Introduction: Evolving Ethical Concepts

Author(s): Van Rensselaer Potter

Source: BioScience, Vol. 27, No. 4, The Scientist and Environmental Bioethics (Apr., 1977),
pp. 251-253
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences
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 Two considerations are paramount
for this special issue. One is the under-
standing that ethical concepts are in-
Evolving
deed evolving, and the other is the role
of the individual scientist and of science
in general in the context of changing
Ethical Concepts
ethical concepts. The problems of the
modern world revolve around land, re-
source economics, population, and the Van Rensselaer Potter
future of the human species. The papers
to follow will touch upon various as-
pects of these topics, thereby contrib-
uting to the development of "environ-
mental bioethics," which in my opinion
preexisting ethical imperatives but a Thoreau, or other American conserva-
is essential for the survival of the
strengthening of them so that scientiststionists. But it is worth mentioning that
species.
can maintain their reputation for believ-there is a clear line of evolving environ-
Scientists are prime movers among
ability. How this may be accomplished mental bioethics that may be referred to
the forces of change that affect not only
will be discussed later; here the basic as the Wisconsin Tradition, which runs
cultural evolution of people in every bioethic of "humility with responsi- from John Muir to Aldo Leopold
part of the earth, but also the expansion
bility" (Potter 1975a) is reemphasized (1949) and more recently to an explicit
of technologies that change the charac- as a cardinal virtue for scientists who series of beliefs and commitments that
ter and face of the earth itself.l They recognize the need to participate inare
thepart of a "bioethical creed" (Potter
must now assume a greater responsi- development of environmental bioethics
1971, 1972) and to the present
bility for the consequences of their addressed to global problems. discussion.
work. They must move beyond the
simplistic notion that science is
ORIGINS OF ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES:
value-free.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS INTRINSIC OR SECONDARY?
Evolving ethical concepts have
moved beyond the simple imperatives of Torchio, in a series of papers2 (1973,Rolston (1974, 1975) has discussed
interpersonal relationships and the basic
Torchio and Torchio 1972), emphasized the contributions of Aldo Leopold and
theological commands of the past. Theythe traditions of the benedictine mon- others in terms of the basic question of
now encompass the survival imperatives asteries among the earliest evidences ofwhether the natural environment should
that must form the core of environ- be preserved because of an intrinsic
explicit bioethical statements. Thus, he
mental bioethics. It is a common belief
cites an important work "On the Con-worth, or whether the environment
that scientists cannot do good research should be valued in terms of its contri-
servation of Pine Forests" by the Abbot
if they are concerned about the impact bution to the present and future welfare
of the Benedictine Congregation of Val-
of their experiments on the values of lombrosa in 1804 as follows: of the human species. Hence we have
the world in which they live. The the question: Are environmental values
preexisting ethical imperatives of sci- ... no one who plants a fir-tree can intrinsic and primary, or are they
ence have emphasized the need for hope to fell it when it is fully grown,
merely a matter of social expediency
scientists to be unbiased as to the no matter how youthful the person is.
(that is, secondary)? Rolston (1975, p.
outcome of their experiments, but the In spite of this the most sacred obliga-
98) pointed out that "To say that the
scientific ethic has also emphasized tion is to replant and husband these
balance of nature is a ground for human
objectivity, complete honesty, and thepine forests. If we sweat for the benefit
values is not to draw any ethics from
demand that scientists change their of posterity, we should not complain
ecology, as may first appear, but only to
as we reap the results of the efforts of
mind when the facts go against their our forefathers.... Not one of our recognize the necessary medium of ethi-
personal bias. Thus, the existence of forebears survives now nor shall we do cal activity."
strong ethical constraints indeed make when those who follow on cut down An environmental ethic based on
working scientists an example of human the trees that we planted for them. intrinsic value of the ecosystem does
activity that is designed to overcome not mean that there is an intrinsic ethic
bias (Potter 1972).
I am not aware of any evidence that in the ecosystem, since ethics requires a
It would be ridiculous to deny the the benedictine contribution influenced conscious self-awareness, other-
existence of bias in individual scientists.
the later thinking of Theodore Roose- awareness, and death-awareness pres-
Scientists are now urged to show con-
velt, Gifford Pinchot, John Muir, Henry ently ascribed only to human beings
cern for the larger world and to develop able to communicate with each other.
a bias for the priorities of the scientific The ecosystem clearly has ground rules
establishment in relation to global 1J. E. Trosko. The Pontius Pilate Syndrome,
Cancer, and Bioethics. Paper presented at the
and boundary conditions that biologists
problems. What is demanded of science
27th Annual AIBS Meeting, 3 June 1976, can discern and draw inferences from,
at this time is not an abandonment of
New Orleans, La. Unpublished personal com- but it seems inappropriate to speak of
munication, 1976. an intrinsic ethic in the ecosystem. What
The author is Professor of Oncology, McArdle2M. Torchio, Director, Acquaria e Stazione deserves to be emphasized is the basis
Laboratory for Cancer Research, UniversityIdrobiologica, Milan, Italy. Bioethics: A for ascribing value to the ecosystem and
of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, WIBridge to Survival. Unpublished manuscript, the need for an environmental bioethic
53706. personal communication, 1975. that can affect cultural development.

April 1977 251

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 Rolston (1975, p. 99) credited Leo- Similarly, Hardin (1968) introduced the In building upon this definition, I
pold with the clearest affirmation of the concept of environmental disaster should note that the world in general
intrinsic ethical lesson for man within through expanding population, plus and the United States in particular are
the ecosystem in the statement: "A short-sighted self-interested economic not culturally homogeneous, a point
thing is right when it tends to preserve exploitation of the public domain. His strongly emphasized by Crowe (1969)
the integrity, stability, and beauty ofconclusion puts human survival on an when he doubted the occurrence of
the biotic community. It is wrong when ethical basis: "The population problem "extensions in morality." However,
it tends to do otherwise." From this has no technical solution: it requires a there is probably no culture that places
Rolston found "homeostasis a key to all
fundamental extension in morality." a premium on ill health, malnutrition,
values. The precondition of values, if Hardin's prescription is "mutual coer- or infant mortality per se. If these can
you will-but one which for all that, cion, mutually agreed upon," a concept be shown to be the outcome of political
informs and shapes [man's] other valuesto which we will return later. Mean- systems and laws that fail to recognize
by making them relational, corporate, while, in a reply to Hardin, Crowe the minimal requirements of a healthy
environmental." Such a view is morally (1969) came to the sobering conclusion ecosystem, leadership may develop that
prescriptive: "... given options within that "Major problems have neither tech- will avert the "tragedy of the
parameters of necessary obedience, he nical nor political solutions: extensions commons."
morally ought to promote [environ- in morality are not likely." To paraphrase Rolston (1975, p. 98),
mental] homeostasis." In an attempt to visualize what might environmental bioethics evolves rather
be called the "Tragedy of the Commons straightforwardly from classical ethical
TOWARD ENVIRONMENTAL Averted," I have generated a sequence queries now advised of certain eco-
BIOETHICS AS A DISCIPLINE that may be appropriate to the present logical boundaries. The ultimate science
discussion: of environmental bioethics
Rolston's views and his interpreta-
1. Environmental damage becomes
tion of Leopold's land ethic are com- may well herald limits to growth; it
visible to Leopold's "average individ-
pletely in accord with my own position challenges certain presumptions about
ual"; moral indignation is aroused.
as expressed in a book that was dedi- rising standards of living, capitalism,
2. Knowledge of the problems and
cated to the memory of Aldo Leopold, progress, development, and so on; con-
their time scales in "ecological situa-
"who anticipated the extension of victions that, though deeply en-
tions so new or intricate, or involving trenched parameters of human value,
ethics to Bioethics" (Potter 1971). At
that time, I stated that "... ethics
such deferred reactions" (Leopold are issues of what is, can, or will be the
1949), evolves into a new discipline: case, not of what ought to be. This
implies action according to moral stan-
environmental bioethics. realization of limits . . . can hardly be
dards. What we must now face up to is
3. Moral indignation seeks preven- said to reform our ethical roots, for the
the fact that human ethics cannot be
tive and creative countermeasures. reason that its scope remains (when
separated from a realistic understanding optimistic) a maximizing of human
4. Moral pressure plus factual infor-
of ecology in the broadest sense. Ethical values or (when pessimistic) human
mation generates bioethical guidelines.
values cannot be separated from biolog- survival.
5. Moral pressure converts bioethical
ical facts ... ; survival ot tne total
ecosystem is the test of the value
guidelines into legal sanctions, i.e., Rolston (1975, p. 109) concludes:
"mutual cotrcion mutually agreed
system" (pp. vii-viii). Aldo Leopold was Much of the search for an ecological
upon" (Hardin 1968).
quoted in the dedication in much the morality will, perhaps in necessary
same spirit: "An ethic may be regarded pragmatism, remain secondary, "con-
as a mode of guidance for meeting servative," where the ground is better
The above scenario cannot be ex-
ecological situations so new or intricate, charted, and where we mix ethics,
pressed in terms of a timetable exceptscience, and human interests under our
or involving such deferred reactions that
to say that the march of events is logical control. But we judge the ethi-
the path of social expediency is not
rapidly outpacing developments in envi-
cal frontier to be beyond, a primary
discernible to the average individual"
ronmental bioethics and the conversion revaluing where, in ethical creativity,
(italics added) (Leopold 1949, pp. to and implementation of laws derived conscience must evolve. The topog-
218-219). It should be noted in relating therefrom. raphy is largely uncharted; to cross it
ethics to action, I really mean activity will require the daring, and caution, of
In attempting to move toward the
or behavior since I noted (p. 185) that a community of scientists and ethicists
development of an environmental bio-
Kant had observed that wisdom could who can together map both the eco-
ethic, I have attempted to state my
be looked upon as an action policy for system and the ethical grammar appro-
conception of what I mean by the word
doing or letting be. priate for it.
ethic, which is the broader term for a
Since Leopold's time, the further
medical bioethic or an environmental
exposition of environmental dilemmas
bioethic: In the development of a community
has been taken up in many publications of scientists and ethicists who can learn
from the pen of Garrett Hardin. Leo- An ethic is a set of culturally ac-from each other and develop a new
pold was searching for a morality of cepted beliefs and guidelines for deci-discipline, I can suggest nothing more
land use that escapes economic expedi-sions affecting the course of human basic than the "bioethic of humility
ency as distinct from social expediency.activity, with idealistic goals in mind, with responsibility" (Potter 1975a,b).
He was seeking to advance the ethical usually involving the adjustment of Responsibility implies competence-
frontier from the merely interpersonal competing claims without resorting to nay, excellence-and humility, the
to the region of man in transaction withthe use of coercion unless mutually opposite of arrogance, implies a willing-
his environment (Rolston 1975, p. 99).
agreed upon by members of the culture.ness to admit shortcomings and inade-

252
BioScience Vol. 27 No. 4

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quacies of single-purpose planning and 30 years will be like no other 30 years
single-discipline discourse. Humility
implies a willingness to listen to people
from other disciplines and other walks
in the last 5 billion. We are not about to
see history merely repeating itself. Can
we understand Georgescu-Roegen's
PREVIEW
BIOTECH
of life. Certainly the combined virtues insistence on the intrusion of entropy
of humility, responsibility, and com- into the field of economics, Ross's
petence are necessary if we are to insight into the limitations of private
achieve individuals who are both scien- decisions upon land use, Dyck's analysis
tists and ethicists. of population policies, and still have the Dual-Format
Tonsor (1974) also calls for an end to energy to contemplate with Green the Multimedia Modules
the traditional separation between sci- plight of posterity only two generations
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able to suspend belief but we are JT8302 Measure Dissolved Oxygen in Environ-
Handbook. Environment Resources
mental Waters Using the Modified Winkler
unable to suspend action. The funda- Center, Colorado State University, Ft. Titration Method with Full Bottle Technique
mental debates of this time are ethical JT8406 Recognize and Control Common
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debates.... If we are to act ecumen- Greenhouse Pests
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the avenues through which men can . 1974. Why John Newman was wrong: Department JT
fulfill their natural existence. The The connection between moral and intel- 150 White Plains Road
realm of grace will disclose itself in duelectual virtue in higher education. Sym- Tarrytown, NY 10591
time, and the ultimate questions of posium at Bellarmine College, Louisville,
meaning will intrude themselves. I doKy. 23 January 1974. (With permission, Send this coupon now for your
Biotech preview module.
not pretend that this "naturalistic" from unpublished manuscript.) r'- . ....---- ----
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Torchio, M. 1973. Rapporti uomo-Natura I I
enable them to live together in civil secondo le principali metafisiche orientali, MODULE TITLE
society and will put them in a position loro implicazioni bioetiche ed ecologiche.
to ask far more searching and meaning- Natura (Milano) 64(2): 101-132. NO.
ful questions .... If we cannot agreeTorchio, M., and Torchio, R. C. 1972. Studi
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hope that we shall agree on what we tini italiani dell'evo moderno. Natura
are to believe.
(Milano) 63(3): 205-255. TITLE

I I
SCHOOL/BUSINESS

The essays in this special issue of DEPT.

BioScience are concerned with the

I I
ADDRESS
formulations of policies that will permit I I
survival of the human species in an I CITY I
acceptable form on the spaceship Earth. STATE I
It is important to realize that the next I STATE ZIP I
I I
ISIGNATURE
April 1977
CIRCLE NO. 9 ON THE READER'S SERVICE CARD

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