05 Power System Unbalanced Faults r11

Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401 1
Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults
Power System Protection

for Engineers
Power System
Unbalanced Faults
Copyright © SEL 2004
Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 1

Unbalanced Fault Analysis

Objectives
l Describe and Analyze Several Types of
Unbalanced Shunt Faults
l Discuss Power System Grounding Methods
l Describe the Methods for Unbalanced
Short-Circuit Current Calculation
l Discuss the Sequence Network
Interconnection for Series and Simultaneous
Faults

Power System Faults
l Short Circuits
l Contacts With Ground
t Isolated-neutral systems
t High-impedance grounded systems
l Open Phases (series faults)

Simple Short-Circuits
a a a a
b b b b
c c c c
Three phase Single phase Phase to Two phases

to ground phase to ground
Unbalanced

Typical Short Circuit Type Distribution
Single-Line-to-Ground: 70 – 80 %
Double-Line-to-Ground: 17 – 10 %
Line-to-Line: 10 – 8 %
Three Phase: 3–2%

Insulator Flashover
l The Most Common Fault is

Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
ARC
(Flashover)
The most common fault in overhead power systems occurs due to a lightning-
induced overvoltage, when one of the insulators cannot hold the dielectric stress,
producing flashover. In most cases, this fault disappears once it is cleared, so a
reclosing operation has a high probability of success.

Flashover in a Distribution Pole
Flashover

Ground Faults
l An Estimated 80 Percent of all System

Faults (1 kV and Higher) Are Single-
Line-Ground Faults
l System Grounding is an Important
Issue for Utilities and Industrial
Facilities

Effects of Ground Faults
l Hazards to Human Safety

l Thermal Stress Due to Fault Current
l Voltage Stress (Both Transient and
Sustained)
l Interference With Telecommunication
Systems
l Disruption of Power Supply

Power System Neutral Grounding

Ground Fault Currents Depend on
Method of Neutral Grounding
Zg Fault
The neutral grounding impedance limits the ground-fault current.

Goals of Power System Grounding
l Minimization of Equipment Voltage

and Thermal Stresses
l Compliance With Standards for
Personnel
l Safety and Communication System
Interference
l Assistance in Rapid Detection and
Elimination of Ground Faults

Power System Grounding Methods
l Isolated Neutral
l Effective or Solid Grounding
l Low-Impedance Grounding
l High-Impedance Grounding
l Resonant Grounding

Isolated Neutral System

A
CAB CAC
N
CBC
C
CA Ground
CB CC fault
G
A
VAN
N, G A, G
VCN
C B VAN
VBN VCN N VBN
C B
The fault current for isolated neutral systems has a magnitude equal to the
capacitive current produced by connecting one of the phases to ground. For
underground medium voltage systems, these currents are about 5 to 15 Amps,
depending on system voltage and characteristics.

Solidly Grounded Systems
A A
Loads N Ground Fault

N Ground Fault G
G
B
B
G C
Neutral
C Conductor
G
A A
N Ground Fault VAN
A, N, G
G N, G
VCN VBN=VBG
B VCN=VCG
C B B
C VBN C
G Isolated Neutral Conductor
The fault current for solidly grounded systems could be very large. Current
magnitude depends on the fault impedance and the return characteristics of the
system.

Low-Impedance Grounding
Ig
C
Ground
Fault
100 A ≤ Ig ≤ 400 A
The range of fault current for a low-impedance grounded neutral system is several
hundred amperes.

High-Impedance Grounding
A
CAB CAC
N
Rgs B
Ig CBC
C
CA Ground
CB CC fault
G
5 A ≤ Ig ≤ 15 A
A
VAN
N, G A, G
VCN
C B VAN
VBN VCN N VBN
C B
For high impedance grounding systems, the magnitude of the current is similar to
the capacitive currents.

Compensated System
N CAB
CAC
B
CBC
C
Petersen CA CB CC Ground
Coil Fault
The object of the Petersen Coil is to make the current equal to zero during a
single-phase-to-ground fault.

Fault Impedance
l Phase Faults: Arc Resistance

l Ground Faults:
t Arc resistance
t Tower and tower footing
impedance
t Ground return path resistance
t Other components (trees, etc.)

Effect of Fault Impedance
l Reduces Fault Current Values

l Reduces Voltage Sag in the Faulted
Phase
l Increases Measured Impedance
Values
l Limits Protection Sensitivity

Method to Calculate Unbalanced

Short Circuits
l Determine Simulation Point
l Find System Sequence Networks
l Calculate Thevenin Equivalent
l Connect Sequence Networks, Calculate
Fault Current
l Calculate Sequence Voltages and
Currents, Find Phase Quantities
Method for calculating unbalanced short circuits:
1. Determine the point (node or bus) of the system where the short circuit will be
simulated.
2. Find the sequence networks (positive, negative, and zero) of the system
3. Find the Thevenin equivalent at that point. The three-phase Thevenin

equivalent is a simplified generator, which has positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence networks.
4. Connect the sequence networks depending on the type of fault and calculate
the sequence fault current.
5. Using network techniques, calculate the sequence voltages and currents along
the system and then use the symmetrical components transformation to find
the phase quantities.

The Equivalent Sequence Networks
Zg N1 N2
N
3Zg
N0
Z1 Z2 Z0
ax
bx
cx
x1 x2 x0
The sequence networks of the equivalent three-phase generator are then used to
calculate the fault currents.

Example
What are the

values of the
phase currents
here?
69 kV
13.8 kV
x
Solid Single-Phase-
to-Ground Fault
The procedure will be illustrated by solving a numerical example.
The simple sub- transmission network (69 kV) feeds a distribution substation (13.
8 kV) through two transformers in parallel. A single phase to ground fault occurs
close to the distribution (13.8 kV) bus.
We must know the following:
a. The fault currents at the fault point
b. The currents at one of the 69 kV circuit breakers (as indicated in the

figure)
In this example, we are supposed to know all the sequence impedances of the
elements in per unit.

Positive-Sequence Thèvenin Equivalent

Circuit in Per Unit
1.0
1.0 1.0
j0.8 j0.4 0.032+ 0.042+
j0.958 j0.61
j0.5 j0.5
0.032+j0.158 0.042+j0.210 x
1.0
j0.5 j0.5
Base: 0.0021+
j0.623
100 MVA x x
The Thevenin equivalent is found by simple parallel and series impedance

combinations. The student must work this example and find the currents and
voltages on all the important points of the system.
Note that it is assumed that both generators are at 1.0 p.u. (zero degrees). This
adds simplicity to the problem. In more precise calculations, the actual bus
voltages are considered in finding the Thevenin voltage.

Negative-Sequence Thèvenin Equivalent

Circuit in Per Unit
0.032+ 0.042+
j0.9 j0.6 j1.058 j0.81
j0.5 j0.5
0.032+j0.158 0.042+j0.210
x
j0.5 0.019+
Base: j0.5
j0.709
100 MVA x x
The same procedure is performed over the negative-sequence network. In this

case, no voltage source is involved. Why?

Zero-Sequence Thèvenin Equivalent

Circuit in Per Unit
0.11+ 0.15+
j0.4 j0.2 j0.91 j0.904
j0.5 j0.5
0.11+j0.51 0.15+j0.704
x
j0.5 0.065+
Base: j0.5
j0.704
100 MVA x x
The zero-sequence current considers the Delta-Wye connection of the step-up

transformers in the power plants.

Connect and Calculate
Pos. Neg. Zero
1.0
0.019+ 0.065 +
0.021+
j0.709 j0.704
j0.623
I F1 IF 2 IF0
E
I F1 = I F 2 = I F 0 = = 0.025 - 0.49 j pu
Z1 + Z 2 + Z 0
For a single phase-to-ground fault, the sequence networks are connected in series.
Finding the sequence current at the fault point is straightforward.

Fault Current
3E
IFa = 3IF1 = 3IF2 = 3IF0 =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
o
= 0.076 - 1.47 j pu = 6158 Ð-87.04 A
ax
bx
cx
I fa
The phase fault current is found through the use of symmetrical components
equations.
Ia = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3I1

Go Back – Current Divider
Pos. Neg. Zero
1.0
0.032+ I L1 0.042+ 0.032+ 0.042+ 0.11+ 0.15+

j0.958 j0.61 j1.058
I L2 j0.81
I L0 j0.904
j0.91
j0.5 j0.5 j0.5 j0.5 j0.5 j0.5

x x x
I F1 IF 2 IF0
Use the classical circuit theory to find the sequence currents in each of the
system’s branches. In this case, the use of current dividers is very effective.

Current Divider
Pos.
0.042 + j 0.61
1.0 I L1 = I F 1 =
0.032 + j 0.958 + 0.042 + j 0.61
0.032+ 0.042+
= 0.00573 - j 0.191 p.u.
I L1
j0.958 j0.61
j0.5 j0.5 l The Same Technique is

x Used for Negative- and
Zero- Sequence Networks
I F1
The current divider technique is applied in finding the positive-sequence current at

one of the network’s branches. The same is done for the negative- and zero-
sequence networks.

Line Sequence Currents
Pos. Neg. Zero
I L1 I L2 I L0
I F1 IF 2 IF0
Note that the three sequence currents found with the current divider technique
correspond to the sequence currents at the desired location in the system.

Sequence and Phase Currents

I L1 = 0.00573 - j 0.191 p.u.
I L 2 = 0.00838 - j 0.213 p.u
I L 0 = 0.00724 - j 0.245 p.u
I La = I L1 + I L 2 + I L 0 = 0.021 - j 0.649 p.u.

I Lb = a 2 I L1 + aI L 2 + I L 0 = 0.019 - j 0.041 p.u.
I Lc = aI L1 + a 2 I L 2 + I L 0 = -0.019 - j 0.046 p.u.
100000
Multiply by the base: I base = A = 836.74 A
3 × 69
Once the sequence currents are known, use the symmetrical components equations
to find the phase currents at the desired location.
These currents are in per unit, and they must be in amps.
The base current is found for the 69 kV voltage level.

Line Phase Currents
ILa = 543.34 ∠−88.12 A

ILb = 37.86 ∠−65.23 A
ILc = 41.26 ∠−112.15 A
69 kV
13.8 kV
x
Finally, multiply by the base current to find the desired currents in amps.
A very similar procedure can be carried out to find the voltages at any given
location of the network.

Transmission Line Faults

Are Most Common
As stated before, overhead transmission lines are the elements of the power
system with the maximum exposure. Therefore, the most common faults occur on
overhead transmission lines.

Transmission Line Faults

L
d
Equivalent Equivalent
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
I=?
V=? Fault
l What is the value if Ia, Ib, Ic, Va, Vb, Vc at

the substation for different types of faults
over the line?
The two-source equivalent is commonly used to analyze line faults. The

contribution of the system to the fault is represented by a simple (unconnected)
two-source equivalent. The simplification does not greatly affect the concept.
However, for more accurate analysis of faults, the equivalent might not produce
good results.

Substation Phasor Voltage and

Current Behavior During Faults (1)
Ic
Va
Ia
Va Ia
Ic
Ib Vc Vb
Vc Vb
Normal Operation Ib 3PH Fault
During a three-phase fault, the three phase current magnitudes increase and the
three voltage magnitudes decrease. If the fault is perfectly balanced, the faulted
quantities stay at 120 degrees.

Substation Voltage and Current

Behavior During Faults (2)
Ic
Va
Va
Ia
Vc Vb
Ib = Ic = 0 Vc Vb
Ia = 0
SLG Fault L-L Fault Ib
The slide shows at the left the phase voltages and currents for a single-line-to-
ground fault and, at the right, the voltages and currents for a line-to-line fault.

Substation Voltage and Current

Behavior During Faults (3)
Ic
Va
Vc Vb
Ia = 0
Ib 2LG Fault
The slide shows the phase voltages and currents for a double line-to-ground fault.
It is very important in protective relaying to know the behavior of voltages and

currents for different fault conditions.
These quantities are the inputs to the relays. The relays make decisions based on
these quantities.

Voltage Profiles During Faults (1)

G Fault H
No Load
Va1 Va1
3PH V1 V1
(a)
F
Va1 V1 V1 Va1
F
L-L Va1
(b) V2 V2
2
Analyze the plots for the faults indicated.

Voltage Profiles During Faults (2)

G Fault H
No Load
Va1 Va1
V1 V1
2LG V2
F
V2
(c)
V0 Va1 V0
3
Va1 Va2
F
V1 2Va1 V1
SLG
(d) V0 3 V0
V2 V2
Va1
3
Analyze the plots for the faults indicated.

Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
d
Equivalent Equivalent
BUS S BUS R Source
Source
I=?
V=? Phase-A-to-
Ground Fault

Line Fault Transients

4
x 10
2
1.5
1
Currents (A)
0.5
-0.5
-1
ia
-1.5
-2
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
This slide and the next show how the currents and voltages behave in the
substation during a single-phase-to-ground fault. From these figures, it is possible
to determine that the fault was a single-phase-to-ground fault. The detailed
analysis of fault transients is out of the scope of this section of the course, but the
graph is presented to give an idea of the instantaneous evolution of the phase
quantities during the fault.

Line Fault Transients

5
x 10
1.5
Voltages (V) 1
0.5
-0.5
-1
va
-1.5
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time (s)
Note that the high frequency components are present not only on the faulted phase
voltage, but also on the sound phases.

Connection of Sequence Networks
N1 N2 N0
- -
ES - ER - -
+ V1
+ V2 V0
ZS1 + ZR1 ZS2 + ZR2 ZS0 + ZR0
I1 I2 I0
IF1 IF2 IF0
The sequence networks must be connected in a series.
Note the following:
1. The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents at the fault point are equal.
These currents can be easily determined by solving the simple circuit of the figure.
2. The negative- and zero-sequence relay currents can be determined by simple

application of the current divider to the corresponding sequence networks. For
example, for the zero-sequence current, we obtain: I0 = ( Zy/(Zx + Zy)) IF0 =
(AejT) IF0.; where Zx is total impedance on the relay side (S), and Zy is total
impedance on the other side ( R). The complex number AejT is the current divider
factor.
3. The relay positive-sequence current can be calculated using the current divider
formula, if the pre-fault currents are low. Otherwise, considering the differences
between ES and ER, a simple network solution is needed in the positive sequence
network.
4. The polarity of each of the sequence voltages is with respect to their

corresponding neutral (N1, N2, N0).
5. This sequence network analysis is valid only for those cases in which the two-
source equivalent used here is acceptable.

Relay Phase Quantities
Ia = I0 + I1 + I 2
I b = I0 + a 2 I1 + aI 2
Ic = I0 + aI1 + a 2 I 2
Va = V0 + V1 + V2
Vb = V0 + a 2 V1 + aV2
Vc = V0 + aV1 + a 2 V2

Series Faults
l Typical Causes: Broken Conductors

and Blown Fuses
l They Create System Unbalance
(Negative- and Zero-Sequence
Currents)
l We Must Consider Load
Series faults include the following:
• One open phase
• Two open phases
• Reverse phase faults

Series Faults
One Phase Open
P n
x y
a a
x b b y N n
c c x y
n n
O n
x y
The sequence network connection shown is non-typical.

Series Faults
One Phase Open
G H
Z1GH, Z0GH Load
V ZL
Phase a
Z1S= Z2S Open
XTG XTH
Let us analyze the example presented in the figure. Note the transformer
connections.

Series Faults
One Phase Open
N1
V
+
ZL
Z1S G
XTG Z1GH H XTH
X Y
I1G I1H
N2
Z2S ZL
XTG G Z1GH X H XTH
Y
I2G I2H
N0
XTG XTH
G Z0GH Y H
X
I0H
I0G
The non-typical sequence network connections consider the transformers’ deltas

off the side of the fault.
If one of the transformers had a delta connection on the fault side, then the zero-
sequence current would not be present.

Series Faults - Two Phases Open
P n
x y
a a
x b b y N
c n
c
n n x y
O n
x y
Another non-standard network connection.

Symmetrical Components
Present During Series Faults
System Grounding
At Both Sides At One Side
One
Phase 1, 2, 0 1, 2
Open
Two
Phases 1, 2, 0 None
Open

05 Power System Unbalanced Faults r11

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Power System Protection for Engineers – PROT 401 1

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Protection

Copyright © SEL 2004

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 1

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Unbalanced Fault Analysis

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 2

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Faults

l Open Phases (series faults)

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 3

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Three phase Single phase Phase to Two phases

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 4

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Typical Short Circuit Type Distribution

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 5

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

l The Most Common Fault is

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 6

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Flashover in a Distribution Pole

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 7

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

l An Estimated 80 Percent of all System

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 8

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Effects of Ground Faults

l Hazards to Human Safety

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 9

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Neutral Grounding

The neutral grounding impedance limits the ground-fault current.

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 10

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Goals of Power System Grounding

l Minimization of Equipment Voltage

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 11

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Grounding Methods

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 12

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Isolated Neutral System

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 13

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Solidly Grounded Systems

Loads N Ground Fault

G Isolated Neutral Conductor

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 14

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 15

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 16

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 17

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

l Phase Faults: Arc Resistance

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 18

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults

Effect of Fault Impedance

l Reduces Fault Current Values

Power System Unbalanced Faults_r11 19

Section 5 - Power System Unbalanced Faults