BIO 102 - CHAPTER 18: ENDOCRINE ORGANS

SPECIFIC PARTS/
NEUROSECRTIONS/HORMONES
NOTES
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS (non-glandular) ARGININE VASOTOCIN
- floor of the diencephalon - oldest hormone released from posterior lobe
- contains recess of third ventricle - In living agnathans and all other craniate classes
MEDIAN EMINENCE - Fetal mammal: serves as antidiuretic hormone (prevents
INFUNDIBULAR STALK dehydration by inducing water absorption)
PARS NERVOSA ARGININE VASOPRESSIN OR HUMAN ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
- Regulates water and salt secretions in other mammals
OXYTOCIN
- Causes oviducal contractions in turtles
- Induces strong uterine contractions during human delivery, and
causes letdown of milk into nipples
ADENOHYPOPHYSES (glandular)
- Arises from bud of ectodermal cells from
roof of stomodeum that is hollow and
known as Rathke’s pouch in amniotes,
sharks and some basal bony fishes;
- The bud is solid in other fishes and
ENDOCRINE amphibians
PITUITARY GLAND PARS INTERMEDIA MELANOPHORE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH) OR INTERMEDIN
GLANDS
(PITUITARY BODY OR - Intimate contact with - Causes pigment granules in some chromatophores of ecotherms
DERIVED
HYPOHYSIS) neurohypophysis to disperse = darkening of skin
FROM
-Cradled in sella turcica - Essential in mammals for melanogenesis to occur in hair follicles
ECTODERM
- 13-peptide molecule of alpha MSH: increase in ACTH
PARS TUBERALIS FSH and LH (in humans!)
- pair of narrow thin extensions - Develops in a few fishes and in most tetrapods other than
- develop in few fishes and in most squamates, their role is yet unknown
tetrapods other than squamates
PARS DISTALIS SOMATOTROPIN (STH) OR GROWTH HORMONE
- General metabolic hormone
- Promotes growth by stimulating protein synthesis
THYROTROPIN (TSH) – THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE
- Stimulates thyroid to accumulate iodine, to synthesize thyroid
hormone
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN (ACTH)
- Regulates mammalian adrenal cortex which secretes
glucocorticoids
GONADOTROPINS (FSH & LH)
- FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH):
 Females: Stimulates growth of follicles and estrogen secretion
 Males: Promotes spermatogenesis
- LUTENIZING HORMONE (LH):
 - “Anterior lobe”
- pine-cone shaped in mammals
PINEAL ORGAN
-Arises as evagination
from the roof of
diencephalon
AMINOGENIC TISSUE (aka CHROMAFFIN
TISSUE)
- Lampreys and elasmobranchs: clusters
along the postcardinal vein
- Hagfish: It is associated with the arteries
ADRENAL GLANDS: and veins and hagfish heart
MEDULLA - Lungfishes: it is scatterd along the dorsal
-Arises from the neural aorta of trunk
crest (same as - Teleost: at the anterior end of kidney
sympathetic NS) with vestiges of the pronephroi
- Anurans: it is interspersed with
steroidogenic tissue in a diffuse gland on
the ventral surface of the kidney
- Urodeles: as small bright flecks and
nodules along the postcava
 Females: induces ovulation; conversion of Graafian follicle to
corpus luteum
 Males: induces androgen synthesis by interstitial cells in
testes (interstitial cell stimulating hormone ICSH)
PROLACTIN (PRL) OR LUTEOTROPIN (LTH):
- Varied effects
- Freshwater adapting hormone in euryhaline fishes
- Maternal skin mucus secretion for nutrients for hatchlings of
some teleosts
- Lipogenic effects (inducing cyclical deposit of fat)
- Stimulates production of pigeon milk (avian crop sac) and
mammalian milk (mammary gland)
- Reproductive behavior (migration, mating, parental behavior, etc)
- Activates corpora lutea in rats
MELATONIN
- Amine synthesized from serotonin
- Causes melanin granules in dermal melanophores of living
agnathans, larval amphibians, and many fishes to aggregate
(opposite of MSH)
- Prepares organs of some mammals for reproductive activity (due
to signals related to photoperiods/biological periods to
hypothalamus)
- Synthesized during hours of darkness (light impedes the its
synthesis by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme serotonin N-
acetyltransferase
CATHECOLAMINES: relax smooth musculature of bronchi and trachea
* NOREPINEPHRINE (NORADRENALINE)
- Predominant amine of the postganglionic neurons of sympathetic
system
- Precursor of epinephrine, converted to epinephrine by addition of
methyl group
- Potent vasoconstrictor (for peripheral circulation)
*EPINEPHRINE (ADRENALINE)
- Predominant amine of the adrenal
- From the precursor of norepinephrine
- Stimulate glycogenolysis or the breakdown of glycogen into
glucose-6-phosphate during stressful events
- Immediate release of glucose into circulation
 - Amniotes: descrete adrenal glands
generally located at or near cephalic pole
of kidney
- Lizards: aminogenic tissue completely
encapsulate steroidogenic tissue
- Sea lions!!! (highlighted in ppt): cortical
tissue is scattered in the medulla and
clumps of medullary cells are scattered
throughout the cortex not forming a
homogenous cortex

STEROIDOGENIC TISSUE CORTICOID: Steroids that resemble those of mammalian cortex

- Regulated by hormones *GLUCOCORTICOIDS: stimulate gluconeogenesis or the conversion of
- Produces adrenal and gonadal steroids non-carbohydrates to glucose; stimulate synthesis of epinephrine in
- Sharks and rays: usually forms one or medulla during prolonged stress; secretion regulated by
more compact interrenal bodies lying adrenocortocotropin
ADRENAL GLANDS: between the caudal ends of the kidneys - CORTISOL: Chief glucocorticoid produced by human adrenal
CORTEX - Teleost: generally aggregates in the cortex and by apes, monkeys and some mammals and teleosts
-Arises from vestigial pronephric region interspersed - CORTICOSTERONE: Chief GC in birds, rabbits, rats
mesodermal cells in the among the aminogenic cells - CORTISONE not significant among mammals but has an
epithelium of the important effect tin some basal craniates
genital ridge and from
the underlying MINERALOCORTICOIDS
ENDOCRINE
nephrogenic mesoderm *ALDOSTERONE:
GLANDS
- Most potent mineralocorticoid
DERIVED
- Functions to reclaim sodium from glomerular filtrate in distal
FROM
convoluted tubules
MESODERM
- Secretion stimulated by angiostenin under the catalyzing effect of
the enzyme renin produced in the kidney
OVARIES ESTROGENS
TESTES - 17- β-ESTRADIOL: most potent estrogen (mammals)
- From ovarian follicles
- responsible for differentiation, growth and maintenance of
accessory sex organs, for the secondary sex characteristics and for
GONADS
the characteristic reproductive behavior from fishes to mammals
ANDROGENS
- TESTOSTERONE: most potent androgen (mammals)
- From interstitial cells
- Also synthesized in adrenal cortex
 - Intermediate stages in the biosynthesis of sex sterioids
PROGESTOGENS
- PROGESTERONE:
 “Steroid-promoting gestation”
 Precursor for the biosynthesis of androgens estrogens, and
corticosteroids
 From the corpora lutea and eventually the placenta
 Maintains embryo during pregnancy, essential for ovulation;
 Preparation of uterus for implantation

RELAXIN (peptide)
- From mammalian ovary; softens the ligaments of the pubic
symphysis and sacroiliac joints of mother to enlarge birth canal
before delivery
- Removal/ablation leads to increase in CALCIUM-REGULATING HORMONE in ray-finned fishes, Amia
concetration of calcium in tissue fluids of
basal actinopterygians and teleosts
CORPUSCLES OF - Spherical epitheloid embedded in
STANNIUS posterior part of the mesonephric ducts
-Arise as evaginations of ray-finned fishes
of pronephric duct - Easily mistaken for interrenal bodies; in
most teleosts there are 2; in Amia there
are 40 to 50; in large salmon it may reach
0.5 cm in diameter
THYROID FOLLICLES THRYOXINE - Important for
- Consist of epithelium and a colloid-filled - Synthesized in epithelium of thyroid growth, for cell
cavity that temporarily stores throxine as follicles differentiation,
large molecules, thyroglobulin - Functions as general metabolic hormone and for the
THYROID GLAND
- Protease breaks thyroglobulin into - regulates the rate of cellular oxidation control of the
ENDOCRINE -Arises as median
thyroxine - stimulates thermogenesis in homeotherms basal metabolic
GLANDS evagination from the
- Induces metamorphosis of larval rate and O2
DERIVED pharyngeal floor at the
amphibians consumption in
FROM level of the 2nd
- Facilitates the actions of other hormones cells throughout
ENDODERM pharyngeal pouches
on their target tissues the body
PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS CALCITONIN - Thyroid
- Synthesized in parafollicular cells or C cells hormones affect
that protects calcium in bones and other protein, lipid,
and
 tissues from depletion when not needed carbohydrate
elsewhere metabolism
FORAMEN CECUM
- marks site where thyroid evagination
took place in mammals
- Not present in fishes or larval PARATHYROID HORMONE:
PARATHYROID
heterochronic amphibians - Causes calcium to be release from bone and other storage site to
GLAND
- Few reptiles have 3 pairs; most tetrapods restore normal serum calcium level
-Arises as evaginations
have only 2 pairs
of pharyngeal pouches
- In a few urodeles, crocodilians, some
close to or embedded
domestic fowls, and some mammals,
within thyroid gland
there is only one pair
- Present as discrete glands in all CALCITONIN
ULTIMOBRANCHIAL
gnathostomes throughout life except - Protects calcium in bones and other tissues from depletion
GLANDS
adult mammals (except scaly anteaters) - Potential calcitonin cells migrate from the thickened lining of the
-Develops from the
- In elasmobranchs, only the left gland, extra pharyngeal pouch and enter the substance of the thyroid
epithelium of the last
matures gland
pair of pharyngeal
- In teleosts, it may be median or unpaired
pouches
- In reptiles it lies close to the thyroid
- a lymphoid organ T LYMPHOCYTE STEM CELLS (T-CELLS)
- in birds and mammals it functions only - Whose descendants are carried by the bloodstream to lymph
during fetal and juvenile life for the organs where they participate in the immune response
establishment of the immune system - Responsible for rejection of transplanted organs (foreign
proteins)
- Destroyed in acquired immunodefieciency syndrome (AIDS)
AVIAN BURSA OF FABRICIUS
- arises as middorsal invagination of the
embryonic cloaca and extends into the
pelvic cavity sandwiched between the
large intestine and the synsacrum
THYMUS
- supplements role of thymus in many
-Arises as a thickening
young birds and has same function to
in the epithelial lining
thymus
of all pharyngeal
pouches
 ACINI (exocrine) PANCREATIC JUICES/DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
PANCREATIC ISLETS INSULIN
ENDOCRINE
- Stimulates glucose uptake
PANCREAS
- Promotes glycogenesis: glucose into glycogen for storage
-Arises from the
- Performs other roles associated in carbohydrate metablosim, and
epithelial lining of the
has a lipogenic or fat-synthesizing effect
foregut (for both
GLUCAGON:
exocrine and endocrine
- Opposes the effect of insulin promoting the breakdown of
components)
glycogen or glycogenolysis during low blood glucose levels
SOMATOSTATIN: delta cells
PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE: PP cells
GASTRIN
- Synthesized in response to the presence of food in stomach
PYLORIC EPITHELIUM
- Evokes secretion of HCL and pepsinogen by the parietal cells and
chief cells, respectively
SECRETIN
- Released when chime enters duodenum
- Stimulates release of water, salts, and bicarbonates in the
GASTRONTESTINAL DUODENAL EPITHELIUM
intestinal lumen, altering the pH for optimal functioning of
HORMONES
digestive enzymes
- Found in all craniate classe
PANCREOZYMIN-CHOLECYSTOKININ
- Secreted in response to increasing titers of lipids and peptides in
INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM the lumen
- Stimulates release of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and it
stimulates contraction of gall bladder to produce a flow of bile
HORMONAL CONTROL OF BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
HORMONES
- products of specific group of cells that alter the
metabolism of nearby or remote cells of a different
nature
- mostly polypeptide, proteins, glycoproteins; a few are
amines
GENERAL HORMONES
- have receptor sites on every cell of the organism
RELEASING HORMONES
- factor that causes the release of a specific anterior lobe
hormone
INHIBITING HORMONES
- factor that inhibits the secretion of a specific anterior
lobe hormone
POSTERIOR LOBE HORMONE
- neurosecretions from other hypothalamic nuclei that
are released directly into the sinusoids in the posterior
lobe
- transported in the systemic bloodstream to their
target organs
NEUROSECRETIONS/NEUROHORMONES
- small polypeptides produced by NEUROSECRETORY
NEURONS and released into circulatory channels of
neurohemal organs
- move along the axon, NEUROSECRETORY FIBER,
bound chemically to proteins, NEUROPHYSINS, and
accumulate in the axon terminals until released
reflexly into blood sinusoids
UROTENSINS
- secreted by the urophysis at the caudal end of the
spinal cord of fishes
- vasopressor and osmoregulatory effect
NEUROHEMAL ORGAN
- axon terminals plus sinusoids
o posterior lobe of the pituitary
o median eminence
o urophysis of elasmobranchs, basal
actinopterygians and teleosts
HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM
- transports hypothalamic neurosecretions to the
anterior lobe, where target cells are located
CIRCADIAN RHYTHM:
- annual cycles in which gonads may regress and
recrudesce and reproductive behavior, to
approximately 24-hour cycles in which metabolism
exhibits phases of elevated and depressed activity and
behavior is rhythmically altered
- Circadian and annual rhythms of reproduction,
metabolism, and behavior are entrained chiefly by
environmental photoperiods that initiate
neuroendocrine and subsequent hormonal responses
o Detected by photoreceptors – pineal or
parapineal and retinas of paired eyes 
hypothalamic nuclei (pacemakers)  release
neurosecretions that regulate relase of
anterior pituitary hormones
SYNCHRONIZING HORMONES
- set the phases of circadian rhythms
- determine the onset, duration, and termination of
daily cycles
- render specific systems “ready”, that is, the tissues
develop a competence to respond to the inducer
hormones
- Adrenal corticoids:
o most important synchronizing hormone;
o the corticosteroid rhythm is under direct
control of daily light-darkness cycle
- Melatonin:
o synchronizing hormone under direct control
of daily photoperiod
o sets phase for a daily rhythm of skin
melanocyte response
o Exerts antireproductive effect by way of
inhibiting gonadotropic hormonal secretion
and thus contributes to the synchronizing of
the overall rep. cycle
INDUCING HORMONES
- act on tissues presensitized by synchronizing
hormones
- synthesized, stored, released rhythmically
- Pituitary prolactin levels: release into the circ. system
induces those metabolic processes that have been
rendered inducible by the earlier release of
synchronizing hormones
Temporal interaction of synchronizing and
inducer hormones determines specific
physiological conditions such as growth rates,
fat storage, rhythms of reproductive system,
migratory readiness:
- Greatest net effect: when daily peak of inducer
hormone coincides with the dialy peak of greatest
tissue responsiveness
- Effectiveness of synchronizing and inducing hormones
is dependent on general metabolic hormones, i.e.
thyroid hormone, insulin
Predictable daily rhythms of glucocorticoids and melatonin
are hormonal expressions of environmental time-givers.
These hormones synchronize rhythmic sensitivities of many
tissues to neutral stimuli or other hormonal factors