SOME NOTES ON THE USE OF VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE

RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS

J. GONDA
Utrecht

1. As is well known mantras were almost everywhere and continually

required in performing ritual acts and exerting influence upon the Unseen
to express the officiant's will, desire or intentions, to indicate the character
of the acts, to name the divine power or powers addressed and, last but
not least, to consecrate the ritual acts themselves. From the innumerable
mantras which from the oldest texts onwards were handed down or were
added to those already existing individual religious communities made
their choice, regarding part of their selections as specially important, for
instance because they represent aspects of their favourite god or express
fundamentals of their religion. However, the ritual use of mantras gives
rise to some interesting problems. Although in many cases the suitability
of a definite stanza is perfectly clear, it is less self-evident why so many
mantras should have been used in connection with rites with which they
have no prima facie affinity, why some of them were modified or replaced,
whereas others were, at least in definite circles, favourite and used in a
variety of ceremonies. This important question has been discussed by
V. M. Apte, ".Rgveda mantras in their ritual setting in the g.rhyasfitras",
Bull. Deccan Coll. Res. Inst., I, p. 14ft. and 127ff. and P. K. Narayana
Pillai, Non-R. gvedie mantras in the marriage ceremonies (Trivandrum,
1958). The study of the ritual setting should not however be limited to
Vedic literature proper, because many Vedic mantras continued to have
a function in post-Vedic rites. This survival of Vedic elements in the
religious communities of the later periods has not, as far as I know,
attracted the attention it deserves. Of special importance in this respect
are the texts of the religious community of the Vaikh~nasas which in the
beginning of the Christian era gradually developed from a Vedic 'school'
into a Vi.s.nuite denomination.
Specially interesting from the point of view of adaptation and Vi.s.nuiza-
2 J. GONDA

tion is the use made by this community of traditional Vedic mantras, 1

the choice they have made, the new applications they have given to them,
the variations and combinations to which they have subjected the old
formulas and the supplements and additions by which they sometimes
enlarged them. The mantras which, being of superhuman origin and
considered partial materializations of the eternal truth, concentrated
essence of divine reality, are to consecrate the ritual acts and to establish the
contact between the worshipper and the divine, furnish us with a wealth of
information on the meaning and purpose of the acts in connection with
which they are pronounced. The application of a mantra to a new purpose
may in principle be regarded as pointing to the conviction, on the part
of a religious community, that there existed essential identity of, or at
least a similarity between, the act to which the mantra originally belonged
and the rite to which it was transferred. Any modification or enlargement
m a y put us on the scent of a change in belief, doctrine or practice. ~ This
is not all. In the course of time many ancient mantras fell into disuse
whereas other formulas were introduced. The latter often were of another
type and structure, for instance short invocations of, or expressions of
homage or adoration addressed to, the god who was particularly wor-
shipped in a community or of his manifestations. This process is illustrated
by a comparison between the Vaikh~nasasfttra and some comparable
texts. Other comparatively early accounts of the ritual of pf~ja occur in
the Vi.sn.u-Sm.rti, ch. 65, where mention is made of the invocation and
welcome of the deity, the offering of arghya (water offered at the respectful
reception of a guest). A similar account is given in the Baudhayana-
G.rhyasfitra (2, 14). Whereas however the Vi.sn.u-Sm.rti enjoins the recita-
tion of Vedic mantras only, the Vaikhanasa-Sfatra sanctions also the
muttering of the eight- and twelve-syllabled mantras (O.m narno naraya-
n.aya, Om. namo bhagavate vasudevaya; 4, 12; 10, 9) and recommends
the offering of betel to the deity ("mouth-perfume", p. 65, 1.5). s It may
x For convenience, the mantras, though borrowed from the Vaikhgnasa collection
which is based on the tradition of the Taittiriyas are - - first or only - - quoted after their
ggvedic occurrences. Mantras which traditionally belong to a definite rite (e.g.
VaikhSmS. 3, 9) are left out of consideration.
As is well known, this obviously was not the opinion of M. Winternitz, Geschichte
der indischen Litteratur, I (Leipzig, 1907), p. 236f. (p. 276 of the English edition,
Calcutta, 1959) and other scholars who seriously questioned the applicability of the
mantras to the rites in which they are liturgically used. They overlooked the fact that
only a careful examination of single mantra citations in every individual ritual com-
plex can decide this issue.
3 The use of betel leaves seems to have been introduced into India in the first century
A. D. (P. K. Gode, Studies in Indian cultural history, I, Hoshiarpur, 1961, p. 129f.,
159, 165; P. V. Kane, History ofDharmagastra, II, Poona, 1941, p. 734).
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKH~-NASAS 3
be surmised that this combination of Vedic and non-Vedic mantras
- - the former being the privilege of twice-born men - - reflects the
amalgamation of the cult of the Vedic Vi.s.nu with the non-Vedic Narft-
ya.na.
It is however worth noticing that in this respect also the compiler of
the Vaikhanasasf~tra continues a development which had set in before
him or, at least, incorporates 'elements of Vi.s.nuism' which were also
part and parcel of the tradition of other Vedic schools. His list of formulas
to be recited in the Vi.s.nubali (3, 13), a ceremony to be performed towards
the end of pregnancy, 4 does not essentially differ from that contained in
Baudhftyana's G.rhyasfttra (I, 11): they are O.m bhft.h puru.sam avdhayarni
etc.; kedavam, tarpayami ... "I satisfy Kegava (followed by eleven other
names of Visnu)"; the stanzas (.RV. 10, 9, 1-3 = ) TS. 4, l, 5, 1; (AV. 1,
33, 1-4 = ) TS. 5, 6, 1, 1; TB. 1, 4, 8, 1 and the Vi.s.nu stanzas (.RV. 1,
154, 1 = ) TS. 1, 2, 13, 3; (.RV. 1, 154, 5 = ) TB. 2, 4, 6, 2; (.RV. I, 154,
2 = ) TB. 2, 4, 3, 4; (.RV. 7, 99, 1 = ) TB. 2, 8, 3, 2; (.RV. 7, 100, 4 = )
TB. 2, 8, 3, 3; (.RV. 7, 100, 3 = ) TB. 2, 8, 3, 3. In the Vaikhfinasa texts
these mantras are however preceded by the Vai.s.navam (.RV. 1, 22,
16-21). 5 However popular in this community, these stanzas were not
unusual in this rite to remove harm to the foetus and the expectant
m o t h e r - a function generally attributed to Vis.nu: see Vasi.s.tha's state-
ment in the Sam.skdraprak~da, p. 178.
It is impossible within the compass of this article to discuss more
than only a small part of those Vedic mantras which, in the Vaikh~nasa
rites, are used more than once. Their number is considerable in accordance
with K ~ y a p a ' s instruction to his followers (ch. 1): "Man has to worship
Vi.s.nu by a method which is in harmony with the Scriptures, with mantras
from the Veda, in order to reach His highest abode".
A case in point is the formula vi.sn.o (vi.sn.o.h etc.) stupo 'si "Thou art
Vi.s.nu's hair-tuft". In the Vedic ritual it is addressed to the prastara, a
tied-up bunch of sacred grass which is put upon the sacrificial bed called
vedi (VS. 2, 2; TS. 1, 1, 11, 1; KS. 1, 11) - - to serve, later on, as a seat
for the gods (SB. 1, 3, 4, 11) - - the motivation being given at SB. 1, 3,
3, 5: "Vi.sn.u is the sacrifice (cf. TB. 3, 3, 6, 5) and this (prastara) is his
topknot (hair-tuft)", because, the commentary adds, it lies on the front
(eastern) side of the vedi and men also wear their topknot on the fore-part
of their head. According to MS. 4, 1, 13: 17, 12 one makes, by doing
so, the yajam6na, who is identified with theprastara, the upper or principal
4 Kane, o.c., II, p. 226t".
5 See further on, 19. 8ft.
4 J. GONDA
one (see also KS. 31, 10: 12, 13; ApSS. 2, 8, 5; M,~S. 1, 2, 6, 1). TB., l.c.,
observes that the act is to support the sacrifice (yajfiasya dhrtyai). In the
ritual as described VaikhSms. 1, 9 ft. vedi is the name of two girdles 6 made
from clay in the "abode of the fire", an upper one and a lower one, in
the middle of which is the place for the fire (agnikun..da). The same mantra
is used to consecrate the strewing of grass at the east side of that girdle, but
three extended forms of the same containing indications of the points of
the compass are added, the act being repeated at the other sides of the
girdle so that the latter is completely encircled by the grass, which, being
used for purifying purposes, was to delimit the sacred place. This reminds
us of the enclosure, consisting of the three paridhis laid, in the Vedic
ritual, round the sacrificial fire to keep it together. These are to safeguard
the sacrificial fire: SB. 1, 3, 3, 14 "When he encloses Agni with these
(sticks) he buckles armour on him". In this quadruplication of the ritual
act and of the mantra belonging to it the original meaning and appro-
priateness of the latter have been lost, although the function of the former
as intimated by TB. 3, 3, 6, 5 may be supposed to continue. It should
however be observed that, immediately after this part of the ritual, the
VaikhSnasasf~tra prescribes the laying down of the paridhis at the west,
south and north sides using the mantras addressed to other gods which
in the Vedic ritual follow on vi.sn.o(.h) stupo 'si, but omitting this formula.
The duplication may at least in part be due to the desire to amplify the
Vis.n.uite element represented by the mantra under discussion.
An instructive instance of the introduction of Vi.sn.u into a traditional
formulary occurs VaikhSmS. 1, 19. Dealing with the normal pattern of
a sacrifice, the author enumerates the mantras to be recited at the end.
Two of a series of three are found in TB. 3, 7, 11, 1, but of the third,
yad akarma yah nSkarma, yad atyareci yah n~tyareci, yad atirikta.m
yac ca Mnam. tat tram. vi.~eur yaffio yaj~am, pratir svShak.rtShulir
etu devSn svdhS, only the words atiriktam. (karmaeo) yac ca Mnarn occur
there. The first and second clauses are identical with .ffpSS. 3, 12, 1 (25)
a and b, the last occurs TB. 3, 7, 11, 1 and .ffp,~S. 3, 11, 2 e (and 2, 21, 1).
This means that the invocation of Vi.s.nu as the sacrifice to redress what
is redundant and omitted or deficient and to found or establish the
sacrifice seems to be proper to the Vaikh~nasas. The idea evolved quite
naturally from the ancient belief that Vi.sn.u is the sacrifice.
The identifications with which the sacrificial utensils are addressed are
very helpful in revealing not only particulars about their functions, but
especially their 'symbolism', the invisible aspects of these functions. To
6 See W. Caland, Vaikh~nasasm~rtasgttram Translation (Calcutta, 1929), p. 17, n. 8.
 VEDIC MANTRASIN THE RITUAL TEXTSOF THE VAIKH~.NASAS 5

accompany the putting of grass-stalks (barhi.sah) on the vedi, VaikhSmS.

1, 10 has the following mantra pronounced: pavitre stho vai.sn,avye stho
yaffiiye stho vayupftte stho vi.s.nor manasd pate stho yaffiasya pavane stha.h
"Strainers are ye two; to Vi.s.nu belong ye; fit for sacrificial worship are ye,
purified by Viyu (the wind purifies: SB. 1, 1, 3, 2) are ye; purified by Vi.s.nu's
wind are ye; (two) strainers of the sacrifice are ye." The first, second and
fifth components of this mantra are known from elsewhere. Xp~S. 1, 11, 7
where mention is made of two grass-stalks the formula is: "Strainers are
ye, belonging to Vi.s.nu; Viyu must purify you with (his) wind", but at 1,
11, 9 the words "purified by Vi.sn..u's wind" are to follow. The objects
are sacred to Vi.sn.u because he is the sacrifice (~B. 1, l, 3, 1). The first
part of this formula occurs also at GGS. 1, 7, 22 and KhGS. 1, 2, 12
which add: "Purified by Vi.s.nu's wind are ye" and at ~GS. 1, 8, 14;
16, where Vi.s.nu's wind is left unmentioned. The purificatory formula
vi.sn,or manasdpftte stha.h occurs also MS. 4, 1, 6: 7, 15; KS. 1, 5; 31, 4
and is prescribed MSS. 1, 1, 3, 12 where it combines with a variant of
the former mantra, viz. o.sadhyd vai.s.nave stha.h "ye are the herbs of
Vis..nu" and 1, 2, 2, 1 ; KauL 1, 37; 2, 32. So the Vaikh~masa text has not
only in combining both mantras followed a certain tradition but expanded
them into a larger whole. This shows, first that the signification of the
act 7 was understood and traditional, and in the second place that the old
identification of Vi.sn.u and the sacrifice was implicitly accepted. In view
of the decidedly Vi.s.nuite allegiance of this community neither the
elaboration nor the implication is surprising, s
It cannot however be said that all cases of elaboration evince a strong
tendency to Vi.s.nuization. There appears to exist a correlation between
Vi.s.nu and the heart as there is one between sun and moon and the eyes,
and between the quarters of the universe and the ears (VaikhSmS. 1, 2):
the formula "Vi.s.nu must be propitious" accompanies the wiping of the
cardiac region. This idea may have developed from the ancient conviction
that the dtman resides in the heart (ChU. 8, 3, 3; KaU. 2, 20 etc.) on
the one hand and the identification of Vi.sn.u and the atman (MaitrU. 6,
8 etc.) on the other. During the state of meditation God (Vi.sn.u) is to
be in the devotee's heart (e.g. KagyS. 1 ; AtriS. 31, 64s 9 Now this for-
mula is, remarkably enough, the only reference to Vi.s.nu in the description

7 For the act itself see however Caland, Translation, p. 21, n. 3.

= At VaikhSmS. 1, 12 the sruva is taken with a long mantra beginning bh~.h sruva~
g.rh.n~mi and including also the words via.nor hasto 'si which occur at ~GS. 1, 9, 3
under similar circumstances.
9 This point will be discussed elsewhere.
6 J. GONDA

of the acamana ceremony (the sipping of water for purificatory purposes).

As compared with the rules about acamana laid down in Sm.rti works
(Gaut. 1, 35ff.; ApDhS. 1, 5, 15, 2ft.; lff; Vas. 3, 26ff.; Baudh. 1, 8, 12ft.;
Vi.sn.u 62; Manu 2, 58ff.; Yajh. 1, 18ft.) Vaikhanasa's section is elaborate
- - as appears also from the commentaries there was however much
diversity in particulars - - especially because of the many inserted mantras
which are not mentioned in the other works. Haradatta's commentary
on Gautama however observes that "according to a special rule of the
Vedas the sipping could be accompanied by the recitation of sacred
texts" and this piece of information is in harmony with KatySS. 2, 2, 20
enjoining an officiant to touch his navel with the formula "Whatever
deities there are in the waters purify this ... Settle down above my navel!
In Indra's stomach I make thee settle." Whereas other post-Vedic rituals
include a limited number of mantras, 1~ the Vaikhgnasas have seized the
opportunity to invoke a number of popular deities and other powers
and to elaborate the ceremony so as to become a specimen of macro-
cosmic-microcosmic parallelism: wiping their eyes they have to say:
" M a y the Sun be propitious" etc. This procedure cannot however be
disconnected from the belief underlying the ceremony of sipping without
mantras which is described in the previous part of the same section:
mouth, eyes, nose etc. must be wiped with different fingers or combinations
of fingers, these parts of the hand being presided over by some of the
greater gods. These particulars correspond with similar prescriptions
handed down in other texts n and may therefore have been traditional.
One of those important features of Hinduism which would require a
thorough investigation is the various relations between the greater and
lesser religions or denominations and the Sun, and the degree to which a
cult of that luminary has amalgamated with them or at least been accepted
or given a place in their rituals. Here it must suffice to recall that according
to Vai.sn.ava belief the worship of the Sun is based on the assumption that
God is present in its disk. Expatiating, in an interesting chapter (83), on
the worship of the Sun in sanctuaries to be erected for that divine luminary
Atri observes, by way of introduction (83, 1 f.) and doctrinal motivation
(83, 14f.), that the Sun contains Vis..nu's creative power (~akti) and fiery
energy (tejas). 1~ One should invoke Stqrya from the sun's (arka) orb by
~0 See e.g. the ~ivaite Soma~ambhupaddhati, 1, 47 (H. Brtmner-Lachaux, Soma~am-
bhupaddhati, I, Pondicherry, 1963). For the use of mantras and the mention of Varu.na
and Yama in a washing ceremony see .4p~S. 7, 21, 6.
11 See e.g.G. Btihler, in The Sacred books of the East, II, (Oxford, 1896),p. 58, n. 7.
is Cf. KrgyS. 71 "One should concentrate on Visn.u (as being present) within the
sun's orb,"
 VEDIC MANTRASIN THE RITUALTEXTSOF THE VAIKH~.NASAS 7

meditating on him as the eye of the world, as manifesting himself in tejas

and in the threefold Veda, as being provided with Vi.sn.u's ~akti and
destroying all disease. Those who worship the Sun according to the
Vaikh~nasa method will always prosper. This cult of the Sun which in the
usual way involves also the worship of his attendants, horses etc. requires
the use of a number of Vedic mantras which are in part borrowed from
St~rya hymns (.RV. 1, 50, 10; 1, 115, 5) or addressed to Mitra (.RV. 3,
59, 1 and 6) - - who is here, as elsewhere, identified with Sfirya - - in
part typically or traditionally Vi.s.nuite (Vi.soust~kta, Purus.asQkta). This
feature is of special interest, and this text-place is far from being alone in
prescribing the use of these two hymns which are of paramount signifi-
cance for any Vi.s.nuite community. 13 On the occasion of Vi.sn.u's festival
on the 12th day of M~rga~ir.sa one should meditate on Haft, pronounce
in meditation Vi.s.nu's rg-verse, recite from the Veda (inter alia the
Puru.sasgtkta and the Vi.s.nusgtkta), listen to tales about Vi.s.nu, fast, bathe
etc., offer the usual Vi.s.nuite oblations (AtriS. 47, 74ff.).

2. In other cases our attention is attracted by the introduction of a

single, but typically Vi.s.nuite mantra or series of mantras. The pun.yaha
described VaikhSmS. 1, 6 and 7 is a good instance of the expansion of
an originally very simple and brief rite 1~ into an elaborate ceremony with
a tinge of Vi.s.nuism. In common life, on the occasion of ceremonies
performed for the sake of welfare, all sentences shall, according to
,(pDhS. 1, 4, 13, 8 (9), begin with O.m, e.g.O.m pun.y~ham, Ore. svasti,
Ore..rddhim. The person who has a religious rite performed invites
brahmans to declare the day to be auspicious for that ceremony. The
Vaikhanasa variety of the ceremony consists of the following sub-
divisions: (1) A purification executed by the spiritual teacher (acarya) of
the person on whose behalf the act takes place, the mantras used ex-
pressing his belief in the purificatory efficacy of the water used - - which
is identified with the water of holy sources and rivers - - and the wish
that every horror, evil and illness may cease and happiness increase.
(2) The act proper performed by the learned brahmans invited and con-
sisting in the pronouncement of a long series of mantras, addressed to
various gods and asking for longevity, prosperity, glory, happiness etc.,

z3 For the Puru~asftkta see the remarks made in my book Vis..nuismand ,qivaisrn
(London, 1970), p. 25ff., 57f. It is my intention to deal with the ritual application of
the Vi.s.nusftktain a separate publication,
z4 Kane, o.c., II, p. 216f.
8 J. GONDA
preceded by one other mantra which is attuned to the rite that is to
follow. If the pun.yaha is to introduce a sacrifice to the gods the Vai.s.navam,
.RV. 1, 22, 16-21, is used, and this is the only, though not unimportant,
typically Vis..nuite feature in the whole ceremony. (3) Next the acdrya
pronounces formulas inviting gods, .r~is etc. to be pleased, imploring
welfare, a long life etc., and expressing the wish that the seasons and
nak.satras may be auspicious etc., the brahmans answering with the last
words: "they must be pleased" and "it must be here" or "be it so" (astu);
other mantras spoken by the acdrya, viz. Tel. 1, 1, 1, which are to state
an auspicious moment and have the sacrificer seize the opportunity, are
repeated in full by the other officiants. (4) The dearya has, on behalf of
the sacrificer, the blessings pronounced: an auspicious day, hail, pros-
perity, and with appropriate formulas water sprinkled. The author adds
that when the blessing has been performed the day will be a lucky one.
Through the blessing, either at the beginning or after the completion
of a religious act, all the rites become lucky and complete.
The Vaisn.avam occurs also in a rite to be performed at midday
(VaikhSmS. 9, 13): one should before and after diving into the water
sip for purification and then pay homage to Vi.s.nu with these stanzas
and to Varu.na with TA. 10, 1, 12; MahNU. 4, 130ft. "I take refuge with
gold-horned Varun.a; give at my request a bathing place ... May Indra,
Varu.na, Bghaspati and Savitar cleanse me from all evil which I have
done by thought, speech or deed." The latter formula alone is for a
similar purpose prescribed by Baudhftyana, DhS. 2, 5, 8, 3. The inference
seems warranted that the purpose of the Vai.s.navam is similar; that it is
an invocation of the god's presence or protection, which, is, however,
developing into a passe-partout prayer, or sort of confession of faith.
The frequency of its occurrence justifies a digression.
.RV. 1, 22, 16-21 dto devd avantu no ydto v~sn.ur vicakram~ "From here
the gods must (being pleased with our sacrifices) favour (assist) us, from
where Vis.n.u has traversed (the world)" - - the first stanza of this text is,
according to the B.rhaddevatd (3, 93), addressed optionally to the gods,
the others to Vi.sn.u and some of the single stanzas constituting it play
an important part in many ritual texts. The main theme which in these
six stanzas engages the poet's attention is Vi.s.nu's threefold striding
activity, which was connected with the establishment of his laws and
the observance of his functions and ordinances, his "highest step or place
being extended like the eye in heaven", 15 the universe being united or

15 See J. Gonda, Visnuismand Sivaism, p. 7ft.

 VEDIC MANTRASIN THE RITUALTEXTSOF THE VAIKHANASAS 9

arranged in the dust of his footprints and the gods being implored to
favour those praying from the very place from which Vi.s.nu began this
activity. This theme and the references made to a cosmogonic event as
well as God's highest abode made the Vai.s.navam suited to accompany
rites of renewal, including those of atonement, repair, arrangement,
construction and transition to a state of beatitude or transcendence. 16
In Vedic ritual these stanzas are prescribed: AdvSS. 1, 5, 38 in case of
calamity, when one has transgressed or neglected a rule, vow, or obliga-
tion; ibid. 6, 7, 2 and ~dhkh~S. 13, 7, 5 in a rite of atonement in case
the Soma is left over, .RV. 1, 22, 19 being at the end of the rite repeated
as the offering stanza. In the late Vdsudeva-Upani.sad (2) the mantras
figure among the formulas accompanying the preparation and application
of the gopicandana, the white clay used by Vi.s.nuites for marking the
face: after an appeal for protection (in the form of final emancipation)
addressed to the clay and an appropriate stanza accompanying the pro-
curing of water they impress us as an invocation of God's presence in his
important traversing function. The stanza .RV. 1, 22, 16 alone is used
in the ceremony of re-descent (pratyavarohan.a) performed at the end of
the time during which for fear of snakes sleeping on high bedsteads is
prescribed (~fJvGS. 2, 3, 11).
The Vaikhanasa-Smdrtasatra prescribes this group of stanzas on various
occasions, inter alia 1, 15; 6, 1 and three times in the elaborate description
of Vi.sn.u's worship (4, 10-12), to consecrate six oblations; to accompany
together with the Vis.nusC&ta,the Puru.sas~kta and .RV. 9, 94, 4 etc. four
sacrifices and in doing obeisance to the god. At 1, 6 the compiler, describ-
ing the so-called Pu.nyftha, that is the blessing to be pronounced by
brahmans before any sacramental act (sam.skara), enjoins all the officiants
present to recite a considerable number of stanzas, which should however
be preceded by these six. It may be noticed that this originally brief and
simple ceremony (see e.g. ~fpDhS. 1, 4, 13, 9) was in the course of time
elaborated. The Vaikhgnasa variant, while reflecting this development,
is characterized by the use of many formulas, most of which (being prayers
for luck, food, wealth, a long life, invocations of divine powers etc.) are
becoming to the occasion or to elements of the ritual. The six stanzas
of the Vai.s.navam which at first sight are neither a prayer nor an ordinary
invocation, but a statement and confirmation of God's most characteristic
deeds, stamp by their length and striking position the ceremony as
Vi.s.nuite. That they constituted the Vi.s.nuite mantras par excellence, most

18 See e.g.M. Eliade, The sacredand the profane (New York, 1959) (1961), passim.
10 J. GONDA

conducive to the activation of G o d ' s power and the invocation of His

presence appears also from 3, 17 where they are addressed to Vi.sn.u, where-
as many other gods are invoked by means of their special texts.
The Srnartasatra has these stanzas also used on the occasion of a
festival called Caitri, i.e. the sacrifice on the full m o o n day of Caitra
(March-April) which in this Vi.sn.uite milieu z7 seems to have been a
(Vi.s.nuite) 'domestic' rite in a limited sense of the term rather than
identical 18 with the decidedly ~ivaite SQlagava rite la to which it has no
resemblance. I f we may rely on the Vaikh~masa sGtra (4, 8) it was a typical
spring and New Year's festival, which however had some striking features
in c o m m o n with the A~vayuji-karman as described in the .4dvalfzyana-
G.rhyasfztra (2, 2) although this was celebrated in September-October
and comprises a sacrifice to ~iva Pa~upati. 2~A married couple had - - like
those performing the A~vayuji ceremonies - - to cleanse and adorn their
house, to don new under- and uppergarments and also to adorn them-
selves with flowers etc. The consecration with clarified butter of the
obligatory oblations was to be accompanied by the mantras TS. 5, 7, 2f.
invoking the favour and protection of the seasons for a hundred years
(cf. ,4dvGS. 2, 2, 4 "united with the seasons ..."); "what is deficient must
be made full to me; (let what is full not decay to me)", a formula accom-
panying the offering of an oblation in XgvGS. 2, 2, 3 and, likewise in the
,~vayuji celebrations, in ParGS. 2, 16, 3; next, .RV. 9, 94, 4 which seems
to have owed its popularity in this milieu and in this particular context
also to the repeated occurrence of the word grT (griy~ jatd.h ...): "Born
for good fortune, he (in the R.gveda: Soma) has issued from good fortune;
he gives good fortune and vigour to the invokers; clad in good fortune
they (in the R.gveda: the drops of Soma ~1 or rather, according to S~yan. a,
the invokers) have gone to 'immortality'; the encounters because of (for)
him who has a measured course (here: offerings to him ...~2) realize
themselves", a stanza which may have been adopted to express, in this
situation, a confirmation of G o d ' s readiness to give good fortune etc. to
those who invoke H i m and the expectation that the purpose of their

zr See also R. Gopal, India of Vedic kalpas~tras (Delhi, 1959), p. 419.

as This was Haradatta's opinion (on Gautama-Smrti 8, 19, where however another
Caitri may be meant).
z9 Kane, o.e., II, p. 831ff. For the Caitri see p. 820.
2o For a survey of the variant forms of this ritual see Gopal, o.c., p. 406ff.
31 Thus L. Renou, l~tudes vddiques et p~.nindennes, IX (Paris, 1961), p. 42, who
translates the last pada: "(le brn6fice des) combats se r6alise (quand le dieu Soma)
courant (d'un pas) mesnr6 (entre en lice)".
z= J.S. Speyer, Sanskrit syntax (Leyden, 1886), w 145.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF TIIE VAIKH.~NASAS 11

sacrificers will be realized in fact. After the consecration one sacrifices to

the twelve months, to the seasons and their deities, to the herbs and their
lord, to Sri and her husband, and to Vi.s.nu. Sri and Vi.snu are worshipped
and receive the remains of the sacrificial substance. In this ceremony for
renewal and good fortune in the months to come, which ends with the
recitation of the hymn to the food (Annasfikta, a 'Speisesegen': Vaikh.
Sat.nh. 2, 12), the Vai.s.navam is far from being out of place.
The stanzas "From here the gods" are also addressed to Vi.sn.u in the
comparatively full description of the Nfmdimukha-gr~ddha (VaikhSmS.
2, 1 f.). There it occurs after stanzas addressed to Agni, Soma, Brahman,
Rudra and before stanzas addressed to the Vigve Devil.h, the Seven Seers,
the Bhfltas, the Fathers. As this rite which is to take place on special
occasions, such as the birth of a child or a marriage, ~3 is rather briefly
described in the g.rhyasfttras ~4 - - it forms part of the domestic ritual - -
and other texts the number of mantras calls for an explanation. This may
be found in the obviously special importance attached to it by the
Vaikhgnasas who have it performed on the occasion of almost all
sa.mskaras. In the relative sections of the other g.rhyasgetras ~5 no mention
is, moreover, made of Vi.s.nu, in contradistinction to Agni, Soma and the
Vigve Devft.h who do occur in the corresponding descriptions of these
texts. Whereas it is in MdrkP. 28 (30), 6 stated that some men like this
ceremony without the oblations to the Vigve Devg.h, neither this text
nor the Vi.snuP. (3, 13, 2ft.) and ViDhP. (1,142, 13ft.) make any mention
of Vi.s.nu.
At 1, 5, dealing with subsidiary rules for bathing - - according to some
authorities there are four or six subsidiary methods for this obligation
which may for instance be applied by a person who is ill~ e - the VaikhSmS.
reads: "If one is (e.g. through illness) unable to bathe (in the prescribed
way), one should, after having washed one's feet and sipped water, recite
this Vi.s.nu-muttering (vai.sn.ava.m japtvd) and perform one of the bathings
without or with special water (e.g. water from the Ganges or rain-water),
such as the celestial bathing." The inference is warranted that these
stanzas were believed to possess a special (regenerative and purificatory)
power which could compensate for the deviation from the normal ritual
behaviour. As there is nothing in them which may directly point to
bathing this power must lie in the great mythical events to which it
33 See e . g . A . B . Keith, The religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads
(Cambridge Mass., 1925), p. 427.
24 Kane, o.c., IV, p. 525ff.
~5 Cf. ~/.r 2, 5, 13-15; ~fitikh. 4, 4; Gobh. 4, 3, 35-37; Baudh. 3, 12, 2-5.
,e Kane, o.c., II, p. 667ff.
12 J. GONDA

refers and to the importance attached to it on that account, which made it

fit to be used under various circumstances.
It is therefore not surprising that the Vais..navam (.RV. 1, 22, 16ft.)
should have gained access to regular pr~ya~citta rites. A good instance is
VaikhSm& 6, 8 which may at the same time exemplify the tendency to
accretion or cumulation. A Veda-student who has not taken his regular
bath (nityasn~naviMne) is enjoined to bathe (afterwards) in the ordinary
way, to repeat after merging into the water the mantra "To Jumbaka
sv~thg" (TB. 3, 9, 15, 3; see e.g. also M~S. 9, 2, 5, 25), perform, while
fixing his thoughts on Nftrgya.na, with the aghamar.sa.na hymn combined
with the Jumbaka mantra the aghamar.sana rite and mutter the Vaisn. ava
mantras. Now the Aghamar.sa.na penance is already in the ancient
dharma~6stra prescribed as a destroyer of a great variety of 'sins': if a
man recites (e.g. for three days thrice a day) the cosmogonic hymn of
the same name (.RV. 10, 190) he is freed from all evil, and the penance
is equal in purification to the (bath at the end of an) Agvamedha sacri-
fice,27 the king of sacrifices: Manu 11, 261; Vi.sn.u 55, 7 etc. As is well
known cosmogonic texts are widely believed to possess a restorative force
which make them especially suited for ritual purposes such as reintegra-
tion, rebirth, renewal, a new beginning, in short for any new creation. ~8
The purificatory power of the bath at the end of Agvamedha is indeed so
great that, according to K6ty~S. 20, 8, 17f., it was assumed that criminals
who had not undertaken any penance were completely released from
'sin' by bathing in the water after the sacrificer. As to Jumbaka: it is
recorded that on the occasion of that concluding bath a man of ugly
appearance, obviously a scape-goat, 29 is driven into the water up to his
mouth and on his head an offering is made to Jumbaka who is said to
represent Varu.na (~B. 13, 3, 6, 5). 80 The act is "to redeem oneself from
Varu .na" (ibidem). "The Jumbaka formula, pronounced once in the water,
destroys evil. ''~a The Vaikhfinasas, combining the Aghamar.san. a with the
Jumbaka mantras, have the penitent so to say reinforce the redemptive
effect of the former rite by the latter. The injunction that he should do

27 Kane, o.e., IV, p. 130; for a longer description: W. Garnpert, Die Siihnezeremonien
in der altindischen Rechtsliteratur (Prague, 1939), p. 57f.
28 J. Gonda, "The Mudgalopani.sad",in WZKSO, 12-13(=Festschrift-E. Frauwallner)
(Vienna, 1968), p. 101ft.
~9 A.B. Keith, in J.R.A.S., 1908, p. 846.
s0 P.E. Dumont, L'A~vamedha (Paris-Louvain, 1927), p. 227. See e.g. MS. 3, 15, 8:
180, 3; Ap~S. 20, 22, 6.
3a See also Uvat.a and Mahidhara on VS. 25, 9 and MSS. 9, 2, 5, 26 "He who per-
forms the A~vamedha and knows all this overcomes death, overcomes evil ...".
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS 13

so while concentrating his thought on Nhrayan.a (naraya.nam. dhyayan)

should no doubt be connected with the fact that the person who performs
this rite is a brahmacdrin and the special worship of N~traya.na in the
circles to which we owe this book.
The expiatory virtue of the Vai.s.navam is also clear from VaikhSmS.
6, 11: if the proper time for undertaking or finishing the observances
relating to the study of the Veda has passed one should make oblations
with the vrata-hymn (vratasf~ktam) which belongs to these ceremonies
(cf. 2, 7 and 10) and the Vai.s.navam, and then undertake or abandon the
observance. There can be no doubt that that which has been omitted and
neglected could be made up and redressed by this text. It may be true
that the study of the Veda in general was believed to destroy guilt by evil
deeds (see e.g. Manu 11, 261f.; VasDhS. 27, lff.; dhgirasS. 101) and
that several hymns or single stanzas were widely held to be specially
efficacious in this respect (see e.g. Manu ll, 249ff., VasDhS. 26, 5ft.;
28, 10ft.), it is also beyond doubt that other authorities (e.g. Manu 11,
249ff.) recommended the use of other texts, which at first sight were
more adapted for this particular purpose, e.g..RV. 1, 97, 1-8, all of which
have as their refrain "May he burn away our sins", 7, 80, 1 ft. praising
Dawn as the goddess who conceals darkness and, with her light, brings
new life; 8, 95, 7, iT. exhibiting the word "pure" (duddha) no less than
thirteen times in different connections.
That the stanzas .RV. 1, 22, 16ft. constitute so to say a confession of
faith in Vi.s.nu specially adapted for invoking His presence and protection,
appears also from their use in worshipping the god. As part of the rites
relating to the so-called lotus-fire (KagyS. 6) three rice-balls, belonging
to Vi.sn.u, Brahma and i~vara are successively worshipped with mantras
addressed to these gods, Vi.sn.u with the above, Brahma with A V, 4, 1, 1
(br6hma j'ajgdndm) "The Seer has unveiled (the) Brahman, which had,
of old, first come into existence from the well-shining boundary; he has
revealed its fundamental (and) highest places, the womb of the existent
and the non-existent", 3~ Rudra with VaikhSam.h. 2, 2 etc. "To Rudra, the
other . . . . has been offered many times ..."
The stanzas are further to be recited for consecratory purposes by the
officiant who, while building a miniature temple temporarily to lodge
Vi.sn.u, throws eight auspicious objects into a pot which is assumed to be
the seed of the entire universe (KadyS. 23). Elsewhere it is used when one
Of the eight auspicious objects is deposited by the one who performs

s~ See J. Gonda, The vision of the Vedicpoets (The Hague, 1963), p. 357.
14 J. GONDA
the rite of the 'embryo' of Vi.sn.u's image (ibid. 45). It accompanies
oblations for Vi.sn.u (ibid. 40; 92; 94); (together with other mantras) the
construction of the frames of his image (ibid. 46); the preparation (grind-
ing) of the clay for the image (ibid. 48), this stuff being regarded as rep-
resenting the female power of Bhftmi and Sri (Vis.n.u's two spouses,
who are invoked with "The Goddess Earth, the bearer of riches" and "Born
for well-being" (griye jata.h), the grinding as due to Vi.sn.u's omnipresent
activity; the coating of the wooden frame of the image with the clay
(ibid.); the painting of the image (ibid. 49); the putting down of the pot
with the water which contains Vi.s.nu's dynamic power (ibid. 68); the
(worshipper's) looking at Vi.s.nu's face, when he has entered the temple
(ibid. 69); an oblation to Vi.sn.u (as an element of the regular worship:
ibid. 70); one of the acts to be performed in offering a bali, viz. taking
one's stand in front of Vi.sn.u (ibid. 71); the offering of a porridge (as an
element of the pgtja: ibid. 73); the bathing of Vis.n.u's image with turmeric
powder (ibid. 86). In AtriS. 31, 20 the Vais.n.avam, in addition to its
consecratory function in offering oblations (e.g. 33, 64), is addressed
to the water in the pot into which God is to be invoked after and through
a complicated process of meditation. In the chapter dealing with the
laying down of the 'jewels' it is used when two fishes are placed on
Varu.na's place in a yantra (34, 27). It is also prescribed to accompany
the putting of flowers at Vis..nu's feet as part of the special ritual to be
performed during auspicious lunar mansions (47, 91). In Atri's work the
Vai.sn.avam combines with the Puru.sasftkta to consecrate oblations at 28,
74; 39, 16; with the Puru.sasftkta and the Vis.n.usf~kta for consecratory
purposes (e.g. during the Great Consecration by unction, 64, 34f.); with
the Puru.sasf&ta and other formulas to accompany the touching of
Vi.sn.u's feet at 35, 29f.
3. Special mention must be made of some of the individual stanzas
constituting the Vais..navam, especially of the second, because these
mantras are sometimes quoted separately.
As already intimated by Caland 3s that part of the agh(tra, that is the
ritual sprinkling of clarified butter, which in the Vaikhanasasfttra (1, 9-15,
esp. 12) constitutes an introductory rite to each sacrifice, is an elaborated
variant form of the prescriptions contained in ~p~S. 2, 6, 1. In this
passage the vessel for the clarified butter (ajyasth(dO is adressed: "Aditi
art thou with unbroken wings", 84 the butter is poured into it with the
a3 Caland, Translation, p. 25, n. 8ft.
34 This mantra occurs only here and, with other adjectives,Bhar,~S. 2, 5, 12; HireS.
1, 24 and Vaikh. l.c.
 VEDIC MANTRASIN THE RITUALTEXTSOF THE VAIKHANASAS ]5

mantra TS. 1, 1, 10 i "Thou art the milk of the great ones (i.e. of the
cows), the sap of the plants (i.e. food of the cows) ..." (cf. also SB. 1,
2, 1, 22; 3, 1, 3, 9 etc.), the vessel is, on the daks.i.nrgni, put on the fire
with ida.m vi.snur vicakrame ... (.RV. 1, 22, 17; TS. 1, 2, 13, 1 etc.) "Here
did Vi.s.nu stride; three times he set down his foot; (all) is gathered in its
dust", next with the formulas i.se tva and ~rje tva put on the southern
half of the garhapatya fire and removed from it, and finally brought,
together with the broom, to the wife of the sacrificer, who has to gaze
at it. a5 In the parallel passage MS. 1, 2, 5, 16 the stanzas are pronounced
when the ghee is placed to the north of the sprinkling water. The stanzas
"Aditi ...", "Thou art the milk ..." and "Here did Vi.sn.u stride" occur,
beside some other formulas, also in the Vaikhinasa section. Whereas
the connection between the mantra and the ritual act may, in the ~fp.
version, be supposed to the assumed identity of the dak.sin.6gni and the
atmosphere (the place of Vi.s.nu's striding activity) which is asserted SB.
12, 4, 1, 3; Maitr~Up. 6, 33f., the Vaikhinasas, having retained the
formula but changed the act, may have brought the dust referred to in
the stanza with the ashes which are wiped from the butter vessel when
the stanza has been recited (VaikhSmS. 1, 12)? 6 It may be recalled in
passing that a similar motive to use the stanza .RV. 1, 22, 17 must underlie
its occurrence in connection with the act of placing the mortar in the
middle of the body of the great fire place (ApSS. 16, 26, 4; cf. also
MSS. 6, 1, 7, 24): this bddy is related to Viyu, the wind, the atmosphere
(SB. 9, 1, 2, 38)Y
Now the mantra .RV. 1, 22, 17 is in Apastamba's Srautasf~tra often
prescribed in other contexts, as a rule for two purposes, which may
coincide, viz. to accompany an oblation of sacrificial butter, and to
restore the continuation of the sacrifice. Thus .~pSS. 9, 1, 11 it is to
accompany a butter oblation in the case discussed TB. 3, 7, 1, 2f., viz.
the extinction of the 6havaniya fire which is an interruption of the
sacrifice?s If the curdled butter is spilt, the sacrifice is interrupted; then
one has to take fresh curdled butter "with a .re addressed to Vi.s.nu,
because Vi.s.nu is the sacrifice, (and so) the sacrifice is united by the
sacrifice" (TS. 3, 2, 6, 3): according to Xp~S. 9, 17, 1 the stanza is .RV.
1, 22, 17. Since the br~hma.na passage does not specify the Vi.s.nu stanza

3s See J. Gonda, Eye andgaze in the Veda (Amsterdam, Acad., 1969), p. 15.
3~ For the dust and the ashes see further on (p. 17).
87 See however also TS. 5, 2, 8, 7.
3s For details see Caland, on Xp~S. 9, 1, 11 (Das ~rautasf~tra des ~[pastamba, II,
Amsterdam, Acad., 1924, p. 67).
16 J. GONDA

to be used we are under the impression that the fact that it belongs to the
god who is the sacrifice, here and in other cases, settles the matter,
however m u c h single words occurring in the formula 39 m a y in particular
circumstances have determined its choice. 4~ The silence on this point
of the brdhman,a at TS. 3, 1, 6, 1 even led to the adoption of different
stanzas by the sfttrakdras, ~1 ApSS. 12, 1, 1 f. enjoining the use of .RV. 1,
22, 17 in case one performs the sacrifice not according to the deities and
so, falling a victim to the deities, has to rub the havirdhdna shed with a
Vi.sn.u stanza (TS. 3, 1, 6, 1). A similar divergence exists between Ap~S.
13, 25, 7f. which, though referring to the Vftjasaneyins, has the stanza
under discussion a c c o m p a n y a ritual act which m a y replace the concluding
oblation, whereas SB. 4, 5, 1, 16 prescribes VS. 5, 38 " O Vi.sn.u, stride
thou out widely". The c o m m e n t furnished in ~B. is worth quoting: " F o r
Vi.s.nu is the sacrifice; he thus takes hold again of the sacrifice, and thus
his sacrifice is not exhausted in strength, and does not pass away f r o m
him." The stanza occurs also in the ritual act mentioned ~p~S. 14, 30,
5f. (to be performed if the soma is unfit for drinking), parallel texts
(PB, 9, 9, 9; KS. 35, 17: 62, 4; MSS. 3, 6, 14) however prescribing
praj~pataye sv~h~.
At VaikhSmS. 6, 9 the stanzas .RV. 1, 22, 16 and 17 occur at the end
of a n u m b e r of mantras consecrating libations of clarified butter in a
prayagcitta for an avak?rn,in, i.e. Veda-student who has broken his vow
of chastity, etc. The first m a n t r a (T.~. 10, 5, 1) implores Agni to protect
the person concerned f r o m sin, the second and third are confessions of
sin: " I a m degraded by lust ..., I a m deceived by lust ..." (TA. 2, 18, 1 ;
cf. PGS. 3, 12, 9); the next one is "The Maruts ... must sprinkle me com-
pletely with a long life and force" (T~. 2, 18, 4 and with variants AV. 7,
33, 1 and elsewhere), used in a rite for prosperity (Kau~. 24, 8), in the
ceremony of the reception of a student (KauL 57, 22; 25), and also in a
penance for breaking the vow of chastity PGS. 3, 12, 10; the frequent

89 See e.g. M~S. 9, 2, 1, 28 where this stanza, ~V. 1, 154, 2 and VS. 5, !9 accompany
an offering on three footprints.
40 That the stanza is 'Vis,nuite' par excellence appears also from M~S. 7, 2, 6, 7
where, in an enumeration of draughts, scooped with appropriate mantras, for a
number of gods, this belongs to Vi.s.nu's portion, and from the story told in TB. 2, 7,
t4, I f. : the animals created by Prajipati left him and would not return to be sacrificed.
After unsuccessfully trying to bring them back himself as well as through Indra, Agni
and the Vi~ve Devah,, at last Vi.s.nu succeeded in obtaining them by means of a definite
ritual technique; after that he took a long step to the accompaniment of this stanza.
Hence also its use in sacrificing to Vi.s.nu as the presiding deity of one of the planets
at VaikhSmS. 4, 14.
41 Caland, ~rautas~trades Apastamba, II, p. 237.
 YEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS 17

mantras "Return with strength ...", "Return with wealth" addressed to

Agni, are at TS. 1, 5, 3 i and k to accompany two libations, the first
of which is, according to SB. 4, 5, 8, 7 to replenish the man who is
emptied (of. also VS. 8, 42 "...; let riches come again to me"; TS. 1, 5,
4, 4; 5, 2, 2, 5; dpSS. 16, 12, 2; ~B. 6, 8, 2, 6). The two Vi.s.nu stanzas
at the end are here again not only a sort of confession of faith but con-
firmation of the power of renewal which is inherent in the commemora-
tion of Vi.s.nu's great deed.
At 4, 10 the same stanza is the last of eight mantras pronounced when
the image of the god is bathed with the contents of eight jars (a constituent
part of the vi.sn,varcand "worship of Vi.s.nu"); part of the other formulas
to be recited in this connection refer to purification (VS. 1, 3); to Soma
(.RV. 1, 91, 20) and to God's entering the mortal beings (.RV. 4, 58, 3);
the other four are .RV. 1, 164, 45 and the initial stanzas of the three
Vedas.
At VaikhSmS. 1, 15, describing the normal paradigma of a sacrifice,
the same stanzas .RV. 1, 22, 16 and 17 combine to accompany an oblation
of melted or clarified butter, "for prosperity's sake" (... ajya.msam.rddhyai
juhuyat).
In VaikhSmS. 4, 12 the mantra RV. 1, 22, 17 is transferred to another
ritual act, viz. the offering of water for drinking and for rinsing the mouth
to the image of the god (vi.snvarcana"worship of Vi.s.nu"). It is difficult to
see any connection between the act and the mantra unless the oblation,
which is to invigorate the god, is specially meant to enable him to
prolong the situation indicated in the latter. More probably however
part of the Vis.n.u mantras contained in this section are distributed over
some of the successive acts without any internal evidence or obvious
necessity.
At 1, 12 the suitability of the mantra seems to be more evident: "... he
(the officiant) wipes, with the wish, the ashes from (beneath) the butter
vessel with .RV. I, 22, 17 (and puts it down on the vedi)". This obviously
means that "all things gathered" in the dust of Vi.sn..u's feet are placed on
that spot where Vi.s.nu is supposed to take his strides.
Incidentally the ritual context requires the use of dust or ashes. When
a dog runs between the fires a sacrificer whose agnihotra milk has been
put on the fire, the sacrifice is interrupted (TB. 1, 4, 3, 6): in order to
restore its continued progress ashes must be taken from the gdrhapatya
and strewn from this fire to the dhavaniya to the accompaniment of the
stanza under discussion (.RV. 1, 22, 17), thereupon ashes are to be strewn
on the track of the dog while the stanza is repeated (TB. ibidem; Xp,~S.
18 J. GONDA
9, 6, 11). The br~hman,a adds: "The stanza belongs to Vi.s.nu. Vi.sn.u is
the sacrifice. He thus makes the sacrifice continuous by the sacrifice.
He scatters ashes upon the track, for appeasement 42 (~ntyai)". Inter-
estingly enough this practice is disapproved of by the followers of the
White Yajurveda: ~B. 12, 4, 1, 4f. who have the ceremony performed by
water instead of ashes, using however the same stanza and adding: "for
Vi.sn.u is the sacrifice; he thus continues the sacrifice by the sacrifice; and
whatever is injured or unpropitiated in the sacrifice, for all that the water
is the means of propitiation ...". The stanza idam. vi.sn,ur is also used at
ApSS. 9, 10, 16 which deals with similar occurrences: if an animal or a
human being has gone between the fires one should make the track
invisible, if there is a cart-rut (cf. MS. 1, 8, 9: 130, 9ft.) one should fill
it with dust, and - - intelligibly enough without any ashes or dust - - in
the cases mentioned at Xp~S. 9, 11, 24 and 14, 31, 1, viz. the appearance
of a black (ominous) bird above the sacrificial material or the havirdhana.
This may be a case of transference of a mantra to similar circumstances
which do not however involve a track and any use for ashes. To avert
the evil omen MSS. 3, 4, 9 enjoins the passing along of a cow after the
animal and the effacing of the track with .RV. 1, 22, 17, or, alternatively,
"he shall take ashes from the gdrhapatya and walk on, with a verse
belonging to Vi.sn.u, whilst effacing the track ...'. Another application
of the stanza in connection with a cart-rut and likewise to avert evil, in
case the raks.ases following in the track of the havirdhana carts, occurs
ApSS. 11, 6, 13 (TS. 6, 2, 9, 2f.); cf. MSS. 2, 2, 2, 18. The Vaikh~nasas
joined the White Yajurveda in using water: SINS. 6, 1: "When a cow,
a boar, a horse, a serpent, a frog, a cat and other such animals pass on
the place of the sacrifice, he should with the mantra 'Here did Vis.n.u
stride' sprinkle (water) on the foot-prints; an oblation to Vi.sn.u and one
to Rudra are the prayagcitta."
Atri 35, 36 has the stanza .RV. 1, 22, 17 used, together with the mantra
ayatu bhagavgm "The Lord must come" - - which is also used elsewhere;
having taken the water which is in the pot and which contains Vi.sn.u's
dynamic power, by means of a bundle of sacred grass, he should cause
it to flow on the head of the image, saying "I invoke Vis..nu".
The mantra .RV. 1, 22, 18 trf~ipadd vf cakrame v~sn.ur gopd ddabhya.h/ dto
dhdrmgm,i dhardyan "Three steps Vis..nu strode out, the herdsman, who
is above deceit, (from) here upholding his fundamental laws" was already
in VaikhSmS. 4, 12 associated with the offering of the water for washing
42 F o r this use o f ashes see Meyer, Trilogie altindischer Miichte und Feste der Vegeta-
tion (Zfirich-Leipzig, 1937), III, p. 288.
 VEDIC MANTRASIN THE RITUAL TEXTSOF THE VAIKHANASAS 19

Vi.sn.u's feet. KagyS. 69 prescribes its use when, by means of a bunch of

sacred grass, the water for the feet is to stream down on the image's feet.
In the Veda it is used, inter alia, to accompany, in the Agni.st.oma,
offerings to the two wheel-tracks of the havirdhana-carts: VaitS. 15, 10,
which is an analogous act (cf. KSS. 8, 3, 31f.), 4z the carts being indis-
pensable means of the sacrifice (cf. SB. 1, 1, 2, 7) which are expected to
"bring the sacrifice upward" (TS. 1, 2, 13, 2 g). Another Vedic use of
st. (17 and) 18 is known from AiB. 1, 25, 9; XgvSS. 4, 8, 8 with some
other stanzas, which contain the verb "slay", the gods kept slaying and
destroying the citadels. That it was pre-eminently suited to invoke Vi.s.nu
and to consecrate oblations offered to him appears from TB. 2, 4, 6, 1
where it is an upahoma (additional sacrifice) mantra addressed to this god.
K~yapa, 69, instructs the officiant pronouncing this mantra to let the
water for the feet stream down on to the image's feet. 44 In KdgyS. 70
the stanza is to accompany an offering of barley to Aniruddha, God's
"Unobstructed ''45 aspect or manifestation. Here the mantra seems to
suit the name rather than the act and the oblation, the more so as VS. 23,
63, eulogizing the "Self-existent One" is, in the same context, used to
typify Vi.s.nu (who is Brahman); .RV. 10, 121, 1 "The Golden Germ
came into being in the beginning" Puru.sa who represents the Primeval
Being; and VS. 20, 23 "Earth etc. comes back" Acyuta, God's "Immov-
able" and "Unwavering" aspect.
The stanza .RV. 1, 22, 19 "Behold Vi.s.nu's deeds" is VaikhSmS. 4, 12
and KaJyS. 69 used to consecrate the offering of a lamp, 20 in the same
passage, in K~t~yapa's work together with "These are most prosperous
flowers" that of a flower and 21 "The eulogizing seers kindle ... Vi.s.nu's
highest footstep (place)" and "These perfumes" that of perfumes.
Whereas the verb of seeing in 19 is no doubt not foreign to the lamp and
the mediatorial character of the offerings46 makes the solemn reference
to God's highest abode intelligible, the tendency is obvious to distribute
single stanzas of the Vai.s.navam and .RV. 7, 99, 1 over the separate ritual
acts. O f the pairs of formulas occurring in the younger ritual text the
first ones are indeed usual to accompany gifts to Vi.s.nu, the second ones
- which are foreign to the sitra - - those to the manifestations (see
-

AtriS. 40, 86ff.) who are not forgotten here.

In view of the above facts and argumentation the question may
43 For other uses see AiB. 1, 25, 9; V~sudevaU.4.
~4 For another application see Kagyapa70.
~s See my remarks in l~tam, Journal of the Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad, 1
(Lucknow, 1969), p. 63ff.
46 See p. 20f.
20 J. GONDA
however be posed as to whether there is in cases such as the following
also room for the twofold assumption, first that there existed a certain
relation between a conspicuous use of a mantra in the Vedic grauta rites
on the one hand and this Hinduist ritual on the other, and in the second
place that those who introduced and fixed the latter were fully conscious
of the inherent force of the mantra which made it suitable for expressing
an idea analogous to, or even essentially identical with, the idea expressed
by the ritual act in the Vedic ceremonies. These problems have not yet
attracted the attention they deserve, 47 although a thorough investigation
of the relevant facts will be of great interest and bring to light much
valuable information, not only on several problems of Vedic philology
but also of the evolution of religious ideas and ritual practices in the
post-Vedic period.
The stanza .RV. 1, 22, 20: "The patrons (of the poets and priests) ever
behold that highest step of Vi.sn.u, fixed like an eye in heaven" - - which
is as part of the Vai.sn.avam also addressed to Vi.s.nu in laying the founda-
tion of a house: VaikhSmS. 3, 17 - - is prescribed (VaikhSmS. 4, 12,
Kagyapa 69) to accompany the offering of a flower. The other mantra
used in this connection is "These excellent flowers, clad with divine
blossoms, are purified by the strainer of Brahman, purified by the rays
of the sun" (VaikhSmS. 2, 15). As is well known this act is, in Hindu
pftj~, more than mere homage. The flower conveys the vital breath of the
worshipper, who by this act realizes his consciousness of the identity
of his own being (vital breath) and that of the god. The vital breath is
introduced into the flower by lifting it up till the nose and breathing on
the hand and the flower. Thereupon one touches the image of the god
with the flower, while projecting the internally visualized image of the
god on the visible image without dropping the flower which 'symbolizes',
or rather brings about, the contact with the god. 48 The use of the mantra
in this connection may become clearer if we remember that in the grauta
ritual it is used when the sacrificer - - one of the patrons or wealthy
institutors of sacrifices - - has to look up to the top of the sacrificial stake
(SB. 3, 7, 1, 18; KS. 26, 5: 128, 11; KapS. 41, 3; MS. 3, 9, 3; .~pSS. 7,
11, 4). This stake (yf~pa), which "belongs to Vi.sn.u", represents the axis
mundi and its top the sky (cf. e.g. SB. 5, 2, 1, 10).49 It is a means of
~7 See V. M. Apte, "t~gvedamantras in their ritual setting in the g.rhyasfitras",Bull
Deccan Coll. Res. Inst., 1, p. 14ff., 127ft.; P. K. Narayana Pillai, Non-R.gvedicmantras
in the marriage ceremonies (Trivandrum, 1958).
4s See also Vis..nuismand ~ivaism, p. 79ff.; H. Zimmer, The art of Indian Asia (New
York, 1955), p. 318ff.
4~ See also Aspects of early Vis..nuism,p. 83.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS 21

attaining the abode of the gods: When, in the Vftjapeya rite, the sacrificer
- - who is intended to be born in heaven (SB. 7, 3, I, 12) - - has, together
with his wife, ascended by it into the higher regions and touches the top
of the stake, he has to say: "We have reached the light, O gods; we
have become 'immortal'" (~B. 5, 2, 1, 12). Now, the flower may be said
to have, in a way, replaced the sacrificial stake as a 'bridge' to the unseen,
and Vi.s.nu himself the vague "abode of the gods", 'symbolized' by the
top of the stake, with which the sacrificer has to enter into contact by
means of a look. 5~ Taking this into consideration we may conclude that
the mantra is in the Hindu pt~.ja far from senseless and is suited to express
the feelings and hopes of the worshipper. According to ,~B. 3, 7, 1, 18
the sacrificer, while pronouncing the mantra .RV. 1, 22, 20 = VS. 6, 5
means to say "See that conquest of Vi.snu", that is "See heaven". ~1 The
application of the mantra in N.rsPTUpan. 5, 10; XrU. 5; SkU. 15;
MuktiU. 2, 77 point in the same direction. As, moreover, the yftpa
'belongs to' Vi.s.nu one looks at it with one's own deity (KS. 26, 5;
KapS. 41, 3). Instead of looking M~S. 1, 8, 2, 24 prescribes striking
with a cord of three strands and a chip (of the stake) three times - - the
threefold belongs to the gods: ~B. 5, 1, 4, 11, and see KS. 25, 8: 113,
14ft. - - along the stake upwards, the 'symbolism' of which is sufficiently
clear. The stanza is moreover used, at an early moment, to accompany
the erection of the stake: TS. 1, 3, 6, 2; Ap~S. 7, 10, 9; VaitS. 10, 10
(A V. 7, 26, 7). It may be recalled that this mantra may also serve as a
substitute for the aghamar.san,a hymn (.RV. 10, 190) in performing a
purificatory rite: ViDh. 64, 20; R.gVidh. 1, 17, 7.

4. Another case of transference of a mantra used in connection with

the sacrificial carts to the Vaikh~masa ritual - - and at the same time of
Vi.s.nuite expansion - - occurs VaikhSmS. 1, 21. The stanza VS. 5, 19
div6 v~ vi.s.na ut6 vd p.rthivyd mah6 v~ vi.s.na ur6r antdriks, at / ubhd hi hdst~
vdsuna p.r.n6svd pr6yaccha d6k.si.nad 6t6 savydd, v(s.nave tva "Either from
the sky, O Vi.s.nu, or from the earth, or, O Vi.s.nu, from the great wide
atmosphere, fill both thy hands with goods, (and) bestow (these) from
the right and from the left. For Vi.sn.u thee", 5~ accompanying the sup-
porting 5z of the other cart or of the cart(s) by means of posts put before

5o Gonda, Eye and gaze in the Veda, passim.

51 See also K. F. Geldner's note on g 1I. 1, 22, 20 (Der Rig- Veda iibersetzt, Cambridge,
Mass., 1951, I, p. 21f.).
52 Cf. A V. 7, 26, 8 and for the variants Whitney-Lanman's note (p. 407).
52 See Caland, Das Srautas9tra des .~pastamba, II, p. 207.
22 J. GONDA
and behind it (them) (TS. 1, 2, 13, 2 h; 6, 2, 9, 3; KS. 25, 8: 114, 13;
MS. 3, 8, 7: 104, 19; ~B. 3, 5, 3, 22; KSS. 8, 4, 11; ApSS. 11, 7, 3 and 7;
M~S. 2, 2, 2, 24) and sometimes used in other contexts - - ApSS. 16,
26, 5 (the great fire place); 20, 4, 5 and MSS. 9, 2, 1, 28 (horse sacrifice)
- - is here pronounced when two upward turned fuel-sticks5~ are put
into the fire. Thereupon the officiant gathers all the grass which had been
used for strewing round the vedi, taking it from each side, beginning in
the West, while pronouncing the formulas pa~cimato (dak.si.nato, etc.)
vi.sn.o.h sadanam asi "At the West (South, etc.) thou art Vis..nu's seat" and
throws it into the fire. Although this act is in itself quite intelligible and
in tune with the traditional relation of the god and the sacrificial place,
these formulas do not, as far as I am able to see, occur elsewhere.
It is, speaking quite generally, true that in many cases the sole reason
for the selection of a Vedic mantra for a special Vis.n.uite purpose seems
to have been that one of the terms contained in it has some affinity with a
definite ritual act, although the hymn in its entirety is irrelevant. It is also
true that in many cases these Vedic mantras were a superimposition upon
a ritual with which they originally had nothing to do. We should how-
ever beware of generalizations; it no doubt goes too far to qualify any
connection between a Vedic mantra and a Vi.sn.uite rite as "arbitrary". 55
It is however interesting to notice that in particular cases the significa-
tion of an uncomplicated ritual act is perfectly expressed by a non-Vedic
formula to be pronounced by the person who performs the act: whilst
eating the prasada (the 'remains' of the food offered to God) one should
for instance formulate one's intention as follows: "In order to quiet the
fear of mundane existence I eat regularly the food which has been enjoyed
by Vi.s.nu who has been propitiated by the Vaikhfmasas, (food) the rest
of which is eaten by the Vaikhanasas who embody Him" (AtriS. 78, 51 f.).
The author significantly adds (ibid. 54) that those who have undergone
a (Hindnist) initiation as well as those who maintain the sacrificial fire
become purified by eating it.

5 (Excursus I). In some contexts Vi.s.nu appears as a member of the

Trim~rti. In these cases it should be our endeavour to detect, if possible,
the relations between the ritual acts, the mantras pronounced and the
beliefs relating to the function of the god as one of the 'persons' of the
trirnftrti. One of the funeral rites peculiar to the Vaikhgnasas is a cere-

54 For these carts see above, p. 19.

55 Thus Suvira Jaiswal,The originanddevelopmentof Vaisttavism(Delhi, 1967),p. 135.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS 23

m o n y to be performed at the boundary of the village: 56 "One should

lay, to the northwest of the corpse on southward-pointed darbha stalks,
three balls of clay in a row from north to south, destined for the threefold
Lord (trigun. eJvaran, i), ~7 and worship Vi.s.nu and Brahmft with such
oblations as are destined for the gods (havya-) (and) with water mixed
with sesame 5s and unhusked rice or barley (ak.sata-), keeping the face
directed to the south; in the same way (but) with one's left hand, Rudra
with such oblations as are destined for the Fathers" ( V a i k h S m S . 5, 2f.).
Next, one should turn one's face to the corpse and pour oblations (of
clarified butter) in each of the fires (of the deceased), 59 in the order in
which they have been established and to the accompaniment of a series
of twelve short formulas (viz. "To Dhfitar sv~th~" etc.), addressed to the
twelve Adityas presiding over the months 6~ the formula brahrna.ne svaha
etc. and similar formulas addressed to the eleven forms of Rudra. Instead
of the twelve Adityas one might have expected a group of manifestations
of Vi.s.nu, such a group of twelve names under which Vi.s.nu (K.r.s.na) is
to be worshipped - - and probably modelled on the twelve Adityas - -
being indeed well-known from elsewhere: Mbh. 13, App. 12 after a. 111 ;
BaudhDhS. 2, 5, 9, 10. 6~ The surmise may be raised that these twelve
gods figure here as aspects of Vi.s.nu who is often identified with m a n y
divinities, 6~ and in Mbh. 3, 299, 12 is said to be in the womb of Aditi,
the mother of the .g,dityas, who elsewhere are being created from his
b o d y Y It is in this connection interesting to notice that in a perhaps
spurious passage of Varfihamihira's B.rhatsam. hita (105, 14f.) the twelve
months are given the twelve names of the god, viz. Ke~ava etc.
Thereupon the three gods are again worshipped in the balls of clay
and this part of the ceremonies is concluded by waving (with the clothes

50 See also W. Caland, Die altindischen Todten- und Bestattungsgebriiuche (Amster-

dam, Acad., 1896), p. 26.
57 The commentary explains: traya.n~.m gttndnd.m sattvara]astamas~m idvar6O, athava
vi.s.nubrah(marudr)e~vardyer tdni trigu.ne~vara.ni.
58 Cf. J. J. Meyer, Trilogie altindischer Miichte und Feste der Vegetation (Z/irich-
Leipzig, 1937), III, p. 319t".
59 See Caland, VaikhSmS. Translation, p. 127, n. 24;
60 The order of the names differs from those orders which are found in the pura.nas
examined by W. Kirfel, Die Kosmographie der lnder (Bonn-Leipzig, 1920), p. 131,134.
Of the ~dityas Vi.snu is the youngest, but also the most eminent: Mbh. 1, 59, 16.
ol See also S. Jaiswal, o.c., p. 76ff., who observes that "the grouping of the twelve
names of Vis.nu was envisaged sometime in the third or the fourth century A.D."
(p. 77).
63 See e.g.E.W. Hopkins, Epic mythology (Strassburg, 1915), p. 207.
~a Hopkins, l.c. - - For Varhhamihira see Ajay Mitra Shastri, India as seen in the
Brhatsa~nhita of Yarahamihira (Delhi, 1969), p. 187f.
24 J. GONDA

of those present) coolness to the deceased while wishing him, on his

journey, well-scented winds etc. This act and the mantra agree with
Baudhayana Pit.rmedhasfttra 3, 2. ~ The general correspondence of these
ceremonies to those of the other Taittiriyas is, indeed, unmistakable, ~5
but the gods invoked by the adherents of these schools are Pfi.san, the
god of the paths, "the herdsman of all, who never loses an animal",
who is implored to conduct the dead person, Agni who is invited to
annihilate, by his radiation, all evil, Ayus (Duration of life) who is
expected to protect the deceased, and Savitar who is to bring him to
the meritorious (in heaven); see .RV. 10, 17, 4 etc. The only gods invoked
by Vaikhanasas as well as Baudh~yaniyas are, in the stanza pronounced
to wish him coolness, the Maruts who are implored to bring him to
the worlds of the meritorious (suk.rtdm. lokah). The main reason why the
ritual acts and words of the Taittiriyas, which are full of sense and
perfectly appropriate to the occasion, are, in the Vaikh~masa tradition,
modified must have lain in the fact that in the course of time the members
of this community hinduized themselves and that their preference for
Vi.snu induced them to substitute him - - and in this ceremony also the
two other gods of the Trimflrti - - for the above Vedic deities. 66
What now is the significance of the balls of clay and what are Vis.n.u
and his colleagues expected to do? The idea that a lump of clay (m.rtpin..da-) e7
represents a divinity is not new: ~B. 6, 3, 3, 1 ft. it is - - in another context,
it is true - - Agni. The balls are obviously taken along with the funeral
procession to the cremation ground. 68 That means that these representa-
tives of the three gods are believed to accompany the corpse. The ball
belonging to Vi.sn.u is to be thrown into the water, that belonging to
Brahm~ to be buried; the third one representing Rudra is however to
be taken along and, after some acts which may be passed over, laid
down, together with a flake of gold, on the place where the pyre is to be
constructed. The supposition that the gold, here also, represents, and is
expected to bring about, continuance of life is corroborated by the
unfortunately somewhat unclear mantra which is at the end of 5, 3
prescribed in connection with seven other flakes of gold and anyhow

64 C. H. Raabe, Bijdrage tot de kennis van het Hindoesche Doodenritueel (Thesis

Utrecht, 1911), p. 21, 1. 12ft.
65 Caland, Todten- und Bestattungsgebr?iuche, p. 23 IT.
66 As to the sacrificialmaterial, sesame was, intelligibly enough, a requirement at an
early date (see e.g.J. Gonda, Die Religionen Indiens, I, (Stuttgart, 1960), p. 132; Meyer,
o.c.), the unhusked grains appear in ~vGS. 4, 4, 13.
67 For the offering of balls (golakfi.h, a kind of pease) to Rudra see ~GS. 4, 19, 4.
8s The text is not perfectly clear; see Caland, Translation, p. 129, n. 3.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKH.~NASAS 25

contains the words "they must cause to arrive in heaven" (tarayantu

sva.h). As to Rudra, the supposition seems warranted that he functions
here as a god of death. 69 But there is more: according to a probably
ancient belief the human body, being composed of the five so-called
elements, is the abode of five deities, 7~ Rudra residing in its fiery com-
ponent, Vi.s.nu in the watery and Brahma in the earthy. 71 Agni and
Rudra-Siva are not rarely identified 7~ and Brahma who maintains rela-
tions with vegetation and fertility78 can be imagined also as connected
with the soil. 74 While Vi.s.nu's relation with the water 75 accounts for the
particular way in which one parts with his ball, the question remains
as to why this god and Brahma should not follow the dead body up to
the pyre. The reason may be that after having received the worship
due to them they are dismissed - - such is quite usual - - and that before
the ceremony, because they have no particular relations with the fire of
cremation.
Other places exhibiting the names of the three gods in succession are
VaikhSmS. 3, 17 (Vastusavana); 4, 3 (A .st.aka). At 6, 1 (prayadcitta for
the Aghara) Vi.s.nu and Rudra are to receive oblations; at 6, 7 (prayadcitta)
Brahma and Vi.s.nu; at 6, 9 (prdyadeittas) Vi.sn.u, Brahma, Rudra, Indra,
Agni, B.rhaspati; at 6, 11 Vi.sn.u, Brahma, the .r.sis and Agni; at 6, 18 the
same and B.rhaspati.

6 (Excursus II). Although many particulars relating to the origin of the

figure of Naraya.na are shrouded in mystery, v6 there is no denying that
his cult and the ancient traditions about his significance and activities
disclose the existence of his relations with mystics, ascetics and 'philoso-
phers'. He is the reputed author of the Puru.sa-s~kta (.RV. 10, 90) which
was to become the foundation stone of Vi.s.nuite philosophy. He was
identified with the primeval Puru.sa (~B. 12, 3, 4, 1) and revealed himself
becoming the universe (SB. 13, 6, 1, 1). It does therefore not seem a

69 E. Arbman, Rudra (Uppsala, 1922), p. 254ff.

70 For the fivefoldness of the person see also B~fU. 1, 4, 17; TaittU. 1, 7.
7x K.K. Handiqui, Yadastilaka and Indian culture (Sholapur, 1949), p. 206.
72 For some particulars see W. D. O'Flaherty, in History of Religions, 9 (1969),
p. 4ft., and compare e.g. ~B. 6, 1, 3, 10.
7a Meyer, o.c., III, p. 292.
74 Brahma is also the lord of the site for building a house. For his relations with
vegetation and fertility see Meyer, o.e., III, p. 214ff.
7s Gonda, Aspects of early Vis..nuism, p. 14f.
76 Gonda, Die Religionen Indiens, I, p. 246f.; S. Chattopadhyaya, The evolution of
theistic sects in ancient India (Calcutta, 1962), passim; S. Jaiswal, o.e., passim.
26 J. GONDA

hazardous supposition that he was already in early times revered as a

divine figure. In TA. 10, 11 he is in any case the highest lord, the All,
highest light, the all-pervading one and identified with Brahman. A t
M a n u l, l0 he is Brahman in its cosmic aspect, and several pur~t.nic
accounts of the creation identify Brahm~ and N~tfftyana. 77 The Great
Epic, calling him older than the oldest ones (7, 172, 51), and describing
him now as a great yogin constantly engaged in practising austerities,
or as an ascetic god, now as the Supreme God (cf. 12, 328, 11f.), dwells
on his austerities which resulted in his becoming brahman and being
able to see the supreme deity ~iva who granted him the boon that he
should be superior to everyone, even to ~iva himself. His relations with
hermits and ascetics are also apparent from the eulogy recited by Narada
in which he is identified with several classes of these holy men, named
Ha .msa, Paramaha .msa, V~lakhilya, Vaikh~masa etc. (12, 325, 4). 7a The
Vaikh~nasas, a class of .r.sis who interest us most, are 12, 336, 14 said to
have learnt his religion. In the Nar~tya.niya section of the Mahabharata
N~r~ya.na is stated to be eternal; it is also he who assigned to gods and
.r.sis their several duties. The same treatise promulgates a doctrine which,
though characterized by ahim. sa and bhakti worship of a Supreme Deity
and tending to make advances to K.r.s.naism (the cult of Vasudeva), is not
identical with that proclaimed by K.r.sn.a in the Bhagavadg~t& The bhakti
of both doctrines is, it is true, essentially the same, but the N~tr5yan.iya
attaches special value to rites, sacrifices, tapas and yoga. 79
With the picture of the early N~raya.na formed with the help of these
sources the relevant passages of the Vaikhanasasmdrtasatra seem to be
in perfect harmony. In a chapter dealing with the observances relating
to the study of parts of the Veda (2, 1 l) mention is made of the Sukriya-
vrata s~ which is said to last six or three months. After a long series of
oblations and mantras the student should wrap his head in a new garment,
so that the sun should not shine on his face. Avoiding any conversation
with women he should then study the ,~ran.yaka - - an obligation to be
discharged, according to other authorities, in the forest outside the
village - - , viz. the gukriya text, its brgthmaga, the Aru.na, the Nftrgyan.a
chapter and so on. These references are to portions of the Taittirfya-
.4ran.yaka, the Narayan. a - - an explanation of the Puru.sasftkta and the
77 D.R. Patil, Cultural history from the Vdyu Pura.na (Poona, 1946), p. 64; cf. e.g.
V~yuP. 6, 3 brahm~ n~r~ya.n~khyaO.
7a For other references see S. Sorensen, An index to the names in the Mahabharata
(London, 1902), p. 508ff.
79 For some particulars see Die Religionen Indiens, I, p. 246f.
80 Kane, o.c., II, p. 370ff.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKHANASAS 27

Uttara-Narayan. asakta (cf. VS. 31, 17ft.)81 etc. - - being 3, 12 and 13.
BaudhGS. 3, 2, 4ft. makes no mention of the N~r~tya.na chapter.
In the enumeration of the so-called sacraments contained in the opening
khan..da of VaikhSmS. we read that the son of a brahmin father and a
ritually fortified brahmin mother is merely a son; if he has learned the
Savitri etc., he is a brahman etc. ; by combining the knowledge of the
Veda and tapas he becomes a r.si; by concentrating himself upon N~rayan.a
(narayan.aparayan,a-) and being indifferent to the pairs of opposites
(nirdvandva-) he reaches the highest stage, i.e. becomes a muni, which
according to the commentary, is a yati, an ascetic who has restrained
his passions and abandoned the world.
In a remarkable addition to the namegiving ceremony the author
enjoins a father to pronounce some blessings over his child. If it is a boy
he should say: "Be ever invincible like gafikari (i.e. the general of the
gods, the son of ~afikara = Siva). Be eminent in power acquired by
asceticism like Nara and Naraya.na. Be the over-lord over all crea-
tures ..." (3, 19). The supposition is no doubt admissible, first, that the
qualities mentioned in these mantras were highly valued in the Vaikh~nasa
milieu and in the second place that the idea of asceticism was closely
connected with the figure of N~r~yan.a. Although the name of this deity
is not mentioned by the author of the X~rama-Upani.sad 3 the fact that
he describes the Vaikh~masas as those who, while performing their
rituals with uncultivated plants and, outside the village, with the five
fires, are addicted to realization of the Atman, shows that he was well
aware of their double interest, ritualism and the meditative quest for
self-realization.
A very instructive place is VaikhSmS. 4, 12 in fine. At the end of a
long description of the regular worship of Vi.s.nu (kh. 10-12) the author
enjoins the sacrificer to meditate on the god as the 'Soul of the sacrifice'
(yaj~apuru.sam) and to praise him with the Puru.sa hymn (RV. 10, 90)
in order to supply whatever has been omitted in the preceding ceremonies.
Finally he should vigilantly and constantly, either in his dwelling or in a
sanctuary (devayatane), devoutly (bhaktya) worship (arcayet) the adorable
(bhagavantam) N~raya.na. "Thus", he adds, "he goes to Vi.sn.u's highest
place (vi.s.no.hparamam, padam); thus it is declared (in the sacred tradi-
tion)." This no doubt means that the long rite is only perfect and leading
to the highest goal if it is concluded with an act of special adoration of
N~r~yan.a, the god of asceticism and meditation, who, though once

81 See Vi.snuismand ~ivaism, p. 26.

28 J. GONDA
(together with other names of Vi.sn.u) addressed in the preceding parts
of the ritual, had not been the object of worship before.
Khan..da 3 of chapter 8 dealing with different kinds of Veda-students
runs in general parallel with .4drama-Upani.sadS~l which likewise distin-
guishes four classes of brahmac~rins, viz. the g~yatra, brahman,a,
pr~j@atya and b.rhan who is a nai.st.hika or perpetual student. According
to the upani.sad the pr~j@atya is the one who is married, approaches
his wife at the fit time and always abstains from other women. No mention
is made of the worship of, or meditation on, a definite god. The VaikhSnasa
definition is different: "The PrajSpati-student is he who after the (con-
cluding) bath, being addicted to studentship and its constant duties,
solely absorbed in Nfirfiya.na (n~r~yan.apar~yan,a.h), having meditated
(reflected: vicdrya) on the meaning of the Veda and its auxiliaries, takes
a wife ..."
A similar correspondence exists between the views of the fourfold
householder pronounced in both works. Whereas other authorities 83
distinguish two varieties of householder, viz. the Ml~na (who follows the
life of wordly people) and the y~y~vara (who does not accumulate wealth
and is regarded as superior), Manu (4, 7) appears to divide, from a
different point of view, it is true, the brahman householders into four
classes and the Mit~k.sara on Y~jhavalkya 1, 128 mentions four varieties
of the yay~vara, s4 the upani.sad and the Vaikh~nasa text (8, 5) speak inter
alia of a ghorasam,ny~sika or ghor~carika who, "devoting themselves to
terrible forms of asceticism", live, according to both texts, on gleanings
(cf. also Manu 4, 10), the upanis.ad adding that they use only 'select' and
filtered water and perform rituals of a hundred years's duration. The
Vaikh~nasa ghordcdrika has on the other hand to exercise restraint w h i m
observing his daffy duties and observances (niyamair yukta.h), to sacrifice
for himself but not for others, to study the Veda without teaching it, to
attend to his fires with herbs which grow wild, to observe, while per-
forming, twice a day, the agnihotra, the sword-edge vrata (asidhdr~vratam,
involving such hardships as sleeping on the bare ground, eating only in
the night, remaining chaste even while sleeping in the embrace of one's
wife etc.SS), and, what interests us most, to be meditatively absorbed in
N~rSya.na (n~rayan.apar~ya.na.h). The same obligation is, in contra-
s2 Translated and introduced by P. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishad'sdes Veda(Leipzig,
1921 ; Darmstadt 1963), p. 712ff.
aa I refer to Kane, o.c., II, p. 641 n.
8~ See also G. Bfihler, The Laws of Manu (= S.B.E., 25) (Oxford, 1886), p. 129f.
(note on Manu 4, 9).
8s Kane, o.c., V, p. 266.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKH.~NASAS 29

distinction to the hermit of the same class mentioned in the upani.sad,

characteristic of the phenapa ("foam-drinking") hermits86 described in 8,
7 who, according to both works, feed on leaves which have broken off
and fallen down and behave like madmen or ecstatics, s7 As already
observed the upanis.ad says that they long for the dtman, the s~tra that
their only desire is final emancipation. In the description of the four
sub-classes of the last ~ r a m a this obligation is, remarkably enough, left
unmentioned.
The s~tra (8, 10) divides the yogins into three classes according to
differences in their practices, and each of these again into further sub-
classes. Among the s~rahgas ss ~ those of the first class - - there are
who do not constrain themselves; living in the meditative knowledge
"I am Vi.sn.u" (aham. vi.sn,ur iti dhyatvd) they practise breath-control and
so on. These people obviously no longer need any method of yoga because
they have already realized their identity with God, in contradistinction
to those who put the sixteenfold yoga technique into practice. Other
ascetics belonging to the group of ekdr.sya and the sub-group of "those
who go far" (d~raga-) apply the yoga practice of entering by the pihgald-
ways9 into the sun-disc, moon-orb, and lightning and, after having united
with the puru.sas who dwell there, they participate in the communion
with Vaiku.n.tha, i.e. Vis..nu (8, 11 ... vaikunt.hasdyujyam, yanti)2 ~ The
commentator adds a long explanation (pihgalay6 nd.dikay~dityama.ndalam.
hrdaydmtaritasftryaman..dalam anupravi~ya tatrasthitenapuru.sen, a tejor@in, d
pum.sdtmana sam.yojya etc.91), from which it appears that the yogin is
believed to "enter" by the pihgald 'vein' the 'sacred area' of the sun
which is thought to exist in the heart, unites with the puru.sa of a tejas
form which is there and then proceeds to the 'sacred area' of the moon
which is thought to exist at the root of the palate to unite there with the
puru.sa consisting of arn.rta and so on. 9~
86 Cf. BhdgP. 3, 12, 43.
s7 Why should udda.nd.aka.h (text, p. 116, 1. 18; cf. Caland, VaikhSmS. Translation,
p. 190, n. 7) not simply mean "having his staff raised"?
88 S~raflga is a name of Siva.
89 See e.g.S. Lindquist, Die Methoden des Yoga (Lund, 1932), p. 44 etc.; A. Dani~lou,
Yoga (London, 1949), p. 125f.
90 For sdyujya- see AtriS. 65, 56ff.
9x For a longer quotation see Ca/and, VaikhSmS. Translation, p. 195, n. 2.
92 For the use of the term ma.n.dala-in this connection see V~caspatimi~ra on Patafijali,
Yogasfaras 1, 36 (J. H. Woods, The Yoga-system of Pata~jali, Cambridge, 1914,
p. 36): "He should turn, by the force of an emissive restraint of breath, that eight-
petalled lotus which is situated with head downwards between the abdomen and the
thorax, head upwards and fix the mind attentively upon it. In the middle of this (lotus)
is the mao~tala of the sun ...".
30 J. GONDA
It is not surprising that the theory underlying the practice of meditation
not only continued to arrest the attention of these authors, but also led
them to differ in opinion. According to some authorities, for instance,
the invocation of Vi.sn.u, who pervades everything, coincides with the
meditation on Him as coming from everywhere to one place: this is the
extreme theopanist point of view. According to others He is to be invoked
from the orb of the sun (K?zgyapa, ch. 64): cf. B.4U. 2, 3, 3 "The essence
of this formless, immortal ... (brahman) is the Person in the sundisc";
ChU. 1, 6, 6; MaitU. 6, 1.
In a philosophical explanation inserted by Ka~yapa (ch. 55) 03 in his
descriptions of the cult images the movable image a4 is - - in harmony
with the doctrine of other communities - - said to represent Vi.s.nu's
movable, divisible, that is emanated and characterized, form; as such
God is to be represented with His characteristics. The immovable image
represents Him as the Indivisible and Primeval One, who is to be char-
acterized by negative qualifications ;95 it is the form of the Highest Light
and the absence of characteristics is not regarded as a flaw because it
does not represent any concrete form. As such, the Primeval and Un-
divided One, God, is Nar~yan.a; if conceived as 'divisible', He is known
as Vi.s.nu. Worship without concrete support should therefore be left to
"the hermits who are rich in realizing and constructive imagination
(sam.kalpa)" ;96 "worship with a concrete support is right for those who
are in the sam.sara, because it results in enjoyment and (the possibility of)
release". Continuing his relative explanations the author, quoting texts
such as T_~. 10, 10, 1; ~vU. 3, 20, observes that God, the Imperishable
One, while pervading everything, is located within (the heart of) him who
possesses (supranormal) wisdom and devotion (ibid. 59). God will there-
fore take up His abode in that image which has been consecrated with
devotion. After these observations Ka~yapa proceeds to describe the
consecration.
Atri, citing the eternal Sruti (AtriS. 1, 6f.; 31, 33) states that among
all gods N~tr~ya.na is the highest; he is the transcendent Brahman, the
transcendent ,~tman and identical with Brahma and Siva. He is also
named Vi.sn.u because he pervades all things (1, 9): the well-known ex-
planation of Vi.s.nu's name in connection with that function which in
the opinion of his devotees was central and most characteristic. 97
98 Comparealso AtriS. 36, lff.
9~ See Gonda, Fis~uism and ~ivaism, p. 78f.
95 See also KdgyS. 64; 73.
g6 For a definition ofsa~nkalpa see L. Silburn, lnstant et cause (Paris, 1955), p. 202f.
97 Gonda, Aspects of early Vi~.nuism,p. 54, 64ff.
 VEDIC MANTRAS IN THE RITUAL TEXTS OF THE VAIKH.ANASAS 31
N~rftya.na is the creator who produced the demiurge Brahm~ (1, 12 ft.). He,
the subtle, highest, unchangeable one, standing in the flame of the fire
in the heart, becomes visible through meditation, like a flame of a lamp
standing in a place sheltered from the wind, like a streak of lightning in
the sky (AtriS. 31, 33f.). This statement introduces a long passage on
the practice of meditation. In short the ideal Vaikh~nasa, pre-eminently
qualified for the function of an officiant, is the man "whose highest refuge
is Nftrhya.na, to whose ritual work he is devoted, a devout adherent of
Vi.s.nu" (Kd~yS. 59).