Mobile computing and communication

Mobile communication – using this we can transfer information between two or

more points are not connected by an electrical conductor(wired).

Mobile computing- It is the technology that allows the transmission of data, voice
and multimedia via any wireless enabled media.

1) Mobile voice communication is widely spread throughout the world and

had a very rapid increase in number of subscribers to the various cellular
network over the past few years.
2) Mobile data communication has become a very important and evolving
technology as it allows the user to transmit the data from remote location
to another remote locations.

There are 2 aspects of mobile computing-

1) User mobility – user mobility refers to the user who has access to the same
or similar telecommunication services at different places.
2) Device portability- here the device is concerned , i.e. it is responsible to
provide the same service to the use as it was providing earlier to user in
some area.(the communication is still possible when the device is still
moving).

Characteristics of communication device-

1) Fixed and wired- the devices used fixed network(desktop computer at

home)
2) Mobile and wired- laptops fall in this category, users carry laptops to office
and connect to company’s network via telephone cable or modem.
3) Fixed and wireless- this is used in those situations where installing the wire
could cause the damage.(it is a temporary setup).
4) Mobile and wireless- no cable restricts the user.( laptops with WLAN)

Application of mobile computing –

 1) Vehicles- today’s car comprises of wireless communication system and
mobility aware applications like transmission of new, information about
traffic and music etc. The current position of car is determined by using the
GPS(global positioning system). Wireless communication inside a car is
made up of PDA connected via Bluetooth technology.
2) Emergency- transmission of patient data to the hospitals, status of his
diagnosis .wireless network is only the means of communication in case of
natural disaster i.e. earthquake.
3) Business- employees of a company needs instant access to the company
database- to update the files, to keep the track of activities of employees in
company.
4) Quick information- wireless network provide up-to-date information at any
appropriate location.
5) Entertainment- mobile network helps the user to access the multimedia
onto their mobile devices which are connected through the satellite.
6) Education- it also helps in this field by enabling the student to access the
information about any topic from internet of their interest. Also helps them
to study online by providing the lectures.
7) Security system- helps to secure your files and data which are stored on
other system by connecting through the network on remote system.
8) Location dependent services- It is important for some application to know
something about the location or user might need the location information
for further activities such as- follow on services, information services,
support services, privacy.
They are usually classified in the following categories –

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

The main purpose of this device is to act as an electronic organizer or day
planner that is portable, easy to use and capable of sharing information
with your computer systems through a process or service known as
synchronization. The use of infrared and Bluetooth connections enables these
devices to always be synchronized.

Smartphones
1.1 Smartphones have the capability to run multiple programs concurrently.
These phones include high-resolution touch screens, web browsers that
can access and properly display standard web pages rather than just
mobile-optimized sites, and high-speed data access via Wi-Fi and high
speed cellular broadband.
1.2

1.3 TabletPC and iPads

1.4 They offer the same functionality as portable computers. They support
mobile computing in a far superior way and have enormous processing
horsepower. Users can edit and modify document files, access high speed
internet, stream video and audio data, receive and send e-mails,
attend/give lectures and presentations among its very many other
functions. They have excellent screen resolution and clarity.
1.5
Following are the major advantages of Mobile Computing-

1) LOCATION FLEXIBILITY-
2) SAVES TIME
3) ENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY
4) STREAMLINING OF BUSINESS PROCESSES
5) EASE OF RESEARCH
6) ENTERTAINMENT

1.6 Conclusion
Today's computing has rapidly grown from being confined to a single
location. With mobile computing, people can work from the comfort of any
location they wish to as long as the connection and the security concerns
are properly factored. In the same light, the presence of high speed
connections has also promoted the use of mobile computing.

Being an ever growing and emerging technology, mobile computing will

continue to be a core service in computing, and Information and
Communications Technology.

Limitations of mobile computing-

1) INSUFFICIENT BANDWIDTH- Mobile internet access is generally slower than
direct cable connection. Higher speed LANS are inexpensive but have a very
limited range.
2) SECURITY STANDARDS- when working mobile one is dependent on public
network, requiring careful use of virtual public network(VPN).one can easily
attack the VPN through a huge number of network interconnected through
the line.
3) POWER CONSUMPTION- when a power outlet or portable generator is not
available, mobile computer entirely on battery power. Expensive batteries
are needed to ensure the necessary battery life.
4) TRANSMISSION INTERFERENCE-rain, weather, terrain can interfere the
signal reception which often occur in rural areas, in tunnels and buildings
also.
5) POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS- people who use the mobile devices while
driving are more often distracted from driving and thus assumed to be more
likely involved in traffic accidents. There are allegations that cell phones
signal can cause health problems.
6) HUMAN INTERFACE WITH DEVICES- screens and keyboard tends to be
small, which make them hard to use.

Three tier architecture in mobile computing-

1) Presentation layer
2) Application layer
3) Data layer

1) This layer deals with the device handling and rendering, this layer consist
of user system interface where the user service are reside. This is the
layer of user presentation and system application. This tier is responsible
for presenting the information to the user. Presentation layer include the
web browsers such as (Mozilla fire fox, internet explorer.
2) The second layer is the application layer or process management layer.
The middle layer process management tier controls transaction to ensure
the reliable completion of transaction. It performs the business logic of
processing the user input, obtaining data and taking decisions. Besides
managing the business logic there are also other function such as(
 decision taking, security, database access). Middleware frame work is
defined as a layer of software, which sits in middle between the operating
system and the user facing software.
3) The third final tier is the data management or data layer. This layer is for
database access and management. This tier is used to store the data
needed by the application and acts as a repository for temporary data
and permanent data. This can range from hierarchical database,
relational database or even a simple text files.

Database middle ware allows the business logic to be independent and

transparent of database technology and database vendor. Database middle
ware runs between the application program and database.( eg JDBC,ODBC).
 GSM

Global system for mobile communication is a second generation cellular

standard developed to provide the voice services and data delivery. It was
developed by the ETSI- European telecom standard institute.

The GSM-900 was founded in 1982. It was designed to provide the voice
services compatible to ISTN( international switch telephone network) and other
PSTN( public switch telephone network) services.

It is a second generation system-2G.

Services provided by GSM or mobile services-

1) Bearer services
2) Tele services
3) Data services

1) Bearer services-
a) Non-Transparent bearer services- if data is transferred between
the physical to physical layer then the lowered layers are not
inform about the transfer of data.(functionality is hidden)
b) Transparent services- If data is transferred between the
physical layers to another physical layer then lowered level
layers are informed about the transfer of data.(functionality is
not hidden).
2) Data services-
a) Circuit switched- It is less efficient.
b) Packet switched- It is more efficient.

Call waiting- Notification of an incoming call while on the

handset.

Call hold- Put a caller on hold to take another call

Call forwarding- calls can be sent to various numbers defined by

the user.

Telecommunication services to transfer data between the access

points.
 3) Tele services-
a) Emergency number
b) Short message service(SMS)
c) Multimedia message service

Telecommunication services that enable voice communication via mobile

phones. Primary goal of the GSM to enable the mobile telephony offering the
traditional bandwidth of 3.1khz.
  RSS(radio station subsystem)
 BSS(base station subsystem)-
1. Maintain radio connection to MS
2. Coding/decoding of voice
3. Rate adaption
I. BASE TRANSRECIEVER STATION- comprises of antennas, signal
processing, amplifiers etc. Can form the single radio cell or several cells
by using antennas. Encodes, encrypt, multiplexes, modulates and feeds
the RF signals to antenna. Communication with the mobile station and
BSC.
II. BASE STATION CONTROLLER- Manages the radio resources for one or
more BTS. Handles the radio setup, frequency hopping. Handles the
inter-cell handovers. Assign frequency and time slots for all Ms in its
area. Handles the call setup. Handover for each MS. It communicates
with the MSC and BTS.
 MOBILE STATION- IMEI is used to identify a MS. It is basically the mobile
handset.
I. MOBILE EQUIPMENT- Portable, vehicle mounted and hand held device.
Uniquely identified by the IMEI (International mobile equipment
 identity). Voice and data transmission. Monitoring power and signal
quality of surrounding cells to optimum handover.
II. SIM(SUBSCRIBERS IDENTITY MODULE)- Smart card contains the
International mobile subscribers identity (IMSI). Allows the user to send
and receive the calls and other subscribed services. Protected by a
password or PIN. Can be moved from phone to phone- contains the key
information to activate the phone.
Um interface is the air interface for radio waves.
 NETWORK SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM(NSS)- Connects the radio public
network to standard public network. Contains databases(HLR,VLR) &
switches for GSM.
I. MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER- They are high performance digital ISDN
switches. Each MSC controls one or more BSS. It does registration,
location updating, network interface, authentication. It is also known as
heart of the network. Manages the communication between GSM and
other networks. Billing information and collection. Mobility management-
inter BSS and MSC call handoff.
II. GMSC(GATEWAY MOBILE SWITCHING CENTER)- responsible for
communication with external fixed network such as PSTN and ISDN.
III. HLR(HOME LOCATION REGISTER)- central database, holds the
permanent details about the subscriber. It has static information as well
as dynamic information. As soon as mobile subscriber leaves its current
local area, the information in the HLR is updated. Database contains the
IMSI, MSISDN, prepaid/postpaid, roaming restrictions.
IV. VLR(VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER)- Database containing the mobile
records of all mobile stations currently registered with MSC. Temporary
database which updates whenever new MS enters in its area, by HLR
database. Assigns the TMSI to each MS entering the VLR area which
keeps on changing. Controls those mobiles roaming in its area.
V. INF(INTERNETWORKING FUNCTIONS)- Provides the MSC to connect to
the public data network(PDN).
 OPERATION SUBSYSTEM(OSS)- A functional entity is used to monitor and
control the overall GSM network. Used to control the traffic load.
I. OMC(OPERATION AND MANTAINANCE CENTER)- The centralized
operation of the various units in the system and functions needed to
maintain the system. Dynamic modeling and controlling of network.
 Functions- configuration management, fault report and alarm handling,
performance and supervision/management, storage of system software
and data.
II. AUC(AUTHENTICATION CENTER)- Contains the algorithm for
authentication as well as key for encryption. Protect the network operator
from frauds. Situated in special protected part of the HLR.
III. EIR(EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER)- Stores all devices identification
registered on this network. Database that is used to track handsets using
the IMEI(international mobile equipment identity). Prevents the calls
from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile.

Performance characteristics of GSM( w.r.t. to analog sys)

I. COMMUNICATION- mobile, wireless communication supports for voice

and data services, longer battery life.
II. TOTAL MOBILITY- international access
III. WORLD WIDE CONNECTIVITY- the network handles the localization.
IV. HIGH CAPACITY- better frequency, efficiency, more customer per cells
V. HIGH TRANSMISSION QUALITY- high audio quality and reliability for
wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at higher speeds.
VI. SECURITY FUNCTIONS- access control, authentication via PIN,
encryption capability.

DISADVANTAGES OF GSM

1. No end to end encryption of user data.

2. Reduced concentration while driving
3. Electromagnetic radiations
4. Abuse of private data possible
5. High complexity of the system
6. Several incompatibilities with GSM standard

AIR INTERFACE- The interface between the MS and BTs is known as um. The GSM is
based on (TDMA)time division multiple access and frequency division duplex(FDD).
 PROTOCOLS OF GSM ARCHITECTURE-
protocol architecture used for the exchange of signaling messages on each interface.
The protocols are layered according to the OSI Reference Model. It consists of the
Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, and Layer 3. This Layer 3 is not the same as defined in
OSI Layer 3. In GSM, the Layer 3 functions include call, mobility, and radio resource
management. In the OSI model, these functions are provided by the higher layers. GSM
reuses a few established protocols such as CCS7 MTP, TCAP, SCCP, ISUP, and ISDN
LAPD protocols. The MAP and BSSAP are new protocols to support GSM specific
needs.

MS PROTOCOLS- It comprises of 3 general layers:-

a) LAYER 1(PHYSICAL LAYER) – It is radio interface, provides the functionality

required to transfer the bits over the physical channels on the radio medium.
These layers provides the services include-

I. Channel mapping( logical to physical)

II. Channel coding and ciphering

III. Digital modulation

IV. Frequency hopping

V. Power control

b) LAYER 2(DATA LINK LAYER )- It is based on the LAPDm protocol which is the
variation of ISDN-LAP-D protocol. The main task of LAPDm is to provide a
 reliable signaling link between network and mobile station.. LAP-D protocol has
been modified to adapt in the mobile environment. . The physical layer itself does
the frame delimitation.

c) LAYER 3(NETWORK LAYER)- It takes care of the signaling between the MS and
network. It consist of 3 sub-layers:-

I. RADIO RESOURCE MANAGEMENT(RRM)- It comprises of the

procedures required to establish, maintain and release the
dedicated radio connections. It functions are-

i. Channel assignment and release

ii. Ciphering

iii. Handover between cells

iv. Paging

v. Radio channel access

II. MOBILITY MANAGEMENT(MM)- It handles functions and

procedures related to mobility of the mobile user. This includes the
procedure of-

i. Security

ii. IMSI attach/detach

iii. Authentication

iv. Location and periodic updating

III. CONNECTION MANAGEMENT(CM)- It contains the function and

procedure for call control. This includes the procedure for establish,
release and access the services and facilities. CM consist of 3 sub-
layers-

i. Call control

ii. Supplementary services

 iii. Short message services

MS to BTS Protocols
The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed,
between the MS and the MSC. For this formation, the main components
involved are the MS, BSS, and MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to
manage the RR-session, the time when a mobile is in a dedicated mode,
and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.

The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise
from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security
aspects. Location management is concerned with the procedures that enable
the system to know the current location of a powered-on MS so that incoming
call routing can be completed.

The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is
responsible for Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short
Message Service Management. Each of these services are treated as individual
layer within the CM layer. Other functions of the CC sublayer include call
establishment, selection of the type of service (including alternating between
services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols

The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the
BTS. The Abis interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the
radio resources at the lower portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to
the Base Transceiver Station Management (BTSM). The BTS management
layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.

To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the
direct application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so
that the MTP 1-3 can be used as the prime architecture

MSC Protocols
Location registers are included in the MSC databases to assist in the role of
determining how and whether connections are to be made to roaming users.
Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s
location and subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to
track the location of a user. When the users move out of the HLR covered
area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find the location of the user. The VLR
in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the HLR of the MS’s
new location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s
HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user.

LOACLIZATION AND CALLING-

 Localization in GSM provide automatic, worldwide localization of the

users. The system always know where the user currently is, and the
smart phone number is valid worldwide.
 To provide this service, GSM performs periodic location updates even if
the user does not use the mobile station.
 HLR always contains the information about the current location, the VLR
currently responsible for the MS informs the HLR about the location
changes.
 Roaming enables the mobile subscriber to automatically make and
receive voice calls, send and receive data , access the other services
while travelling outside the geographical coverage area of their home
network, by the means of visited network.
 Roaming is technically supported by mobility management,
authentication and billing procedures. Established roaming between the
network is based on the dedicated roaming networks.
 To locate MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed-
(MSISDN) mobile station international ISDN number.
 This number consist of the country code(CC) eg- +49 179 1234567 with
49 for Germany).(NDC) national destination code i.e. 179 and (SN)
subscriber number i.e. 1234567.
 GSM uses the IMSI(international mobile subscriber identity) for unique
identification of subscriber. IMSI consist of country code eg. 240 for
Sweden, MNC(mobile network code) the code of the network provider
and finally the MSIN(mobile subscriber identification number).
 TMSI(temporary mobile subscriber identity) to hide the IMSI, which
would give the exact identity of user signaling over the air interface.
MESSAGE FLOW FOR MTC AND MOC
HANDOVER- Cellular call or data session is transferred from one
cell site to another without disconnecting the session. It maintains
the continuity of calls. No, of handover/handoff depends upon the
cell size and speed of MS. Cellular handover are required as the
single cell do not cover the whole service area.

There are 2 main reasons for handover-

a) The mobile station moves out of the range of BTS,
decreasing the received signal level, increasing the error rate
and thereby decreasing the quality of radio link.
b) Handover may be due to load balancing, when MSC/BSC
decides that traffic is too high in one cell and shifts MS to
other cell with lower load.
NEED OF HANDOVER- When phone is moving away from the area covered by
one cell and entering the area covered by another cell the call is transferred to
second cell to avoid the call termination.

a) Intra-cell handover:- here the source and target are the same cell and
only the used channel is changed during the handover. Such handover in
which cell is not changed is called intra-cell handover.
b) Inter-cell handover:- when the source and target cells may be served
from different cell sites. Such a handover in which the source and the
target cell are different is known as inter-cell handover.
c) Hard handover:- an instantaneous handover in which the existing
connection is terminated and the connection to the destination channel is
made. It is also known as break-before-make handover. The process is
so instantaneous that the user does not hear any noticeable interruption.
In this handover BTS change with the change in the frequency.(BTS-1 F1
BTS-2 F2).
d) Soft handover:- A substantial handover where the connection to new
channel is made before the connection from source channel is
disconnected. This type of handover is very effective in poor coverage
areas. In this handover BTS change but the frequency remains the
same.(BTS-1 F1 BTS-2 F1).
SECURITY- GSM offers several security services using confidential
information stored in AUC and in the individual SIM. The SIM stores the
secret, personal data and is protected with the PIN against unauthorized
use. Three algorithms have been specified to provide security services in
GSM. (A3) is used for authentication, (A5) for encryption and (A8) for the
generation a cipher key.

PRIVACY-

 Access control and authentication

 Confidentiality
 Anonymity
 ACCESS CONTROL AND AUTHENTICATION- The first step includes the
authentication of the user for the SIM. The next step is the subscribers
identification.
Authentication is based on the SIM, which store the individual
authentication key(ki) the user identification IMSI, the algorithm used for
authentication(A3). The AUC performs the basic generation of random
values(RAND), signed response(SRES), and the cipher key(kc), and then
forward the information to the HLR. The current VLR request the
information such as RAND, SRES, kc from the HLR. Both the sides,
network and subscriber module performs the same operation with the
RAND and the key called (A3). The MS sends back the SRES generated
by the SIM, the VLR now compares both the values. If they are same VLR
accepts the subscriber, otherwise rejects the subscriber.
 CONFIDENTIALITY- All user-related data is encrypted. Encryption of
voice, data and signaling. After authentication, MS and BSS can start
using encryption by applying the cipher key(kc), which is generated using
the individual key(ki), and the random value by applying the (A8)
 algorithm. Note that the SIM in the MS and network both calculate the
same (kc) based on the random value RAND. MS and BTS can now
encrypt and decrypt the data suing the algorithm (A5) and the cipher
key(kc).
 ANONYMITY- All the data is encrypted before the transmission and the
users are identifiers are not used over the air. GSM transmits temporary
identifiers(TMSI), which is assigned by the VLR after location update.
Additionally VLR can change the TMSI anytime.

NEW DATA SERVICES- To enhance the data transmission capabilities of

GSM, two basic approaches are possible. The basic GSM is based on the
connection-oriented traffic channel, several channels could be combined
to increase the bandwidth is known as high speed circuit switched
data(HSCSD). A more progressive step is the introduction of packet-
oriented traffic in the GSM i.e. shifting the paradigm from connection
thinking to packet thinking. The system is known as GPRS(general packet
radio service).
 HSCSD- Improvements of GSM data transmission capabilities is
high speed circuit switched data in which higher data rates are
achieved by bundling the several TCH’s. Ms request one or more
TCH from GSM network i.e. allocates several TDMA slots with
several TDMA frames. More slots are allocated to download link
than the upload link that enables the user to download more data
than uploading. A major disadvantage of HSCSD is that it still uses
the connection oriented mechanism, which is not efficient for
computer data traffic.
 GPRS(general packet radio service)- The next step towards
powerful and flexible data transmission which avoids the problem
of HCSSD is fully packet-oriented.
 Developed by the ETSI in 1994
 It is a packet-oriented mobile data service.
 It reuses the existing GSM architecture
 In the early 2000’s , only a small portion of GSM subscribers
used data services because existing GSM system do not
support easy access, high data rates.
  GPRS reuses the existing GSM infrastructure to provide end-
to-end packet switched service.
 It exhibits frequent transmission of small volume according
to the requirement specification.

MS(mobile station) New mobile station is required to access the GPRS

service. These new terminals will be backward
compatible with the GSM for voice calls.

BTS A software update is required in the base transceiver

station(BTS).

BSC Base station controller require a software update and

installation of new hardware called the packet control
unit(PCU).The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS
network and can be a separate element of the BSC.

SGNS The deployment of GPRS require the installation of new

core network element called the serving GPRS support
node(SGSN) and gateway GPRS support node(GGSN).

Databases(HLR,VLR) All the database in the network require the software

upgrade to handle the new call models and functions
introduced by GPRS.
 GPRS include the several security services such as authentication, access
control, user information confidentiality.
 The GPRS introduces the 2 new elements known as serving GPRS support
node(SGSN) which are in fact routers.
 The gateway GPRS support node(GGSN) is the networking unit between
the GPRS network and the external packet data network(PDN), it also
provide routing information.
 The GGSN is connected to the external interface via(Gi) interface and
send the packets of data to the SGSN via(Gn) interface.
 SGSN which supports the MS via (Gb) interface request the user address
from the GR(GPRS register) that keeps the track of the individual MS
location, responsible for collection billing information and perform the
several security functions such as access control. It also provide the
facility of data compression, user authentication, protocol conversion. The
GR which is the part of HLR stores the GPRS related data.
 Before sending data over the GPRS, MS must be attached to it, besides
attaching/detaching mobility management also comprises of function
such as authentication, location management and ciphering.
 To achieve the high reliability of packet transfer between the SGSN and
MS, a special LLC is used which comprises of ARQ mechanism.
 FEATURES OF GPRS-
1. It provides the data packet delivery service.
2. It supports leading internet connection protocol.
3. It has a data speed rate of 14.4-115 kbps.

 APPLICATION OF GPRS-
1. COMMUNICATION- Email, fax, internet access.
2. VALUE-ADDED SERVICES- information services and games.
3. E-COMMERCE- retail, banking and financial trading.
4. ADVERTSING- user entering the mall can receive advertisements
specific to the stores in the mall.

 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL- Medium access control is the sub-layer of

the data link layer of the OSI network model.
 MAC layer is responsible for transmission of data packets to and
from network interface card or any other channel.
  The basic function of the MAC is to provide the addressing
mechanism and channel access so that each node on the network
can communicate with the other nodes available on the network or
any other network
 MAC is thus similar to traffic regulation in multiplexing.
 The task of this layer is to establish a reliable point to point or
multipoint connection between the multiple devices through wired
or wireless medium.
 MOTIVATION FOR SPECILAIZED MAC
 Example-CSMA/CD carrier sense multiple detection with collision
detection.( sends as soon as the medium is free, look into the
system when collision occurs).
 Problems in wireless network-
1. Signal strength decreases proportional to he distance.
2. Sender could apply the CS/CD, the collision would occur at
receivers end.
3. It might be case that sender could not hear the collision( CD
does not work).
 HIDDEN TERMINAL AND EXPOSED TERMINAL-
1. HIDDEN TERMINAL- The hidden terminal problem occurs
when the terminal is visible from the wireless access points
but not from other nodes communicating with that ap.
Hidden terminals are the nodes in the wireless network that
are out of range of other nodes or collection of nodes.
The problem is when node A and C starts to send packets
simultaneously to the access point B. Because node A and C
are out of the range of each other so they cannot detect the
collision while transmitting, carrier sense multiple detection
with collision detection does not work, and collision occur,
which then corrupt the data received by the access point.
The transmission range of A reaches at point B, but not the
access point C, similarly the transmission range of C reaches
at B, but not at access point A. These nodes are called as
hidden terminals.
Hidden nodes problem can be solved by-
i. Increasing the transmitting power from the nodes.
 ii. Using omni-directional antennas
iii. Remove obstacles
iv. Move the node

 In wireless network when a anode is prevented from sending the

packets to another node because of the neighboring transmitters is
known as exposed terminals. B sends to A, C wants to send to another
terminal D not A or B
 C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.
 C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle
again
 But A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary
 C is “exposed” to B
SDMA- Space division multiple access is used to allocate the separate space to
users in wireless network. It involves assigning a base station to the mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base station with different
quality. A MAC algorithm could decide to which base station is best, taking into
account which frequencies (FDM) or time slots (TDM) are available. It is not
used as isolation but use in one or more schemes. The basis for SDMA algorithm
is formed by cells and sectorized antennas which implements the space division
multiplexing (SDM).

FDMA- Frequency division multiple access comprises of all the algorithm

allocating the frequencies to transmission channel according to frequency
division multiplexing (FDM). Allocation can either be fixed or dynamic. It is used
for simultaneous access to medium by base station and mobile station in
cellular network. Here DUPLEX channel is established which allows the
transmission in both the directions. This scheme is known as frequency division
duplex (FDD). Both the partners need to know the frequency in advance, cannot
just listen to medium. The two frequencies are known as uplink i.e. from mobile
station to base station or from ground control to satellite, downlink i.e. from
base station to mobile station or from satellite to ground control.

All the uplink uses the bandwidth between 890 and 915 MHz and downlink uses
935 to 960 MHZ. Each channel uplink and downlink has a bandwidth of 200
KHz.

TDMA- Compared to the FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA) offers a
much more flexible scheme, which comprises of all the technologies that
allocate certain time slots form communication. Now receiver can stay at the
same frequency for all the time. Using only one frequency, simple the receivers
and transmitters, many algorithm exist to control the medium access. Listening
to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to many
channels separated at same time is simple. This scheme runs on wired network
such as- Ethernet, ATM and Token ring. Synchronization between the receiver
and sender has to be reached in time domain. This can be done similar to
FDMA, allocating the certain time slots to channel using dynamic allocation
scheme. MAC address used as identification.

CDMA- codes with certain characteristics are applied to transmission to enable

the use of code division multiplexing. Code division multiple access (CDMA)
system use these codes to separate different users and to enable access to
shared medium without interference. A code for certain user should be
orthogonal i.e. the inner product of two vectors should be 0. E.g.-(2,5,0) *
(0,0,17)= 0+0+0=0.