Reading: The Kingdom of Israel by Thomas Hunter Weir

The First Period.

1. The Two Kingdoms:

The circumstances leading up to the foundation of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, or the
Kingdom of the Ten Tribes, have been detailed under the heading KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
From a secular point of view it would be more natural to regard the latter as an offshoot from
the former, rather than the converse. But not only is the kingdom of Judah of great importance
in respect of both religion and literature, but its government also was in the hands of a single
dynasty, whereas that of the Northern Kingdom changed hands no less than 8 times, during
the two and a half centuries of its existence. Moreover, the Southern Kingdom lasted about
twice as long as the other.

2. The Ist Dynasty:

No sooner had Jeroboam I been elected the first ruler of the newly founded state than he set
about managing its affairs with the energy for which he was distinguished (1 Kings 11:28). To
complete the disruption he established a sanctuary in opposition to that of Jerusalem (Hosea
8:14), with its own order of priests (2 Chronicles 11:14;13:9), and founded two capital cities,
Shechem on the West and Penuel on the East of the Jordan (1 Kings 12:25). Peace seems to
have been maintained between the rival governments during the 17 years' reign of Rehoboam,
but when his son Abijah took the throne war broke out (1 Kings 15:6,7;2 Chronicles 13:3).
Shortly afterward Jeroboam died and was succeeded by his son Nadab, who was a year later
assassinated, and the Ist Dynasty came to an end, after an existence of 23 years, being
limited, in fact, to a single reign.

3. The IInd Dynasty:

The turn of the tribe of Issachar came next. They had not yet given a ruler to Israel; they could
claim none of the judges, but they had taken their part at the assembling of the tribes under
Deborah and Barak of Naphtali. Baasha began his reign of 24 years by extirpating the house of
his predecessor (1 Kings 15:29), just as the `Abbasids annihilated the Umeiyads. The capital
was now Tirzah (1 Kings 14:17;Song of Solomon 6:4), a site not yet identified. His Judean
contemporary was ASA (which see), who, like his father Abijah, called in the aid of the Syrians
against the Northern Kingdom. Baasha was unequal to the double contest and was forced to
evacuate the ground he had gained. His son Elah was assassinated after a reign of a year, as
he himself had assassinated the son of the founder of the preceding dynasty, and his entire
family and adherents were massacred (1 Kings 16:11).

4. Civil War:

The name of the assassin was Zimri, an officer of the charioteers, of unknown origin and tribe.
But the kingship was always elective, and the army chose Omri, the commander-in-chief, who
besieged and took Tirzah, Zimri setting the palace on fire by his own hand and perishing in the
flames. A second pretender, Tibni, a name found in Phoenician and Assyrian, of unknown
origin, sprang up. He was quickly disposed of, and security of government was reestablished.

II. Period of the Syrian Wars.

1. The IIId Dynasty:

The founder of the new dynasty was Omri. By this time the Northern Kingdom was so much a
united whole that the distinctions of tribe were forgotten. We do not know to what tribe Omri
and his successors belonged. With Omri the political sphere of action of Israel became wider
than it had been before, and its internal affairs more settled. His civil code was in force long
after his dynasty was extinct, and was adopted in the Southern Kingdom (Micah 6:16). The
capital city, the site of which he chose, has remained a place of human habitation till the
present day. Within the last few years, remains of his building have been recovered, showing a
great advance in that art from those believed to go back to Rehoboam and Solomon. He was,
however, unfortunate in his relations with Syria, having lost some towns and been forced to
grant certain trading concessions to his northern neighbors (1 Kings 20:34). But he was so
great a king that long after his death the Kingdom of the Ten Tribes was known to the
Assyrians as "the house of Omri."

2. World-Politics:

Contemporarily with this dynasty, there occurred a revival of the Phoenician power, which
exerted a powerful influence upon the Israelite kings and people, and at the same time the
Assyrians once more began to interfere with Syrian politics. The Northern Kingdom now began
to play a part in the game of world-politics. There was peace with Judah, and alliance with
Phoenicia was cemented by the marriage of Ahab, it seems after his father's death, with
Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). This led to the erection of a temple in
Samaria in which the Tyrian Baal was worshipped, while side by side with it the worship of
Yahweh was carried on as before. It seems as if the people had fallen back from the pure
monotheism of Moses and David into what is known as henotheism. Against this relapse Elijah
protested with final success. Ahab was a wise and skillful soldier, without rashness, but also
without decision. He defeated a Syrian coalition in two campaigns (1 Kings 20) and imposed on
Ben-hadad the same conditions which the latter had imposed on Omri. With the close of the
reign of Asa in Judah, war ceased between the two Israelite kingdoms and the two kings for
the first time became friends and fought side by side (1 Kings 22). In the reign of Ahab we note
the beginning of decay in the state in regard to personal liberty and equal justice. The tragedy
of Naboth's vineyard would not have happened but for the influence of Tyrian ideas, any more
than in the case of the famous windmill which stands by the palace of Sans Souci at Potsdam.
A further improvement in the art of building took place in this reign. The palace of Ahab, which
has recently been recovered by the excavations carded on by the Harvard University
Expedition under Dr. G.A. Reisner, shows a marked advance in fineness of workmanship upon
that of Omri.

3. Battle of Karkar:

The object of Ben-hadad's attack upon Ahab seems to have been to compel him to join a
league founded to resist the encroachments of Assyria upon the countries bordering upon the
Mediterranean. The confederates, who were led by Ben-hadad, and of whom Ahab was one,
were defeated by Shalmaneser II in the battle of Karkar. The date is known from the
inscriptions to have been the year 854-853. It is the first quite certain date in Hebrew history,
and from it the earlier dates must be reckoned by working backward. Ahab seems to have
seized the moment of Syria's weakness to exact by force the fulfillment of their agreement on
the part of Ben-hadad (1 Kings 22).

4. Losses of Territory:

On the other hand, the king of Moab, Mesha, appears to have turned the same disaster to
account by throwing off his allegiance to Israel, which dated from the time of David, but had
apparently lapsed until it was enforced anew by Omri (MS, ll. 4, but l. 8 makes Omri's reign
plus half Ahabs = 40 years). Ahab's son and successor Jehoram (omitting Ahaziah, who is
chiefly notable as a devotee of Baal-zebub, the god of Ekron), with the aid of Jehoshaphat and
his vassal, the king of Edom, attempted to recover his rights, but in vain (2 Kings 3). It may
have been in consequence of the failure of this expedition that the Syrians again besieged
Samaria and reduced it to great straits (2 Kings 6:24;7), but the date is uncertain. Jehoram
replied with a counter-attack upon the East of the Jordan.

5. Reform of Religion:

It was no doubt owing to his connection with the king of Judah that Jehoram so far modified the
worship and ritual as to remove the worst innovations which had come to prevail in the
Northern Kingdom (2 Kings 3:1-3). But these half-measures did not satisfy the demands of the
time, and in the revolution which followed both he and his dynasty were swept away. The
dynasty had lasted, according to the Biblical account, less than half a century.

6. Revolution:

The religious reformation, or rather revolution, which swept away almost entirely both royal
houses, bears a good deal of resemblance to the Wahhabi rising in Arabia at the beginning of
the 18th century. It took its origin from prophetism (1 Kings 19:16), and was supported by the
Rechabite Jonadab. The object of the movement headed by Jehu was nominally to revenge
the prophets of Yahweh put to death by order of Jezebel, but in reality it was much wider and
aimed at nothing less than rooting out the Baal-worship altogether, and enforcing a return to
the faith and worship prescribed by their forefathers. Just as the Wahhabis went back to
Mohammed's doctrine, as contained in the Koran and the Tradition, and as the Rechabites
preserved the simplicity of the early desert life, so Jehu went back to the state of things as they
were at the foundation of the Northern Kingdom under Jeroboam I.

7. IVth Dynasty:

Jehu's reforms were carried out to the letter, and the whole dynasty of Omri, which was
responsible for the innovations, was annihilated like its predecessors. The religious fervor,
however, soon subsided, and Jehu's reign ended in disaster. Hazael, whose armies had been
exterminated by the forces of Assyria, turned his attention to the eastern territory of Israel. In
the turbulent land of Gilead, the home of Elijah, disappointed in its hopes of Jehu, he quickly
established his supremacy (2 Kings 10:32). Jehu also appreciated the significance of the
victories of Assyria, and was wise enough to send tribute to Shalmaneser II. This was in the
year 842. Under his son and successor Jehoahaz the fortunes of Israel continued to decline,
until Hazael imposed upon it the most humiliating conditions (Amos 1:3-5;2 Kings 13:1).

8. Renewed Prosperity:

Toward the end of the reign of Jehoahaz, however, the tide began to turn, under the leadership
of a military genius whose name has not been recorded (2 Kings 13:5); and the improvement
continued, after the death of Hazael, under his son Jehoash (Joash), who even besieged and
plundered Jerusalem (2 Kings 14:8). But it was not until the long reign of Jeroboam II, son of
Jehoash, that the frontiers of Israel, were, for the first time since the beginning of the kingdom,
restored to their ideal limits. Even Damascus and Hamath were subdued (2 Kings 14:28). But
the prosperity was superficial. Jeroboam II stood at the head of a military oligarchy, who
crushed the great mass of the people under them. The tribune of the plebs at this time was
Amos of Tekoa. His prophecies, of which the nation did not take heed, were soon fulfilled. The
dynasty, which had been founded in blood and had lasted some 90 years, on the accesssion of
Jeroboam's son Zachariah gave place to 12 years of anarchy.

9. Anarchy:
Zachariah was almost immediately assassinated by Shallum, who within a month was in turn
assassinated by Menahem, a soldier of the tribe of Gad, stationed in Tirzah, to avenge the
death of his master. The low social condition of Israel at this time is depicted in the pages of
Hos. The atrocities perpetrated by the soldiers of Menahem are mentioned by Josephus (Ant.,
IX, xi, 1).

III. Decline and Fall.

1. Loss of Independence:

Meantime Pul or Pulu had founded the second Assyrian empire under the name of Tiglath-
pileser III. Before conquering Babylonia, he broke the Independ power of the Hittites in the
West, and made himself master of the routes leading to the Phoenician seaports. As the
eclipse of the Assyrian power had allowed the expansion of Israel under Jeroboam II, so its
revival now crushed the independence of the nation forever. Menahem bought stability for his
throne by the payment of an immense bribe of 1,000 talents of silver, or ,000,000, reckoning
the silver talent at ,000. The money was raised by means of an assessment of 50 talents each
upon all the men of known wealth. The payment of this tribute is mentioned on the Assyrian
monuments, the date being 738.

2. Decline:

Menahem reigned 10 years. His son Pekahiah was, soon after taking the throne, assassinated
by one of his own captains, Pekah, son of Remaliah, who established himself, with the help of
some Gileadites, as king. He formed an alliance with Rezin of Damascus against Israel,
defeating Ahaz in two pitched battles, taking numerous captives, and even reaching the walls
of Jerusalem. The result was disastrous to both allies. Ahaz called in the aid of the Assyrians.
Tiglath-pileser put an end to the kingdom of Damascus, and deported the inhabitants of
Northern and Eastern Palestine. The kingdom of Israel was reduced to the dimensions of the
later province of Samaria. Pekah himself was assassinated by Hoshea, who became king
under the tutelage of the Assyrian overlord. The depopulated provinces were filled with
colonists from the conquered countries of the East. The year is 734 BC.

3. Extinction:

Hoshea was never an independent king, but the mere vassal of Assyria. He was foolish
enough to withhold the annual tribute, and to turn to Egypt for succor. Meanwhile, Tiglath-
pileser III had been succeeded by Shalmaneser IV. This king laid siege to Samaria, but died
during the siege. The city was taken by his successor Sargon, who had seized the throne,
toward the end of the year 722.

4. Summary:

The Northern Kingdom had lasted 240 years, which fall into three periods of about 80 years
each, the middle period being the period of the Syrian wars. As it was fully formed when it
broke off from the Southern Kingdom, its history shows no development or evolution, but is
made up of undulations of prosperity and of decline. It was at its best immediately after its
foundation, and again under Jeroboam II. It was strong under Baasha, Omri and Ahab, but
generally weak under the other kings. Every change of dynasty meant a period of anarchy,
when the country was at the mercy of every invader. The fortunes of Israel depended entirely
on those of Assyria. When Assyria was weak, Israel was strong. Given the advance of Assyria,
the destruction of Israel was certain. This was necessary and was clearly foreseen by Hosea
(9:3, etc.). The wonder is that the little state, surrounded by such powerful neighbors, lasted as
long as it did.
See, further, ISRAEL, HISTORY OF, V.

LITERATURE.

The most important works are Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (English Translation by
Martineau and Glover); Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels; Derenbourg, Essai sur l'histoire .... de
la Palestine; and there are many more. Ewald is best known to English readers through the
medium of Dean Stanley's Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. See further under
CHRONOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT; ISRAEL, and articles on individual kings.

Reading: King David by Thomas Hunter Weir

I. Name and Genealogy.

David belonged to the tribe of Judah: his ancestor Nahshon was chieftain of the whole tribe
(Numbers 1:7;2:3; 1 Chronicles 2:10) and brother-in-law of Aaron the high priest (Exodus
6:23). As no other descendants of Nahshon are mentioned, his authority probably descended
to Jesse. This supposition is countenanced by the fact that Salma (Salmon), the name of the
son of Nahshon and father of Boaz, is also the name of a grandson of Caleb who became
"father" of Bethlehem, the home of Jesse (1 Chronicles 2:51).

II. Early Years.

The home of David, when he comes upon the stage of history, was the picturesque town of
Bethlehem.

1. Shepherd:

There his family had been settled for generations, indeed ever since the Israelite nation had
overrun the land of Canaan. His father was apparently not only the chief man of the place, but
he seems to have been chieftain of the whole clan to which he belonged--the clan of Judah.
Although the country round Bethlehem is more fertile than that in the neighborhood of
Jerusalem, the inhabitants joined to the cultivation of the soil the breeding of cattle (Luke 2:8).
David's father, not only cultivated his ancestral fields, but kept flocks of sheep and goats as
well. The flocks were sent out every day to pasture in the neighboring valleys attended by the
herdsmen. They were armed so as to defend themselves and their charge, not only against
marauders from the surrounding deserts, but also from the lions and bears with which the
country was then infested. David seems to have been in the habit of accompanying his father's
servants in their task (1 Samuel 17:20,22), and on occasion would be left in full charge by
himself. He had not only to keep a sharp lookout for thieves, but on more than one occasion
had with no other weapon than his shepherd's club or staff to rescue a lamb from the clutches
of a lion or a bear (1 Samuel 17:34). Such adventures, however, must have been rare, and
David must often have watched eagerly the lengthening of the shadow that told of the
approach of sunset, when he could drive his charge into the zariba for the night and return
home.

2. Slinger:

In the East, every man is a soldier, and David's bent was in that direction. The tribesmen of
Benjamin near whose border his home was situated were famed through all Israel as
"slingers", some of whom could sling at a hair and not miss (Judges 20:16). Taught, perhaps,
by one of these, but certainly by dint of constant practice, David acquired an accuracy of aim
(1 Samuel 17:49).

3. Harpist:
Another of the pastimes in the pursuit of which David spent many an hour of his youthful days
was music. The instrument that he used was the "harp" (Hebrew kinnor). David acquired such
proficiency in playing it that his fame as a musician soon spread throughout the countryside
(1 Samuel 16:18).

4. Poet:

To the accompaniment of his lyre, David no doubt sang words in that wailing eastern tone
which seems to be an imitation of the bleating of flocks. The secular poetry of David which
have come down to us are his elegies on Saul and Jonathan and on Abner (2 Samuel 1:19-
27; 3:33,14), which show him to have been a real poet.

5. Psalmist:

David also composed sacred verses. He was "the sweet psalmist of Israel" (2 Samuel 23:1). It
is in the later books and passages that sacred music and psalms are ascribed to him. Perhaps
the earliest instance is the passage just cited containing the "last words" of David (2 Samuel
23:1-7). The Chronicler (about 300 BC) puts parts of Psalms 105; 96, and 106 into the mouth
of David (1 Chronicles 16:7). And Nehemiah 12:36 regards him as the inventor of the
instruments used in the Temple service (1 Chronicles 23:5), and as a player of sacred music.
So too in the Septuagint Psalter (Psalms 150:2) we read, "My hands made an organ, my
fingers fashioned a psaltery". The majority of the Psalms are ascribed to David as
author. David composed sacred poems, and he used his musical gifts for the purposes of
praising God.

III. In the Service of Saul.

The earliest events in the career of David are less clear.

1. David First Meets Saul:

This issue is due mainly to what appears to be a difficulty in 1 Samuel 16 and 17. In chapter
16, David is engaged to play before Saul in order to dispel his melancholy and becomes his
squire or armor-bearer (16:21). In the following chapter, he is unknown to Saul, who, after the
death of Goliath, asks Abner who he is, and Abner replies that he does not know (17:55). This
apparent contradiction may be accounted for by the following considerations:

(a) 1 Samuel 16:14-23 may be inserted out of its chronological order for the sake of the
contrast with the section immediately preceding--"the Spirit of Yahweh came mightily upon
David from that day forward .... the Spirit of Yahweh departed from Saul" (16:13,14);

(b) The fact of David becoming Saul's squire does not imply constant personal attendance
upon him; the text says David became an (not his) armor-bearer to Saul. The king would have
many such squires: for example, Joab, though only commander-in-chief, had, it seems,
eighteen (2 Samuel 23:37 reads "armor-bearers");

(c) David would not play before Saul every day: his presence might not be required for a space
of weeks or months;

(d) Saul's failure to recognize David may have been a result of the `evil spirit from Yahweh' and
Abner's denial of knowledge may have been feigned out of jealousy.

2. His First Exploit:

After Saul had disobeyed the Lord God's instructions in 1 Samuel 15 regarding the Amalekites,
Samuel was sent to anoint a new king in 1 Samuel 16. After viewing seven of Jesse's sons,
Samuel asked if there were any more since the Lord had not selected any of the seven. So
Jesse sent for the youngest and David was anointed, and the Spirit of the Lord came upon him
(1 Samuel 16:11-13). David then became attached to Saul as a minstrel (compare 2 Kings
3:15) and subsequently as one of his armor-bearers. It must have been after an interval of
some months that an event happened which made it impossible for Saul ever again to forget
the existence of David. This event was the famous duel between David and the Philistine
Goliath, which saved the situation for Saul at the time (1 Samuel 17). The event gained for
David a reputation as a great warrior, and from this time on David stayed with Saul instead of
going back and forth to his father (1 Samuel 1:2). It also gained David the devoted friendship of
Jonathan and the enmity of Saul (1 Samuel 18:1-9).

The next years of David's life were spent in the service of Saul in his wars with the Philistines.
David's success where Saul had failed, however, instead of gratifying only inflamed the
jealousy of the latter, and he determined to put David out of the way. More than once he
attempted to do so with his own hand (1 Samuel 18:11; 19:10), but he also employed
stratagem. It came to his ears that his daughter Michal, as well as his son Jonathan, loved
David, and Saul undertook to give her to David on the condition of his killing one hundred
Philistines.

3. Envy of Saul and Flight of David:

The gruesome dowry was paid, and David became Saul's son-in-law. The Hebrew text states
that Saul first offered his elder daughter to David, and then failed to implement his promise
(1 Samuel 18:17-19,21). David's relation to Saul did not mitigate the hatred of the latter; indeed
his enmity became so bitter that David determined upon flight. With the help of stratagem on
the part of Michal, this was effected and David went to Samuel at Ramah for counsel and
advice (1 Samuel 19:18). There Saul pursued him, but when he came into the presence of the
prophet, even he was overcome by the Spirit of God and prophesied (1 Samuel 19:24) as he
had on a previous occasion (1 Samuel 10:11). David returned to Gibeah, while the coast was
clear, to meet Jonathan, but Saul also returned immediately, his hatred more intense than
before. David then continued his flight and came to Ahimelech, the priest at Nob (1 Samuel
21:1). Saul sought to make sure that David would not return by giving his daughter Michal to a
man of the tribe of Benjamin as his wife (1 Samuel 25:44).

4. Jonathan and David:

The relation existing between Jonathan and David was one of pure friendship. A hereditary
monarchy did not yet exist in Israel. The only previous attempt to establish such an institution--
that of Gideon's family (1 Samuel 8:22)--had ended in failure. Saul was indebted for his
election to Samuel through God's appointment, just as Barak was to Deborah (Judges 4:6).
Like the judges who preceded him he had been put forward to meet a definite crisis in the
national affairs--the rise of the Philistine power (1 Samuel 9:16). Had he succeeded in crushing
these invaders, the newly-established kingdom would in the absence of this bond of union
have dissolved again into its elements, as had happened on every similar occasion before. He
was the only judge who had failed to accomplish the task for which he was appointed, and he
was the only one who had been appointed on the understanding that his son should succeed
him, for this constitutes the distinction between king and judge. Moreover, not only was Saul
aware that he had failed, but he saw before him the man who was ready to step into his place
and succeed. His rival had, besides, the backing of the mass of the people, of Samuel, who
was still virtual head of the state and last court of appeal, and of God. It is not to be wondered
at that Saul was hostile to David. Jonathan, on the other hand, acquiesced to the turn things
had taken and bowed to what he believed to be the inevitable (1 Samuel 23:17). David's
position was perhaps the most difficult imaginable. He had to fight the battles of a king whose
one idea was to bring about his ruin. He was the bosom friend of a prince whom he proposed
to supplant in his inheritance. His hope of salvation lay in the death of his king, the father of his
wife and of his best friend. The situation would in ordinary circumstances be intolerable, and it
would have been impossible but for the fact that those concerned knew that this was God's
will. Jonathan bore no grudge against David for aiming at the throne, because to the throne he
was destined by the will of Yahweh.

IV. David in Exile.

1. David as Outlaw:

From the moment of his flight, David became an outlaw and remained so until the death of
Saul. Like other heroes, he carried a famous sword--the sword of Goliath (1 Samuel 21:9).
Having obtained it of Ahimelech, he for the first time left Israelite territory and went to the
Philistine city of Gath (1 Samuel 21:10). Not feeling safe there he left and took up his abode in
the cave of Adullam (1 Samuel 22:1) in the country of Judah, almost within sight of his native
Bethlehem. This cave was admirably suited to the outlaw's purpose and no doubt David had
many a time explored its recesses when a boy. Here he was joined by his parents and
brothers, with their servants, as well as by all sorts of persons who were at war with the
government, debtors, fugitives from justice, and discontented persons. David thus became the
chief of a band of outlaws who numbered about 400. Of such stuff some of his bravest soldiers
were made (2 Samuel 23:13). He had a prophet, Gad, to direct his actions, and, after Saul
killed the priests at Nob, a priest, Abiathar, carrying an ephod (1 Samuel 22:5; 23:6). During
this period, he supported himself and his men by making raids on the Philistine outposts and
asking the support of his own countrymen (1 Samuel 25:2) in return for giving them his
protection. Hard pressed both by Saul and the Philistines (who had established themselves
even in Bethlehem) he committed his parents to the keeping of the king of Moab, and began to
travel through the country (1 Samuel 23:5,15,25,29). On two occasions David had Saul in his
power, but refused to seize the opportunity of taking his life (1 Samuel 24-26). During his
wandering, David's followers increased in numbers (compare 1 Samuel 22:2; 23:13; 25:13).
His chief lieutenant was his nephew Abishai, the son of his sister Zeruiah, but his brothers,
Joab and Asahel, do not seem to have joined David yet. Another of his nephews, Jonathan the
son of Shimei (Shammah), is mentioned (2 Samuel 21:21; compare 1 Samuel 16:9) and many
other men joined him during this period (1 Chronicles 11:10). That there was some stability in it
is shown by his taking two wives at this time--Ahinoam and Abigail (1 Samuel 25:42,43).

2. David Joins the Philistines:

David now, abandoning all hope of ever conciliating the king (1 Samuel 27:1), made a move
which shows at once his daring and consummate genius. He offered the services of himself
and his little army of 600 men to the enemies of his country. The town of Gath appears to have
been an asylum for fugitive Israelites (1 Kings 2:39). David's first impulse on his flight from Saul
had been to seek safety there (1 Samuel 21:10-15). Then, however, he was the hero of Israel,
whose assassination would be the highest gain to the Philistines. Now he was the embittered
antagonist of Saul, and was welcomed accordingly. Achish placed at his disposal the fortified
town of Ziklag in the territory of the now extinct tribe of Simeon, and there he and his followers,
each of whom had his family with him, took up their quarters for sixteen months (1 Samuel
27:6,7). The advantages to David were many. He was safe at last from the persecution of Saul
(1 Samuel 27:4); he could secure ample supplies by making raids upon the Amalekites and
other tribes hostile to Israel toward the South (1 Samuel 27:8); and if the opportunity presented
itself he could deal a serious blow at the Philistine arms. The position was no doubt a
precarious one. It could last just as long as David could hoodwink Achish by persuading him
that his raids were directed against his own tribe (1 Samuel 27:10). This he succeeded in doing
so completely that Achish would have taken him with him on the campaign which ended in the
decisive battle of Gilboa, but the other chiefs, fearing treachery, refused to allow him to do so.
David was forced to return with his followers to Ziklag, only to find that town razed to the
ground and all the women and children carried off by his old enemies the Amalekites
(1 Samuel 30:1,2). By the time he had recovered the spoil and returned in triumph to Ziklag the
battle of Gilboa had been fought and Saul was slain.

V. David as King.

1. Civil War:

David immediately removed from Ziklag and took up his quarters at Hebron, where he was at
once anointed king over his own tribe of Judah. Thus began the cleavage between Judah and
Israel. Here he was joined, apparently for the first time, by his nephew Joab. Abner, however,
loyal to his former master, had Esh-baal (1 Chronicles 8:33), son of Saul, anointed king over
the remaining tribes at Mahanaim, a fortified town East of the Jordan. War continued between
David and Abner for several years, always favoring David. Seeing things were going against
him Abner forced Esh-baal into a personal quarrel with himself and then transferred his
allegiance and persuaded his side to transfer theirs to David (2 Samuel 3:21). He did not reap
the fruit of his defection, as he was immediately after assassinated by Joab in revenge for the
death of Asahel whom Abner had killed in self-defence (2 Samuel 3:27). Deprived of his chief
support Esh-baal also fell a victim to assassination (2 Samuel 4:2). David denounced both
crimes with apparent sincerity. He composed an elegy and fasted for Abner (2 Samuel 3:33)
and avenged the death of Esh-baal (2 Samuel 4:9). Yet these acts of violence laid the
sovereignty of all Israel at his feet. Of the male heirs of Saul there remained only a son of
Jonathan, Merib-baal (1 Chronicles 8:34) who was a crippled child. David was therefore
elected king over the nation (2 Samuel 5:1). His sovereignty of Judah is said to have lasted 7
1/2 years and that over the undivided people 33, making a reign of 40 years, beginning from
David's 30th year (2 Samuel 5:5;1 Chronicles 3:4; in 2 Samuel 2:10). These are round
numbers.

2. Conquests Abroad:

King of all the Israelite tribes, David found his hands free to expel the foreigners who had
invaded the territory. His first step was to move his headquarters from the Southern Hebron,
which he had been compelled at first to make his capital, to the more central Jerusalem. The
fort here, which was still held by the Jebusites, was stormed by Joab, David's nephew, who
also superintended the rebuilding for David. He was in consequence appointed commander-in-
chief (1 Chronicles 11:6,8), a post which he held as long as David lived. The materials and the
skilled workmen for the erection of the palace were supplied by Hiram of Tyre (2 Samuel 5:11).
David now turned his attention to the surrounding tribes and peoples. The most formidable
enemy, the Philistines, were worsted in several campaigns, and their power crippled (2 Samuel
5:17; 8:1). In one of these David so nearly came by his death, that his people would not
afterward permit him to take part in the fighting (2 Samuel 21:16,17). David also turned his
arms against the land of Moab (2 Samuel 8:2). The king of Zobah (Chalkis) was defeated
(2 Samuel 8:3), and Israelite garrisons were placed in Syria of Damascus (2 Samuel 8:6) and
Edom (2 Samuel 8:14). The sons of Ammon formed a league with the Syrian kingdoms to the
North and East of Palestine (2 Samuel 10:6,16), but these also had no success. All these
people became tributary to the kingdom of Israel under David (2 Samuel 10:18,19). Thus,
Israel became one of the "great powers" of the world during the reign of David and his
immediate successor.

3. Political Situation:
There is no doubt that the expansion of the boundaries of Israel at this period almost to their
ideal limits (Deuteronomy 11:24, etc.) was largely due to the fact that the two great empires of
Egypt and Assyria were at the moment passing through a period of weakness and decay. The
Assyrian monarchy was in a decadent state from about the year 1050 BC, and the 22nd
Dynasty--to which Shishak belonged (1 Kings 14:25)--had not yet arisen. David, therefore, had
a free hand when his time came and found no more formidable opposition than that of the petty
states bordering upon Israel. Against the combined forces of all the Israelite tribes these had
never been able to effect much.

4. The Ark:

It had been the custom of the Israelites on setting out upon expeditions in which the nation as a
whole took part to carry with them the sacred ark which contained the two stone tables (Joshua
4:7, etc.). When David had secured Jerusalem for his metropolis, one of his first thoughts was
to bring into it this emblem of victory. It was then lying at Kiriath-jearim, possibly Abu Gosh
about 8 miles northwest of Jerusalem (compare Psalms 132). Owing to the death of Uzzah,
which he interpreted as indicative of anger on the part of Yahweh, David left the ark at the
house of Obed-Edom the Gittite which happened to be near at hand. Since no misfortune befell
this person, but on the contrary much prosperity, David took courage after three months to
bring the sacred chest and its contents into his royal city. The ceremony was conducted with
rejoicing and religious dancing and music (6:12,14-15) and sacrifices and blessing (6:18,19). A
tent was pitched for it, in which it remained (7:2), except when it was sent with the army to the
seat of war (11:11; 15:24). David, however, had already built for himself a stone palace, and he
wished now to add to it a temple. He was the more anxious to so do since he had much of the
material ready at hand in the precious metals which formed the most valuable part of the
plunder of the conquered peoples, such as bronze from Chalkis (8:8), gold and silver (8:11)
and the vessels which he had received as a present from the king of Hamath (8:10). He was
persuaded, however, by the word of the LORD through the prophet Nathan to forego that task,
on the ground of his having shed too much blood, and to leave it to his successor (1 Chronicles
22:8;28:3).

VI. Domestic Life.

1. His Wives and Children:

In accordance with the practice of the kings of his time, David had several wives. His first wife
was Michal, the younger daughter of Saul. When David fled from Saul, she was given to
Phaltiel but was restored to David after Saul's death. She did not have any children. During the
period of separation from Michal, David took to wife Ahinoam of Jezreel and Abigail the wife of
Nabal (1 Samuel 25:43,12), who accompanied him to Ziklag (1 Samuel 27:3), when they were
among those captured by the Amalekites (1 Samuel 30:5). A fourth wife was the daughter of
Talmai of Geshur, Maacah, whom he had captured in war (1 Samuel 27:8; 2 Samuel 3:3).
When he removed to Hebron Ahinoam bore him his oldest son Amnon, and Abigail his second
son Kileab or Daniel (2 Samuel 3:2,3; 1 Chronicles 3:1); his third son was Absalom, whose
mother was Maacah, and his fourth Adonijah. His mother's name was Haggith; nothing is
known about her. Two other sons, Shephatiah and Ithream were also born in Hebron
(2 Samuel 3:2-5; 1 Chronicles 3:1-4). When David added the kingdom of Israel to that of
Judah, he, in accordance with custom, took more wives with a view to increase his state and
dignity. One of these was Bathsheba, who became the mother of Solomon (2 Samuel 5:13; 2
Samuel 11,12; 1 Chronicles 3:5;14:3).

2. Domestic Troubles:
It was perhaps inevitable that in so large a household the usual dissensions and crimes of the
harem should have sprung up. A most unvarnished account of these is given in 2 Samuel 11-
20. 1 Chronicles 13 recounts the wrong done to Tamar, the daughter of David and Maacah,
and sister of Absalom. It also tells how Absalom, having avenged his sister's honor by killing
Amnon, his oldest brother, fled for asylum to his mother's father the king of Geshur. Thence
after two years he returned (chapter 14), only to lead a rebellion against his father (chapter 15),
leading to civil war between David and Judah on the one side and Absalom and Israel on the
other (chapters 16; 17), and ending in the death of himself (chapter 18) and of Amasa, David's
nephew, at the hands of his cousins Joab and Abishai (20:7), as well as nearly precipitating the
disruption of the newly founded kingdom (19:43). The rebellion of Absalom was probably due
to the fact of Solomon having been designated David's successor (compare
12:24; 1 Chronicles 22:9), for Absalom had the best claim, Amnon being dead and Kileab
apparently of no account.

VII. His Officials.

As David's circumstances improved, he required assistance in the management of his affairs.

1. Prophets:

At the beginning of his rise to power, David had the friendship of the prophet Samuel
(1 Samuel 16:13; 19:18). The prophet or seer was the keeper of the king's conscience and was
not appointed by him, but claimed divine authority (2 Samuel 7:3,1; 12:1; 24:11). Among the
persons who discharged this duty for David were Gad the prophet (1 Samuel 22:5) and Nathan
the prophet (1 Kings 1:11). All these are said to have written memoirs of their times
(1 Chronicles 29:29; 2 Chronicles 9:29).

2. Priests:

Next to the prophet came the priest. The kohen (priest) was, as the name indicates, a
soothsayer or diviner. The duty of Abiathar, David's first priest (1 Samuel 22:20), was to carry
the ephod and inquire of the LORD what to do (1 Samuel 23:6; 1 Samuel 30:7). Later, at
Hebron, Abiathar was given a colleague, Zadok (1 Chronicles 12:28), and it became their duty
to carry the ark in expeditions (2 Samuel 15:24). Shortly after the death of David, Abiathar was
deposed by Solomon for his part in Adonijah's attempt to seize the throne (1 Kings 2:26,27),
and Zadok remained sole priest to the king (1 Kings 2:35). David's sons also acted in the same
capacity (2 Samuel 8:18). An extra private priest is mentioned in 2 Samuel
20:26 (compare 2 Samuel 23:26,38).

3. Military Officers:

When still an outlaw David required a reliable man to take command of his men in his absence.
This post was held at first by different persons according to circumstances, but generally, it
seems, by his nephew Abishai (1 Samuel 26:6). It was only after the death of Saul that his
brother Joab threw in his lot with David. His great military talents at once gave him a leading
place, and as a reward for the capture of Jerusalem he was given the chief command, which
he held against all rivals (2 Samuel 3:27;20:10) during the whole reign. David's special body-
guard of Philistine troops--the Cherethites and Pelethites--were commanded by Benaiah, who
in the following reign, succeeded Joab (1 Kings 2:35).

4. Other Officials:

The office of recorder was held during this reign and in the following by Jehoshaphat
(2 Samuel 8:16); and that of secretary by Seraiah (2 Samuel 8:17), also called Shavsha
(1 Chronicles 18:16) or Shisha (1 Kings 4:3). There were also the counselors, men noted for
their great acumen and knowledge of human nature, such as Ahithophel and Hushai.

5. Mutual Rivalry:

It was natural that there should be much mutual jealousy and rivalry among these officials, and
that some of them should attach themselves to one of David's many sons, others to another.
Thus, Amnon is the special patron of David's nephew Jonadab (2 Samuel 13:3;
compare 2 Samuel 21:21), and Absalom is backed by Amasa (2 Samuel 17:25). The claim of
Adonijah to the throne is supported by Joab and Abiathar (1 Kings 1:7), as against that of
Solomon who is backed by Nathan, Benaiah, Zadok (1 Kings 1:8) and Hushai. Ahithophel
sides with Absalom; Hushai with David (2 Samuel 15:12,32).

VIII. Personal Character of David.

1. Psalms

Since David is the author of many of the Psalms, they throw a flood of light upon the religious
side of his nature. David shows his reverence of Yahweh and gives Yahweh all glory and
praise. He was a man after the LORD's heart (1 Samuel 13:14).

2. Physical Courage:

Perhaps the feature of his character which stands out most prominently in his earlier years, at
any rate, is his boundless physical courage. He never shirked danger (1 Samuel 17:28,34) and
delighted in hairbreadth escapes like in 1 Samuel 26:6. He had a need, indeed, to be a brave
man, considering the character of the men whom he ruled (1 Samuel 22:2). Yet he could rule
them by gentleness as well as by force (30:23). All classes had unbounded confidence in his
personal courage and soldierly qualities (2 Samuel 18:3) and were themselves driven to
restrain his military ardor (2 Samuel 21:17).

3. Prudence/wisdom:

But David was even more prudent than courageous. He is so described by the person who
recommended him (somewhat eulogistically) to Saul (1 Samuel 16:18). Prudence or wisdom
was indeed what his biographer most remarks in him (1 Samuel 18:5,30), and situated as he
was he could not have too much of it. It shows itself in the fact that he consistently made as
many friends and as few enemies as was possible. His wonderful foresight is shown in such
acts as his conciliating the Judean chiefs with gifts taken from his spoil (1 Samuel 30:26), in his
commendation of the men of Ja-besh-Gilead (2 Samuel 2:5-7), and in his reception of Abner
(2 Samuel 3:20). His kindness to Merib-baal did him no harm and some advantage (2 Samuel
9;19:24), and his clemency to Shimei helped to win him the tribe of Benjamin (2 Samuel
19:16). Perhaps nothing proves the genius of David better than his choice of Jebus/Jerusalem
as the capital of the country--which it still continues to be after a lapse of three thousand years.

4. Nobility:

David was, indeed, a man very much ahead of the times in which he lived. His fine elegies
upon the death of Saul and Jonathan, Abner, and Absalom show that his nature was untainted
with malice. It was no superstitious fear but a high sense of honor which kept him back from
putting out of his way his arch-enemy when he had him in his power (1Sa 24-26). He even
attempts to find an excuse for him (1 Samuel 26:19), while depreciating himself (1 Samuel
24:14; 26:20). It was the ambition of his life to be the founder of a permanent dynasty
(2 Samuel 7:29), yet he was willing that his house should be sacrificed to save his nation from
destruction (2 Samuel 24:17). He was endowed with a refinement of feeling unknown in the
West. His refusal to drink of water obtained at the cost of bloodshed has become classic
(2 Samuel 23:17). And he seems to have been gifted with the saving sense of humor
(1 Samuel 26:15). That he was a religious person goes without saying (2 Samuel 7;8:11). He
did not believe that outside the land of Israel Yahweh ceased to rule. He believed in Yahweh
alone as the ruler of the universe.

5. David in Relation to His Family:

David discharged his duty toward his parents (1 Samuel 22:3). To Michal, his first wife, his love
was constant (2 Samuel 3:13), although she did not bear him any children. In accordance with
the custom of the times, as his estate improved, he took other wives and concubines. The
favorite wife of his latter days was Bathsheba. His court made some show of splendor as
contrasted with the dwellings of the peasantry and the farmer class (2 Samuel 19:28,35), but
his palace was always small and plain, so that it could be left to the keeping of ten women
when he removed from it (2 Samuel 15:16). David and Michal seem to have lived on terms of
perfect equality (2 Samuel 6:20). In this he contrasts somewhat with Ahab (1 Kings 21:5).
David's chief weakness in regard to his family was his indulgence of some of his sons and
favoring some above others, and want of firmness in regard to them. He could refuse them
nothing (2 Samuel 13:27). His first favorite was his oldest son Amnon (2 Samuel 13:21). After
the death of Amnon, Absalom became the favorite (2 Samuel 18:33), and after the death of
Absalom, Adonijah (1 Kings 1:6). Yet David lived for two whole years in Jerusalem along with
Absalom without seeing him (2 Samuel 14:28), and he was succeeded not by Adonijah, but by
Solomon, whose mother was the favorite wife of his later years.

6. David in Relation to His Friends:

Not only did David know the value of having many friends, but he was capable of sincere
attachment. There is no reason to doubt the sincerity of his love for Jonathan. David, indeed,
had the faculty of winning the confidence and love of all sorts and conditions of people, not
only of Jonathan (1 Samuel 18:1; 20;23:16), but of Jonathan's sister Michal (1 Samuel 18:20),
of the whole people (1 Samuel 18:28; 2 Samuel 19:14), and even of his people's enemies
(2 Samuel 17:27). His friendship lasted as long as the object of it lived (2 Samuel 1:17;10:1). In
the case of his officers this was partly due to his faculty for choosing good men (2 Samuel
8:16), so that the same persons often held the same offices during David's life (2 Samuel
20:23). Yet the services of one of them at least were retained more by compulsion than by
choice (2 Samuel 3:39). He seems, indeed, to have continued Joab in his post because he felt
he could not do without him. Joab was devoted to David, and he was unscrupulous. He did not
hesitate to commit any crime that would benefit David. The latter dared not perpetrate these
atrocities himself, but he did not mind taking advantage of such a useful instrument, and never
punished Joab for them, save with a curse (2 Samuel 3:29).

7. His Success:

One reason for the high position David held in the popular estimation was no doubt his almost
uninterrupted success. He was regarded as the chosen of Yahweh, by friend and foe alike
(1 Samuel 23:17). Nothing could have been more timely than the death of Saul and Jonathan,
of Ishbaal and Abner, of Absalom and Amasa, and he did not raise his hand against one of
them. As a guerrilla chief with his 600 bandits he could keep at bay Saul with his 3,000 picked
men (1 Samuel 24:2;26:2).

8. His Foreign Friends:

David knew how to cultivate friendships with foreigners. He was diplomatic and shrewd. He
found favor in the eyes of Achish the Philistine leader (1 Samuel 27). When he became king,
his personal body-guard was composed of the Cherethites and Pelethites with whom he had
become acquainted when at Ziklag (1 Samuel 30:14; 2 Samuel 8:18; 20:23). It was to a native
of Gath that he committed the care of the sacred ark on its passage from Kiriath-jearim to
Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6:10,11). When the rebellion broke out under Absalom, he committed
one-third of his forces to a banished soldier of the same town, who had come to him a little
while before with a band of followers (2 Samuel 15:19; 18:2). Some of the soldiers in whom he
placed the greatest confidence were Hittites (1 Samuel 26:6; 2 Samuel 11:6), and his
commissariat was furnished by persons outside of Israel (2 Samuel 17:27; 1 Chronicles 7:14).
The threshing-floor of a Jebusite became the site of the temple of Solomon (2 Samuel 24:18).
These are a few of the examples of David's relating with foreigners.

9. References in the New Testament:

Even as early as Ezekiel, David became the ruler who was to govern the restored people of
Israel (34:23,14; 37:24). If there were to be a ruling house, it must be the Davidic dynasty; it did
not occur to the Jews to think of any other solution (Amos 9:11; Hosea 3:5; Jeremiah
30:9; Zechariah 12:8). That Jesus was descended from David (Matthew 9:27, etc.) is proved by
the fact that his enemies did not deny that he was so (Matthew 22:41). In the New Testament,
David is regarded as the author of the Psalms (Acts 4:25; Romans 4:6; Hebrews 4:7). He is
also one of the Old Testament saints (Hebrews 11:32) whose actions are to be imitated
(Matthew 12:3); but yet not to be compared with the Messiah (Acts 2:29; 13:36) who has power
over the life to come (Revelation 3:7) and who is "the Root of David" (Revelation 5:5; 22:16).

LITERATURE.

See the commentaries on the books of Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, and Psalms, and histories
of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, especially Wellhausen and Kittel. A sketch of the life and
historical position of David from the modern Continental point of view will be found in G. Beer,
Saul, David, Salomo, published by Mohr, Tubingen, 1906.

Reading: Solomon by Thomas Hunter Weir

1. Name and Meaning:

He was so named by his mother (2 Samuel 12:24, Qere; see TEXT AND MANUSCRIPTS OF
THE NEW TESTAMENT; TEXT OF THE OLD TESTAMENT), but by the prophet Nathan, or by
his father (Vulgate), he was called Jedidiah--"loved of Yahweh." The name "Solomon" is
derived from the root meaning "to be quiet" or "peaceful," and Solomon was certainly the least
warlike of all the kings of Israel or Judah, and in that respect a remarkable contrast to his father
(so 1 Chronicles 22:9). His name in Hebrew compares with Irenaeus in Greek, Friedrich in
German, and Selim in Arabic; but it has been suggested that the name should be pronounced
shillumah, from the word denoting "compensation," Bath-sheba's second son being given in
compensation for the loss of the first (but see 3, below).

2. Sources:

The oldest sources for the biography of Solomon are doubtless the "Annals of Solomon"
referred to in 1 Kings 11:41, the "history of Nathan the prophet," the "prophecy of Ahijah the
Shilonite" and the "visions of Iddo the seer," mentioned in 2 Chronicles 9:29, all which may be
merely the relative sections of the great book of the "Annals of the Kings" from which our
Books of Kings and Chronicles are both derived. These ancient works are, of course, lost to us
save in so far as they have been embodied in the Old Testament narrative. There the life of
South is contained in 2 Samuel 12:24; 1 Kings 1-11; 1 Chronicles 22-2 Ch 9. Of these
sources 2 Samuel 12:24 and 1 Kings 1;2 are much the oldest and in fact form part of one
document, 2 Samuel 9-20; 1 Kings 1;2 dealing with the domestic affairs of David, which may
well be contemporary with the events it describes. The date of the composition of the Books of
Chronicles is about 300 BC--700 years after the time of Solomon--and the date of the Books of
Kings, as a completed work, must, of course, be later than the exile. Nothing of importance is
gained from citations from early historians in Josephus and later writers. Far and away the best
source for, at least, the inner life of Solomon would be the writings ascribed to him in the Old
Testament, could we be sure that these were genuine (see below).

3. Birth and Upbringing:

The children of David by Bath-sheba are given in 1 Chronicles 3:5 as Shimea, Shobab, Nathan
and Solomon. Compare also 2 Samuel 5:14; 1 Chronicles 14:4, where the same persons
evidently are named. It would thus appear that Solomon was the 4th son of Bath-sheba,
supposing Shimea to be the child that died. Otherwise Solomon would be the 5th son. There
are therefore some events omitted in 2 Samuel 12:24, or else the names Shobab and Nathan
are remains of some clause which has been lost, and not proper names. Like the heir apparent
of a Turkish sultan, Solomon seems to have spent his best years in the seclusion of the harem.
There he was doubtless more influenced by his mother than by his father, and in close intimacy
with his mother was the prophet Nathan, who had given him his by-name of fortunate import
(2 Samuel 12:25).

4. His Accession:

It was not until David lay on his deathbed that Solomon left the women's quarters and made his
appearance in public. That he had been selected by David, as the son of the favorite wife, to
succeed him, is pre-supposed in the instructions which he received from his father regarding
the building of the Temple. But as soon as it appeared that the life of David was nearing its
end, it became evident that Solomon was not to have a "walk over." He found a rival in
Adonijah the son of Haggith, who was apparently the eldest surviving son of his father, and
who had the support of Joab, by far the strongest man of all, of Abiathar, the leading, if not the
favorite, priest (compare 2 Samuel 15:24), and of the princes of the royal house. Solomon, on
the other hand, had the support of his mother Bath-sheba, David s favorite wife, of Nathan the
court prophet, of Zadok who had eclipsed Abiathar, of Benaiah, the son of a priest, but one of
the three bravest of David's soldiers, and captain of the bodyguard of Cherethites and
Pelethites, and of the principal soldiers. It is especially noted that Shimei and Hushai (so
Josephus) took no active part at any rate with Adonijah (1 Kings 1:8). The conspiracy came to
nothing, for, before it developed, Solomon was anointed at Gibeon (not Gihon,1 Kings 1:33, 38,
45), and entered Jerusalem as king.

5. Closing Days of David:

The age of Solomon at his accession is unknown. The expression in 1 Kings 3:7 is not, of
course, to be taken literally (otherwise Ant, VIII, vii, 8). His reign opened, like that of many an
oriental monarch, with a settlement in blood of the accounts of the previous reign. Joab,
David's nephew, who had brought the house within the bounds of blood revenge, was
executed. Adonijah, as soon as his father had breathed his last, was on a nominal charge put
to death. Abiathar was relegated to his home at Anathoth (1 Kings 2:26). Conditions were
imposed on Shimei which he failed to keep and so forfeited his life (1 Kings 2:36). These steps
having been taken, Solomon began his reign, as it were, with a clean slate.

II. Reign of Solomon.

1. His Vision:
It was apparently at the very beginning of his reign that Solomon made his famous choice of a
"hearing heart," i.e. an obedient heart, in preference to riches or long life. The vision took place
at Gibeon (2 Chronicles 1:7, but in 1 Ki 3:4 f the ancient versions read "upon the altar that was
in Gibeon. And the Lord appeared," etc.). The life of Solomon was a curious commentary on
his early resolution. One of the first acts of his reign was apparently, in the style of the true
oriental monarch, to build himself a new palace, that of his father being inadequate for his
requirements. In regard to politics, however, the events of Solomon's reign may be regarded as
an endorsement of his choice. Under him alone was the kingdom of Israel a great world-power,
fit almost to rank beside Assyria and Egypt. Never again were the bounds of Israel so wide;
never again were north and south united in one great nation. There is no doubt that the credit
of this result is due to the wisdom of Solomon.

2. His Policy:

Solomon was by nature an unwarlike person, and his whole policy was in the direction of
peace. He disbanded the above-mentioned foreign legion, the Cherethites and Pelethites, who
had done such good service as bodyguard to his father. All his officers seem to have been
mediocre persons who would not be likely to force his hand, as Joab had done that of David
(2 Samuel 3:39). Even the fortification of Jerusalem and of the frontier towns was undertaken
with a view to repel attack, not for the purposes of offense. Solomon did, no doubt, strengthen
the army, especially the cavalry arm (1 Kings 4:26;10:26), but he never made any use of this,
and perhaps it existed largely on paper. At any rate Solomon seems to have been rather a
breeder of and dealer in horse-flesh than a soldier. He appears also to have had a fine
collection of armor (1 Kings 10:25), but much of it was made of gold (1 Kings 10:16) and was
intended for show, not for use. Both in his reputation for wisdom and in his aversion to war
Solomon bears a striking resemblance to King James VI of Scotland and I of England, as
depicted by the hand of Sir Walter Scott. It was fortunate for him that both the neighboring
great powers were for the time in a decadent state, otherwise the history of the kingdom of
Israel would have ended almost before it had begun. On the other hand, it has been remarked
that if Solomon had had anything like the military genius of David and his enthusiasm for the
religion of Yahweh, he might have extended the arms of Israel from the Nile to the Tigris and
anticipated the advent of Islam. But his whole idea was to secure himself in peace, to amass
wealth and indulge his love of grandeur with more than oriental splendor.

3. Its Results:

Solomon, in fact, was living on the achievements and reputation of his father, who laid the
basis of security and peace on which the commercial genius of Solomon could raise the
magnificent structure which he did. But he took the clay from the foundations in order to build
the walls. The Hebrews were a military people and in that consisted their life. Solomon
withdrew their energies from their natural bent and turned them to commerce, for which they
were not yet ripe. Their soul rebelled under the irksome drudgery of an industry of which they
did not reap the fruits. Solomon had in fact reduced a free people to slavery, and concentrated
the wealth of the whole country in the capital. As soon as he was out of the way, his country
subjects threw off the yoke and laid claim to their ancient freedom. His son found himself left
with the city and a territory as small as an English county.

4. Alliance with Tyre:

Solomon's chief ally was Hiram, the king of Tyre, probably the friend and ally of David, who is
to be distinguished from Hiram the artificer of 1 Kings 7:13. Hiram the king entered into a treaty
with Solomon which was to the advantage of both parties. Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar
and pine wood from Lebanon, as well as with skilled artisans for his building. Tyrian sailors
were also drafted into the ships of Solomon, the Hebrews not being used to the sea (1 Kings
9:26), besides which Phoenician ships sailed along with those of Solomon. The advantages
which Hiram received in return were that the Red Sea was open to his merchantmen, and he
also received large supplies of corn and oil from the land of Israel (1 Kings 5:11 corrected by
Septuagint and 2 Chronicles 2:10). At the conclusion of the building of the palace and Temple,
which occupied 20 years, Solomon presented Hiram with 20 villages (1 Kings 9:11; the
converse, 2 Chronicles 8:2), and Hiram made Solomon a return present of gold (1 Kings 9:14;
omitted in 2 Chronicles).

5. Alliance with Egypt:

Second to Hiram was the Pharaoh of Egypt, whose daughter Solomon married, receiving as
her dower the town of Gezer (1 Kings 9:16). This Pharaoh is not named in the Old Testament.
This alliance with Egypt led to the introduction of horses into Israel (1 Kings 10:28), though
David had already made a beginning on a small scale (2 Samuel 8:4). Both these alliances
lasted throughout the reign. There is no mention of an alliance with the eastern power, which
was then in a decadent state.

6. Domestic Troubles:

It was probably nearer the beginning than the end of Solomon's reign that political trouble
broke out within the realm. When David had annexed the territory of the Edomites at the cost of
the butchery of the male population (compare 2 Samuel 8:14; Psalms 60, title) one of the
young princes of the reigning house effected his escape, and sought and found an asylum in
Egypt, where he rose to occupy a high station. No sooner had he heard of the death of David
and Joab than he returned to his native country and there stirred up disaffections against
Solomon (1 Kings 11:14; see HADAD), without, however, restoring independence to Edom
(1 Kings 9:26). A second occasion of disaffection arose through a prophet having foretold that
the successor of Solomon would have one of the Israelite tribes only and that the other ten
clans would be under Solomon's master of works whom he had set over them. This officer also
took refuge in Egypt and was protected by Shishak. He remained there until the death of
Solomon (1 Kings 11:26). A third adversary was Rezon who had fled from his master the king
of Zobah (1 Kings 11:23), and who established himself at Damascus and rounded a dynasty
which was long a thorn in the side of Israel. These domestic troubles are regarded as a
consequence of the falling away of Solomon from the path of rectitude, but this seems to be
but a kind of anticipative consequence, that is, if it was not till the end of his reign that Solomon
fell into idolatry and polytheism (1 Kings 11:4).

III. His Buildings.

1. The Temple:

The great undertaking of the reign of Solomon was, of course, The TEMPLE (which see),
which was at first probably considered as the Chapel Royal and an adjunct of the palace. The
Temple was begun in the 4th year of the reign and finished in the 11th, the work of the building
occupying 7? years (1 Kings 6;7:13). The delay in beginning is remarkable, if the material were
all ready to hand (1 Chronicles 22). Worship there was inaugurated with fitting ceremony and
prayers (1 Kings 8).

2. The Palace:

To Solomon, however, his own palace was perhaps a more interesting undertaking. It at any
rate occupied more time, in fact 13 years (1 Kings 7:1-12; 9:10; 2 Chronicles 8:1), the time of
building both palace and Temple being 20 years. Possibly the building of the palace occupied
the first four years of the reign and was then intermitted and resumed after the completion of
the Temple; but of this there is no indication in the text. It was called the House of the Forest of
Lebanon from the fact that it was lined with cedar wood (1 Kings 7:2). A description of it is
given in 1 Kings 7:1-12.

3. Other Buildings:

Solomon also rebuilt the wall of the city and the citadel (see JERUSALEM; MILLO). He likewise
erected castles at the vulnerable points of the frontiers--Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer (1 Kings
9:15), lower Beth-horon and BAALATH (which see). According to the Qere of 1 Kings 9:18 and
the ancient versions as well as 2 Chronicles 8:4, he was the founder of Tadmor (Palmyra); but
the Kethibh of 1 Kings 9:18 reads Tamar (compare Ezekiel 47:19). Some of the remains of
buildings recently discovered at Megiddo and Gezer may go back to the time of Solomon.

4. The Corvee:

Solomon could not have built on the scale he did with the resources ordinarily at the command
of a free ruler. Accordingly we find that one of the institutions fostered by him was the corvee,
or forced labor. No doubt something of the kind always had existed (Joshua 9:21) and still
exists in all despotic governments. Thus the people of a village will be called on to repair the
neighboring roads, especially when the Pasha is making a progress in the neighborhood. But
Solomon made the thing permanent and national (1 Kings 5:13-15;9:15). The immediate
purpose of the levy was to supply laborers for work in the Lebanon in connection with his
building operations. Thus 30,000 men were raised and drafted, 10,000 at a time, to the
Lebanon, where they remained for a month, thus having two months out of every three at
home. But even when the immediate cause had ceased, the practice once introduced was kept
up and it became one of the chief grievances which levi to the dismemberment of the kingdom
(1 Kings 12:18, Adoram = Adoniram; compare 2 Samuel 20:24), for hitherto the corvee had
been confined to foreign slaves taken in war (1 Kings 9:21). It is said the higher posts were
reserved for Israelites, the laborers being foreigners (1 Kings 9:22), that is, the Israelites acted
as foremen. Some of the foreign slaves seem to have formed a guild in connection with the
Temple which lasted down to the time of the exile (Ezra 2:55-57; Nehemiah 7:57-59).

See NETHINIM.

IV. His Character.

1. Personal Qualities:

In Solomon we have the type of a Turkish sultan, rather than a king of Israel. The Hebrew
kings, whether of Israel or Judah, were, in theory at least, elective monarchs like the kings of
Poland. If one happened to be a strong ruler, he managed to establish his family it might be, for
three or even four generations. In the case of the Judean dynasty the personality of the first
king made such a deep impression upon the heart of the people that the question of a change
of dynasty there never became pressing. But Solomon would probably have usurped the crown
if he had not inherited it, and once on the throne he became a thoroughgoing despot. All
political power was taken out of the hands of the sheiks, although outward respect was still
paid to them (1 Kings 8:1), and placed in the hands of officers who were simply creatures of
Solomon. The resources of the nation were expended, not on works of public utility, but on the
personal aggrandizement of the monarch (1 Kings 10:18). In the means he took to gratify his
passions he showed himself to be little better than a savage and if he did not commit such
great crimes as David, it was perhaps because he had no occasion, or because he employed
greater cunning in working out his ends.

2. His Wisdom:
The wisdom for which Solomon is famous is of the highest order. We know from 1 Kings that
he petitioned the Lord for wisdom when He appeared to him in a vision, and the narrative
in 1 Kings 4:29 instructs us that God bestowed wisdom and understanding on him. Because
the wisdom of God is of the highest order, we can conclude that the wisdom which He
bestowed on Solomon was also wisdom of the highest order. That this wisdom was separate
from his learning is evident because it is listed alongside of learning in the same passage.

3. His Learning:

The word "wisdom," however, is used also in another connection, namely, in the sense of
theoretical knowledge or book leaning, especially in the department of natural history. It is not
to be supposed that Solomon had any scientific knowledge of botany or zoology, but he may
have collected the facts of observation, a task in which the Oriental, who cannot generalize,
excels. The breadth of mind (1 Kings 4:29) for which Solomon was famous would consist
largely in stories about beasts and trees like the well-known Fables of Pilpai. We also know
from 1 Kings 4 that he was a composer of verses concerning the natural world.

4. Trade and Commerce:

Solomon was very literally a merchant prince. He not only encouraged and protected
commerce, but engaged in it himself. He was in fact the predominant, if not sole, partner in a
great trading concern, which was nothing less than the Israelite nation. One of his enterprises
was the horse trade with Egypt. His agents bought up horses which were again sold to the
kings of the Hittites and the Arameans. The prices paid are mentioned (1 Kings 10:29). The
best of these Solomon no doubt retained for his own cavalry (1 Kings 10:26). Another
commodity imported from that country was linen yarn (1 Kings 10:28 the King James Version).
The navy which Solomon built at the head of the Gulf of Akaba was not at all for military, but
purely commercial ends. They were ships of Tarshish, that is, merchant ships, not ships to
Tarshish, as 2 Chronicles 9:21. They traded to OPHIR (which see), from which they brought
gold; silver, ivory, apes and peacocks, the round voyage lasting 3 years (1 Kings 9:26;10:22).
Special mention is made of "almug" (1 Kings 10:11) or "algum" (2 Chronicles 9:10) trees (which
see). The visit of the Queen of Sheba would point to the overland caravan routes from the
Yemen being then open (1 Kings 10:15). What with direct imports and the result of sales, silver
and cedar wood became very plentiful in the capital (1 Kings 10:27).

5. Officers of State:

The list of Solomon's officers of state is given in 1 Kings 4:2. These included a priest, two
secretaries, a recorder, a commander-in-chief, a chief commissariat officer, a chief shepherd (if
we may read ro`eh for re'eh), a master of the household, and the head of the corvee. The list
should be compared with those of David's officers (2 Samuel 8:16; 20:23). There is much
resemblance, but we can see that the machine of state was becoming more complicated. The
bodyguard of foreign mercenaries was abolished and the captain Benaiah promoted to be
commander-in-chief. Two scribes were required instead of one. Twelve commissariat officers
were appointed whose duty it was to forward from their districts the supplies for the royal
household and stables. The list of these officials, a very curious one, is given in 1 Kings 4:7. It
is to be noted that the 12 districts into which the country was divided did not coincide with the
territories of the 12 tribes. It may be remarked that Solomon seems as far as possible to have
retained the old servants of his father. It will be noticed also that in all the lists there is mention
of more than one priest. These "priests" retained some of their original functions, since they
acted as prognosticators and diviners.

6. Wives:
Solomon's principal wife was naturally the daughter of Pharaoh; it was for her that his palace
was built (1 Kings 3:1; 7:8; 9:16,24). But in addition to her he established marriage relations
with the neighboring peoples. In some cases the object was no doubt to cement an alliance, as
with the Zidonians and Hittites and the other nationalities (1 Kings 11:1), some of which were
forbidden to Israelites (Deuteronomy 7:3). It may be that the daughter of Pharaoh was childless
or died a considerable time before Solomon, but his favorite wife was latterly a grand-daughter
of Nahash, the Ammonite king (1 Kings 14:21 Septuagint), and it was her son who succeeded
to the throne. Many of Solomon's wives were no doubt daughters of wealthy or powerful
citizens who wished by an alliance with the king to strengthen their own positions. Yet we do
not read of his marrying an Israelite wife. According to the Arabian story Bilqis, the Queen of
Sheba who visited Solomon (1 Kings 10:1),. was also married to him. He appears to have had
only one son; we are not told of any other than Rehoboam. His daughters were married to his
own officers (1 Kings 4:11,15).

7. Revenues:

Solomon is said to have started his reign with a capital sum of 100,000 talents of gold and a
million talents of silver, a sum greater than the national debt of Great Britain. Even so, this
huge sum was ear-marked for the building of the Temple (1 Chronicles 22:14). His income
was, for one year, at any rate, 666 talents of gold (1 Kings 10:14), or about twenty million
dollars. This seems an immense sum, but it probably was not so much as it looks. The great
mass of the people were too poor to have any commodities which they could exchange for
gold. Its principal use was for the decoration of buildings. Its purchasing power was probably
small, because so few could afford to buy it. It was in the same category as the precious
stones which are of great rarity, but which are of no value unless there is a demand for them.
In the time of Solomon there was no useful purpose to which gold could be put in preference to
any other metal.

8. Literary Works:

It is not easy to believe that the age of Solomon, so glorious in other respects, had not a
literature to correspond. Yet the reign of the sultan Ismail in Morocco, whom Solomon much
resembles, might be cited in favor of such a supposition. Solomon himself is stated to have
composed 3,000 animal stories and 1,005 songs (1 Kings 4:32). In the Old Testament the
following are ascribed to him:

three collections of Proverbs, 1:1; 10:1; 25:1; The So of Songs; Psalms 72 and 127;
Ecclesiastes (although Solomon is not named). In Proverbs 25:1 the men of Hezekiah are said
to have copied out the following proverbs.

LITERATURE.

The relative portions of the histories by Ewald, Stanley (who follows Ewald), Renan,
Wellhausen and Kittel; also H. Winckler, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen; and the
commentaries on the Books of Kings and Chronicles.

Reading: Solomon's Temple

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE

I. Introductory.

1. David's Project:
The tabernacle having lasted from the exodus till the commencement of the monarchy, it
appeared to David to be no longer fitting that the ark of God should dwell within curtains (it was
then in a tent David had made for it on Zion:

2 Samuel 6:17), while he himself dwelt in a cedar-lined house. The unsettled and unorganized
state of the nation, which had hitherto necessitated a portable structure, had now given place
to an established kingdom. The dwelling of Yahweh should therefore be henceforth a
permanent building, situated at the center of the nation's life, and "exceeding magnificent"
(1 Chronicles 22:5), as befitted the glory of Yahweh, and the prospects of the state.

2. Plans and Preparations:

David, however, while honored for his purpose, was not permitted, because he had been a
man of war (2 Samuel 7; 1 Chronicles 22:8; compare 1 Kings 5:3), to execute the work, and
the building of the house was reserved for his son, Solomon. According to the Chronicler,
David busied himself in making extensive and costly preparations of wood, stone, gold, silver,
etc., for the future sanctuary and its vessels, even leaving behind him full and minute plans of
the whole scheme of the building and its contents, divinely communicated (1 Chronicles 22:2;
28:11; 29). The general fact of lengthened preparation, and even of designs, for a structure
which so deeply occupied his thoughts, is extremely probable (compare 1 Kings 7:51).

3. Character of the Building:

The general outline of the structure was based on that of the tabernacle (on the modern critical
reversal of this relation, see under B, below). The dimensions are in the main twice those of the
tabernacle, though it will be seen below that there are important exceptions to this rule, on
which the critics found so much. The old question (see TABERNACLE) as to the shape of the
building--flat or gable-roofed--here again arises. Not a few modern writers (Fergusson, Schick,
Caldecott, etc.), with some older, favor the tentlike shape, with sloping roof. It does not follow,
however, even if this form is, with these writers, admitted for the tabernacle--a "tent"--that it is
applicable, or likely, for a stone "house," and the measurements of the Temple, and mention of
a "ceiling" (1 Kings 6:15), point in the opposite direction. It must still be granted that, with the
scanty data at command, all reconstructions of the Solomonte Temple leave much to be filled
in from conjecture. Joseph Hammond has justly said:

"It is certain that, were a true restoration of the Temple ever to be placed in our hands, we
should find that it differed widely from all attempted `restorations' of the edifice, based on the
scanty and imperfect notices of our historian and Ezekiel" (Commentary on 1 Kings 6, "Pulpit
Commentary").

4. Site of the Temple:

The site of the Temple was on the eastern of the two hills on which Jerusalem was built--that
known in Scripture as Mt. Moriah (2 Chronicles 3:1) or Mt. Zion (the traditional view which
locates Zion on the western hill, on the other side of the Tyropoeon, though defended by some,
seems untenable; see "Zion," in HDB; "Jerusalem," in DB, etc.). The place is more precisely
defined as that where Araunah (Ornan) had his threshing-floor, and David built his altar after
the plague (1 Chronicles 21:22; 2 Chronicles 3:1). This spot, in turn, is now all but universally
held to be marked by the sacred rock, es-Sakhra (within what is called the Haram area on the
eastern summit; see JERUSALEM), above which the "Dome of the Rock," or so-called
"Mosque of Omar," now stands. Here, according to traditional belief, was reared the altar of
burnt offering, and to the West of it was built the Temple. This location is indeed challenged by
Fergusson, W. R. Smith, and others, who transfer the Temple-site to the southwestern angle of
the Haram area, but the great majority of scholars take the above view. To prepare a suitable
surface for the Temple and connected buildings (the area may have been some 600 ft. East to
West, and 300 to 400 ft. North to South), the summit of the hill had to be leveled, and its lower
parts heightened by immense substructures (Josephus, Ant, VIII iii, 9; XV, xi, 3; BJ, V, v, 1),
the remains of which modern excavations have brought to light (compare Warren's
Underground Jerusalem; G. A. Smith's Jerusalem, etc.).

5. Phoenician Assistance:

For aid in his undertaking, Solomon invited the cooperation of Hiram, king of Tyre, who willingly
lent his assistance, as he had before helped David, granting Solomon permission to send his
servants to cut down timber in Lebanon, aiding in transport, and in the quarrying and hewing of
stones, and sending a skillful Tyrian artist, another Hiram, to superintend the designing and
graving of objects made of the precious metals, etc. For this assistance Solomon made a
suitable recompense (1 Kings 5; 2 Chronicles 2). Excavations seem to show that a large part of
the limestone of which the temple was built came from quarries in the immediate neighborhood
of Jerusalem (Warren, Underground Jerusalem, 60). The stones were cut, hewn and polished
at the places whence they were taken, so that "there was neither hammer nor axe nor any tool
of iron heard in the house, while it was in building" (1 Kings 5:17,18; 6:7). Opinions differ as to
the style of architecture of the building. It was probably unique, but Phoenician art also must
have left its impress upon it.

See ARCHITECTURE.

II. The Temple Building.

1. In General:

In contrast with the tabernacle, which was a portable "tent," consisting of a framework of acacia
wood, with rich coverings hung over it, and standing in a "court" enclosed by curtains (see
TABERNACLE), the Temple was a substantial "house" built of stone (probably the hard white
limestone of the district), with chambers in three stories, half the height of the building (1 Kings
6:5,6), round the sides and back, and, in front, a stately porch (1 Kings 6:3), before which stood
two lofty bronze pillars--Jachin and Boaz (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chronicles 3:4,15-17). Within, the
house was lined with cedar, overlaid with gold, graven with figures of cherubim, palms, and
open flowers (1 Kings 6:15,18,21,22,29), and a partition of cedar or stone divided the interior
into two apartments--one the holy place (the hekhal), the other the most holy place, or "oracle"
(debhir) (1 Kings 6:16-18). The floor was of stone, covered with fir (or cypress), likewise
overlaid with gold (1 Kings 6:15,30). The platform on which the whole building stood was
probably raised above the level of the court in front, and the building may have been
approached by steps. Details are not given. The more particular description follows.

2. Dimensions, Divisions and Adornments:

The Temple, like the tabernacle, stood facing East, environed by "courts" ("inner" and
"greater"), which are dealt with below, Internally, the dimensions of the structure were, in length
and width, double those of the tabernacle, namely, length 60 cubits, width 20 cubits. The
height, however, was 30 cubits, thrice that of the tabernacle (1 Kings 6:2; compare 6:18,20).
The precise length of the cubit is uncertain (see CUBIT); here, as in the article TABERNACLE,
it is taken as approximately 18 inches. In internal measurement, therefore, the Temple was
approximately 90 ft. long, 30 ft. broad, and 45 ft. high. This allows nothing for the thickness of
the partition between the two chambers. For the external measurement, the thickness of the
walls and the width of the surrounding chambers and their walls require to be added. It cannot
positively be affirmed that the dimensions of the Temple, including the porch, coincided
precisely with those of Ezekiel's temple (compare Keil on 1 Kings 6:9,10); still, the proportions
must have closely approximated, and may have been in agreement.

The walls of the building, as stated, were lined within with cedar; the holy place was ceiled with
fir or cypress (2 Chronicles 3:5; the "oracle" perhaps with cedar); the flooring likewise was of fir
(1 Kings 6:15). All was overlaid with gold, and walls and doors (see below) were adorned with
gravings of cherubim, palm trees, and open flowers (1 Kings 6:19-35; 2 Chronicles 3:6 adds
"precious stones"). Of the two chambers into which the house was divided, the outermost (or
hekhal) was 40 cubits (60 ft.) long, and 20 cubits (30 ft.) wide (1 Kings 6:17); the innermost (or
debhir) was 20 cubits in length, breadth and height--a cube (1 Kings 6:20). As the height of the
Temple internally was 30 cubits, it is obvious that above the most holy place there was a
vacant space 20 cubits long and 10 high. This apparently was utilized as a chamber or
chambers for storage or other purposes. It has been held by some (Kurtz, Fergusson, etc.) that
the ceiling along the entire Temple was at the height of 20 cubits, with chambers above
(compare the allusion to "upper chambers" in 1 Chronicles 28:11; 2 Chronicles 3:9); this,
however, seems unwarranted (compare Bahr on 1 Kings 6:14-19; the upper chambers" were
"overlaid with gold,"2 Chronicles 3:9, which points to something nobler in character). The inner
chamber was a place of "thick darkness" (1 Kings 8:12).

3. The Side-Chambers:

The thickness of the Temple walls is not given, but the analogy of Ezekiel's temple (Ezekiel 41)
and what is told of the side-chambers render it probable that the thickness was not less than 6
cubits (9 ft.). Around the Temple, on its two sides and at the back, were built chambers
(tsela`oth, literally, "ribs"), the construction of which is summarily described. They were built in
three stories, each story 5 cubits in height (allowance must also be made for flooring and
roofing), the lowest being 5 cubits in breadth, the next 6 cubits, and the highest 7 cubits. This is
explained by the fact that the chambers were not to be built into the wall of the Temple, but
were to rest on ledges or rebatements in the wall, each rebate a cubit in breadth, so that the
wall became thinner, and the chambers broader, by a cubit, each stage in the ascent. (1 Kings
6:5-10). The door admitting into these chambers was apparently in the middle of the right side
of the house, and winding stairs led up to the second and third stories (1 Kings 6:8). It is not
stated how many chambers there were; Josephus (Ant., VIII, iii, 2) gives the number as 30,
which is the number in Ezekiel's temple (Ezekiel 41:6). The outer wall of the chambers, which
in Ezekiel is 5 cubits thick (41:9), may have been the same here, though some make it less. It
is a question whether the rebatements were in the Temple wall only, or were divided between it
and the outer wall; the former seems the more probable opinion, as nothing is said of
rebatements in the outer wall. Above the chambers on either side were "windows of fixed
lattice-work" (41:4), i.e. openings which could not be closed ("windows broad within and narrow
without"). The purposes for which the chambers were constructed are not mentioned. They
may have been used partly for storage, partly for the accommodation of those engaged in the
service of the Temple (compare 1 Chronicles 9:27).

4. The Porch and Pillars:

A conspicuous feature of the Temple was the porch in front of the building, with its twin pillars,
Jachin and Boaz. Of the porch itself a very brief description is given. It is stated to have been
20 cubits broad--the width of the house--and 10 cubits deep (1 Kings 6:3). Its height is not
given in 1 Kings, but it is said in 2 Chronicles 3:4 to have been 120 cubits, or approximately
180 ft. Some accept this enormous height (Ewald, Stanley, etc.), but the majority more
reasonably infer that there has been a corruption of the number. It may have been the same
height as the Temple--30 cubits. It was apparently open in front, and, from what is said of its
being "overlaid within with pure gold" (2 Chronicles 3:4), it may be concluded that it shared in
the splendor of the main building, and had architectural features of its own which are not
recorded. Some find here, in the wings, treasury chambers, and above, "upper chambers," but
such restorations are wholly conjectural. It is otherwise with the monumental brass (bronze)
pillars--Jachin and Boaz--of which a tolerably full description is preserved (1 Kings 7:15-
22; 2 Chronicles 3:15-17; 4:11-13; compare Jeremiah 52:20-23), still, however, leaving many
points doubtful. The pillars which stood in front of the porch, detached from it, were hollow
bronze castings, each 18 cubits (27 ft.) in height (35 cubits in2 Chronicles 3:15 is an error), and
12 cubits (18 ft.) in circumference, and were surmounted by capitals 5 cubits (7 1/2 ft.) high,
richly ornamented on their lower, bowl-shaped (1 Kings 7:20,41,42) parts, with two rows of
pomegranates, enclosing festoons of chain-work, and, in their upper parts, rising to the height
of 4 cubits (6 ft.) in graceful lily-work.

See JACHIN AND BOAZ.

It was seen that the holy place (hekhal) was divided from the most holy (debhir) by a partition,
probably of cedar wood, though some think of a stone wall, one or even two cubits thick. In this
partition were folding doors, made of olive wood, with their lintels 4 cubits wide (1 Kings 6:31;
some interpret differently, and understand the upper part of the doorway to be a pentagon).
The doors, like the walls, had carvings of cherubim, palm trees, and flowers, and the whole
was gold-plated (1 Kings 6:32). Behind the partition hung the sanctuary veil (2 Chronicles
3:14). At the entrance of the Temple, similarly, were folding doors, with their lintels 5 cubits in
width, only this time the posts only were of olive, while the doors, divided into two leaves, were
of fir (or cypress) wood (1 Kings 6:33-35). The carving and gold-plating were as on the inner
doors, and all the doors had hinges of gold (1 Kings 7:50).

III. Courts, Gates and Royal Buildings.

The Temple was enclosed in "courts"--an "inner" (1 Kings 6:36; 7:12; 2 Chronicles 4:9, "court
of the priests"; Jer 36:10, "the upper court"; Ezekiel 8:3,16; 10:3), and an outer or "greater
court" (1 Kings 7:9,12; 2 Chronicles 4:9)--regarding the situation, dimensions and relations of
which, alike to one another and to the royal buildings described in 1 Kings 7 the scanty notices
in the history leave room for great diversity of opinion.

See COURT OF THE SANCTUARY.

1. The Inner Court:

The "inner court" (chatser ha-penimith) is repeatedly referred to (see above). Its dimensions
are not given, but they may be presumed to be twice those of the tabernacle court, namely,
200 cubits (300 ft.) in length and 100 cubits (150 ft.) in breadth. The name in Jeremiah 36:10,
"the upper court," indicates that it was on a higher level than the "great court," and as the
Temple was probably on a platform higher still, the whole would present a striking terraced
aspect.

(1) Walls:

The walls of the court were built of three rows of hewn stone, with a coping of cedar beams
(1 Kings 6:36). Their height is not stated; it is doubtful if it would admit of the colonnades which
some have supposed; but "chambers" are mentioned (Jeremiah 35:4; 36:10--if, indeed, all
belong to the "inner" court), which imply a substantial structure. It was distinctively "the priests'
court" (2 Chronicles 4:9); probably, in part, was reserved for them; to a certain degree,
however, the laity had evidently free access into it (Jeremiah 36:10; 38:14; Ezekiel 8:16, etc.).
The mention of "the new court" (2 Chronicles 20:5, time of Jehoshaphat), and of "the two
courts of the house of Yahweh" (2 Kings 21:5; 2 Chronicles 33:5, time of Manasseh), suggests
subsequent enlargement and division.
(2) Gates:

Though gates are not mentioned in the narratives of the construction, later allusions show that
there were several, though not all were of the time of Solomon. The principal entrance would,
of course, be that toward the East (see EAST GATE). In Jeremiah 26:10 there is allusion to
"the entry of the new gate of Yahweh's house." This doubtless was "the upper gate" built by
Jotham (2 Kings 15:35) and may reasonably be identified with the "gate that looketh toward the
North" and the "gate of the altar" (i.e. through which the sacrifices were brought) in Ezekiel
8:3,1, and with "the upper gate of Benjamin" in Jeremiah 20:3. Mention is also made of a "gate
of the guard" which descended to the king's house (2 Kings 11:19; see below). Jeremiah
speaks of a "third entry that is in the house of Yahweh" (38:14), and of "three keepers of the
threshold" (52:24), but it is not clear which court is intended.

2. The Great Court:

The outer or "great court" of the Temple (chatser ha-gedholah) opens up more difficult
problems. Some regard this court as extending to the East in front of the "inner court"; others,
as Keil, think of it as a great enclosure surrounding the "inner court" and stretching perhaps
150 cubits East of the latter (compare his Biblical Archaeology, I, 170-71). These writers
remove the court from all connection with the royal buildings of 1 Kings 7, and distinguish it
from "the great court of 7:9,12." A quite different construction is that advocated by Stade and
Benzinger, and adopted by most recent authorities (compare articles on "Temple" in HDB, IV,
in EB, IV, in one-vol HDB, in DB (Dalman); G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, II, 59, etc.). The great
court, on this view, not only surrounds the Temple, with its (inner) court, but, extending to the
South, encloses the whole complex of the royal buildings of 1Ki 7. This has the advantage of
bringing together the references to the "great court" in 1 Kings 7:9,12 and the other references
to the outer court. The court, thus conceived, must have been very large. The extensive part
occupied by the royal buildings being on a lower level than the "inner court," entrance to it is
thought to have been by "the gate of the guard unto the king's house" mentioned in 2 Kings
11:19. Its wall, like that of the inner court, was built in three courses of hewn stone, and one
course of cedar (1 Kings 7:12). Its gates overlaid with brass (2 Chronicles 4:9, i.e., "bronze")
show that the masonry must have been both high and substantial. On the "other court"
of 1 Kings 7:8, see next paragraph.

3. The Royal Buildings:

The group of buildings which, on theory now stated, were enclosed by the southern part of the
great court, are those described in 1 Kings 7:1-12. They were of hewn stone and cedar wood
(1 Kings 7:9-11), and embraced:

(1) The king's house, or royal palace (1 Kings 7:8), in close contiguity with the Temple-court
(2 Kings 11:19).

(2) Behind this to the West, the house of Pharaoh's daughter (2 Kings 11:9)--the apartments of
the women. Both of these were enclosed in a "court" of their own, styled in 2 Kings 11:8 "the
other court," and in 2 Kings 20:4 margin "the middle court."

(3) South of this stood the throne-room, and porch or hall of judgment, paneled in cedar" from
floor to floor," i.e. from floor to ceiling (2 Kings 11:7). The throne, we read later (1 Kings 10:18-
20), was of ivory, overlaid with gold, and on either side of the throne, as well as of the six steps
that led up to it, were lions. The hall served as an audience chamber, and for the administration
of justice.
(4) Yet farther South stood the porch or hall of pillars, 50 cubits (75 ft.) long and 30 cubits (45
ft.) broad, with a sub-porch of its own (1 Kings 10:6). It is best regarded as a place of
promenade and vestibule to the hall of judgment.

(5) Lastly, there was the imposing and elaborate building known as "the house of the forest of
Lebanon" (1 Kings 10:2-5), which appears to have received this name from its multitude of
cedar pillars.

The scanty hints as to its internal arrangements have baffled the ingenuity of the
commentators. The house was 100 cubits (150 ft.) in length, 50 cubits (75 ft.) in breadth, and
30 cubits (45 ft.) in height. Going round the sides and back there were apparently four rows of
pillars. The Septuagint has three rows), on which, supported by cedar beams, rested three tiers
or stories of side-chambers (literally, "ribs," as in 1 Kings 6:5; compare the Revised Version
margin). In 1 Kings 6:3it is disputed whether the number "forty and five; fifteen in a row" (as the
Hebrew may be read) refers to the pillars or to the chambers; if to the former, the Septuagint
reading of "three rows" is preferable. The windows of the tiers faced each other on the opposite
sides (1 Kings 6:4,5). But the whole construction is obscure and doubtful. The spacious house
was used partly as an armory; here Solomon put his 300 shields of beaten gold (1 Kings
10:17).

IV. Furniture of the Temple.

1. The Sanctuary:

We treat here, first, of the sanctuary in its two divisions, then of the (inner) court.

(1) The "Debhir".

In the most holy place, or debhir, of the sanctuary stood, as before, the old Mosaic ark of the
covenant, with its two golden cherubim above the mercy-seat (see ARK OF THE COVENANT;
TABERNACLE). Now, however, the symbolic element was increased by the ark being placed
between two other figures of cherubim, made of olive wood, overlaid with gold, 10 cubits (15
ft.) high, their wings, each 5 cubits (7 1/2 ft.) long, outstretched so that they reached from wall
to wall of the oracle (20 cubits), the inner wings meeting in the center (1 Kings 6:23-
28; 2 Chronicles 3:10-13).

See CHERUBIM.

(2) The "Hekhal".

In the holy place, or hekhal, the changes were greater. (a) Before the oracle, mentioned as
belonging to it (1 Kings 6:22), stood the altar of incense, covered with cedar, and overlaid with
gold (1 Kings 6:20-22; 7:48; 2 Chronicles 4:19; see ALTAR OF INCENSE). It is an arbitrary
procedure of criticism to attempt to identify this altar with the table of shewbread. (b) Instead of
one golden candlestick, as in the tabernacle, there were now 10, 5 placed on one side and 5
on the other, in front of the oracle. All, with their utensils, were of pure gold (1 Kings
7:49;2 Chronicles 4:7). (c) Likewise, for one table of shewbread, there were now 10, 5 on one
side, 5 on the other, also with their utensils made of gold (1 Kings 7:48, where, however, only
one table is mentioned; 2Ch 4:8, "100 basins of gold"). As these objects, only enlarged in
number and dimensions, are fashioned after the model of those of the tabernacle, further
particulars regarding them are not given here.

2. The Court (Inner):

(1) The Altar.

The most prominent object in the Temple-court was the altar of burnt offering, or brazen altar
(see BRAZEN ALTAR). The site of the altar, as already seen, was the rock es Sakhra], where
Araunah had his threshing-floor. The notion of some moderns that the rock itself was the altar,
and that the brazen (bronze) altar was introduced later, is devoid of plausibility. An altar is
always something reared or built (compare 2 Samuel 24:18,25). The dimensions of the altar,
which are not mentioned in 1 K, are given in 2 Chronicles 4:1 as 20 cubits (30 ft.) long, 20
cubits (30 ft.) broad, and 10 cubits (15 ft.) high. As utensils connected with it--an incidental
confirmation of its historicity--are pots, shovels, basins and fleshhooks (1 Kings
7:40,45; 2 Chronicles 4:11,16). It will be observed that the assumed halving proportions of the
tabernacle are here quite departed from (compare Exodus 27:1).

(2) The Molten (Bronze) Sea.

A new feature in the sanctuary court--taking the place of the "laver" in the tabernacle--was the
"molten sea," the name being given to it for its great size. It was an immense basin of bronze, 5
cubits (7 1/2 ft.) high, 10 cubits (15 ft.) in diameter at the brim, and 30 cubits (45 ft.) in
circumference, resting on 12 bronze oxen, and placed between the altar and the Temple-
porch, toward the South (1 Kings 7:23-26,39; 2 Chronicles 4:2-5,10). The bronze was a
handbreadth in thickness. The brim was shaped like the flower of a lily, and encompassing the
basin were ornamental knops. Its capacity is given as 2,000 baths (1 Kings 7:26; by error
in 2 Chronicles 4:5, 3,000 baths). The oxen on which it rested faced the four cardinal points--
three looking each way. The "sea," like the laver, doubtless supplied the water for the washing
of the priests' hands and feet (compare Exodus 30:18; 38:8). The view of certain scholars
(Kosters, Gunkel, etc.) that the "sea" is connected with Babylonian mythical ideas of the great
deep is quite fanciful; no hint appears of such significance in any part of the narrative. The
same applies to the lavers in the next paragraph.

(3) The Lavers and Their Bases.

The tabernacle laver had its place taken by the "sea" just described, but the Temple was also
provided with 10 lavers or basins, set on "bases" of elaborate design and moving upon wheels-
-the whole made of bronze (1 Kings 7:27-37). Their use seems to have been for the washing of
sacrifices (2 Chronicles 4:6), for which purpose they were placed, 5 on the north side, and 5 on
the south side, of the Temple-court. The bases were 4 cubits (6 ft.) long, 4 cubits broad, and 3
cubits (4 1/2 ft.) high. These bases were of the nature of square paneled boxes, their sides
being ornamented with figures of lions, oxen and cherubim, with wreathed work beneath. They
had four feet, to which wheels were attached. The basin rested on a rounded pedestal, a cubit
high, with an opening 1 1/2 cubits in diameter to receive the laver (1 Kings 7:31). Mythological
ideas, as just said, are here out of place.

V. History of the Temple.

1. Building and Dedication:

The Temple was founded in the 4th year of Solomon's reign (1 Kings 6:1), and occupied 7 1/2
years in building (1 Kings 6:38); the royal buildings occupied 13 years (1 Kings 7:1)--20 years
in all (the two periods, however, may in part synchronize). On the completion of the Temple,
the ark was brought up, in the presence of a vast assemblage, from Zion, and, with
innumerable sacrifices and thanksgiving, was solemnly deposited in the Holy of Holies (1 Kings
8:1-21;2 Chronicles 5; 6:1-11). The Temple itself was then dedicated by Solomon in the noble
prayer recorded in 1 Kings 8:22-61; 2 Chronicles 6:12-42, followed by lavish sacrifices, and a
14 days' feast. At its inauguration the house was filled with the "glory" of Yahweh (1 Kings
8:10,11;2 Chronicles 5:13,14).
2. Repeated Plunderings, etc.:

The religious declension of the later days of Solomon (1 Kings 11:1-8) brought in its train
disasters for the nation and the Temple. On Solomon's death the kingdom was disrupted, and
the Temple ceased to be the one national sanctuary. It had its rivals in the calf-shrines set up
by Jeroboam at Beth-el and Da (1 Kings 12:25-33). In the 5th year of Rehoboam an expedition
was made against Judah by Shishak, king of Egypt, who, coming to Jerusalem, carried away
the treasures of the Temple, together with those of the king's house, including the 300 shields
of gold which Solomon had made (1 Kings 14:25-28; 2 Chronicles 12:2-9). Rehoboam's wife,
Maacah, was an idolatress, and during the reign of Abijam, her son, introduced many
abominations into the worship of the Temple (1 Kings 15:2,12,13). Asa cleared these away, but
himself further depleted the Temple and royal treasuries by sending all that was left of their
silver and gold to Ben-hadad, king of Syria, to buy his help against Baasha, king of Israel
(1 Kings 15:18,19). Again the Temple was foully desecrated by Athaliah (2 Chronicles 24:7),
necessitating the repairs of Jehoash (2Ki 12:4; 1Ch 24:4); and a new plundering took place in
the reign of Ahaziah, when Jehoash of Israel carried off all the gold and silver in the Temple
and palace (2 Kings 14:14). Uzziah was smitten with leprosy for presuming to enter the holy
place to offer incense (2 Chronicles 26:16-20). Jehoshaphat, earlier, is thought to have
enlarged the court (2 Chronicles 20:5), and Jotham built a new gate (2 Kings
15:35; 2 Chronicles 27:3). The ungodly Ahaz went farther than any of his predecessors in
sacrilege, for, besides robbing the Temple and palace of their treasures to secure the aid of the
king of Assyria (2 Kings 16:8), he removed the brazen altar from its time-honored site, and set
up a heathen altar in its place, removing likewise the bases and ornaments of the lavers, and
the oxen from under the brazen (bronze) sea (2 Kings 16:10-17).

3. Attempts at Reform:

An earnest attempt at reform of religion was made by Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:1-6; 2 Chronicles
29:31), but even he was driven to take all the gold and silver in the Temple and king's house to
meet the tribute imposed on him by Sennacherib, stripping from the doors and pillars the gold
with which he himself had overlaid them (2 Kings 18:14-16; 2 Chronicles 32:31). Things
became worse than ever under Manasseh, who reared idolatrous altars in the Temple-courts,
made an Asherah, introduced the worship of the host of heaven, had horses dedicated to the
sun in the Temple-court, and connived at the worst pollutions of heathenism in the sanctuary
(2 Kings 21:3-7;23:7,11). Then came the more energetic reforms of the reign of Josiah, when,
during the repairs of the Temple, the discovery was made of the Book of the Law, which led to
a new covenant with Yahweh, a suppression of the high places, and the thorough cleansing-
out of abuses from the Temple (2Ki 22; 23:1-25; 2Ch 34; 35). Still, the heart of the people was
not changed, and, as seen in the history, and in the pages of the Prophets, after Josiah's
death, the old evils were soon back in full force (compare e.g. Ezekiel 8:7-18).

4. Final Overthrow:

The end, however, was now at hand. Nebuchadnezzar made Jehoiakim his tributary; then, on
his rebelling, came, in the reign of Jehoiachin, took Jerusalem, carried off the treasures of the
Temple and palace, with the gold of the Temple vessels (part had already been taken on his
first approach, 2 Chronicles 36:7), and led into captivity the king, his household and the chief
part of the population (2 Kings 24:1-17). Eleven years later (586 BC), after a siege of 18
months, consequent on Zedekiah's rebellion (2 Kings 25:1), the Babylonian army completed
the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. Only a few lesser utensils of value, and the
brazen (bronze) pillars, bases and sea remained; these were now taken away, the larger
objects being broken up (2 Kings 25:13-16). The Temple itself, with its connected buildings,
and the houses in Jerusalem generally, were set on fire (2 Kings 25:9). The ark doubtless
perished in the conflagration, and is no more heard of. The residue of the population--all but
the poorest--were carried away captive (2 Kings 25:11,12; see CAPTIVITY). Thus ended the
first Temple, after about 400 years of chequered existence.