one or more of these
exchanges. Imagine you’re heading out on a road trip but you don’t have a map
handy. Now think of a phone call as the route to your destination, and the different
components of the system as gas stations where you can stop and ask for directions.
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If you’re calling a neighbor across the street the call likely doesn’t need to leave
the local exchange. Everyone in the U.S. should be familiar with seven digital
phone numbers. The first three digits designate the local exchange and local switch
where each number resides. So in the movies when someone starts a number with
555, that’s the local exchange designation. The last four digits identify the
individual subscriber line within that exchange. Nowadays, with so many phone
lines in operation, ten digit dialing, which includes the local area code, is oftentimes
required as well. Prior to the introduction of all-number calling (ANC), which
started to roll out in 1958 but wasn’t completed for several decades, phone numbers
consisted of a combination of letters and numbers. The letters were derived from
local exchange names. If you’ve ever wondered what The Marvelettes’ classic
Motown song Beech wood 4-5789 refers to, there’s your answer.
2. The Tandem Office (or junction network) primarily serves a metropolitan area with
many local exchanges and handles the switching between them. A city like New
York has multiple local exchanges. So if you live in Queens and want to call
someone in Brooklyn your call will most likely be switched through a junction
network.
3. The Toll Office is the switch where national long-distance connections are made.
For example, a call placed in Florida intended for a Washington number passes
through the Toll Office switch.
4. Finally, the International Gateway (or centre de transit [CT]) is what connects calls
that originate domestically to international telephone systems. The International
Telecommunications Union coordinates global communications standards that
ensure compatibility between systems.

This is the structure of the PSTN, broadly speaking, in the United States. As mentioned
above, other countries may configure their systems differently (like those using eight-digit
phone numbers).

Call Routing

The ownership relationship between all of these nodes and transmission lines can be
equally confusing. Different companies own different exchanges, and they may or may not
also own the physical lines that link these pieces together.

Someone in New York trying to call San Francisco would go from their CPE, to the local
exchange in New York on a trunk line, to the toll office on yet another trunk line, then back
to a local exchange in San Francisco on a different trunk line, and finally to the CPE of
their California contact along one more trunk line. In this situation, it’s possible for every
trunk line and node to be owned by a different company.

Similarly, a call destined for an international number would again originate at the caller’s
CPE, travel along a trunk line to their Local Exchange, and then be passed to the
international gateway along another trunk line. Once the call is passed to the correct
country’s PSTN, it then travels along a similar path in that country to reach the called party.
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Therefore, if you have an automated voice solution and only callers from a specific area
are unable to connect to your system, there’s a good chance that your technology is working
just fine, but that there is an issue at the carrier level in that area.

The PSTN remains a critical and integral piece in the modern global communications
network. As the system continues to see technological innovation and bandwidth increases
its centrality to modern communications will only increase.
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3) CCS7 and ISDN

The CCS7 network is a logically separate network within a telecommunication network.

It consists of signaling points or signaling nodes connected with the signaling links. The
CCS7 network has four distinct signaling points.
\
Service signaling points (SSPs) are network nodes that generate signaling messages to
transfer call- or transaction- (non-call-) related information between different CCS7 nodes.
In wireline networks, a local switch may have SSP capabilities. In wireless networks, the
BSCs and MSCs are the SSPs.

Signaling transfer points (STPs) are network nodes that relay signaling information from
one signaling node to another.
A combined SP/STP is a node that has capabilities of both SP and STP; i.e., it can originate
or accept CCS7 signaling messages as well as transfer messages from one SP to another
SP.

Signaling control points (SCPs) are nodes that contain databases that enable enhanced
services.

Signaling links interconnect two signaling points. A signaling linkset is made up of

multiple signaling links. It is recommended to have at least two signaling links in a linkset
for reliability purposes. A linkset can have a maximum of 32 links. A route is defined as a
collection of links between originating and terminating SPs via intermediate nodes. There
may be several routes that a message can traverse between the originating and terminating
SP. These signaling routes are collectively called a signaling routeset.
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Figure 2-1 shows a simplified CCS7 signaling network architecture. As we will learn later
in this topic, the CCS7 protocol has a built-in error recovery mechanism to ensure reliable
transfer of signaling messages.

Figure 2-1 CCS7 signaling network architecture.

To take full advantage of the built-in recovery mechanism, the STPs and SCPs are
generally provided in mated pairs. In addition, redundant links are provided to transfer the
signaling messages using alternate routes in case of link failure.

CCS7 has a layered protocol architecture, as shown in Figure 2-2. The protocol stack
consists of four levels. These levels are loosely related to Open System Interconnects (OSI)
Layers 1 to 7. The lower three levels, referred to as the Message Transfer Part (MTP),
provide a reliable service for routing messages through the CCS7 network.

The Signaling Data Link (referred to as MTP Level 1) corresponds to the Physical
Layer of the OSI model. It defines the physical and electrical characteristics of the signaling
link connecting two signaling nodes.

The Signaling Link (MTP Level 2) corresponds to the Layer 2 of the OSI model. It is
responsible for error-free transmission of messages between two adjacent signaling nodes.
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The Signaling Network (MTP Level 3) provides the functions related to message routing
and network management.

MTP Levels 1, 2, and 3 together do not provide a complete set of functionalities as defined
in OSI Layers 1 to 3. The Signaling Connection and Control Part (SCCP) offers
enhancements to the MTP Level 3. The SCCP and MTP together are referred as the
Network Service Part (NSP).

At Level 4, there are several user parts or application parts. The user parts use the transport
capabilities of MTP or NSP. ISDN User Part (ISUP) provides for the control signalling
needed to support ISDN calls. The Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)
provides the control signalling to connect to centralized databases. The Mobile Application
Part, which is the user of TCAP, provides the ability to support user mobility in wireless
networks.

Figure 2-2 CCS7 protocol architecture.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication standards for digital
telephone connection and the transmission of voice and data over a digital line. These
digital lines are commonly telephone lines and exchanges established by the government.
Before ISDN, it was not possible for ordinary telephone lines to provide fast transportation
over a single line.
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ISDN was designed to run on digital telephone systems that were already in place. As such,
it meets telecom's digital voice network specifications. However, it took so long for ISDN
to be standardized that it was never fully deployed in the telecommunications networks it
was intended for.

ISDN takes all kinds of data over a single telephone line at the same time. As such, voice
and data are no longer separated as they were in earlier technologies, which used separate
lines for different services. ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it
also allows access to packet-switched networks.
ISDN is also used with specific protocols, such as Q.931, where it acts as the network, data
link and physical layers in the OSI model. Therefore, in broad terms, ISDN is actually a
suite of transmission services on the first, second and third layers of the OSI model.
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4) Multi-Protocol Label Switching

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a protocol-agnostic routing technique designed

to speed up and shape traffic flows across enterprise wide area and service provider
networks.
MPLS allows most data packets to be forwarded at Layer 2 -- the switching level -- rather
than having to be passed up to Layer 3 -- the routing level. For this reason, it is often
informally described as operating at Layer 2.5.

MPLS was created in the late 1990s as a more efficient alternative to traditional IP routing,
which requires each router to independently determine a packet's next hop by inspecting
the packet's destination IP address before consulting its own routing table. This process
consumes time and hardware resources, potentially resulting in degraded performance for
real-time applications such as voice and video.
In an MPLS network, the very first router to receive a packet determines the packet's entire
route upfront, the identity of which is quickly conveyed to subsequent routers using a label
in the packet header.
While router hardware has improved exponentially since MPLS was first developed --
somewhat diminishing its significance as a more efficient traffic management technology-
- it remains important and popular due to its various other benefits, particularly security,
flexibility and traffic engineering.
Components of MPLS
One of the defining features of MPLS is its use of labels -- the L in MPLS. Sandwiched
between Layers 2 and 3, a label is a four-byte -- 32-bit -- identifier that conveys the packet's
predetermined forwarding path in an MPLS network. Labels can also contain information
related to quality of service (QoS), indicating a packet's priority level.

MPLS labels consist of four parts:

Label value: 20 bits
Experimental: 3 bits
Bottom of stack: 1 bit
Time to live: 8 bits

The paths, which are called label-switched paths (LSPs), enable service providers to decide
ahead of time the best way for certain types of traffic to flow within a private or public
network.
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How an MPLS network works

In an MPLS network, each packet gets labeled on entry into the service provider's network
by the ingress router, also known as the label edge router (LER). This is also the router that
decides the LSP the packet will take until it reaches its destination address.
All the subsequent label-switching routers (LSRs) perform packet forwarding based only
on those MPLS labels -- they never look as far as the IP header. Finally, the egress router
removes the labels and forwards the original IP packet toward its final destination.

When an LSR receives a packet, it performs one or more of the following actions:
Push: Adds a label. This is typically performed by the ingress router.

Swap: Replaces a label. This is usually performed by LSRs between the ingress and egress
routers.

Pop: Removes a label. This is most often done by the egress router.

This diagram illustrates how a simple MPLS network works.

Advantages of MPLS

Service providers and enterprises can use MPLS to implement QoS by defining LSPs that
can meet specific service-level agreements on traffic latency, jitter, packet loss and
downtime. For example, a network might have three service levels that prioritize different
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types of traffic -- e.g., one level for voice, one level for time-sensitive traffic and one level
for best effort traffic.
MPLS also supports traffic separation and the creation of virtual private networks (VPNs),
virtual private LAN services and virtual leased lines.
One of the most notable benefits of MPLS is that it is not tied to any one protocol or
transport medium. It supports transport over Internet Protocol (IP), Ethernet,
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and frame relay; any of these protocols can be used
to create an LSP. Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching (GMPLS) extends MPLS
to manage time-division multiplexing (TDM), lambda switching and other classes of
switching technologies beyond packet switching.
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5) 3G and BWA Network

3G is the third generation of wireless technologies. It comes with enhancements over

previous wireless technologies, like high-speed transmission, advanced multimedia access,
and global roaming.

3G is mostly used with mobile phones and handsets as a means to connect the phone to the
internet or other IP networks in order to make voice and video calls, to download and
upload data, and to surf the Web.

The 3G standard, although it still serves as a fallback for some cellular providers, has
largely been superseded by the 4G standard, which itself is being eclipsed by 5G services.

History

3G follows a pattern of G's that the ITU started in the early 1990s. The pattern is actually
a wireless initiative called the International Mobile Communications 2000. 3G, therefore,
comes just after 2G and 2.5G, the second-generation technologies.

2G technologies include, among others, the Global System for Mobile. 2.5G brought
standards that are midway between 2G and 3G, including the General Packet Radio
Service, Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System, and others.

How Is 3G Better?

3G offers several enhancements over 2.5G and previous networks:

 Several times higher data speed

 Enhanced audio and video streaming
 Videoconferencing support
 Web and WAP browsing at higher speeds
 IPTV (TV through the internet) support

Technical Specifications

The transfer rate for 3G networks is between 128 and 144 kilobits per second for devices
that are moving fast, and 384 kbps for slow ones — like walking pedestrians. For fixed
wireless LANs, the speed goes beyond 2 Mbps.

3G is a set of technologies and standards that include W-CDMA, WLAN, and cellular
radio, among others.
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Requirements for Use

Unlike with Wi-Fi, which you can get for free in hotspots, you need to be subscribed to a
service provider to get 3G network connectivity. This kind of service is often called a data
plan or network plan.

Your device is connected to the 3G network through its SIM card (in the case of a mobile
phone) or its 3G data card (which can be of different types, like USB, PCMCIA, etc.), both
of which are usually provided or sold by the service provider.

These cards are how the device connects to the internet when it's within range of a 3G
network. In fact, the device is backward compatible with older technologies, which is why
a 3G compatible phone can get 2G service if it's available when 3G service is not.

The Future of 3G

The 3G craze of the early 2010s has receded; most devices now support the 4G standard,
using 3G as a fallback if 4G connections aren't available. In some parts of the world,
particularly in rural areas, 3G remains a backbone service.

BWA Network Structure

BWA network is primarily used as a point to multipoint topology with a cellular

deployment of base stations, each tied to core networks and in contact with fixed wireless
subscriber stations. The base stations are generally located on a tower and the subscriber
stations typically include rooftop mounted antennas and radio units connected to indoor
network interface units.

A completed BWA system is typically comprised of multiple subnets in a star topology.

Structurally, it is similar to the historical slotted Aloha network proposed in the 1970s. The
transport mechanism works in the way that the downstream, from the central base station
to the subscriber stations, is broadcast, while the upstream from the subscriber stations to
the central base station uses time division multiple access (TDMA). Figure 4 illustrates
some key components of the network. There can be thousands of customer primise
equipment (CPE) on the rooftop of different buildings.

The central base station can be connected with other server applications to the Internet
backbone through optical fiber. The base station (BS) is a switching device often seen as a
network bridge or router that interacts directly with the subscriber station. On the
subscriber station (SS), the modem will act as the data port, which resumes the data
transport in wire again.
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Figure. The component view on a micro section of the BWA network.

Referring to the OSI model, the physical and data link layers of a BWA network are the
two layers that distinguish it from other networks. They specify the communication
methods and requirements between the modem at the Subscriber Station (SS) and the Base
Station (BS).

The network protocol of a BWA system follows the DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service
Interface Specifications) standard extensively, with modification for wireless application.
Different signaling formats have been used to transport the data. FDD (frequency division
duplex) and TDD (time division duplex) are two competing transmission protocols while
ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) and IP (Internet Protocol) are two competing network
protocols.
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6) Internet Broadband

The term broadband commonly refers to high-speed Internet access that is always on and
faster than the traditional dial-up access. Broadband includes several high-speed
transmission technologies such as:

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 Cable Modem
 Fiber
 Wireless
 Satellite
 Broadband over Powerlines (BPL)

The broadband technology you choose will depend on a number of factors. These may
include whether you are located in an urban or rural area, how broadband Internet access
is packaged with other services (such as voice telephone and home entertainment), price,
and availability.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

DSL is a wireline transmission technology that transmits data faster over traditional
copper telephone lines already installed to homes and businesses. DSL-based broadband
provides transmission speeds ranging from several hundred Kbps to millions of bits per
second (Mbps). The availability and speed of your DSL service may depend on the
distance from your home or business to the closest telephone company facility.

The following are types of DSL transmission technologies:

 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) – Used primarily by residential

customers, such as Internet surfers, who receive a lot of data but do not send much.
ADSL typically provides faster speed in the downstream direction than the upstream
direction. ADSL allows faster downstream data transmission over the same line used
to provide voice service, without disrupting regular telephone calls on that line.

 Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) – Used typically by businesses for

services such as video conferencing, which need significant bandwidth both upstream
and downstream.

Faster forms of DSL typically available to businesses include:

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 High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL); and

 Very High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL).

Cable Modem

Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the same
coaxial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set.

Most cable modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable wall
outlet, the other to a computer. They provide transmission speeds of 1.5 Mbps or more.

Subscribers can access their cable modem service by simply turning on their computers,
without dialing-up an ISP. You can still watch cable TV while using it. Transmission
speeds vary depending on the type of cable modem, cable network, and traffic load.
Speeds are comparable to DSL.

Fiber

 Fiber optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and sends the
light through transparent glass fibers about the diameter of a human hair. Fiber
transmits data at speeds far exceeding current DSL or cable modem speeds, typically
by tens or even hundreds of Mbps.
 The actual speed you experience will vary depending on a variety of factors, such as
how close to your computer the service provider brings the fiber and how the service
provider configures the service, including the amount of bandwidth used. The same
fiber providing your broadband can also simultaneously deliver voice (VoIP) and
video services, including video-on-demand.
 Telecommunications providers sometimes offer fiber broadband in limited areas and
have announced plans to expand their fiber networks and offer bundled voice, Internet
access, and video services.
 Variations of the technology run the fiber all the way to the customer’s home or
business, to the curb outside, or to a location somewhere between the provider’s
facilities and the customer.

Wireless

 Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the Internet using a radio link
between the customer’s location and the service provider’s facility. Wireless
broadband can be mobile or fixed.
 Wireless technologies using longer-range directional equipment provide broadband
service in remote or sparsely populated areas where DSL or cable modem service
would be costly to provide. Speeds are generally comparable to DSL and cable
modem. An external antenna is usually required.
 Wireless broadband Internet access services offered over fixed networks allow
consumers to access the Internet from a fixed point while stationary and often require
a direct line-of-sight between the wireless transmitter and receiver. These services
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have been offered using both licensed spectrum and unlicensed devices. For example,
thousands of small Wireless Internet Services Providers (WISPs) provide such
wireless broadband at speeds of around one Mbps using unlicensed devices, often in
rural areas not served by cable or wireline broadband networks.
 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) provide wireless broadband access over
shorter distances and are often used to extend the reach of a "last-mile" wireline or
fixed wireless broadband connection within a home, building, or campus environment.
Wi-Fi networks use unlicensed devices and can be designed for private access within a
home or business, or be used for public Internet access at "hot spots" such as
restaurants, coffee shops, hotels, airports, convention centers, and city parks.
 Mobile wireless broadband services are also becoming available from mobile
telephone service providers and others. These services are generally appropriate for
highly-mobile customers and require a special PC card with a built in antenna that
plugs into a user’s laptop computer. Generally, they provide lower speeds, in the range
of several hundred Kbps.

Satellite

Just as satellites orbiting the earth provide necessary links for telephone and television
service, they can also provide links for broadband. Satellite broadband is another form of
wireless broadband, and is also useful for serving remote or sparsely populated areas.

Downstream and upstream speeds for satellite broadband depend on several factors,
including the provider and service package purchased, the consumer’s line of sight to the
orbiting satellite, and the weather. Typically a consumer can expect to receive
(download) at a speed of about 500 Kbps and send (upload) at a speed of about 80 Kbps.
These speeds may be slower than DSL and cable modem, but they are about 10 times
faster than the download speed with dial-up Internet access. Service can be disrupted in
extreme weather conditions.

Broadband over Power line (BPL)

BPL is the delivery of broadband over the existing low- and medium-voltage electric
power distribution network. BPL speeds are comparable to DSL and cable modem
speeds. BPL can be provided to homes using existing electrical connections and outlets.
BPL is an emerging technology that is available in very limited areas. It has significant
potential because power lines are installed virtually everywhere, alleviating the need to
build new broadband facilities for every customer.