BASIC MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
 B.TECH. DEGREE COURSE
SCHEME AND SYLLABUS

(2002-03 ADMISSION ONWARDS)

MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY

KOTTAYAM
KERALA

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CMELRPTA 107

Module 1

Thermodynamics: Basic concepts and definitions, Gas laws, specificheat –

Universal gas constant – Isothermal, adiabatic and polytropic processes, work
done and heat transferred: Carnot, Otto & Diesel Cycles – air standard
efficientcy.

Module 2

I.C. Engines: Working of two stroke and four stroke engines – petrol and
diesel engines – fuel systems, injector and carburetor – ignition system –
lubrication and cooling systems.

Refrigeration and air-conditioning: methods of refrigeration – vapour

compression and vapour absorption systems – block diagrams and general
descriptions – winter and summer air conditioning systems – general
description.

Module 3

Power transmission: Methods of transmission – belt, rope, chain and gear

drives. Fields of application, calculation of length of belt – expression for
ratio of belt tension. Velocity ratio and slip – simple problems – velocity ratio
and choice of gear wheels – simple problems.
Module 4

Power plants: General layout of hydraulic, diesel, thermal and nuclear

power plants, nonconventional energy sources, general description only.

Types of hydraulic turbines – selection of turbines depending upon head,

discharge and specific speed – steam turbines – reaction and impulse turbines
– compounding methods.

Module 5

Simple description of general purpose machines like lathe, shaping machines,

drilling machine, milling machine and grinding machine.

Manufacturing process: moulding and casting, forging, rolling, welding – arc

welding – gas welding (simple descriptions only)

References

1. Elements of Hear Engines R.C.Patel

2. Thermal Engineering P.L.Bellany
3. Elements of Mechanical Engineering S.Domkundwar
4. Power Plant Engineering Nagpal
 Module I

Thermodynamics
Definition

The world moves on energy. Energy in one form or another is used for all the
activities of human beings. Human development to its present state has been the
result of harnessing the energy resources of the universe. The subject of
thermodynamics deals with energy in its various forms.

The word ‘thermodynamics’ is the combination of two words: thermo and

dynamics. Thermo means temperature or heat and dynamics means movement or
change. Thus thermodynamics covers movement of heat or energy conversion
involving heat energy.

Thermodynamics is the branch of physical science dealing with the

conversion of energy from one form to another, especially involving heat. In other
words, it is the science dealing with the relationship between heat and work and the
properties of substances.

Some of the present-day applications of thermodynamics are

 Automobiles

 Aircraft and rocket propulsion

 Heating and cooling devices

 Power plants

 Alternate energy systems

 Cryogenic engines

 Biomedical applications

Historic Perspective

The principles of thermodynamics were in existence since the creation of the

universe. Aristotle (384-322 BC) promoted the ideology of the four elements: water,
air, earth and fire. Hero of Alexandria (~20 BC) developed the primitive steam
engine, aeolipile.
 Thermodynamics emerged as a distinct science with the construction of the
steam engines in England in the 17th century. Thomas Sareery’s (1650-1715) steam
engine was first used to pump water out of mines. This engine was improved and
made more efficient by James Watt (1736-1819). Zeonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832)
developed the theoretical concepts of the two reservoir engine giving maximum
efficiency.

These inventions helped to bring in industrial revolution in Europe and the

world has never looked back. Richard Trevithier steam locomotive, Charles Parson’s
reaction turbine and Gustaf de Laval’s impulse turbine were important inventions
which drove the industrial revolution forward.

The term thermodynamics was first used in a publication by Lord Kelven in

1849. The first textbook on thermodynamics was written in 1859 by William
Rankine. The four fundamental laws of thermodynamics emerged through the
theoretical and experimental works of many scientists, notably Celsius, Boyle,
Kelvin, Joule, Helmholtz, Carnot, Maxwell, Nernst etc.

Fundamental Concepts

Thermodynamic System

In any scientific or engineering analysis it is essential to clearly identify the

material on which we focus our attention.

A thermodynamic system (or simply system) is defined as a prescribed

quantity of matter or region in space upon which attention is concentrated for study.

This quantity of matter or region is separated from its surroundings by a

boundary. The boundary or wall may coincide with real surfaces (eg. piston head and
cylinder walls) or may be imaginary (eg. inlet section of a turbine).
 Another classification of system boundaries is as movable or rigid depending
on whether they allow a change in volume of the system. A rigid wall does not allow
a change in volume whereas a movable one is non-restrictive with respect to volume.
Examples are: a rigid casing inclosing a steam turbine, a movable boundary enclosed
by a moving piston in a cylinder.

Boundaries can also be classified into diathermia or adiabatic depending upon

whether they allow exchange of energy in the form of heat between the system and
its surroundings. An adiabatic wall is restrictive with respect to energy flow in the
form of heat whereas a diathermia boundary allows flow of heat energy across the
boundary.

The combination of matter and space outside the system boundary with which
the system directly interacts constitutes its surroundings. However, at a distance there
will be no effect and hence such distant space or matter is not considered as the
environment or surroundings of the system.

Interactions are mass and energy flows or interchanges between a system and
its surroundings. Only the mass and energy which cross the system boundary
constitute interactions and not those flow within the system.

The totality of all systems and their surroundings form the universe.

Classification of Systems

Thermodynamic systems are classified into three types based on the kinds of
interactions between the system and its surroundings.

1. Closed Systems are those that exchange energy (heat and work) but not mass
with their environment. Since the mass of the system remains constant it is
also known as control mass.
 The nature of the boundary of a system usually decides the type of
interactions that are possible. An adiabatic system is a closed system with
adiabatic walls. So that it does not allow heat interactions with the
surroundings.

2. Open Systems exchange energy (heat and work) and mass with their
environment. Mass exchange can be as bulk flow, or diffusion, or both. The
boundary of the system is permeable. Flow systems are........ open systems
since they allow mass flow. An open system specified with a fixed volume is
called control volume.

When the terms control mass (closed system) and control volume (open
system) are used, the system boundary is often referred to as control surface.

3. Isolated Systems are completely isolated from their environment. They

exchange neither matter nor energy (heat and work) with their surroundings. So, an
isolated system is one in which both energy and mass are constant. A system
enclosed by a rigid and adiabatic wall cannot exchange energy or mass with its
surroundings, and, therefore, is an isolated system.

Isolated System
Classify the following systems:

Steam turbine balloon

Car radiator storage battery

Space station LPG Cylinder

Electric motor human hand

Pressure Cooker jet engine

Submarine thermos flask

Screw jack mercury thermometer

Comparison of closed, open & isolated systems

CLOSED SYSTEM OPEN SYSTEM ISOLATED SYSTEM

1 Has fixed mass; hence, When it has fixed Has both fixed mass and
also called control mass volume it is also called fixed volume
control volume

2 Mass does not cross the Mass can enter and Mass does not cross the
system boundary leave across the system system boundary
boundary

3 Energy, both in the form Both heat and work can No energy, neither heat
of heat and work can cross the system nor work can cross the
cross the system boundary system boundary
boundary

4 System boundary can System boundary is System boundary is fixed

usually move usually fixed

5. Examples:- Greenhouse Ocean IC engine in Universe Insulated gas

IC engine in suction and exhaust cylinder
compression and strokes
expansion strokes

Working Substance

All thermodynamic devices employ some material, usually a fluid, as a

medium of energy transport between the system and its surroundings. This fluid is
known as the working substance or working fluid. In a steam power plant the
working substance is water. In petrol and diesel engines it is mostly air that is
flowing. Therefore, in such systems air is considered to be the working substance. In
refrigerators and air-conditioners, the working substances are the refrigerants used.

Thermodynamic Properties

The working substance of a system can be a pure substance or a mixture of

substances. A property of a system is any of its identifiable or observable
characteristic. A thermodynamic property is a characteristic which is relevant to
thermodynamics, ie., which is concerned with the interaction of energy in the form of
heat and work between a system and its surroundings. Examples are mass, volume,
energy, pressure and temperature.

mass, m
volume, v
pressure, p System
temperature, T
.......................
.......................
Properties
The condition of the system at the time of observation is described by its
properties.

Classification of Properties

Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two categories : extensive and

intensive.

Extensive Properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent of the
system. Mass m, volume V, total energy E are some examples of extensive
properties.

A B C

D E

F
Subdivisions of a System

The value of the extensive property of a system is the sum of its values for the
parts into which the system is divided. For the system divided into parts A, B, C, D,
E and F, the total mass of the system is the sum of the individual masses of the
divisions.

Intensive Properties are not additive. Their values are independent of the size or
extent of the system Pressure, temperature, density are some examples of intensive
properties. In a system divided into parts, each part has the same pressure,
temperature and density as the whole system.

m extensive ½m ½m
v properties ½v ½v
P P P
T intensive T T
P properties P P
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
To differentiate extensive & intensive properties

A simple method to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is

to divide the system into two equal parts with a partition. The values of intensive
properties of the two halves will be the same as those of the undivided system,
whereas the values of the extensive properties of the halves will only be half of the
values of the original system.

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some
examples of specific properties are

v
Specific volume, v  and
m
 E
Specific total energy, e  Specific properties may be considered as
m
intensive properties, since their values are independent of the mass of the system.
However, they are not true intensive properties in the sense of their definition.

(temperature, pressure, viscosity, velocity, thermal conductivity, volume,

mass, enthalpy, entropy are all examples of properties)

Problem-solving Technique

Solving problems especially complicated problems, require a systematic

approach. By using a step-by-step approach, an engineer can reduce the solution of a
complicated problem into the solution of a series of simple problems.

Step 1: Problem statement: In your own words state the problem, the key information
given and the quantities to be found.

Step 2: Schematic : Draw a simple but realistic sketch of the physical system
involved and list the relevant information on the figure. This helps one to see the
entire problem at once.

Step 3: Assumptions and appropriations : State any appropriate assumptions and

approximations made to simplify the problem to make it possible to obtain a
solution. Assume reasonable values for missing quantities.

Step 4. : Physical laws and formulae : Apply all the relevant basic physical laws and
principles and reduce them to the formulae applicable, incorporating the simplifying
assumptions.

Step 5: Calculations : Substitute the known quantities in to the simplified relations

(formulae) and perform the calculations to determine the unknowns.

Pay particular attention to the units of the quantities. Also, don’t give a false
implication of high precision by copying all the digits from the screen of the
calculator - round the results to an appropriate number of significant digits.

Keep in mind that the solutions are forms of communication to others.

Therefore, neatness, organisation, completeness and visual appearance are of utmost
importance for maximum effectiveness. Carelessness and skipping steps to save time
often end up costing more time and unnecessary anxiety.
 It may be observed that for some problems, some of the steps described may
not be applicable or necessary. However, the importance of a logical and orderly
approach to problem-solving is incontrovertible. Most difficulties encountered in
problem solving are not due to a lack of knowledge, rather, they are due to a lack of
organisation.

University questions

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Explain about closed and open systems (Jan 2007)

Differentiate between closed system and open system, (May 2008)

Give examples

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY

What is meant by property of a system? What are its classifications? (June, 2006)

What are intensive and extensive properties? From the following properties,
differentiate intensive and extensive properties. (May, 2008)

(i) Volume (ii) Kinetic energy

(iii) specific enthalpy (iv) internal energy

(v) density (vi) temperature

(vii) flow work (viii) pressure

Describe question paper structure

Part A : 2 from each module – 2 × 5 = 10 questions; no choice; 4 marks each – total

40 marks

Part B : 2 from each module of which one only need be answered 1 × 5 = 5

questions; 12 marks each – total 60 marks

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Define thermodynamic system

Explain closed and open systems with sketches and examples

(Give the comparison chart and examples with sketches)

What is thermodynamic system?

Distinguish between control mass and control volume.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

Definition: The thermodynamic property is any of the identifiable or observable

characteristic of a system, which is relevant to thermodynamics, ie. concerning heat
and work energy interactions.

Classification : Extensive properties are those whose values depend upon the size or
extent of the system. Examples: volume mass, total energy.

Intensive properties are those whose values are independent of the size or
extent of the system. Examples : pressure, temperature, density.

Extensive properties expressed per unit mass are called specific properties.
Specific properties behave like intensive properties, as their values are independent
 V
of the size of the system. Examples are specific volume     , specific energy
 m

(i) Volume value depends on size – extensive property

(ii) Kinetic energy = ½mc2 mass dependent – extensive property

(iii) Specific enthalpy = sH/m pecific property – intensive property

(iv) Internal energy value depends on size – extensive property

(v) Density value independent of size – intensive property

(vi) Temperature value independent of size – intensive property

(vii) Flow work – work is energy in transit, not a property process dependent, not
a system characteristic

(viii) Pressure value independent of size – intensive property.

When engineering calculations are performed it is necessary to measure the

physical quantities involved in terms of specified units. A unit is any specified
amount of a quantity by comparison with which any other quantity of the same kind
is measured. For example, meters, kilometers, feet and miles are all units of length.
Similarly, seconds and hours are units of time.
 Because physical quantities are related by definitions and laws, a relatively
small number of them are sufficient to measure all others. These are called primary
dimensions. The others are measured in terms of primary dimensions and are called
secondary. For example, if length and time are primary dimensions, area and velocity
became secondary dimensions.

Once a set of primary dimensions is adopted, a base unit of each primary

dimension is specified. Units for all other (secondary) quantities are then derived in
terms of the base units and are called derived units.

SI is the abbreviation for Le Systems International d’Unites (International

System of Units). It was adopted in 1960 and is the legally accepted system i most
countries. The primary dimensions and their base units are given in Table 1. Table 2
gives the non-SI units recognized for use along with SI units.

Amount of Substance

The basic SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). Since all materials are known
to consist of atoms, molecules, etc., the amount of substance can also be expressed in
terms of the number of such particles present in the matter. This unit is called the
mole (abbreviated to ‘mol’) and is defined as the amount of substance that contains
the same number of elementary particles as the number of atoms in 0.012 kg of
carbon-12. This number of atoms is called Avogadro’s number, NA , and is equal to
6.022×1023. If the mass of an atom of a substance is ‘m’, the mass of one mol of that
substance is = m × NA . This quantity, molar mass, denoted by ‘M’ , is also called
molecular weight. i.e., M = m × NA. Hence the number of moles in a given mass of
the substance is given by

total mass
n = n=
M

Derived units

The secondary quantities are expressed in terms of the derived units. Some of
the derived nits occur so frequently that they are given special names and symbols.
Thus, the units of pressure, energy and power in SI are pascal (Pa), joule (J) and
watt (W) respectively. The SI unit of pressure, Ps, is very small in magnitude. Hence,
for convenience pressure is commonly expressed in kilopascal and megapascal. To
facilitate working with extremely large of small values when using SI units, a set of
standard prefixes are used, as given in Table 3, to express these quantities in terms of
appropriate multiples of SI units.

Pressure

Pressure is an important quantity in thermodynamic analysis. Though its SI

unit is the pascal (Pa), sometimes pressure is expressed in terms of an independent
unit, the standard atmosphere (atm). One standard atmosphere is defined as equal to
the pressure exerted by a column of 760 mm of mercury at specified conditions. The
pressure exerted by 1 mm column of mercury at these conditions is called 1 torr.

1 atm = 760 torr = 101325 Pa = 101.325 k Pa

1 torr = 1 mm Hg = 0.1333 kPa

A pressure which is less than atmospheric is referred to as vacuum. A

pressure which is less than atmospheric pressure by 600 mm Hg is called a vacuum
of 600 mm Hg.

Most of the pressure measuring devices like the Bourden pressure gauge,
measure the difference in pressure between the fluid and the atmosphere. This
pressure difference or the pressure indicated by the gauge is called gauge pressure.
The absolute pressure, P , of the fluid is then given by

P = Patm + Pguage, for pressure above atmospheric pr.

P = Patm - Pguage, for vacuum

The relationships are illustrated in the figure.

Temperature

In its primitive concept, temperature is a measure of the hotness of a system

as felt by the human body. Under molecular theory, it is a measure of the motion of
the molecules due their energy.
 Relationship among absolute, atmospheric, gauge and vacuum pressures

The basic SI unit for temperature is kelvin (K). One kelvin is defined as the
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Quite
often, the Celsius temperature (oC) is used to express temperature of a substance.
The Celsius temperature is defined as C = K – 273.15.

The Celsius temperature scale was defined by using the ice point and boiling
point of water at atmospheric pressure. In Celsius temperature scale, the interval
between the ice point and the boiling point was divided into 100 equal parts. The ice
point was given the arbitrary value of zero, so that the boiling point became 100oC.

Experiments were conducted using various gases keeping them at constant

pressure.

Rankine and Fahrenheit temperature scales

These scales have a unit interval of temperature equal to five-ninth the size of
a unit interval of temperature on the Kelvin and Celsius scales. By definition, the
Rankine scale is an absolute scale based solely on the temperature of the triple point
of water.

T (R) = 9/5 T(K)

The Fahrenheit scale is related to the Rankine scale by the equation

(oF) = T (R) - 459.67

Thus, at ice point where the kelvin temperature is 273.15, the Rankine temperature is
9
/5(273.15) = 491.67 R

and the Fahrenheit temperature is

(oF) = 491.67 - 459.67

= 32oF

Therefore, (oF ) = 9/5 (oC) + 32

Comparison of Temperature Scales

FIXED POINT CELSIUS KELVIN FAHRENHEIT RANKINE

1. Steam point 100 373.15 212 671.67

2. Triple point of H2O 0.01 273.16 32.02 491.69
3. Ice point 0 273.15 32 491.67
4. Absolute zero -273.15 0 -459.67 0

and the values of volume were plotted as a function of temperature. These gave a
family of straight lines that interest at zero volume when extrapolated.

Absolute temperature Scale

This unique temperature of the intersection point is known as the absolute

zero temperature, which corresponds to -273.15oC. The absolute temperature scale
begins at absolute zero temperature and is always positive. Based on the concept of
temperature as a measure of molecular motion of matter, at absolute zero
temperature, there is no molecular motion.
 In the SI system the absolute temperature is given in kelvin (K). Thus we
define

K = oC + 273.15

For most engineering calculations, the formula k = oC + 273 may be used

STP and NTP

The reference conditions, standard temperature and pressure are 15 oC and

760 mm by Hg respectively. The normal temperature and pressure are taken as 0oC
and 760 mm Hg respectively.

Temperature and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

Although we will familiar with temperature as a measure of hotness or

coldness, it is not easy to define it directly. It is common experience that when a hot
body is brought into contact with a cold body heat flows from the hot body to cold
body. When the heat transfer stops the bodies are said to have reached thermal
equilibrium.

System A System B System A System C System B System C

Consider the arrangement at fig (a) above where two systems A and B
separated by an adiabatic wall are both in contact with a third system C through a
diathermic wall. When the heat - flows between A and C, and B and C stops, we can
say that systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with system C. Now if the walls
are interchanged to the arrangement at fig (b), it is observed that there is no heat
transfer between the systems A and B or they are in thermal equilibrium. This
experience leads to the formulation of the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

The zeroth law was first formulated and named by R H Fowler in 1931.
Therefore its value as a fundamental physical principle was recognized more than
half f century after the formulation f the first and second laws of thermodynamics. It
was named the zeroth law since it should have preceded the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
 On the bases of the zeroth law of thermodynamics we can say that there must
be some property of the systems (bodies) which attains equal value when the systems
attain thermal equilibrium with each other. Thus property is called temperature.

The zeroth law also gives us a method to measure the temperature of a

system. If the third body is replaced with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as, two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature
reading even if they are not in contact.

The temperature of a body is measured by bringing a thermometer in contact

with the body till the thermometer and the body reaches thermal equilibrium. At that
state both have the same value of temperature. Therefore, the temperature of the
thermometer indicated on it gives the temperature of the body.

Several properties of materials change with temperature in repeatable and

predictable way, and this forms the basis for temperature measurement. Examples are
mercury in glass thermometer based on expansion of mercury, resistance
thermometer, etc.

State

The thermodynamic state of a system is the inside condition fo the system at

any given instant of time. The state of a system at any given instant is determined by
the values of its properties at that instant.

At a given state each property of the system has a definite value. The system
can change its condition due to work and heat interactions with its surroundings.
When the system changes from one state to a second state its properties will have a
different set of definite values. In other words, when any of the properties of a
system changes, a change of state occurs.

Thermodynamic equilibrium

If a system has no tendency for a change of state, spontaneously or under

outside influences, it is in thermodynamic equilibrium. In such a case the values of
its properties do not change and there are no interactions between the system and its
surroundings.
 An intensive property of a system is defined to have a value at a point in the
system. For example, the intensive property temperature, T has a value at each point
in the system and may vary from point to point. Similar is the case with the intensive
property pressure, P. If the system has no interactions with the surroundings, these
intensive properties tend to equalise in course of time and attain the same value at all
points in the system. Then it is possible to quote one value of the property for the
system as it is uniform throughout that system.

Thus, if the system is in an equilibrium state it must have the same intensive
properties at all points in the system. In other words, a state of a system can be
defined only when it is in equilibrium.

Thermodynamic process

Whenever one or more of the thermodynamic properties of a system change

there is a change of state of the system. This change of state of a system is known as
a thermodynamic process. Also, since the state of a system can be defined only when
it is in equilibrium, a process is any transformation of a system form one equilibrium
state to another.

A process between states 1 and 2, and the process path

The series of states through which a system passes during is called the path of
the process. To describe the process completely one must specify the initial and final
states of the process as well as the path it follows and the interactions with its
surroundings.
 Thermal equilibrium exists when there is no spontaneous change in the
coordinates of a system in mechanical and chemical equilibrium when it is separated
from its surroundings by diathermic walls. In other words, there is no exchange of
heat between the system and its surroundings. In thermal equilibrium all parts of the
system are at the same temperature and this temperature is the same as that of the
surroundings, i.e, TS = TE

In other words, PS = PE means that there is no energy flow as work. TS = TE

means that there is no energy flow as heat, and iS = iE means that no mass flow
exists. They also imply that PS, TS and the species concentration iS remain uniform
and constant. The former set of conditions ensures external equilibrium and the latter
internal equilibrium. In other words, in a stat of thermodynamic equilibrium, the
system is in both external and internal equilibrium.

When the conditions for any one of the mechanical, chemical and thermal
equilibria is not satisfied, the system is considered to be in a state of non-equilibrium.

Thermodynamic equilibrium

When the properties of a system change in any way, either spontaneously or

due to external influences, the system is said to undergo a change of state. If the
system has no tendency for a change of state, spontaneously or under outside
influences it is in complete thermodynamic equilibrium. In that case, the values of its
properties do not change and there are no interactions between the system and its
surroundings.

A complete thermodynamic equilibrium implies

1. mechanical equilibrium

2. chemical equilibrium

3. thermal equilibrium

When there is no unbalanced force or toque in the interior of a system and

also none between a system and its surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of
mechanical equilibrium. When there is mechanical equilibrium, the pressure of the
system must be the same as that of its environment, i.e., PS = PE .
 When a system does not tend to undergo a spontaneous change of internal
structure, such as a chemical reaction, or a transfer of matter from one part of the
system to another, such as diffusion or solution, or between the system and its
surroundings, then it is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium. A state of
chemical equilibrium signifies that the chemical potentials of the system and its
environment are equal. That is, iS = iE. The chemical potential, is a variable
giving the tendency for the change in chemical composition.

If the external force is changed by removing the weight, there will be an

unbalanced force between the system and the surroundings and under the gas
pressure the piston will jump up till it hits the stops.

Thus, the finite unbalanced force causes the system to pass through non-
equilibrium states and finally come to an equilibrium sate as described by the
properties P2, V2, T2. But the intermediate states passed through by the system are
non-equilibrium states and hence cannot be described by system-wide
thermodynamic coordinates. The initial and final equilibrium states of the system are
represented by points 1 and 2 in the P-V diagram, but the process path is non-
existent. Any broken line can be drawn between points 1 and 2 as a representation of
this non-equilibrium process, though it has no meaning.

If the weight on the piston is made up of many infinitesimally small pieces of

weights and these weights are removed one by one very slowly from the top of the
piston, at any instant of the upward travel of the piston, the departure of the state of
the system from the thermodynamic equilibrium state will be infinitesimally small.
So every state passed through by the system will be equilibrium and all the states
through which the system passes can be described by means of thermodynamic
coordinates referring to the system as a whole.

Processes occur due to the interaction between a system and its environment.
These are the basic units of behaviour of a thermodynamic system. Process executed
by open systems are flow processes and those executed by closed systems are non-
flow processes.
Quasi-state process

A system can change its stat only by interacting with its environment.
However, a system in thermodynamic equilibrium ceases to be in equilibrium when
the change occurs. Thus, thermodynamic equilibrium specifies only static states.
“Consequently they do not have any practical use. However, their advantage is that
they can be specified by very few variables and simple relationships. In order to
retain this advantage of the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium, the concept of
quasi-state process is developed.

As the name implies, a quasi-static process is almost static. A quasi-static

process (or quasi-equilibrium process) is defined as one during which the system will
always be in thermodynamic equilibrium. Or, a quasi-static process is succession of
equilibrium states.

Consider a system of gas contained in a cylinder. The system initially is in an

equilibrium state, represented by the properties P1, V1, T1. The weight on the piston
balances the upward force exerted by the gas. Once a system is in thermodynamic
equilibrium and the surroundings are kept unchanged, no interaction will take place.

A process performed in this ideal way is called a quasi-static process. The

path of a quasi-static process is the locus of a series of equilibrium states through
which the system passes during the process, as shown in the P-V diagram.

A quasi-static process is an idealised process and is not a true representation

of an actual process. Engineers are interested in quasi-static process for reasons.
 1. they are easy to analyse, and
2. they serve as standards with which actual process can be compared.
The most common process, all assumed to be quasi-static, are :
Isochoric or isometric (constant volume)
Isobaric or isopiestic (constant pressure)
Isothermal (constant temperature)
Adiabatic (no heat exchange)

Point function vs. Path function

At a given state each property has a definite value that can be assigned
without the knowledge of how the system arrived at that state. The temperature of air
in the room has a certain value at the moment that does not depend on whether the
room heated up to that temperature or cooled down to it.

Consider the change of state of a system from initial state 1 to final state 2, as
shown in figure. It can be seen that state 2 may be reached from state 1 by following
many different paths like A and B. The state 2 whether reached by path A or B will
have the same values of properties P2, V2. Therefore, the change in value of a
property as the system is changed from one state to another is determined solely by
the two end states and is independent of the path followed to reach that state.
Because of this characteristic the state is a point function so also the parameters that
define the state, viz, its properties.

Many different paths for the change of state of a system

 Accordingly, the change in value of a property between any two given states
is the same irrespective of the path or process between the states. Thus, the change in

the properties of the system as it moves from state 1 to state 2 will be  dP  P2  P1

and  dV  V2  V1 irrespective of whether the path followed for the change is 1-A-2

or 1-B-2, or any other.

The converse of the above is also true. Any quantity whose change is
independent of the path of change is a point function and hence is a property.
In contrast to a state a process is a path. The quantity, the value of which
depends on the path followed during a change of state is a path function. For
example, the areas under curves 1-A-2 and 1-B-2 are different and we cannot write
2

 da  a 2  a1 . In fact, the initial value of a1, and the final value a2 have no meaning.
1

2
Hence we can only denote  da 1 a 2 , signifying that the value of ‘a’ can only be
1

determined if the path followed from 1 to 2 is specified.

Summarising, properties are point functions, signifying that the change in
their values is independent of the path of the process. Conversely, if the value of a
quantity is point function, i.e., independent of the process path, then that quantity is
the change in a property.
Similarly, if the value of a particular quantity depends on the details of the
path followed by the process, and not solely on the end states, it is a path function
and that quantity cannot be a property. Thus, energy interactions which depend on
the path of the process are path functions.

Reversible and irreversible processes

A process is a reversible process if it can be completely reversed. It implies

that when carried out in the opposite direction the system follows the same path as it
followed in the forward direction. Thus the system is resorted to its initial conditions.
In addition, the interactions between the system and the surroundings are also equal
and opposite in direction. Hence the surroundings are also restored to the initial
conditions.
 A quasi-static process implies an infinitely slow process and in the absence of
friction, may be thought of as a succession of equilibrium states. Such a process can
be reversed restoring the system and its surroundings to the initial states. Thus, a
quasi-static process without friction is a reversible process. A non-equilibrium
process can not be completely reversed and the system can not be brought back to the
initial state without leaving a net change in the surroundings. Such a process is an
irreversible. All real process are irreversible process.

Thermodynamic cycle

A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of processes that begins and ends at the

same state. At the conclusion of a cycle all properties of the system have the same
values they had at the beginning. Consequently, over the cycle the system
experiences no net change of state. Cycles that are repeated periodically play
prominent roles in many applications. For example, steam circulating through a

power plant executes a cycle. Thus, for a cycle  dP1  0 and  dP2  0 .

Thermodynamic Cycle

Previous University Questions

1. What is zeroth law of thermodynamics?

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two systems are in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Significance : 1. It forms the basis for definition of temperature.

 2. It provides the method for measurement of temperature.

2. Define quasi-static process and state its salient characteristics

Definition: A quasi-static process is defined as one during which the system will
always be in thermodynamic equilibrium. Hence a quasi-static process is a
succession of equilibrium states.

Salient characteristics :

i) A quasi-static process is in idealised process and is not a true representation of an

actual process.

ii) Quasi-static processes are easy to analyse and serve as standards with which
actual process can be compared.

iii) A quasi-static process is a succession of equilibrium states, the system being

always in thermodynamic equilibrium during the process.

iv) Since the changes in the state of a system in a quasi-static process are
infinitesimally small so as to remain in thermodynamic equilibrium always, such a
process is extremely slow.

Equation of State

It is possible to deduce general relations between thermodynamic properties

which hold for a limited class of systems. Since relations between thermodynamic
properties are independent of whether the substance is in motion or not, we need to
refer to only closed systems. The distinguishing characteristics of these systems with
a pure working substance in a single phase (usually gaseous) are that, when in
equilibrium.

a) they only change when heat and mechanical work cross their boundary.

b) only two independent properties are necessary to determine their thermodynamic

state.

For such a system the only measurable thermodynamic properties are the
pressure, P, volume, V, and temperature, T. If we fix the volume and temperature at
some arbitrary values, the value of P at equilibrium is determined by nature.
Similarly, if P and T are chosen arbitrarily, then the value of V at equilibrium is
fixed. That is, of the three thermodynamic coordinates P, V and T, only two are
independent variables. This implies that there is an equation of equilibrium which
connects these thermodynamic coordinates. Such an equation, expressing the relation
between P, V and T is called an equation of state or characteristic equation.

An equation of state expresses the individual peculiarities of one system as

compared to anther system and must, therefore, be determined either by experiment
or by molecular theory. An equator of state is thus only as accurate as the
experiments that led to its formulation and holds only within the range of values
measured. As soon as this range is exceeded, a different form of equation of state
may valid.

An equation of state is a mathematical function relating the thermodynamic

coordinates of a closed system in equilibrium, in the form,

f(P,V,T) = 0

Gas laws

A gas is a substance in gaseous phase, for which the evaporation from its
liquid phase is complete. Examples are air, oxygen, carbon dioxide within the
pressure and temperature ranges normally encountered. A vapour is a substance
whose evaporation from its liquid phase is only partial. Hence a vapour contains
liquid particles in suspension. When the evaporation is complete the vapour is said to
be dry. When a dry vapour is further heated it becomes a super heated vapour. Steam
is a common example of a vapour. Thus dry and superheated vapours are gases.

The terms “ideal gas” and “perfect gas” are identical terms having the same
meaning and defined as gases obeying the ideal gas equation of state.

Under the kinetic (molecular) theory of gases an ideal gas conforms to the
following assumptions.

1. The gas molecules are perfectly elastic, i.e., there is no loss of momentum
when they collide.

2. The molecules are point masses, i.e., they possess mass but have no
(negligible) volume compared to the dimensions of the system containing
them.
 3. The intermolecular forces are absent (negligible)

Real gases do not satisfy these assumptions. But, surprisingly, it has been
found that the ideal equation can be used to represent the behaviour of a large class
of real gases with an accuracy usually sufficient for engineering applications. In any
case, this equation can be used to predict qualitatively the behaviour of most gases,
and the results so obtained can be employed as a guide for design or performance
purposes.

Real gases tend to behave ideally at low pressures and at high temperatures
(which causes expansion and low pressures). Hence, this condition is also used to
define ideal gases with the expression “all gases behave ideally at zero pressure.”

Comparison of Ideal and Real gases

IDEAL GAS REAL GAS

 Obeys the ideal gas equation of
state.
 Molecules are assumed to be
point masses.
 Intermolecular forces are
assumed to be negligible.
 Molecules are considered to be
perfectly elastic.
Equations of state are more complicated.
Molecules have finite sizes.
Intermolecular forces are significant.
Molecules change momentum on
collision.

Boyle’s law
The first law concerning the equation of state of a gas were made by Robert
Boyle (1629-1691), an English chemist, in the year 1662. His experimental
observation, known as Boyle’s law, states that
The volume of a given quantity of gas whose temperature remains constant
varies inversely as its pressure.
 We can write Boyle’s law as

1
V when T is constant
P

or PV = C where C represents constant

For different states, this equation can be written as

P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = C, for constant T

Charles’ law

In 1787, the French physicist, Jacques Charles (1747 - 1832) showed from his
experiments the relation between volume and temperature, known as Charles’ law.

The volume of a given quantity of gas varies directly as its absolute

temperature if the pressure is held constant.

Charles’ experiment also showed that the pressure of a given quantity of gas
varies directly as its absolute temperature if the volume is held constant.

Mathematically, Charles’ law can be written as

V
= constant, when pressure is constant
T

P
= constant, when volume is constant
T

This law is also known as Gay-Lussac’s law.

Ideal gas equation of state

By combining Boyle’s law and Charles’ law into a single equation we can
obtain a general gas law known as the ideal gas equation of state or characteristic
equation of gas.

Consider a closed system of an ideal gas at state 1 with the coordinates of P 1

V1 and T1 which is taken to state 2 with coordinates of P2, V2 and T2. To go from
state 1 to state 2 the system follows the path 1-a-2. 1-a is a constant volume process
and a-2 is a constant pressure process.

For the constant volume path 1-a

Pa P1

Ta T1

Pa
or Ta  T1 (1)
P1

For the constant pressure path a-2

V2 Va

T2 Ta

But Va = V1, and Pa = P2. Thus we can write

V2 V1 P1

T2 T1 P2

P2 V2 P1V1
Or 
T2 T1
 PV
Or = a constant.
T

If the constant for a gas per unit mass is R, and the mass of the gas is m, the
above equation becomes

PV
 mR
T

or PV = mRT-------(a)

This is called the ideal gas equation of state or characteristic equation of state
and the constant R is called the characteristic gas constant whose values are different
for different gases R is usually expressed in the unit kJ/kgK

V V
The characteristic gas equation may also be written as P  RT . But ,
m m
the specific volume. Therefore the equation becomes

P = RT ..... (b)

The characteristic gas equation is

PV = mRT, which can be written as

M
PV  m RT where M is the molar mass of the gas.
M

m
Or PV  MRT
M

m
i.e., PV = nMRT, because  n , no. of moles.
M

It has been observed that for most gases the product of molecular weight (M)
and the characteristic gas constant (R) is nearly the same value. This product (MR) is
called the Universal Gas Constant (R) and is considered to be the same for all gases.
Therefore, the above equation can be written as

PV  nRT ..... (c)

V
Or P  RT
n
Or P  RT ..... (d) where  is the molar volume

The four equations (a), (b), (c) and (d) are all different forms of the ideal gas
equation of state.

The Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules (elementary
particles). It, therefore, follows that the value of  will be the same for all gases at
the same temperature and pressure.

At normal temperature (0oC = 273K) and pressure (1 atm = 101.235 kPa), the
molar volume of all gases is found to be 22.4 m 3/kmol. Substituting these values in
equation (d), we get

101.325 × 22.4 = R × 273

101.235  22.4 kJ
Or R  8.314
273 kmolK

The ideal gas equation of state or the perfect gas law can be written as

PV = mRT

P = RT

PV  nRT

P  RT

where P = pressure

m = mass
V = volume
V
 = specific volume =
m

n = amount of gas in moles

V
 = molar volume =
n

R = specific (characteristic) gas constant

R = universal gas constant.

Previous University Examination Questions:

 Explain the following: Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law

 Write notes on universal gas constant.

 What is an ideal gas? Discuss the derivation of gas laws for an ideal gas.

 State perfect gas law and explain universal gas constant in thermodynamics.
List the limitations of perfect gas law.

 Calculate the characteristic gas constant for oxygen.

R 8.314
R O2    0.2598 kJ
M O2 32 kgK

Energy, Heat and Work

Energy

Thermodynamics is defined as the science of energy. Everyone has an

intuitive understanding of the concept of energy. But it is difficult to define energy
precisely. Energy can be considered as the ability to cause changes, the capacity to
do work, the capability for action interaction.

Energy can exist in many forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,

potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear. The sum of all these forms of
energy is the total energy, E of a system. It is an extensive property, being dependent
on the size of the system.

Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that can be

converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal machine such as
an ideal turbine. Kinetic and potential energy are two forms of mechanical energy.
Thermal energy is not mechanical energy since it can not be completely converted to
mechanical work. Fluid flow produces mechanical work and flowing fluid is the
result of pressure. The unit for pressure, Pa = N/m2, or Nm/m3 or J/m3, in other
words, energy per unit volume. Thus the energy associated with fluid flow is given
by PV ( pressure multiplied by volume). It is convenient to call this flow energy and
is another form of mechanical energy. Thus,
 Emech = flow energy + kinetic energy + potential energy

= PV + ½mC2 + mgZ

Internal energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It

is related to the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity. Thus it is
the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. The internal energy,
U, is thus a part of the total energy of a system.

The kinetic energy of molecules consists of translational, rotational and

vibrational velocities. The average velocity and the degree of activity of the
molecules are proportional to the temperature of the gas. Hence this is called thermal
energy.

The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called
chemical energy. During a chemical reaction such as a combustion process, some
chemical bonds are destroyed while others are formed. As a result the internal energy
changes.

An atom consists of neutrons and protons bound together by very strong

nuclear forces in the molecules and electrons orbiting it. The tremendous amount f
energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is called
nuclear energy.

Thus, internal energy consists of the following components of microscopic

energy.

1. thermal energy

2. chemical energy

3. nuclear energy

The chemical energy changes when the structure of the electrons of atoms
changes due to a chemical reaction. A nuclear reaction involves changes in the
nucleus. An atom preserves its identity during a chemical reaction but loses it during
a nuclear reaction.
 It is not practically possible to measure the absolute internal energy of a
system in a given state. This is not essential in thermodynamic analysis as it is
concerned with only changes in internal energy and not their absolute values.

Static and dynamic forms of energy

These forms of energy so far discussed which constitute the total energy of a
system, can be contained or stored in a system, and thus are static forms of energy.
The forms of energy not stored in a system are the dynamic forms of energy, or
energy interactions. This represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a
process and are recognized at the system boundary. For a closed system the tow
forms of energy interactions are heat transfer and work. An energy interaction is heat
transfer if it occurs due to a temperature difference. Otherwise, it is work. An open
system can exchange energy also through mass transfer since whenever there is mass
transfer the energy content of the mass is, also transferred with it.

Heat

Heat is defined as the dynamic energy that is transferred across the boundary
of a system due to a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
Therefore, an energy interaction is heat, only if it occurs because of a temperature
difference, and the heat transfer stops when the system and its surroundings reach the
same temperature. The transferred heat becomes part of the internal energy of the
recipient system.

Heat is energy in transition and is recognized only as it crosses the boundary

of a system. The amount of heat transfer depends on the process under which the
transfer occurs and hence is a path function and not a property of the system. The
process of heat transfer if assumed to occur quasi-statically allows calculation of the
quantity of heat transferred.
 Being a form of energy the unit of heat in SI system is the kilojule (kJ). We
shall use the sign convention that heat into a system from its surroundings is positive
and the heat out of a system is negative.

Specific heat

Experience is that different amounts of energy are required to raise the

temperature of identical masses of different substances b the same degree. These
different rates of energy volume process. The energy required to do the same with a
constant pressure process is the specific heat at constant pressure.

The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp is always greater than the specific
heat at constant volume, Cv because at constant pressure the system is allowed to
expand and the energy for this expansion work must also be supplied to the system.

Work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its

surroundings. Heat is the energy interaction driven by a temperature difference
between the system and its surroundings. Energy interactions not caused by a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings are all work.

More specifically, work is the energy transfer-associated with a force acting

through a distance. Such work interactions are involved in a moving piston, a
rotating shaft and an electric wire crossing the system boundary.

Work is also a form of energy transfer and, therefore, has the SI unit kJ. The
work done per unit time is called power. The unit of power is kJ/s or kilowatt (kW)
 Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete specification
of a heat or work interaction requires the specification of both the magnitude and the
direction. The generally accepted formal sign convention for heat and work
interactions is:

Storage is indicated by a property called specific heat

1kg 1kg
IRON WATER
20→30oC 20→30oC

4.5 kJ 41.8 kJ

Comparison of Energy Storage Capabilities

The specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the unit mass of a
substance by one unit of temperature.

Since this is energy interaction its amount depends on the type of process
executed. In thermodynamics, specific heats under two processes are considered,
specific heat at constant volume, Cv and specific heat at constant pressure, Cp.

The specific heat at constant volume is the amount of energy required to raise
the temperature by one unit of mass of a substance through a constant

When a gas is heated at constant pressure, it expands thus doing work in

addition to increasing its temperature. The heat supplied to it is used partly in raising
its temperature and partly in doing work against external pressure.

When a gas is heated at constant volume no work is done and the heat
supplied to it is used only for raising the temperature. Hence the amount of heat
required to be supplied to 1kg of gas to raise its temperature by 1oC at constant
pressure will be greater than that at constant volume.

Therefore, the specific heat at constant pressure, Cp is greater than the

specific heat at constant volume, Cv or Cp > Cv

CP
Therefore, the ratio  1 . Cpair = 1.005 kJ/kg, Cvar = 0.718 kJ/kg
CV
 CP
The ratio is denoted by γ, called the adiabatic index. Its volume for
CV
air, γair = 1.4.

In case of solids and liquids, the values of Cp and Cv are almost equal, since
they are considered incompressible. Hence, usually, only one value of specific heat is
specified for solids and liquids.

The word ‘incompressible’ is used to mean that the change in volume due to
heat transfer is small in comparison with the volume of the system and the energy
transfer required for such small change in volume is negligible and the whole
(almost) of the energy transferred goes towards the change in temperature.

To make a fluid flow in a system work has to be done. To evaluate the net
amount of work to push the fluid into and out of the system given in the figure,
consider the inlet (1) and (2) sections. Since a steady flow is assumed, the mass flow
rats at (1) and (2) m kg/s are the same. The inlet and outlet pressures are P1 and P2
respectively. An element of the fluid of mass m, length l1 and area of cross section
A1 is entering the system at the inlet. The work done to push this element into the
system,

W1 = P1A1l1 = P1V1 (V1= m v1) (negative)

At the outlet, this element is pushed out with the work

W2 = P2 A2 l2 = P2V2. (V2 = mv2) (positive)

Therefore, the net flow work = W2 - W1

= P2V2 - P1V1 = P2 V2 - P1 V1 (per unit mass)

This represents the amount of work done on a system minus the work done on its
surroundings to cause the flow of the fluid through the system. It should be kept in
mind that the product Pv represents flow work only in steady flow systems. Flow
work exists only to cause the fluid to cross the boundaries of a flow system.

Heat transfer to a system and work done a system are positive; heat transfer
from a system and work done on a system are negative.
 Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its
surroundings. Their similarities are

1. Both heat and work are boundary phenomena.

2. Systems process energy, but not heat or work.

3. Both are associated with processes, not states of a system.

4. Both are path functions, and not properties.

Flow Work

Consider a steady-flow system where in both mass, and energy can cross the
system boundaries. The term ‘steady’ denotes a process or system that negative
during a compression process.

The total inflow work done during the entire process from state 1 to 2 is
obtained by adding all the differential works from the initial state to the final state.

1 W2   PdV
1

This integral can be evaluated only if we know the functional relationship between P
and V during the process, i.e., the equation for the process path on the PV diagram.

It can be seen from the PV diagram that the differential area da below the
process path is equal to PdV , which is the differential work. The total area under the
process curve 1-2 is obtained by adding these differential areas.

2 2
i.e., Area =  da   PdV
1 1

Thus, the area under the process curve on the PV diagram is equal in magnitude to
the work done during a quasi-static expansion for compression process of a closed
system.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is essentially the statement of the principle

of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems. It states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed but only converted from one form to another.
 This conservation of energy principle can be rephrased as follows. The net
change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is
equal to the difference between

Non-flow work

In a closed system work is transferred across the system boundary due to

compression or expansion of the gas inside the system. During such a process part of
the system boundary (e.g. the inner face of the piston in a cylinder) moves back and
forth. Therefore, the expansion and compression work is also called moving
boundary work.

Non-Flow work given by area under the process curve

Consider the gas enclosed in the piston-cylinder device, where the piston has
a cross sectional area, A. Let the gas be at a state when the pressure is P and the
volume V. If the piston is allowed to move a distance ds in a quasi-static manner, the
differential work done during this process is

δW = F ds = PA ds = PdV ( Ads = dV)

Hence this work is sometimes called the PdV work.

The volume change dV is positive during an expansion process (volume

increasing) and negative during a compression process (volume decreasing). Thus
the work done is positive during at expansion process and the total energy entering
and total energy leaving the system during the process.
Total energy entering the system – Total energy leaving the system =
Change in total energy of system

i.e., Ein – Eout = E

This is often referred to as the energy balance equation

In the case of a stationary system with no electric, magnetic or surface tension

effects the above energy balance can be written as

(Qin - Qout) + (Win - Wout) + (Emass in – Emass out) = E

For a closed system undergoing a cycle the initial and final states are
identical, or the properties have the same values. Hence there will be no change in
the value of the total energy of the system. In other words, when a closed system
undergoes a cycle, E = 0. Then the energy balance for a cycle reduces to

(Qin - Qout) + (Win - Wout) = 0

i.e. Qnet in – Wnet out = 0

Or Qnet in = Wnet out

i.e.  Qin   Wout Q  W

This is the first law for a closed system undergoing a cycle, which can be stated as :

When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, the net heat

supplied to the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work done by the
system on the surroundings.

For a closed system which is stationary and has no electric, magnetic, or

surface tension effects, all the stored energy is in the form of internal energy, i.e., E
= U. Thus, for such a system undergoing a process the energy balance can be
written as

(Qin - Qout) + (Win - Wout) = U = U2 –U1

Qnet in – Wnet out = U2 – U1

or Qnet in = (U2 – U1) + Wnet out

This is the first law equation for a closed system undergoing a process, which
can be stated as:
 When a closed system executes a thermodynamic process, the net heat
supplied to the system equal s the sum of the net work done by the system and the
increase in its internal energy.

It follows from the first law that the energy of an isolated system is constant.
This is so because for an isolated system there cannot be any interaction, i.e.,

Q = 0 and W = 0, and therefore, by first law, E = 0.

A perpetual motion machine of the first kind (PMM1) is a machine which

would supply mechanical work continuously without some form of energy
disappearing simultaneously. Since this contravenes the first law of thermodynamics,
PMM 1 is impossible.

Enthalpy

For a constant pressure non-flow process the energy balance equation is

1Q2 = (U2 – U1) + 1W2

1 Q2   PdV  P(V)12  P(V2  V1 )  P2V2  P1V1 , since P = P1 = P2

1

Substituting, the energy balance equation becomes

1Q2 = (U2 – U1) + P2V2 – P1V1)

= (U2 + P2V2) – (U1 + P1V1)

i.e. 1Q2 = H2 – H1 , where H = U + PV

The composite term (U+PV) has been found to occur frequently in the
thermodynamic expressions. Hence it is defined as enthalpy, H. It has great utility
when flow processes are considered, since it is the sum of internal energy (U) and
flow energy (PV).

Since both u and PV are state functions or properties of a system, their sum,
enthalpy, H, is also a property. Since enthalpy is stored energy of a system it is an
extensive property and has the unit kilojoule (kJ) Enthalpy per unit mass, or specific
enthalpy, h=H/m kJ/kg.
 As seen above, the heat transfer in a constant pressure quasi-equilibrium
process is equal to the change in enthalpy, which includes both the change in internal
energy and the change in flow energy for this particular process.

Specific heats and the characteristic gas constant

The energy balance equation is

1q2  (U2  U1 ) 1 W2

1 W2   Pd  0 since d  0 for a constant volume process

1

 1q 2   U2  U1  for a constant volume process.

or Cv   T2  T1    U2  U1 

Thus, in a constant volume heat transfer process the whole of the heat transfer shows
up as the change in internal energy of the system.

Or (U2 – U1) = Cv(T2 – T1) for unit mass.

In differential form, dU = CvdT

dU
Or Cv 
dT

Consider one kg of a gas which is heated at constant pressure from initial

temperature T1 to final temperature T2. The energy balance equation is (as derived
earlier),

1q2 = (h2 – h1), where h is the specific enthalpy

i.e. Cp(T2 – T1) = (h2 – h1)

Thus the change in enthalpy of a system is given by the heat transferred during a
constant pressure process, i.e., (h2 – h1) = Cp(T2 – T1) for unit mass.

In differential form, dh = CpdT

dh
Or Cp 
dT
 These formulae for dU and dh apply irrespective of the type of process
undergone by a system.

Consider a closed system of an ideal gas. For unit mass of the gas the ideal
gas equation is P = RT. The specific enthalpy of the gas is given by, h = U + P.

Substituting for P, h = U + RT

1. Constant Volume Process

Constant Volume Process

The relationship for an ideal gas is

P1V1 P2 V2

T1 T2

But V1 = V2 = V for a constant volume process.

P1 P2 P
  or = constant
T1 T2 T

Work done by gas, W  PdV

2
W2   PdV = 0, since dV = 0
1

The energy balance equation is

  dU  W

ie, 1 2   U2  U1   0 = mCv(T2 – T1) and  = U.

 2. Constant pressure process

Differentiating both sides of the equation, we get

dh = du + Rdt
But dh = Cp dT and du = Cv dT. Substituting,
Cp  C v  R

or Cp  Cv  R for an ideal gas

 Cp 
R  Cp  C v  C v   1
 Cv 
CP
But   , the adiabatic index
CV

 R  Cv    1

 1 
or Cv  R  
  1
Cp

Cv

 1 
Cp  Cv  R  
  1

  
ie, Cp  R  
  1

These three relationship for Cv and Cv apply for ideal gases only.
Heat and work transfers in thermodynamic process.

A change in state of a gaseous system occurs due to a process. There are five
such non-flow processes which are of interest.

Constant volume (isochoric)

Constant pressure (isobaric)

Constant temperature (isothermal)

Polythopic.

adiabatic (constant entropy – no heat transfer)

In the derivations, the gas is assumed to be an ideal gas.

Work done by gas, W  PdV

2 2
dV C
1W2   PdV   since P 
1 1
V V

2
dV V
 C  C  l n V 4  C l n 2
2

1
V V1

V  V 
 P1V1 l n  2   P2 V2 l n  2   P1V1  P2 V2  C 
 V1   V1 

The energy balance equation is

1 2   U2  U1   1W2 mCv  T2  T1   1W2

or 1 2  1W2 , since T2 – T1 = 0

V 
 P1V1l n  2 
 V1 

 V2 
= mRT l n    P1V1  P2 V2  mRT for an ideal gas
 V1 

P  V P
 mRT l n  1   P1V1  P2 V2 and so 2  1
 P2  V1 P2
 This means that all the heat added during an isothermal process is converted
into work. The equation PV = C represents the isothermal process. This, when
plotted on the PV diagram will be a rectangular hyperbola. Therefore, the process is
also called a hyperbolic process.

3. Polytropic process

An equation of the form PVn = constant, where ‘n’ is a constant can be used to
describe many processes which occur in practice. Such a process is called a
polytropic process. The value of x depends on the type of process. It is possible to
find the value of x by curve-felting the experimental results of a process. The
different processes discussed so far are particular cases of this general process called
polytropic process.

The ideal gas relationship is

P1V1 P2 V2

T1 T2

But P1  P2  P for a constant pressure process.

V1 V2 V
  or = constant
T1 T2 T

Work done by gas, W  PdV

2 2

1 W2   PdV  P  dV = P  V2  V1  = P2V2 – P1V1

1 1

= mRT2 – mRT1 (  for an ideal gas PV = mRT)

 = mR (T2 – T1)

The energy balance equation is:

1 2   U2  U1   1W2  mCv  T2  T1   mR  T2  T1   m  T2  T1   Cv  R 

 mCp  T2  T1  ( Cp – Cv = R for an ideal gas)

4. Constant temperature process

For a constant temperature process T1 = T2 = T. Hence the ideal gas

relationship

P1V1 P2 V2
 reduces to
T1 T2

C
P1V1  P2 V2  C or PV  C (constant) ie, P 
V

The index ‘n’ is called the polytropic index.

PV n  C

p1/ n V  C1/ n

p1/ n V  C1 For n = .

p1/  V  C1

po v  C1 po V  C1

V = const.
 C
For a polytropic process, PVn  P1V1n  P2 V2n  C or P  ........ (1)
Vn

The ideal gas relationship can be written as

P1V1 P2 V2
 . Substituting for P1 and P2 from above,
T1 T2

C V1 C V2

V1n T1 V2n T2

1 1
ie, 
T1V1n 1 T2 V2n 1

 T1V1n 1  T2 V2n 1 .......... (2)

P1V1n  P2 V2n can be written as

n
 V1  P2
   Taking logarithms of both sides.
 V2  P1

v  p 
n l n 1   l n  2 
 v2   p1 

l n  p1 / p2 
or n
l n  v1 / v2 

n 1
V  T2
From (2) above  1   Taking logarithms of both sides.
 V2  T1

 V1   T2 
 n  1 l n    l n 
 V2   T1 

l n  T2 / T1 
or n  1 
l n  V1 / V2 

n 1
T p  n
Similarly, 2   2 
T1  p1 

n  1 l n  T2 / T1 
Therefore, 
n ln  p2 /p1 
 n

 p 2  v1 
n  T 1/ n 1   T2 
n / n 1

      2
     
 T 
 1  2  1   T1 
 p v


Work done by the gas during the process is:

W  PdV

2 2
C
ie, 1W2   PdV   dV (from equations)
1 1 Vn

2
2
 V  n 1 
n
 C  V dV  C   
 n  1 1
C
1 n
V21n  V11n  
1

P2 V2n V21n  P1V1n V11n P2 V2  P1V1

 
1 n 1 n

P1V1  P2 V2
or, 1W2 
n 1

mR  T1  T2 
Also, 1W2  from ideal gas equation.
n 1

The energy balance equation is:

1 2   U2  U1   1W2

mR
 mCv  T2  T1    T2  T1 
n 1

mR
 mCv  T1  T2    T1  T2 
n 1

 R 
 m  T1  T2    Cv 
 n  1 

 R R   1 
 m  T1  T2      Cv  R  
 n 1  1    1

 R 1   n 
 mR  T1  T2      mR  T1  T2   
 n 1  1    n  1   1 

  n mR n
  T1  T2   1W2
 1 n 1  1
 5. Adiabatic Process

An adiabatic process is one where there is no interaction of energy in the form

of heat transfer between the system and its surroundings during the process. In an
adiabatic expansion of a gas in a piston cylinder arrangement, no heat transfer takes
place through the piston and the cylinder walls. Work is done by the gas during the
expansion at the expense of its internal energy.

The functional relationship between the properties pressure and volume

during an adiabatic process can be developed as follows.

Enthalpy is given by

H = U + PV

Differentiating, dH = dU + PdV + VdP

dU = dH – PdV – VdP

The energy balance equation is (in differential form)

  dU  W  dU  PdV

 dH  PdV  VdP  PdV , substituting dU

ie,   dH  VdP

But for an adiabatic process,   0

Therefore, dU + PdV = 0

Cv dT = – PdV ................ (1)

 Also dH – VdP = 0

Cp dT = VdP .............. (2)

Cp VdP
Dividing (2) by (1) 
Cv PdV

dV dp  Cp 
ie,     
v p  Cv 

dp dv
or  0
p v

Integrating, ln P + g ln V = ln C (where C is a constant)

Or PV   C (taking antilogarithms)

This equation represents an adiabatic process and the index is called the adiabatic
index.

C
PV   P1V1  P2 V2  C or P  .............. (1)
V

Work done during the adiabatic process is:

W  PdV

2 2
C
or 1 W2   PdV   
dV from (1) above
1 1V

2
2
 V 1 
 C V 
dV  C 
  1
 
C
 

V21  V11 
1  1 1

P2 V2 V21  P1V1 V11

 , from (1) above
1 

P2 V2  P1V1

1 

P1V1  P2 V2
or 1 W2 
 1

mR  T1  T2 
Also, 1 W2  for an ideal gas.
 1
 The energy balance equation is:

1 2   U2  U1   1W2

But 1 3  0 for an adiabatic process. Hence U 2  U1  1W2

Process P.V.T. Relationship 1 W2 1 2

Constant Volume P1 P2
 0 mCv  T2  T1 
V=C T1 T2

Constant Pressure V1 V2
 P  V2  V1  mC p  T2  T1 
P=C T1 T2

Constant V  V 
P1V1  P2 V2 P1V1 l n  2  P1V1 l n  2 
Temperature T = C  V1   V1 

P1V1n  P2 V2n
Polytropic P1V1  P2 V2 n
 1W2
PVn = C n 1  1
T1Vn 1  T2 V2n 1

P1V1  P2 V2
Adiabatic P1V1  P2 V2
0
PV   C  1
T1V11  T2 V21

University Questions

1. Explain the following:

First law of thermodynamics

Enthalpy

Internal energy

2. What is the first law of thermodynamics as referred to a closed system

undergoing cyclic change?

3. What is internal energy? Explain

4. Define specific heat. Why gases have two specific heats?

5. What is meant by Cp and Cv? Why is Cp greater than Cv?

6. Define a relationship between the specific heats and the gas constant

7. Obtain an expression for flow work in thermodynamics.

8. Explain adiabatic, isothermal and polytropic process

9. Derive an expression of PdV work done during a reversible polytropic

process.

10. Derive an expression for heat transfer in a polytropic process.

11. Derive an expression for work done in an adiabatic process.

12. Define adiabatic process. Show that for a reversible adiabatic process of a
given mass of perfect gas, PV -- = Constant.

13. Derive the expression for work done in an isothermal process.

14. Derive an expression for the work done and heat transfer during a polytropic
process.

15. Work done and heat transferred are not thermodynamic properties. Give
reasons.

Second law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the principle of

conservation of energy and all processes satisfy the energy balance. But spontaneous
processes in nature occur only in one direction - heat transfer from higher
temperature to lower temperature, water flow downwards, etc. The first law does not
specify this direction of process.

It is also observed that work can be completely converted into heat (joule’s
experiments), but the complete conversion of heat into work in a cycle is not
possible. This degradation of energy (work being a higher form of energy than heat)
is not brought out by the first law. Moreover, it is seen that more of high-temperature
heat energy can be converted to work than lower-temperature heat. Thus, high-
temperature energy has a higher quality than the same amount of energy at a lower
temperature.

This direction of process and the quality of energy are identified based on the
second law of thermodynamics, whereas the first law only deals with the quantity of
energy.

A thermal energy reservoir is a body of large thermal energy capacity, that

can supply or absorb any amount of heat without undergoing any change in its
thermodynamic properties. Some practical examples of such reservoirs are: ocean,
atmosphere. Thermal energy reservoirs are often referred to as heat reservoirs since
they supply or absorb energy in the form of heat. A reservoir that supplies energy is
called a source, and one hat absorbs energy is called a sink.

A heat engine is a thermodynamic system which operates in a cycle during

which heat is absorbed and a part of the heat is converted ot work. The thermal
efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of the net work output to the total heat input
during a cycle.

Wnet
Thermal efficiency,  
Qtotal

A refrigerator or heat pump is a device that, operating in a cycle, transfers

heat from a low-temperature body to a high-temperature body. Refrigerators and heat
pumps operate on the same cycle but differ in their objectives. The objective of a
refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a lower temperature b removing
heat form it, whereas the objective of a heat pump is to maintain a heated space at a
high temperature.

Co-efficient of performance, COP, is the measure of the efficiency of a

refrigerator and a heat pump.

Desired ouput Heat removed

COPRe f  
Required input Wnet in

Desired output Heat added

COPHP  
Required input Wnet in
 The Kelvin-Plach statement of the second law pertains to heat engines and
can be expressed as follows:

“It is impossible to construct an engine that operates in a cycle and produces

on effect other than exchange of heat with a single reservoir and the production of
equal amount of work”

This means that a heat engine must exchange h eat with a low-temperature
sink as well as a high-temperature source to produce work.

The Clausius statement of the second law is related to refrigerators or heat

pumps. It is expressed as follows:

“It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and transfer

heat from a lower temperature body to a higher-temperature body without an
external aid.”

This implies that a refrigerator or heat pump can operate only with a net
supply of work from the surroundings.

A perpetual motion machine of the second hind (PMM 2) is a machine that

produces work utilizing the internal energy of only one heat reservoir. This violates
the second law of thermodynamics (Kelvin - Planck statement). Hence, PMM 2 is
impossible. Otherwise, is would be possible to run a power-plant by extracting heat
from the surrounding air.
 The Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements of the second law appears quite
unconnected But it can be proved that they are equivalent in all respects.

Two statements are considered equivalent, when one implies the other and
vice versa, or when the violation of one implies the violation of the other and vice
versa. That is, K  C if, K  C and C  K or K  C and C  K , where K
denotes the Kelvin-Planck Statement and C denotes the Clausuis statement, where k
denotes the Kelvin Planck statement and C denotes the Clausius statement.

Consider a refrigerator that requires no work to transfer QL units of heat from

a low temperature reservoir to a high temperature reservoir, thus violating the
clausius statement (-C). Suppose that a heat engine also operates between the same
two reservoirs in such a way that the same heat QL is delivered to the low
temperature reservoir. The engine violates no law, but the refrigerator and the engine
together constitute a self - contained machine that takes ( QH - QL) from the high
temperature reservoir and converts all this heat into work without producing any
change in the low temperature reservoir, thus constituting a violation of the Kelvin-
Planck Statement) (-K). Therefore, – C  – K.
 Now consider an engine that rejects no heat to the low temperature reservoir
and therefore, violates the Kelvin-Planck statement (-K). Suppose that a refrigerator
also operates between the same two reservoirs and uses up all the work performed by
the engine. The refrigerator does not violate any law but the engine and the
refrigerator together constitute a self-contained machine that transfers QL heat from
the low temperature reservoir to the high temperature reservoir without producing
any change elsewhere. Therefore, the engine and the refrigerator together violates the
clausius statement (-C)

Therefore –K  C

Therefore, both statements of the second law are equivalent. That is , K≡ C

Entropy

The second law of thermodynamics when applied to a cycle can be expressed

as Wout = Qin-Q or W = QH – QL for a heat engine cycle and heat removed,

QL = QH – W for a refrigeration cycle.

When the second law is applied to a process, it is seen that there exists a
function, R whose change in value from one state to another of a system is
independent of the process undergone by the system. Therefore, it is a point (state)
function or a property of the system. This property is called entropy. Thus, entropy
can be defined s the thermodynamic property whose change in value during a process
is given by
 2
R
S2  S1   , where S is entropy, R the infinitesimal quantity of heat
1
T

transfer at temperature T during the reversible process. The unit for entropy is kJ/K.
S
It is an extensive property and therefore, specific entropy, s  kJ / kg K .
m

The infinitesimal change in entropy dS due to reversible heat transfer --- at

temperature T is

R
dS 
T

In the case of a reversible adiabatic process

δQR= 0

Therefore dS = 0

or S = constant

A reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

QR  TdS  dA  area 

2 2
Q R   TdS   dA = Area under the curve 1-2.
1 1

Therefore, the area under the reversible process curve on the T-S diagram
represents the heat transferred during the process.

Third law of thermodynamics

Work involves orderly motion of molecules as in the expansion and

compression of a gas. Heat or thermal energy is due to the random motion of
molecules signifying disorder. Orderly energy can be readily converted into
disorderly energy- eg. mechanical energy into internal energy. But there are
limitations on the conversion of disorderly energy into orderly energy as given in the
second law of thermodynamics.

When heat is added to a system the disorderly motion of molecules increases

and so also the entropy of the system. The reverse occurs when heat is removed from
the system. So entropy and disorder are interrelated. It may be observed that the
entropy of a system is a measure of the degree of molecular disorder existing in the
system.

The greatest order is achieved when entropy is zero. The entropy value with
reference tothe entropy at absolute zero of temperature is known as absolute entropy.
This is dealt with in the third law of thermodynamics formulated primarily by WH
Nernst(1864 - 1941).

The third law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal is zero at absolute
zero of temperature and it represents the maximum degree of order.

Air standard cycles

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are called engines.
Heat engines produce power by converting energy absorbed in the form of heat.
These devices operate on a thermodynamic cycle. Such cycles are called power
cycles. Such cycles can be categorised into vapour power cycles and gas power
cycles. In vapour cycles, the working substance exists in liquid phase during some
part and in vapour phase during the other part of the cycle. In gas power cycles the
working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle.

Thermodynamic cycles can also be classified into closed and open cycles. In
closed cycle the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle
and is recirculated- eg. steam power plant. In open cycles, the working fluid is
renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated - eg. automobile
engine.

Heat engines are classified as internal combustion and external combustion

engines, depending on how the heat is supplied to the working fluid. In external
combustion engines, like steam power plants, heat is supplied to the working fluid
from an external source such as a furnace, a nuclear reactor, or the sun. In internal
combustion engines like automobile engines this is done y burning the fuel within the
system boundaries.

The thermodynamic cycles of actual heat engines are difficult to analyse

because of the presence of complicating effects such as friction, turbulence,
irreversibility, loss of heat and the chemical reaction of combustion. Hence, to make
the mathematical analysis feasible the cycles are simplified by neglecting these
effects. Thus, the idealizing assumptions are:

1) The working substance at all times is air which behaves like an ideal gas with
constant specific heats.

2) All processes are quasi-static.

3) There is no friction or turbulence.

4) There is no loss of heat through engine walls.

5) The processes are reversible, with heat addition and rejection occuring with
external heat reservoirs.

Such a cycle is called an airstandard cycle or ideal cycle and the thermal
efficiency of heat engines operating on such cycles is called the air standard
efficiency or ideal efficiency.

An air standard cycle resembles the actual cycle closely but consists of
idealised processes. Hence the air standard efficiency is considerably higher than the
thermal efficiency of an actual cycle.
4 4
Q L   TdS  TL  dS  TL S4  S3 
3 3

 TL S3  S4  if sign convention is ignored. Substituting for QH and QL in the

efficiency equation,

TH S2  S1   TL S3  S4 
th 
TH S2  S1 

TH S2  S1   TL S2  S1 
 , since S3 = S2, S4 = S1
TH S2  S1 

TH  TL TL
 or th  1 
TH TH

Reversible isothermal heat transfer is very difficult to achieve in reality

because it would require very large heat exchangers and a very long time. Therefore,
it is not practical to build an engine that would operate on a cycle that approximates
the Carnot cycle.

The importance of the Carnot cycle is that being the most efficient power
cycle, it is the standard against which the actual or the ideal cycles can be compared.
From the expression of the thermal efficiency of the carnot cycle, it can be seen that
the thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the temperature at which heat is
supplied to the system or with a decrease in the temperature at which heat is rejected
from the system. This is equally applicable to both ideal and actual cycles.

The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes :

1-2 : isothermal heat addition at temperature TH

2-3 : adiabatic ( isentropic) expansion

3-4 : isothermal heat rejection at temperature TL

4-1 : adiabatic (isentropic) compression

The Carnot cycle can be executed in a piston - cylinder device with air as the
working fluid. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed
between a heat source at temperature TH and a sink at temperature TL .

The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is given by

 Net work done
ηth =
Total heat supplied

Heat supplied –Heat rejected

= ( By first law. Qnet = Wnet for a eye)
Heat supplied

QH  QL

QH

2 2
Q H   T dS  TH  dS  TH S2  S1 
1 1

The Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is invented by the German engineer Nikolaus Otto in 176
developing the idea of a four-stoke engine put forth by the Frenchman Alphonse
Beau de Rochas in 1862. The cycle has the following processes.

1-2 : Adiabatic (isentropic) compression

2-3 : Constant volume heat addition

3-4 : Adiabatic (isentropic) expansion

4-1 : Constant volume heat rejection

The air standard thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by

Heat supplied -Heat rejected

otto 
Heat supplied
 mCv  T3  T2   mCv  T4  T1 

mCv  T3  T2 

where m is the mass of air in the piston-cylender device, Cv the specific heat at
constant volume, and T1,T2,.......... are the absolute temperatures at respective states.

Thus, otto 
 T3  T2    T4  T1  T  T 
1 4 1
 T3  T2   T3  T2 

T1  T4 / T1  1
1 .......... (1)
T2  T3 / T2  1

For adiabatic process 1-2

T1V11  T2 V21

1
T V 
or 2   1  ............. (2)
T1  V2 

Similarly, for adiabatic process 3 – 4

T3V31  T4 V41

1
T V 
or 3   4 
T4  V3 

But V2 = V3 and V1 = V4, 2-3 and 4-1 being constant volume processes.
Therefore,

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2

 T4  T 
Hence   1   3  1 . Therefore, equation (1) above becomes
 T1   T2 

T1 1 1
otto  1  1 1
T2 T2 / T1  V1 / V2 1

1
otto  1  1


where  is the compression ratio and   Cp / Cv

 1
T4 T4 T3 T2  
 .  C  .  C .  1 (from equations 2, 3 & 4)
T1 T3 T2 T1   

  C ............ (5)

Equation (1) can, therefore, be written as

1 1  1
Diesel  1  . 1 . C (from equations 2, 3 & 5)
  C  1

Or Diesel  1 
1 
  1 
 C
 
 1     C  1 
 

where  = compression ratio, and  C = cut off ratio, and  = adiabatic index

 Cp 
 .
 Cv 

1.1 Diesel cycle

Diesel cycle is the cycle on which the diesel engine works. Air standard diesel
cycle consists of four reversible processes. Heat is supplied at constant pressure and
rejected at constant volume. Expansion and compression of air takes place
adiabatically. Fig. 1.38 shows these processes on p-V diagram.

Consider a cylinder containing ‘m’ kg of air. Let p1, V1 and T1 be the

pressure, volume and temperature of air inside the cylinder at state 1. This air is
compressed adiabatically to state 2, doing work on the air. Curve 1-2 in the p-V
diagram represents this process. Now heat is supplied to the air at constant pressure
from an external hot body till state 3 is reached. This process is represented by a
horizontal line 2-3 in the p-V diagram.
At state 3, the hot body is removed and the air is allowed to expand adiabatically to
state 4, doing external work. This process is represented by curve 3-4 in the p-V
diagram. Heat is rejected at constant volume to an external cold body till state 1 is
reached. This process is represented by a vertical line 4-1 in the p-V diagram. Thus
the air finally returns to its original state after completing a cycle.

Heat supplied during constant volume process 2-3 = mCp (T3 – T2)

Heat rejected during constant volume process 4-1 = mCv (T4 – T1)

Air Standard efficiency,

Heat rejected
η  1
Heat supplied

mC v (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 )

C v (T4  T1 )
 1
C p (T3  T2 )

1 (T  T1 )
 1  4 (i)
γ (T3  T2 )

V3 V V
Let be the cutoff ratio ρ, 4 be the expansion ratio r1 and 1 be the
V2 V3 V2
compression ratio r. The relation between these three ratios is obtained as follows.
V4 V4 V2
 
V3 V2 V3

V1 V2
 
V2 V3

1 r
r1  r  
ρ ρ

r
r1 
ρ

For the adiabatic process 1-2,

γ 1
T2  V1 
 
T1  V2 

γ 1
V 
T2  T1  1 
 V2 

T2 = T1r - 1 (ii)

For the constant pressure process 2-3,

T3 V3
 ρ
T2 V2

T3 = T2  

T3 = T1 r - 1   (iii)

For the adiabatic process 3-4,

γ 1
T3  V4  γ 1
   r1
T4  V3 

γ 1
r r γ 1
  
ρ  ρ γ 1

ρ γ 1
T4  T3 
r γ 1

Substituting for T3 from equation (iii)

 ρ γ 1
T4  T1r γ 1ρ 
r γ 1

T4 = T1 (iv)

Substituting the expressions for T2, T3 and T4 in equation (i),

1 T1ρ γ  T1
η  1

γ T1r γ 1ρ  T1 r γ 1 
1 1  ρ γ  1
η  1   
r γ 1 γ  ρ  1 

The above expression shows that the air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is a
function of compression ratio, cutoff ratio and the ratio of specific heats.

Thus, under ideal air standard conditions the efficiency of the Diesel cycle
differs from that of the Otto cycle by the quantity in the brackets. Since the cut-off
ratio,  C is always greater than 1. Therefore, the efficiency of the Diesel cycle is
always less than that of the Otto cycle for the same compression ratio i.e.,
otto  Diesel

However, diesel engines can employ much higher compression ratios than
petrol engines since the fuel is introduced into the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke thus avoiding chances of engine knock. They are, therefore, more
efficient than petrol engines.

OTTO CYCLE DIESEL CYCLE

1. Consists of two reversible adiabatic Consists of two reversible adiabatic

(isentropic) processes and two reversible (isentropic) processes, one constant
constant volume processes with heat pressure heat addition process and one
addition and rejection during the constant constant volume heat rejection process.
volume processes.

2. Air standard efficiency is given by Air Standard efficiency is given by

1
 1
 1
  1  1

 
1  c  1   
where  =
     c  1 
 
where r = compression ratio,  = compression ratio.  C = cut-off ratio.

adiabatic exponent.  = adiabatic exponent.

3. For the same compression ratio, the

efficiency of the Otto cycle is higher than
that of the Diesel cycle, i.e., otto  Diesel
Diesel engine work on cycles
4. Petrol engines work on cycles approximating the Diesel cycle.
approximating the Otto cycle.
Much higher compression ratios can be
5. Compression ratios of practical petrol adopted in diesel engines due to absence
engines are limited by engine knock thus of engine knock. Hence, practical diesel
limiting the efficiencies achievable. engines work at higher efficiencies than
petrol engines.

net work done

Diesel 
total heat supplied

heat supplied – heat rejected Q H  Q L mCp  T3  T2   mC v  T4  T1 

= = 
heat supplied QH mCp  T3  T2 

mCv  T4  T1  Cv  T4  T1 
1  1e 
mCp  T3  T2  Cp  T3  T2 

1  T4  T1 
Diesel  1  ........... (1)
  T3  T2 

Adiabatic process 1-2 T1V11  T2 V21

1
V  1 V1
T1   2  T2  r 1
T2  (2) compression ratio, r 
 V1   V2

V2 V3
Constant pressure process 2-3 
T2 T3

V3 V
T3  T2  rCT2 - (3) cut – off ratio rc  3
T2 V2

Adiabatic process 3-4 T4 V41  T3V31

 1 1
V  V 
T4   3  T3   3  reT2 [from (3)
 V4   V1 

1
V V   er 1 .  e
 3 . 2   cT2  T2
 V2 V1   r 1

e
 T2 (4)
 1

Substituting in (1) for T1, T3 and T4 from (2), (3) & (4) respectively

  c 1    1
 1 T2  1 T2  T2  c 
1   1    1 
Diesel 1 1
 
 CT2   T2 
 T2   C  1

1   C  1 1    C  1 
1  1   
  1   C  1  1     C  1 

Worked-out Problems

Molar mass, gas constant and ideal gas specific heats of some common gases

SUBSTANCE SYMBOL M (kg/kmol) R (kJ/kg K) SPECIFIC HEAT (kJ/kg K)

CP CV

Air 28.97 (29) 0.2870 1.005 0.718

Carbon dioxide CO2 44.01 (44) 0.1889 0.846 0.657

Helium He 4.003 (4) 2.0769 5.1926 3.1156

Hydrogen H2 2.016 (2) 4.1240 14.307 10.183

Methane CH4 16.043 (16) 0.5182 2.2537 1.7354

Nitrogen N2 28.013 (28) 0.2968 1.039 0.743

Oxygen O2 31.999 (32) 0.2598 0.918 0.658

Water (Steam) H2O 18.015 (18) 0.4615 1.8723 1.4108

(Source: Cengel and Boles)

1. Ideal gas equation of state

1.1 Determine the mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are 4 m X 5 m X 6 m
at 100 kPa and 25oC.

Given: Volume of room, V = 4x5x6 =120 m3

Pressure, P = 100 kPa

Temperature, T = 25 + 273 = 298 K

To find: Mass of air in the room, m

Assumption: Air is an ideal gas and Mair = 29 kg/kmol

Pormula: Ideal gas equation of state: P V = m R T Or m = P V / R T,

and R = RUniversal/M = 8.314/29 = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Calculation and result:

m = P V / R T = 100x 120 / 0.287x298 = 140.3 kg

1.2 A 100 litre container is filled with 1 kg of air at a temperature of 27oC. What is
the pressure in the container?

Given: Volume of container, V = 100 litre = 100 x 10-3 m3

Mass of air, m = 1 kg

Temperature, T = 27 + 273 = 300 K

To find: pressure, P of air.

Assumptions : Air is an ideal gas and R for air = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Formula: Ideal gas equation of state is P V = m R T. Or P = m R T / V

Calculation and result:

P = m R T / V = 1 x 0.287 x 300/ 100 x 10-3 = 861 kPa

1.3 A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled with helium at 20oC and 200
kPa. Determine the mol number and mass of helium in the balloon. The molecular
weight of helium may be taken as 4kg/kmol.

Given: diameter of spherical balloon, d = 6 m

Temperature of He, T = 20 + 273 = 293 K

Pressure of He, P = 200 kPa

Molar mass of He, M = 4 kg/kmol

To find: mass of He in the balloon and its amount in number of moles

Assumptions: He is an ideal gas

Formula: Ideal gas equation of state is P V = m R T Therefore m = P V / R T

number of moles, n = m/M and R = RUniversal / M

Calculations and result:

V = 4/3 πr3 = 4/3 π 33 = 113.14 m3

R = 8.314/4 = 2.079 kJ/kg K

M = P V / R T = 200x113.14/2.079x293 = 37.15 kg

N = m/M 37.15/4 = 9.28 kmol

1.4 The pressure in an automobile tyre depends on the temperature of the air in the
tyre. When the air temperature is 25oC, the pressure gauge reads 210 kPa. If the
volume of the tyre is 0.025 m3, determine the pressure rise in the tyre when the air
temperature in the tyre rises to 50oC. Also determine the amount of air that must be
bled off to restore the pressure to the original value at this temperature. Assume the
atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.

Given: V = 0.025 m3 constant

P1 = 210 kPa gauge = 210 + 100 = 310 kPa absolute

 T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K

T2 = 50 + 273 = 323 K

Patm = 100 kPa

To find : Pressure rise = P2 – P1 and

Amount of air to be bled = m2 – m at 50oC

Assumptions: Air is an ideal gas and Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Formula: Ideal gas equation of state is P V = m R T. Or m = P V / R T

Also, P1 V1/ T1 = P2 V2/ T2 But V1 = V2. Therefore P1/T1 = P2/T2 Or P2 =

P1 T2 / T1

Calculations and results:

P2 = P1 T2 / T1 = 310 x 323 / 298 = 336 kPa

Pressure rise in tyre = P2 – P1 = 336 – 310 = 26 kPa

m2 = P2 V2 / R T2 = 336 x 0.025 / 0.287 x 323 = 0.091 kg

m at 310 kPa and 323 K = P V / R T = 310 x 0.025 / 0.287 x 323 = 0.084

kg

Amount of air to be bled = m2 – m = 0.091 – 0.084 = 0.007 kg = 7 grams

1.5 A 1 m3 tank containing air at 25oC and 500 kPa is connected through a valve to
another tank containing 5 kg of air at 35oC and 200 kPa. Now the valve is opened
and the entire system is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium with the surroundings
which are at 20oC. Determine the volume of the second tank and the final
equilibrium pressure of air.

Given: TANK 1 TANK 2

Volume V1 = 1 m3 V2 = ?
Temperature T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K T 2 = 35 + 273 =
308 K

Pressure P1 = 500 kPa P2 = 200 kPa

Surrounding temperature T3 = 20 + 273 = 293 K

To find: Volume of tank 2 = V2 and final pressure = P3

Assumptions: Air is an ideal gas and its R = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Formula: Ideal gas equation of state is P V = m R T. ie., m + P V / R T and V = m R

T/P

Calculation and results:

STEP 1: Find mass of air in tank 1

m1 = P1 V1 / R T1 = 500x1/0.287x298 = 5.85 kg

STE 2: Find volume of tank 2

V2 = m2 R T2 / P2 = 5x0.287x308/200 = 2.21 m3

STEP 3: Find the final pressure, P3 of the two tanks combined

P3 = m3 R T3 / V3 = (m1 + m2) R T3 / (V1 + V2) = (5.85+5) x0.287 x 293 / (1

+ 2.21) = 284.23 kPa

2. First law of thermodynamics and specific heats of gases

2.1 During one cycle the working fluid in an engine engages in two work
interactions: 15 kJ to the fluid and 40 kJ from the fluid, and three heat interactions,
two of which are known: 75 kJ to the fluid and 40 kJ from the fluid. Evaluate the
magnitude and direction of the third heat transfer.

Given: W1 = - 15 kJ Q1 = 75 kJ

W2 = 44 kJ Q2 = - 40 kJ

To find: Q3 = ?
Formula: According to the first law for a cycle, the energy balance equation is Qnet =
Wnet

Calculation and result: Qnet = Wnet

Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = W1 + W2

75 + (-40) + Q3 = -15 + 44

Q3 = - 6 kJ (from the fluid)

2.2 Complete each line of the table below by filling up the shaded boxes, based on
the first law for a closed system:

Energy balance equation for a process is:

Qin = (E2 – E1) + Wout

Specific total energy, e = E/m

Q (kJ) W (kJ) E1 (kJ) E2 (kJ) m (kg) e2 –e1 (kJ/kg)

280 440 1020 860 3 - 53.33

-350 130 550 70 5 - 96

- 40 260 300 0 2 -150

300 550 750 500 1 - 250

- 400 -200 500 300 2 -100

2.3 An ideal gas requires 1150 kJ of heat to raise its temperature from 20oC to 100oC
when heated at constant pressure. When heat is supplied to the same gas at constant
volume heat required is 825 kJ for the same temperature range. Determine CP, CV,
characteristic gas constant and molecular mass of the gas.

Given: T1 = 20 + 273 + 293 K T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K

Q1-2 at constant pressure = 1150 kJ Q1-2 at constant volume = 825 kJ

To find: CP, CV, R, and M

Formula: Q1-2 for constant volume process = CV (T2 – T1) kJ/kg

Q1-2 for constant pressure process = CP (T2 – T1) kJ/kg

CP – CV = R R = RUniversal /M Or M = RUniversal/R

Calculation and results:

CP (T2 – T1) = Q1-2 at P const.

CP (373 – 293) = 1150 kJ/kg

CP = 1150 / 80 = 14.375 kJ/kg K

CV (T2 – T1) = Q1-2 at V const.

CV (373 – 293) = 825 kJ/kg

CV = 825 / 80 = 10.3125 kJ/kg K

R = CP – CV = 14.375 – 10.3125 = 4.063 kJ / kg K

M = RUniversal / R = 8.314 / 4.063 = 2.046 kg / kmol

2.4 Specific volume of a gas is 11.7 m3/kg at STP and the ratio of specific heats γ =
1.4. Determine the values of the characteristic gas constant and the two specific
heats.

Given: v = 11.7 m3/kg

P = 101.325 kPa (standard pressure)

T = 15 + 273 = 288 K (standard temperature)

γ = 1.4

To find: R, CP, CV

Assumption: the gas is an ideal gas

Formula: Ideal gas equation of state is Pv = RT, CP – CV = R, CV = R ( 1/γ – 1 )

Calculation and results:

Pv=RT

R = P v /T = 101.325 x 11.7 / 288 = 4.116 kJ/kg

CV = R(1/γ-1) = 4.116/(1.4-1) = 10.29 kJ/kg K

CP = γ CV = 1.4 x 10.29 = 14.41 kJ/kg K

2.5 A certain mass of gas expanding at constant pressure does 10 kJ of work.

Calculate the quantity of heat which must be transferred to the gas and how much of
this heat is used to raise the internal energy of the gas? The ratio of the specific heats
is 1.6.

Given: W1-2 = 10 kJ at constant pressure

γ = 1.6

To find: Q1-2 and (U2 – U1)

Formula: Energy balance equation for a process is Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2

Q1-2 = m CP (T2 – T1) for a constant pressure process

(U2 – U1) = m CV (T2 – T1) for all processes

Calculation and results:

The energy balance equation is Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2

ie., CP m (T2 – T1) = CV m (T2 – T1) + W1-2

m(T2 – T1) (CP – CV) = W1-2 = 10

m(T2 – T1) (γ CV –CV) = 10, since CP / CV = γ

CV m (T2 – T1) (γ – 1) = 10

(U2 – U1) = 10 / (1.6 – 1) = 16.67 kJ

Substituting in the energy balance equation,

Q1-2 = 16.67 + 10 = 26.67 kJ

2.6 A well-sealed room contains 60 kg of air at 200 kPa and 25o C. Now solar energy
enters the room at an average rate of 0.8 kJ/s while a 120W fan is turned on to
circulate the air in the room. If heat transfer through the walls is negligible, what will
be the air temperature in the room in 30 minutes?

Given: m = 60 kg

P1 = 200 kPa

T1 = 25o C = 298 K

Solar power = 0.8 kJ/s (kW)

Fan power = 120 W = 0.12 kW

Time interval = 30 min = 1800 s

Q1-2 = 0

To find: T2 (after 30 min)

Formula: Energy balance equation is Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2

(U2 – U1) = m CV (T2 – T1)

Assumption: CV of air = 0.718 kJ/kg K

Calculation: Substituting the terms in the energy balance equation,

0 = (U2 – U1) + [- (0.8 + 0.12) 1800]

Therefore U2 – U1 = 0.92 x 1800 = 1656 kJ = m CV (T2 – T1) = 60 x 0.718 (T2 – T1)

Or T2 – T1 = 1656 / 60 x 1800 = 38.44

T2 = T1 + 38.44 = 298 + 38.44 = 336.44 K = 63.44o C

3. Heat and Work – Thermodynamic processes

3.1 Calculate the total work done for process 1-2-3 shown in figure below when the
system consists of 2 kg of nitrogen. (300
1
kJ)
500kPa
400kPa 3

100kPa
 2

0.5 m3/kg 1.0 m3/kg

Formula: Work done = Area under the process curve on the PV diagram

Calculation: w1-2 = Area under line 1-2 = 100 (1 – 0.5) + ½ ( 1 – 0.5) x ( 500 – 100)

= 50 + 100 = 150 kJ/kg

W1-2 = m x w1-2 = 2 x 150 = 300 kJ

W2-3 = 0, since curve 2-3 is a vertical line ( constant volume process)

Therefore W1-3 = 300 kJ

3.2 A rigid tank contains 10 kg of air at 350 kPa and 27oC. The air is now heated
until its pressure doubles. Determine a) the volume of the tank and b) the amount of
heat transfer.

Given: m = 10 kg

P1 = 350 kPa P2 = 2 x P1 = 700 kPa

T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K

To find: V = V1 = V2 = ? (since tank is rigid, its volume remains constant),

Q1-2 = ?

Assumption: Air is an ideal gas and for air, CV = 0.718 kJ/kg K and R = o.287 kJ/kg
K

Formula: The ideal gas equation of state is P V = m R T and for a constant volume
change of state,

P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

Heat transfer, Q1-2 = m CV (T2 – T1) for a constant volume process

Calculation and results:

P1 V1 = m R T1 Therefore, V = V1 = m R T1 / P1 = 10 x 0.287 x 300 / 350 = 2.46

m3
P 1 / T1 = P 2 / T2 Therefore, T2 = P2 T1 / P1 = 700 x 300 / 350 = 600 K

Q1-2 = m CV (T2 – T1) = 10 x 0.718 (600 – 300) = 2154 kJ

3.3 2 kg of air occupies 1.5 m3 at 700 kPa. Its temperature becomes 600 K when it
undergoes a reversible non-flow constant pressure process. Evaluate (i) work done
during the process, (ii) final volume and (iii)initial temperature. Also show the
process on the P-V coordinates. Take R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.

Given: m = 2 kg

V1 = 1.5 m3

P1 = P2 = 700 kPa ( constant pressure process)

T2 = 600 K

To find: W1-2, V2, and T1

Formula: For an ideal gas, PV = mRT and P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 ie., V1/T1 = V2/T2,
since P is constant

W1-2 = P(V2 – V1) for a constant pressure process

Calculation: T1 = P1V1/mR = 700 x 1.5 / 2 x 0.287 = 1829.27 K

V2 = V1T2/T1 1.5 x 600 / 1829.27 = 0.49 m3

W1-2 = P (V2 – V1) = 700 (0.49 – 1.5) = -707 kJ ( work is done on the
system)

700 kPa

2 PV Diagram 1

V
3 3
0.49 m 1.5 m
3.4 A piston-cylinder device containing carbon dioxide gas undergoes an isobaric
process from 100 kPa and 25o C to 100o C. Determine the work and the het transfer
associated with this process in kJ/kg. Take CP as 0.846 kJ/kg K.

Given: m = 1 kg

P = P1 = P2 = 100 kPa

T1 = 25o C = 298 K

T2 = 100o c = 373 K

CP = 0.846 kJ/kg K

To find: W1-2 and Q1-2

Assumption: CO2 is an ideal gas and its molar mass, M = 44 kg/kmol

Formula: R = R’/M, W1-2 = mR (T2 – T1) and Q1-2 = mCP (T2 – T1) for a constant
pressure process

Calculation: R = R’/M = 8.314/44 = 0.189 kJ/kg K

W1-2 = mR(T2 – T1) = 1 x 0.189 (373 – 298) = 14.2 kJ/kg

Q1-2 = mCP (T2 – T1) = 1 x 0.846 ( 373 – 298) = 63.45 kJ/kg

3.5 In an isothermal process 8 m3 of air at a pressure of 2 bar is compressed to a

pressure of 10 bar. Calculate the amount of work done on air.

Given: V1 = 8 m3

P1 = 2 bar = 200 kPa

P2 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa

To find : W1-2

Assumption: air is an ideal gas

Formula: In an isothermal process with an ideal gas, W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2)

Calculation: W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2)

= 200x8xln(200/1000)

= -2574.4 kJ (work is done on the system)

3.6 A piston-cylinder device contains 5 kg of air at 400 kPa and 30o C. During a
quasi-equilibrium isothermal expansion process 15 kJ of boundary work is done by
the system and 3 kJ of paddle wheel work is done on the system. What is the heat
transfer during the process? Also find the final pressure and volume.

Given: m = 5 kg

P1 = 400 kPa

T1 = 30oC = 303 K = T2

W1-2 Boundary = 15 kJ

W1-2 Paddle = -3 kJ

To find: Q1-2, P2, V2

Assumptions: Air is an ideal gas and Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Formula: Ideal gas equation is PV = mRT

W1-2Boundary = P1V1ln(P1/P2)

Calculation: Energy balance equation is Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2

But (U2 – U1) = 0 for an isothermal process.

Therefore, Q1-2 = W1-2 = W1-2 Boundary + W1-2 Paddle = 15 – 3

= 12 kJ

P1V1 = mRT1 or V1 = mRT1/P1 = 5x0.287x303/400 = 1.087 m3

W1-2Boundary = P1V1ln(P1/P2)

15 = 400x1.087x ln(P1/P2)

ln(P1/P2) = 15/(400x1.087) = 0.0345

P1/P2 = 1.035

P2 = 400/1.035 = 386.5 kPa

V2 = mRT2/P2 = 5x0.287x303/386.5 = 1.125 m3

3.7 A frictionless piston-cylinder device contains 2 kg of nitrogen at 100 kPa and 300
K. Nitrogen is then compressed slowly adiabatically until it reaches a final
temperature of 360 K. Calculate the work input during this process. Take, for
nitrogen, adiabatic index as 1.4 and the molar mass 28 kg/kmol.

Given: m = 2 kg

P1 = 100 kPa

T1 = 300 K

T2 = 360 K

γNitrogen =1.4

MNitrogen = 28 kg/kmol

To find: W1-2

Assumption; Nitrogen is an ideal gas

Formula: W1-2 = mR(T1 – T2)/(γ – 1) and R = R’/M

Calculation: RNitrogen = 8.314/28 = 0.297 kJ/kg K

W1-2 = mR(T1 – T2)/(γ – 1)

= 2x0.297(300 – 360)/(1.4 – 1)

= 89.1 kJ

3.8 Air at 50 kPa and 15o C is expanded adiabatically to 10 kPa. Calculate the change
in internal energy and work done. If the same expansion is isothermal, find the
corresponding values.

Given: P1 = 50 kPa P2 = 10 kPa

T1 = 15oC = 288 K

To find: for adiabatic expansion: (U2 – U1) and W1-2

For isothermal expansion: (U2 – U1) and W1-2

Assumption: air is an ideal gas, γair = 1.4 and Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg-K

Formula: For an ideal gas Pv = RT

For an adiabatic process W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(γ – 1) and (U2 – U1) = -W1-2 since
Q1-2 = 0
For an isothermal process W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2) and (U2 – U1) = 0

Calculation:

Adiabatic process: P1v1 = RT1

v1 = RT1/P1 = 0.287x288/50 = 1.653 m3/kg

P1v1γ = P2 v2γ

v2/v1 = (P1/P2)1/γ = (50/10)1/1.4 = 3.155

v2 = 3.155x1.653 = 5.215 m3

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(γ – 1) = (50x1.653 – 10x 5.215)/(1.4 – 1) = 76.25

kJ/kg

(U2 – U1) = -W1-2 = -76.25 kJ/kg

Isothermal process: W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2)

= 50x1.653 ln(50/10) = 133.07 kJ/kg

(U2 – U1) = 0

3.9 A gas expands in a cylinder according to the relation PV1.3 = constant from an
initial state of 0.3 m3 and 1000 kPa to a final state of 101 kPa. Calculate the work
done on the piston by the gas pressure.

Given: P1 = 1000 kPa P2 = 101 kPa

V1 = 0.3 m3 n = 1.3

To find: W1-2

Formula: W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

Calculation: P1v1n = P2 v2n

v2/v1 = (P1/P2)1/n = (1000/101)1/1.3 = 5.83

v2 = 5.83x0.3 = 1.75 m3

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

= (1000x0.3 – 101x1.75)/(1.3 – 1) = 411.17 kJ

3.10 A mass of gas is compressed in a quasi-static polytropic process (PVn = C)
from 80 kPa, 0.1 m3 to 0.4 MPa, 0.3 m3. Find the work done and the heat transferred
during the process. Assume γ = 1.4.

Given: P1 = 80 kPa P2 = 0.4 MPa = 400 kPa

V1 = 0.1 m3 V2 = 0.03 m3 γ = 1.4

To find: W1-2 and Q1-2

Formula: n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2)

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

Q1-2 = [(γ – n)/(γ – 1)]W1-2

Calculation: n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2) = (ln400/80)/(ln0.1/0.03) = 1.336

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

= (80x0.1 – 400x0.03)/(1.336– 1) = -11.9 kJ

Q1-2 = [(γ – n)/(γ – 1)]W1-2

= [(1.4 – 1.336)/(1.4 – 1)] (-11.9) = - 1.904 kJ

3.11 A piston-cylinder device contains helium gas initially at 150 kPa, 20o C and 0.5
m3. The helium is now compressed in a polytropic process to 400 kPa and 140o C.
Determine the heat loss or gain during the process. For helium M = kg/kmol, C P =
5.1926 kJ/kg K, and CV = 3.1156 kJ/kg K.

Given: P1 = 150 kPa P2 = 400 kPa

V1 = 0.5 m3

T1 = 20oC = 293 K T2 = 140oC = 413 K

γ = CP/CV = 5.1926/3.1156 = 1.667 for helium

To find: Q1-2

Assumption: helim is an ideal gas

and its M = 4 kg/kmol

For helium, R = R’/M = 8.314/4 = 2.0785 kJ/kg-K

Formula: Ideal gas equation is PV = mRT

Polytropic index, n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2)

Q1-2 = [(γ – n)/(γ – 1)] [mR(T1 – T2)/(n – 1)]

Calculation: mass, m = P1 V1/R T1 = 150x0.5/(2.0785x293) = 0.123 kg

V2 = mRT2/P2 = 0.123x2.0785x413/400 = 0.264 m3

n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2) = (ln400/150)/(ln0.5/0.264) = 1.535

Q1-2 = [(γ – n)/(γ – 1)] [mR(T1 – T2)/(n – 1)]

= [(1.667 – 1.535)/(1.667 – 1)] [0.123x2.0785(293 –

413)/(1.535 – 1)]

= -11.35 kJ (heat loss)

3.12 A piston-cylinder device contains 0.15 kg of air initially at 2 MPa and 350o C.
The air is first expanded isothermally to 500 kPa, then compressed polytropically
with a polytropic exponent of 1.2 to the initial pressure, and finally compressed at the
constant pressure to the initial state. Determine the boundary work for each process
and the net work of the cycle.

P 1 3

Given: m = 0.15 kg

P1 = 2 MPa = 2000 kPa = P3 P2 = 500 kPa

T1 = 350oC = 623 K =T2

Process 2-3: polytropic compression, n = 1.2

To find: W1-2, W2-3, W3-1, and Wnet for the cycle

Assumption: air is an ideal gas and the ideal gas equation is PV = mRT and R air =
0.287 kJ/kg-K

Work done, W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2) for isothermal process 1-2

W2-3 = (P2V2 – P3V3)/(n – 1) for isentropic process 2-3

W3-1 = P3 (V1 – V3) for isobaric process 3-1

Calculation: P1V1 = mRT1 Or V1 = mRT1/P1 = 0.15x0.287x623/2000 = 0.0134

m3

W1-2 = P1V1ln(P1/P2) = 2000x0.0134xln(2000/500) = 37.15 kJ

For isothermal process 1-2, P1V1 = P2V2 Or V2 = P1V1/P2 = 2000x0.0134/500 =

0.0536 m3

P2V2n = P3V3n Or (V3/V2)n = P2/P3 Or V3 = V2(P2/P3)1/n = 0.0536 (500/2000)1/1.2 =

0.0169 m3

W2-3 = (P2V2 – P3V3)/(n – 1) = (500x0.0536 – 2000x0.0169)/(1.2 – 1) = -142.2 kJ

W3-1 = P3 (V1 – V3) = 2000 (0.0134 – 0.0169) = -7 kJ

Wnet = W1-2 + W2-3 + w3-1 = 37.15 – 142.2 – 7 = -112.05 kJ

3.13 One kg of hydrogen gas undergoes a polytropic process from an initial

condition of 100 kPa and 30o C to the final condition of 500 kPa and 3.5 m3.
Calculate (i) initial volume, (ii) polytropic index (iii) work done. Take CP = 14.3
kJ/kg-K, Cv = 10.2 kJ/kg-K and R = 4.1 kJ/kg-K.

Given: m = 1 kg

P1 = 100 kPa P2 = 500 kPa

T1 = 30oC = 303 K V2 = 3.5 m3

PVn = Constant

To find out: V1, n, W1-2

Assumption: hydrogen is an ideal gas

Formula: Ideal gas equation is PV = mRT

Polytropic index, n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2)

 Work done, W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

Calculation: P1V1 = mRT1

V1 = mRT1/P1 = 1x4.1x303/100 = 12.423 m3

n = (lnP2/P1)/(lnV1/V2) = (ln500/100)/(ln12.423/3.5) = 1.27

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

= (100x12.423 –500x3.5)/(1.27– 1) = -1880.37 kJ (work is done

on the gas)

3.14 2 kg of an ideal gas occupies a volume of 0.3 m3 at 10 bar pressure and 500 K
temperature. When this gas expands polytropically (PV1.2 = C) the internal energy
decreases by 300 kJ. Presuming the adiabatic exponent γ = 1.4, determine (i) specific
gas constant, (ii) final temperature and pressure of the gas, (iii) heat and work
interactions across the system boundary.

Given: m = 2 kg

V1 = 0.3 m3 P1 = 10 bar = 1000 kPa T1 = 500 K

PV1.2= Constant

(U2 – U1) = -300 kJ

γ = 1.4

To find: R, P2, T2, Q1-2, W1-2

Formula: Ideal gas equation is PV = mRT and CV = R/(γ – 1)

Work done, W1-2 = mR(T1 – T2)/(n – 1)

Change in internal energy, (U2 – U1) = m CV (T2 – T1)

Energy balance equation is Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2

T2/T1 = (P2/P1)(n-1)/n

Calculatin: P1V1 = mRT1

R = P1V1/(mT1) = 1000x0.3/(2x500) = 0.3 kJ/kg-K

CV = R/(γ – 1) = 0.3/(1.4 – 1) = 0.75 kJ/kg-K

(U2 – U1) = m CV (T2 – T1) = 2x0.75 (T2 – 500) = -300 (given)

T2 – 500 = -200 Or T2 = 300 K

T2/T1 = (P2/P1)(n-1)/n

300/500 = (P2/1000)(1.2-1)/1.2

P2/1000 = (300/500)1.2/0.2 = 0.0469

P2 = 1000x0.0469 = 46.9 kPa

W1-2 = mR(T1 – T2)/(n – 1) = 2x0.3 (500 –300)/(1.2 – 1) = 600 kJ

Q1-2 = (U2 – U1) + W1-2 = -300 + 600 = 300 kJ

3.15 A spherical balloon of 0.5 m diameter contains air at a pressure of 500 kPa. The
diameter increases to 0.55 m in a reversible process during which pressure is
proportional to diameter. Determine the work done by the air in the balloon during
this process.

Given: D1 = 0.5 m D2 = 0.55 m

P1 = 500 kPa P α (proportional to) D

To find: W1-2

Assumption: the balloon is considered a closed system

Formula: Volume, V = (4/3) π r3 for a sphere

Work done in a polytropic process, W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1)

Calculation: V1 = (4/3) π r13 = (4/3) π(D1/2)3 = 0.065 m3

V2 = (4/3) π (D2/2)3 = 0.087 m3

V α D3 ie., D α V1/3

P α D Or P α V1/3 Or P/V1/3 = Constant ie., PV-1/3 = C

Or PV-0.33 = C

Therefore, for the polytropic process, n = -0.33

Pα D ie., P/D = constant

P1/D1 = P2/D2 Or P2 = P1D2/D1 = 500x0.55/0.5 = 550 kPa

W1-2 = (P1V1 – P2V2)/(n – 1) = (500x0.065 – 550x0.087)/(-0.33 – 1) = 11.54 kJ

4. Air Standard Cycles

4.1 An engine operating on Carnot cycle between temperature limits of 20 o C and

800o C rejects heat at the rate of 200 kJ/s. Determine i) the ideal thermal efficiency
of the cycle and ii) the power output of the engine.

Given: TH = 800o C = 1073 K

TL = 20o C = 293 K

QL = 200 kJ/kg

To find; ηth and Woutput

Formula: ηCarnot = 1 – TL / TH = 1 – QL / QH and Wout = QH - QL

Calculation:

ηth = 1 – TL / TH = 1-293/1073 = 0.727 = 72.7%

ηth = 1 – QL / QH Or QL / QH = 1 - ηth Or QH = QL / (1 - ηth) = 200 / 0.273 = 732.6 kJ/s

Power output = Woutput / s = (QH – QL) /s = 732.6 – 200 = 532.6 kJ/s (kW)

4.2 The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 8.8. The minimum pressure and
temperature are 0.95 bar and 25o C. The amount of heat added to the air per cycle is
1400 kJ/kg. On the basis of air standard cycle, determine i) maximum temperature of
the cycle and ii) the air standard efficiency. Take CV = 0.718 kJ/kg and γ = 1.4.

Given: P1 = 0.95 bar = 95 kPa

T1 = 25o C = 298 K

r = 8.8

Q2-3 = 1400 kJ/kg

CV = 0.718 kJ/ kg – K

γ = 1.4

To find: T3 and ηOtto

Formula: ηOtto = 1 – 1 / rγ-1

 T1 V1γ-1 = T2 V2γ-1

Q2-3 = CV (T3 – T2) kJ/kg

r = V1/V2

Calculation: T1 V1γ-1 = T2 V2γ-1 Or T2 = T1 (V1/V2)γ-1

= 298 (V1/V2)γ-1

= 298 (8.8)1.4-1

= 298 x 2.387

= 711.23 K

Q2-3 = CV (T3 – T2) kJ/kg

1400 = 0.718 (T3 – 711.23)

T3 = 1400/0.718 + 711.23 = 2661 K = 2388o C

ηOtto = 1 – 1 / rγ-1

= 1 – 1 / 8.8γ-1 = 1 – 0.419 = 58.1%

4.3 The compression ratio of an Otto cycle is 9. Determine, for an initial condition of
1 bar and 313 K, the pressure and temperature at the end of compression and cycle
efficiency.

Given: r = V1/V2 = 9

P1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa

T1 = 313 K

To find: ηOtto, P2 and T2

Assumption: γ = 1.4

Formula: ηOtto = 1 – 1 / rγ-1

T1 V1γ-1 = T2 V2γ-1

P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ

Calculation: ηOtto = 1 – 1 / rγ-1 = 1 – 1 / 91.4 = 58.48%

T2 / T1 = (V1/V2)γ-1 = rγ-1
T2 = T1 rγ-1 = 313 x 91.4-1 = 753.77 K

P2/P1 = (V1/V2)γ = rγ

P2 = P1 rγ =100 x 91.4 = 100 x 21.67 kPa = 21.67 bar

4.4 A petrol engine has a swept volume of 500 cc and a clearance volume of 60 cc. If
the pressure and temperature at the beginning of compression are 1.02 bar and 24 o C
and the maximum cycle temperature is 1400o C, calculate the air standard efficiency
and the mean effective pressure.

Given: P1 = 1.02 bar = 102 kPa

T1 = 24o C = 297 K

T3 = 1400o C = 1673

V2 = 60 cc = 60 x 10-6 m3

V1 = 500 + 60 = 560 cc = 560 x 10-6 m3

To find: air standard η

Assumption: γ = 1.4, CV 0.718 kJ/kg-K and R = 0.287 kJ/kg-K for air

Formula: η = 1 – 1 / rγ-1,

η = Wnet/Qin, Wnet = Qin x η

MEP = Wnet/(V1 – V2),

T1 V1γ-1 = T2 V2γ-1 for an adiabatic process

m = P1V1/RT1 for an ideal gas

Calculation: r = V1/V2 = 560 x 10-6/60 x 10-6 = 9.33

η = 1 – 1 / rγ-1 = 1 – 1/(9.33)1.4-1 = 59.07%

T1 V1γ-1 = T2 V2γ-1

T2 = T1 (V1/V2) γ-1 = 297 (9.33) γ-1 = 725.62 K

η = Wnet/Qin, Wnet = Qin x η

Qin = m CV (T3 – T2) = 1 x 0.718 (1673 – 725.62) = 680.2 kJ/kg

Wnet = Qin x η = 680.2 x 0.5907 = 401.8 kJ/kg

 m = P1V1/RT1 = 102 x 560 x 10-6 / 0.287 x 297 = 670.1 x 10-6 kg

MEP = Wnet/(V1 – V2) = 670.1 x 10-6 x 401.8 / (560 – 60) 10-6 = 538.5 kPa
= 5.39 bar

4.5 Find the air standard efficiency of a diesel cycle if the clearance volume and the
fuel cut-off are 5% of the stroke volume. Assume the index of isentropic
compression and expansion as 1.4.

Given: V2 = 0.05 Vswept

V3 = V2 + 0.05 Vswept

γ = 1.4

To find: ηDiesel

Formula: ηDiesel = 1 – 1 / rγ-1[(rcγ -1)/ γ(rc – 1)]

Calculation: r = V1/V2 = (V2 + VS)/V2 = (0.05 VS + VS)/ 0.05VS = 21

rc = V3/V2 = (V2 + 0.05 VS)/V2 = (0.05 VS+ 0.05 VS)/0.05 VS = 2

ηDiesel = 1 – 1 / rγ-1[(rcγ -1)/ γ(rc – 1)]

= 1 – 1 / 211.4-1[(21.4 -1)/ 1.4(2 – 1)]

= 1 – 0.3464 = 0.6536 = 65.36%

4.6 An engine working on Diesel cycle has a bore of 15 cm and a stroke of 25 cm.
The clearance volume is 400 cc and fuel injection takes place for the duration of 5%
of stroke. Find the air standard efficiency.

Given: d = 15 cm, l = 25 cm

V2 = 400 cm3

V2-3 = 5% of VS

To find: ηDiesel

Assumption: γ = 1.4

Formula: ηDiesel = 1 – 1 / rγ-1[(rcγ -1)/ γ(rc – 1)]

Calculation:
VS = ( π/4) x 152 x 25 = 4417.865 cm3

V2-3 = 0.05 x VS = 0.05 x 4417.865 = 220.893 cm3

V3 = V2 + V2-3 = 400 + 220.893 = 620.893 cm3

r = V1/V2 = (V2 + VS)/V2 =(400 + 4417.865)/400 = 12.045

rC = V3/V2 = 620.893/400 = 1.55

ηDiesel = 1 – 1 / 12.0451.4-1[(1.551.4 -1)/ 1.4(1.55 – 1)] = 59.35%

4.7 Calculate the loss in the efficiency of a Diesel cycle with a compression ratio of
16, if the cut-off is delayed from 7% to 10%.

Given: r = 16

rC1 = 7% of initial volume and rC2 = 10% of initial volume

To find: η1 – η2

Assumption: γ = 1.4

Formula: ηDiesel = 1 – 1 / rγ-1[(rcγ -1)/ γ(rc – 1)]

Calculation: r = V1/V2 = 16 rC1 = V3/V2 = V3/V1 x V1/V2 = 0.07 x 16 = 1.12

rC2 = 0.1 x 16 1.6

η1 = 1 – 1 / 161.4-1[(1.121.4 -1)/ 1.4(1.12 – 1)] = 66.22%

η2 = 1 – 1 / 161.4-1[(1.61.4 -1)/ 1.4(1.6 – 1)] = 63.43%

Deterioration in efficiency = η1 – η2 = 66.22 – 63.43 = 2.79%

University Questions

1. Explain what is meant by air standard efficiency.

2. Explain Carnot cycle with a neat sketch. Show the same on P-V coordinates.
Also obtain the efficiency of the Carnot cycle.

3. Explain with neat sketches - the Carnot cycle.

4. Derive the expression for the air standard efficiency of a Carnot cycle.

5. Draw the P-V diagram of an Otto cycle and explain it.

6. Derive an expression for the air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle.

7. Draw the P-V diagram of a Diesel cycle and explain it.

8. Derive the expression for the air standard efficiency of a Diesel cycle.

9. Explain and distinguish between Otto cycle and Diesel cycle.

 Module 2
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Heat engines absorb energy in the form of heat and convert part of it into
mechanical energy and deliver it as work, the balance being rejected as heat. These
devices derive the heat energy from the combustion of a fuel. Based on the location
of the combustion process, heat engines are classified into internal combustion and
external combustion engines.

Internal combustion engines (IC engines) are those where the combustion of
the fuel takes place inside the engines – eg. automobile engines. In the case of
external combustion engines, combustion of fuel occurs outside the engines and the
working gas so heated is then admitted into the engines for conversion and work
extraction – eg. steam generated in a boiler is then admitted to steam engines for
producing work.

Advantages of IC engines

1. The thermal efficiency of IC engines (30 to 35%) is much higher than that of
the steam engine (15 to 25%).

2. The power to weight ratio of IC engines is higher than that of steam engines.

3. IC engines are compact and most suitable for portable applications.

4. IC engines are quick – starting and simple in comparison with the steam
engine.

Disadvantages of IC engines

1. Since fuel combustion occurs in the cylinder of the IC engine, very high
temperatures achieved necessitates engine cooling arrangements.

2. Such high temperatures restrict IC engines to be single-acting, whereas steam

engines are usually double-acting making every stroke a power stroke.

Classification of IC engines

1. According to fuel used:

Petrol engine, Diesel engine, Gas engine

2. According to strokes per cycle: Four-stroke engine

Two-stroke engine

3. According to thermodynamic cycle: Otto cycle engine

Diesel cycle engine, Dual cycle engine

4. According to speed of engine: Low speed engine: upto 500 rpm

Medium speed engine: 500-1000 rpm

High speed engine: above 1000 rpm

5. According to method of ignition: Spark ignition engine

Compression ignition engine

6. According to method of cooling:

Air cooled engine, Water cooled engine

7. According to method of governing: Quality governing

Quantity governing

8. According to arrangement of engine cylinders:

Horizontal engine, Vertical engine, V-engine, In-line engine

Opposed piston engine, Opposed cylinder engine, Radial engine

9. According to number of cylinders:

Single cylinder engine, Multi-cylinder engine

10. According to the application:

Stationary engine, Automobile engine, Motor cycle engine

Locomotive engine, Marine engine, Aero engine

Parts of an IC engine

The main components of a standard IC engine are briefly described below:

1. Cylinder head. This is the top cover of the cylinder and holds the inlet and
exhaust valves, their operating mechanisms, and the spark plug or fuel injector, as
the case may be. The valves along with their operating mechanism are together
called the valve gear.

2. Cylinder block and cylinder liner. The cylinder head is fitted over the
cylinder block and liner. The space between the block wall and cylinder liner acts as
the cooling water jacket.

3. Piston. The piston is of cylindrical shape to fit the inside bore of the cylinder.
Gas tightness is ensured by means of the piston rings in the slots on the outer
cylindrical surface of the piston.
4. Connecting rod. This is the link connecting the piston to the crankshaft for
transmission of the forces from and to the piston. The pin connecting it to the piston
is called the gudgeon pin and that connecting it to the crankshaft as the crank pin.

5. Crankshaft. This is a shaft with radial cranks, which converts the

reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the shaft.

6. Crank case and sump. Crank case is the engine casing having the main
bearings in which the crank shaft rotates. The bottom cover of the engine is the sump
which usually acts as a lubricating oil reservoir.

Comparison of Petrol Engines & Diesel Engines

PETROL ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

1. Works on Otto cycle. Works on Diesel cycle.

2. Fuel is mixed with air in a Fuel is injected directly using an injection nozzle
carburettor and the mixture at the end of compression stroke.
is admitted during suction. comparison strok

3. Spark ignition is used. Compression ignition is used.

4. Has low compression ratios Has high compression ratios (10 to 20).
(6 to 10).

5. Lower engine efficiency. Higher engine efficiency.

6. Higher fuel consumption. Lower fuel consumption.

7. Lower vibration and engine Higher vibration and engine noise.

noise.

8. Low initial cost. High initial cost.

9. High running cost. Low running cost.

10. Light duty application. Heavy duty application.

FOUR STROKE ENGINE

In a four stroke internal combustion engine, one cycle of operation is

completed in four strokes of the engine piston in the engine cylinder. One stroke is
the distance travelled by the piston from one end of the cylinder to the other end,
during which the crankshaft makes half a revolution. The end positions of the piston
in the cylinder are known as the dead centres. In a vertical engine they are the top
dead centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre (BDC). In a horizontal engine the
respective positions are the outer dead centre and the inner dead centre. The distance
between the two dead centres is the stroke length of the piston which will be two
times the crank length or the crank radius.

The four strokes making up a thermodynamic cycle of a four-stroke I.C.

engine are (i) suction stroke, (ii) compression stroke, (iii) expansion or power stroke
and (iv) exhaust stroke.

(i) Suction Stroke

Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

Valve position : inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed.

Process : vacuum created inside the cylinder draws the charge

into the cylinder through inlet valve.

Charge is air fuel mixture in petrol engines or air in diesel engines.

(ii) Compression Stroke

Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

Valve position : both valves are closed.

Process : the charge in the cylinder is compressed from the full

cylinder volume to clearance volume.

(iii) Power (Expansion) Stroke

Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

Valve position : both valves are closed.

Process : 1. At the end of the compression stroke a spark is struck by the spark
plug in SI engines. This causes the combustion of the fuel in the
charge and the instantaneous increase of pressure. In CI engines,
fuel is sprayed into the hot compressed air resulting in combustion
of fuel. During the period of fuel injection the piston moves in its
expansion stroke and so there is minimal pressure increase.

2. As the charge in the cylinder burns it pushes the piston from TDC to
BDC; expansion of combustion products (gas) takes place; power is
produced. A fraction of the power is used for the other strokes, the
balance being supplied to the surrounding (useful power output of
the engine).

(iv) Exhaust Stroke

Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

Valve position : inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is open.

Process : the combustion products are pushed out of the

cylinder.
TWO STROKE ENGINE

In a two-stroke internal combustion engine one cycle of operation is

completed in two strokes of the piston in the engine cylinder, that is, one revolution
of the crankshaft. The construction of the two-stroke I.C. engine is similar to the
four-stroke I.C. engine except that there are no valves in a two-stroke engine as there
are in a four-stroke engine. Instead ports are provided in the engine cylinder which
are operated by the engine piston itself. The arrangement is shown in the figure on
the previous page. The three ports are:

Crank case inlet port - admits the charge into the crank case.

Transfer port - admits the charge from the crank case into the
cylinder.

Exhaust port - exhausts the burnt gases from the cylinder.

Working principle

Please refer to the sketches giving the different positions of the piston in the
two stroke engine cylinder shown on the diagram sheet.
Stroke – 1

Piston movement : from BDC to TDC.

Processes : 1. the charge inside the cylinder is compressed

increasing its pressure and temperature;

2. vacuum is created inside the crank case and when

the piston uncovers the crank case inlet port the
charge enters the crank case.

The charge is air-fuel mixture in petrol engines or atmosphere air in diesel engines.

Stroke – 2

Piston movement : from TDC to BDC.

Processes : 1. At the end of the compression stroke a spark is

struck by the spark plug in petrol engines or fuel is
 sprayed into the cylinder through the injection nozzle
in diesel engines, resulting in combustion of fuel. The
pressure and temperature of gases increase pushing
the piston downwards in its power stroke.

2. When the piston uncovers the exhaust ports in its

downward stroke the burnt gases leave the cylinder
through the exhaust ports.

3. When the piston uncovers the transfer port. The

charge in the crank case, which has been compressed
during the downward movement of the piston, gets
into the cylinder through the transfer port. The
deflector on top of the piston directs the charge
upwards which helps in pushing out the burnt gases
through the exhaust ports which remain uncovered.
This is called scavenging.

Thus in a two-stroke engine, both faces of the piston are effective, unlike in a
4-stroke engine.

Advantages of two-stroke engines

1. A two-stroke engine has a power stroke every revolution of the crankshaft.

Therefore its power to weight ratio is higher than that of a four-stroke engine.

2. The torque is more uniform in a two-stroke engine, hence it requires a lighter

flywheel than that for a four-stroke engine.

3. Two-stroke engines are simpler in construction than four-stroke engines due

to the absence of valves and their operating mechanism.

4. The friction loss is less in two-stroke engines, therefore it gives higher

mechanical efficiency than four-stroke engines.

5. The capital cost of two-stroke engines is less than that of four-stroke engines.

6. The starting of two-stroke engines is easier than starting of four-stroke

engines.
Disadvantages of two-stroke engines

1. The overall efficiency is less than that of four-stroke engines due to (i)
inadequate scavenging as some combustion products are left in the cylinder
(ii) loss of fresh charge during scavenging, and (iii) less effective
compression ratio for same stroke long.

2. The engine is always overheated due to power stroke in every revolution.

3. The consumption of lubricating oil is higher as it is subjected to higher

temperatures.

4. The exhaust of two-stroke engines is noisier needing more baffling in the

silencers.

Comparison between Four-stroke & Two-stroke Engines

FOUR STROKE ENGINE TWO STROKE ENGINE

1. One cycle in four strokes of the One cycle in two strokes of the piston or
piston or two revolutions of the one revolution of the crankshaft.
crankshaft.

2. Valves are used for charge admission No valves but ports are used for charge
and exhaust. admission an exhaust.

3. One power stroke per two One power stroke in one revolution of
revolutions of crankshaft resulting in crankshaft causing smoother torque and
torque fluctuations needing heavier consequent lighter flywheel.
flywheel.

4. Low power to weight ratios. Higher power to weight ratios.

5. Higher overall efficiency. Lower overall efficiency due to loss of

fresh charge in exhaust.

6. Complex construction due to valve Simpler construction due to absence of

gear. valves.

7. Used for heavy duty applications. Used for light duty applications.
Fuel Systems
Petrol Engines:
Since petrol easily evaporates into vapour at atmospheric pressure and
temperature, air and petrol vapour are mixed in the correct proportion outside the
engine (called carburetion) and supplied to the engine. The device used for this
mixing is called the carburettor. The proportion of petrol in the mixture required
under different stages of engine operation is shown in figure.
CARBURETTOR
The schematic diagram of a carburettor is given in figure. It consists of float
chamber, venturi, fuel jets, compensating well, throttle valve, choke valve
1. Float chamber: It is the fuel reservoir of the carburettor and maintains a constant
level of fuel in the chamber through a float mechanism controlling the fuel supply
valve.

2. Venturi: It is the narrow passage of the intake pipe which causes the velocity of
air flow to increase thereby reducing the pressure below atmospheric pressure.

3. Fuel jets: Three jets supply fuel from the float chamber to the intake pipe so as to
control the richness of air-fuel mixture to match the requirements at different engine
operating conditions.

a) main jet: supplies fuel at all times of operation.

b) idling jet: supplies fuel at idling and starting.

c) starting jet: supplies fuel at starting.

4. Throttle valve: It controls the air admitted into the cylinder; admitting more air
increases the power producing capacity of the engine.

5. Choke valve: It is used during cold starting by reducing air admitted to intake
pipe thereby making a very rich air-fuel mixture.

Operation:

Before the engine is started the float chamber and the compensating well
connected to it are filled with fuel to the maximum level. When starting the engine
all three fuel jets supply fuel thereby making the air-fuel mixture very rich (5:1).
When the throttle valve is further opened more air enters the intake pipe and the
starting jet stops fuel supply as the fuel level in the compensating well drops quickly.
The air-fuel mixture is still (10:1) for idling. When the throttle valve is opened
further only the main jet supplies fuel since the restricted opening to the idling jet
prevents full fuel supply to the idling jet. Thus the air-fuel mixture becomes leaner
(16:1 to 20:1) during normal operation of the engine. When the engine is stopped
fuel fills up the float chamber and the compensating well to the maximum level.

Diesel Engines

In a diesel engine the fuel is injected into the compressed air at the end of the
compression stroke in the form of a spray. Hence the fuel system must have the
following capabilities:

i) Supply of the correct quantity of fuel according to the power requirement of

the engine;

ii) Supply of the fuel in the form of a fine spray for spontaneous combustion at
high pressure.

These functions are accomplished by the combination of the fuel injection

pump and the fuel injection nozzle in the diesel engine fuel system.

FUEL INJECTION PUMP

The FIP is a reciprocating pump with its piston actuated from the fuel cam of
the engine camshaft at the correct time for fuel injection. The fuel taken in through
the inlet port during the downward stroke of the piston is compressed when the
piston closes the port during its upward stroke. The fuel pressure builds up during
this stroke till the spring loaded delivery valve is opened by the pressure of fuel
overcoming the spring load.

A helical grove on the surface of the piston enables supply of variable

quantities of the fuel. The relative angular position of the grooved piston with respect
to the cylinder is changed by a rack and pinion arrangement on the outer surface of
the cylinder. This allows control of the closing of a spill port on the cylinder by the
piston thereby controlling the quantity of fuel pressurised by the piston and delivered
to the injection nozzle. The piston groove position opens the spill port depending on
its relative position and changes the effective delivery stroke of the piston.

FUEL INJECTION NOZZLE

The construction details are shown in figure. The main parts are;

Nozzle body having fine spray holes connecting the nozzle cavity.

Nozzle valve which is a spring-loaded valve normally keeping the spray holes
closed.
 Fuel inlet connected to the fuel supply pipe from the fuel injection pump,
which leads the high pressure fuel to the nozzle cavity through a duct. Leak-off
connection for the excess oil from the nozzle cavity the connection being established
through an inner grove of the valve when lifted.

Operation:

In the closed position of the nozzle needle valve, the fine nozzle spray holes
are closed to prevent compressed air from cylinder entering the nozzle. When high
pressure fuel is supplied to the nozzle cavity from the FIP, the pressure of fuel opens
the needle valve against the spring pressure and the fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chamber. The high pressure helps to atomise the fuel. When the fuel
supply from the FIP stops, the valve spring moves the nozzle needle valve to close
the nozzle openings.

Ignition Systems

The common ignition systems of IC engines are compression ignition and

spark ignition.

COMPRESSION IGNITION

Compression ignition method is adopted in diesel engines. The air admitted

into the engine cylinder is compressed at a high compression ratio resulting in high
temperatures of compressed air. At the end of the compression stroke fuel is supplied
to the combustion charger in the form of an atomised spray by the injector nozzle.
The high temperature of compressed air vapourises and ignites the fuel without any
external initiation. Such engines are called compression ignition (CI) engines.

SPARK IGNITION

In petrol engines the compression ratios are kept lower to avoid knocking
(uncontrolled self-ignition of petrol). Hence, in petrol engines, a spark from the spark
plug initiates the combustion of petrol at the end of the compression stroke of the
piston.
 Figure shows a battery ignition system where a battery is the source of electric
power. This is the most common spark ignition system. In a magneto ignition
system, the magneto (electric generator) replaces the battery as the power source.

The battery is connected to the primary coil through a starting switch. The
other end of the primary coil is connected to a condenser and contact breaker. The
secondary coil is connected to a distributor in the case of multi cylinder engines,
which, in turn, connects the spark plugs in the different cylinders at the correct
timing. The distributor and contact breaker are rotated at half the engine crankshaft
speed in case of four stroke engines.

When the ignition switch is closed current flows through the primary coil
setting up a magnetic field. When the contact breaker cam opens the points this
magnetic field collapses suddenly and induces a high voltage in the secondary coil.
The condenser helps to accelerate this collapse as it sucks the current in the primary
coil when the contact is opened. Due to the high voltage (20,000 V), a spark jumps
across the spark plug gap thus igniting the fuel.

Cooling Systems

In IC engines about 35 per cent of the heat generated by combustion of fuel is

transferred (lost) through the engine cylinder walls to the surroundings. This can
cause

1. unequal thermal stresses in and distortion of engine parts,

2. hot spots in cylinder causing pre ignition of petr.

3. burning of lubricating oil.

AIR COOLING

Small engines (as in two-wheelers) use air cooling. The heat generated is
directly dissipated into the atmosphere. The heat transfer rate is increased by
increasing the exposed surface area of the cylinder by providing fins. Air cooled
engines run at a higher temperature than liquid cooled engines resulting in higher
engine efficiencies but at higher operating temperatures of engine parts.
WATER COOLING

In large capacity engines water cooling is provided as its heat absorbing

capacity is much higher than that of air (specific heat: ). Water is circulated through
passages around the cylinder and combustion chamber. These passages are called
water jackets. The water circulation can be natural or forced.

In natural circulation (thermosiphon) systems the water circulation occurs due

to the difference in density of hot and cold water. In forced circulation systems,
water is circulated through the water jackets with the help of a pump.
Automobile engines use the same water for cooling by recirculation. A
radiator is used to cool the water to its initial temperature after cooling the engine. A
fan blows air through the radiator fins to cool the water. A pump is used to
continuously circulate the water through the engine cooling system.

Lubrication System

Due to a large number of moving parts in an IC engine power loss due to

friction is a major issue. To reduce the friction losses engines are provided with
lubrication system. Its functions are:

i) to reduce friction and wear between moving parts.

ii) to provide sealing between piston rings and cylinder wall to prevent gas leakage.
iii) to cool piston heads, valves, etc.
iv) to wash away carbon and metal particles.
In small capacity engines, the lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel supply. In
medium size stationary engines splash lubrication is adopted. In this, a projecting fin
at the big end of the connecting rod splashes up the lubricating oil stored in the crank
case. In multi-cylinder heavy duty engines pressure feed lubricating systems are
used.
 In pressure feed lubrication, oil is pumped from its reservoir through pipelines
to various parts of the engine. Bearings on crankshaft get lubricating oil through
small diameter holes drilled in it. Oil to the piston is supplied through the hole drilled
in the connecting rod. Since the lubricating oil is carried through small diameter
holes and pipes it must be pumped at a high pressure. Usually gear pumps and piston
pumps are used for this purpose.

Usually, the engine sump acts as the lubricating oil reservoir. The excess oil
supplied to the engine parts flows back into the sump, which is recirculated. The
lubricating oil needs to be topped up frequently and replaced periodically when its
quality deteriorates due to contamination with combustion products and wear
particles.

Pressure feed lubrication systems are of two types: wet sump lubrication
system and dry sump lubrication system.
University Questions

1. With neat sketches explain the classification of internal combustion engines.

(12. a. April-May 2003)

2. How IC engines are classified? (3 – July-August 2007)

3. What are the advantages of two stroke cycle engines? (3 – October-November

2003)

4. What are the advantages of four stroke cycle engines? (3 – April-May 2004)

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of two stroke cycle engines? (3 –
October-November 2004)

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of two stroke engines over four
stroke engines? (3 – December 2005)

7. Explain the advantages of four stroke engine over two stroke engine. (3 –
January 2007)

8. List the differences between two stroke and four stroke engines. (3 – November
2008)

9. With the help of neat diagrams explain the working of a two stroke cycle
engine. (12a – Oct-Nov. 2004)

10. What are the functions of piston crown in two stroke petrol engine? (3 – May
2008)

11. Explain the working principle of a two-stroke petrol engine with a neat sketch.
(12 a – December 2007)

12. Explain the working principle of a four stroke diesel engine with a neat sketch.
(12 a – December 2007)

13. With suitable sketches explain the working of a two stroke cycle diesel engine.
(12 a – April-May 2004)

14. Compare the working of SI and CI engines. (12 a – May-June 2006)

15. Give four merits of petrol engine. (4 – December 2007)

PART: A

1. Explain the functions of injector in IC engines.

2. Explain the process and functions of lubricating systems in IC engines. (April-

May 2003)

3. Describe briefly the water cooling system of an automobile engine. (October-

November 2004)

4. Sketch the spark ignition system of a four-cylinder petrol engine. (May 2005)

5. Explain about dry sump lubrication in IC engines. (May-June 2006)

6. Explain the working of a simple carburettor with the help of a neat sketch.
(January 2007)

7. Explain battery ignition system. (December 2007)

PART: B

1. Explain the ignition system of a petrol engine (October-November 2005)

2. With the help of a neat sketch explain the functioning of a carburettor. (May
2005)

3. With the help of a neat sketch explain the functioning of an ignition system.
(December 2005)

4. Discuss about IC engine cooling systems. (January 2007)

5. With neat sketches explain the different types of lubrication systems used in IC
engines (July-August 2007)
 REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING

Refrigeration and air-conditioning equipments work on power-absorbing

cycles, for which the input is mechanical work and the output is heat transfer from a
low temperature heat source to a high temperature heat sink. Such thermodynamic
cycles are called refrigeration cycles.

Refrigeration

A device which extracts heat from a cold space and rejects it to the
atmosphere is called a refrigerator and the process is called refrigeration.
Refrigeration has wide applications in chemical industries, food processing and air-
conditioning plants.

The capacity of a refrigeration system is given in tonnes of refrigeration. Thus

‘tonne’ is the unit of refrigeration. One tonne of refrigeration is the amount of heat
required to be removed to produce 1 tonne (1000 kg) of ice at 0oC from water at 0oC
in one day (24 hours).

1000  300
1 tonne of refrigeration =
24  60  60

3.5 kJ/S = 3.5 kW

The performance of a refrigerator is measured by the coefficient of

performance. It is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted from the cold space to the
work input.

heat absorbed
COP =
work input

Methods of refrigeration

Practical refrigeration cycles have flow processes, each process being carried
out in a separate device, with the working fluid called refrigerant in liquid or vapour
phase.

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

In the vapour compression refrigeration system, the refrigerant changes its

phase from liquid to vapour and from vapour to liquid during one cycle. During the
vapourisation process the refrigerant absorbs the latent heat of vapourisation from the
refrigerated space and rejects the heat to the surroundings during the condensation
phase.

Figure shows the block diagram of a vapour compression system and the T-S
diagram indicating the four processes that make the vapour compression refrigeration
cycle.

Process 1-2: Constant pressure heat absorption.

A mixture of vapour and liquid at low temperature and pressure absorbs heat
from the evaporator as latent heat to convert all the liquid into vapour.

Process 2-3: Isentropic compression of refrigerant vapour.

 The low temperature and low pressure vapour is compressed in the
compressor to a high pressure super heated vapour.

Process 3-4: Constant pressure heat rejection.

The super heated vapour at high pressure passes through the condenser where
it is cooled by circulating water or air thus removing the latent heat. The refrigerant
changes phase to liquid.

Process 4-1: Adiabatic throttling expansion.

The high pressure liquid is then expanded adiabatically in a throttle valve. the
sudden reduction in pressure reduces the temperature of the refrigerant. As the
saturation temperature is low at low pressure some of the liquid changes phase to
vapour and the liquid vapour mixture enters the evaporator to repeat the cycle.

The vapour compression method provides COPs of the order of 4 to 5. This is

used most widely in present-day commercial refrigeration systems due to the high
COP. It has the added advantage of comparatively smaller size of equipment with
respect to other methods due to heat absorption and rejection as latent heat instead of
sensible heat.

VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The vapour absorption refrigeration system operates on the same sequence of

processes as in the vapour compression system. The only difference is that the
compressor in the vapour compression is replaced by a vapour absorption-generation
unit consisting of

i) absorber,

ii) pump,

iii) generator, and

iv) expansion valve

 Figure shows the block diagram of an ammonia absorption system where
ammonia is the refrigerant water is the absorbant medium. The refrigeration method
is as follows.

The low pressure ammonia vapour from the evaporator is absorbed in water in
an absorber. The strong aqua solution is pumped to the generator through a heat
exchanger. The strong aqua solution is heated in the generator to release ammonia
vapour at high pressure. The liberated ammonia goes to the condenser where it is
condensed and then to the throttle valve for pressure reduction. The liquid-vapour
ammonia mixture goes to the evaporator where it absorbs the latent heat and
evaporates completely. The cycle is then repeated.

In the absorption – generation unit the weak aqua solution after release of
ammonia vapour returns to the absorber through the heat exchanger – to transfer
some heat to the strong aqua solution – and the expansion valve – to reduce the
pressure before admission to the absorber. The weak aqua solution is cooled in the
absorber to improve its ammonia absorption capacity.

Advantages over vapour compression system:

1. lower noise and maintenance due to elimination of compressor.

2. low grade heat sources can be used.

3. high capacities, well above 1000 tonnes, can be built.

4. less electrical energy consumption – only for pumping.

The disadvantages are:

1. low COP (0.5 to 0.7) as compared to vapour compression.

2. as more equipments are used than in a vapour compression system, can be

economical only if some waste heat or low grade heat sources are available.

Refrigerants

The common refrigerants are halocarbon compounds (chlorofluorocarbons -

CFCs), inorganic compounds and hydrocarbons. Some of these in common use are:

Ammonia

Carbon dioxide

Air (in aircraft air-conditioning)

Freon-1 or Refrigerant-1 (C Cl3 F3) = (air-conditioning)

Freon-2 (domestic plants)

Freon-22 (low temperature applications)

(Two-digit numbers are for methane based compounds and three-digit numbers for
ethane based compounds.)

Some desirable properties of a refrigerant are

1. High latent heat reduces the quantity required.

2. Low boiling point at atmospheric pressure for low temperature in evaporator

without leakage.

3. Low condensing pressure with temperature of 40oC for cooling water or

air at 25o to 30oC.

4. High critical pressure and temperature and low freezing point for a wide
operating range.

5. Inertness and chemical stability.

6. Non-flammable and non-toxic.

7. Low cost and easy availability.

8. Possibility of high COP.

It was realized in the 1970s that the CFCs not only allow more ultra-violet
radiation into the earth’s atmosphere, but also prevent the infra-red radiation from
escaping the earth to outer space, which contributes to the greenhouse effect and
hence, global warming. As a result the use of some CFCs is banned and phased out
in many countries. Fully halogenated CFCs like R11, R12 and R115 do the most
damage to the ozone layer. The partially halogenated refrigerants such as R22 have
about 5% of the ozone depleting potential (ODP) of R12.

CFCs, friendly to the ozone layer that protects the earth from ultra violet rays
and which do not contribute to the greenhouse effect are being developed. Teh
chlorine-free R134 a, a recent finding, is presently replacing R12, the most widely
used refrigerant, particularly in domestic refrigerators and automobile air-
conditioners.

Air-conditioning

PSYCHROMETRY:

Dry air is a mechanical mixture of the gases: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon

dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, krypton, helium, etc. For practical purposes dry air is
considered to consist of 79% by volume (77% by mass) nitrogen and 21% by volume
(23% by mass) oxygen. Completely dry air does not exist in nature. Water vapour in
varying amounts is always present in air. The study of humid air (air-water vapour
mixture) is known as psychrometry.

The source of water vapour in air is mainly the evaporation of water from
large water bodies like lakes and sea. The amount of water vapour varies widely in
air with locality and weather conditions and is normally 1% to 3% by mass of the
mixture.

By Daltons law of partial pressures, the atmospheric pressure, P = Pa + Pw,

where Pa is the partial pressure of dry air and Pw partial pressure of water vapour.
Since Pw is very small, the saturation temperature of water at Pw is much lower than
atmospheric temperature. Therefore water vapour in air exists as superheated steam
and such air is said to be unsaturated.
Psychrometric properties

The following are the important terms used in psychrometry, or psychrometric

properties.

Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of air recorded by an ordinary

thermometer (with a dry bulb).

Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the temperature recorded by a thermometer having

its bulb covered by a cotton wick saturated with water. The difference between the
DBT and WBT is known as the wet bulb depression.

Dew point temperature (DPT). When the atmospheric temperature is the same as
the saturation temperature the air is in a saturated condition any further lowering of
temperature causes the water vapour to condense. The temperature at which the
water vapour in air is saturated is known as the dew point temperature.

When the air is unsaturated the wet bulb temperature lies between the dry bulb
temperature and the dew point temperature. When the air is saturated, the wet bulb,
dry bulb and dew point temperatures are same.

Specific humidity (w): Humidity is the presence of water vapour in air. Specific
humidity or humidity ratio is defined as the mass of water vapour per unit mass of
dry air in a mixture of air and water vapour.

mass of water vapour

w=
mass of dry air
 Specific humidity is maximum when the air is saturated at the atmospheric
temperature.
Relative humidity (  ) is the ratio of the actual mass of water vapour in a given
volume of air to the mass of water vapour in saturated air of the same volume at the
same temperature.
Mass of water vapour in a given volume
of air at given temperature

mass of water vapour when the same
Volume of air is saturated at the same temperature
Pw partial pressure of water vapour in air

Ps saturation pressure of pure water at the same temperature
AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
The control of temperature, humidity, purity and air motion in an enclosed
space is called air-conditioning. Comfort air-conditioning is the air-conditioning for
human comfort. When the conditioning of the air is carried out to meet the
specifications of manufacturing processes (in textile, pharmaceutical, etc industries)
it is called industrial air-conditioning. Figure gives the general arrangement of an air-
conditioning system.
Severe summer and winter are uncomfortable for human beings. Hence
comfort air-conditioning consists of summer and winter air-conditioning systems.
Summer air-conditioning system
When the atmospheric temperature and relative humidity are high a summer
air-conditioning system is used. Figure shows the arrangement of equipments for
such a system. It is a cooling and dehumidification system.
 Atmospheric air is first filtered and then passed across the evaporator coils of
a refrigeration unit to cool it below the dew point which causes the water vapour in
air to condense thus dehumidifying the air. A water eliminator removes water
droplets in the air. The air is then heated to the desired comfort temperature and
circulated to the air-conditioned space. Part of the return air is recirculated and the
rest exhausted to the atmosphere. A complete change of air in one hour is the usual
norm for recirculation to ensure oxygen proportion in air.

Winter air-conditioning system

During winter, when the atmospheric temperature is very low with low
humidity, heating and humidification is done. This is the winter air-conditioning
system shown in figure.

First, the air is filtered and then preheated by passing it through a heating coil.
Water is then sprayed into the preheated air stream to increase its humidity. The
water droplets in the air is removed by a water eliminator. The air is then reheated by
a heating coil to the required comfort temperature and then supplied to the air-
conditioned space by a blower.

Summer air-conditioning for dry hot weather

In this air-conditioning system cooling and humidification are carried out. The
arrangement consists of cooling the filtered air and humidifying the cold air by a
spray humidifier. This cooled and humidified air is then passed through a water
eliminator to remove water droplets and then supplied to the air-conditioned space.
University Questions

April/May 2003:

12(b) Discuss the process of refrigeration. Explain with block diagram a refrigeration
plant.

October/November 2003:

4. Write note on summer air-conditioning.

12(b) Describe the vapour compression refrigeration system.

April/May 2004:

4. List the components of a vapour compression refrigeration system.

12(b) Describe the vapour absorption refrigeration system.

October/November 2004:

12(b) Give an account of the different methods of refrigeration.

May 2005:

4. Give an account of common refrigerants.

12(b) Explain the working of a vapour compression refrigeration system.

December 2005:

4. What are the properties of a good refrigerant?

12(b) Explain the working of a vapour absorption refrigeration system.

May/June 2006:

4. Explain the following terms: a) DBT, b) WBT, c) Specific humidity,

d) Relative humidity.

July/August 2007:

4. With a sketch explain compression refrigeration system.

12(b) What is meant by air-conditioning? Differentiate between winter air-

conditioning and summer air-conditioning.

December 2007:

12(b) With neat sketches explain summer air-conditioning and winter air-
conditioning system.

May 2008:

4. Explain the term ton of refrigeration.

12(b) With a neat sketch explain vapour compression refrigeration system.

November 2008:

4. Draw the block diagram of a summer air-conditioning system.

12(b) With a neat block diagram, explain the working of a vapour compression
refrigeration system.
 Module - 3

Power Transmission
3.1. Methods of Power Transmission

Mechanical power can be transmitted from one shaft to another, generally, by

four methods of mechanical drives. They are,

1. Belt drive

2. Rope drive

3. Chain drive

4. Gear drive

The shaft from which power is transmitted is called driver shaft and the shaft
to which power is transmitted is called driven shaft. The choice of the type of drive
for transmitting power from driving shaft to driven shaft depends on many factors
such as distance between the shafts, amount of power to be transmitted, speed ratio
of shafts, accuracy required etc.

3.2. Belt drive

Whenever power is to be transmitted from one shaft to another which are at a

consider-able distance apart, a belt drive is generally used. Pulleys are mounted on
the driver and driven shafts and an endless belt is fitted tightly over these pulleys.
The factor responsible for power transmission, or in other words making the belt and
pulleys run together, is the frictional resistance between the belt and the pulley. The
amount of power transmitted depends upon the velocity of belt, the tension under
which the belt is placed on the pulleys and the arc of contact of the belt and smaller
pulley.

Types of belts

Though there are many types of belts for transmission of power, flat belts and
V -belts are widely used. Flat belts are used to transmit moderate amount of power.
These are used upto 10 m distance between driving and driven shafts. V -belts are
more suitable for transmission of large amount of power between two shafts having a
short center to center distance. The ideal distance is 1.25 to 1.5 times the diameter of
the larger pulley.

The belts used for transmission of power must have larger strength, flexibility
and life and must have a high coefficient of friction. In addition to leather belts, belts
made of rubber. balata and cotton or fabric are also widely used. Rubber belts,
consisting of layers of fabric impregnated with a rubber composition and having a
thin layer of rubber on the faces, are very flexible but are quickly destroyed if
allowed to come in contact with oil or grease. Balata belts are similar to rubber belts
except that balata gum is used in place of rubber. It is about 25 % stronger than
rubber belt. Cotton or fabric belts are made from canvas or cotton duck in which a
number of layers, depending upon the thickness desired are put and stitched together.
These are treated with linsoil to make it water proof. The cotton belts are cheaper and
suitable for rough service where little attention is needed.

Types of belt drives

i) Open belt drive

It is used with shafts arranged in parallel and to be rotated in the same

direction. The driver pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers the same to the
other side. Hence the tension on the former side will be greater than the later side.
The side where tension is more, is called tight side and the other side is called slack
side.
ii) Cross belt drive

It is used with shafts arranged in parallel and to be rotated in opposite

directions. At the point where the belt crosses, it rubs against itself and wears. In
order to minimize wear, the shafts should be placed at a minimum distance of20 b,
where b is the width of belt. Also the speed of the belt should be less than IS m/sec.

3.3. Rope drive

Ropes for transmitting power are usually made of cotton and are of circular
cross-section. Ropes are used when considerable power is to be transmitted over long
distances. The ropes are housed in grooves provided in the pulley. The groove angle
varies from 400 to 600, but is generally 45°. One of the advantages of rope drive is
that a number of separate drives may be taken from one driving pulley by providing a
number of grooves in the pulley.

Whenever large amount of power is to be transmitted over long distance wire

rope is used. Wife ropes are made from cold drawn wires. The cold drawn wires are
twisted together to form what is called a strand. A number of such strands are then
twisted together to form a rope. This type of "Construction enables the rope to be
wrapped around a pulley without undue bending stress in the wire. Ropes are usually
designated by specifying number of strands and number of wires on it. For example,
6 x 19 rope means the rope has 6 strands and each strands is having 19 wires in it.

The various materials used for rope making are wrought iron, cast steel, extra
strong cast steel. Ropes of aluminium alloys, copper bronze and stainless steel are
also used. Ropes are usually galvanized to protect them against corrosion.

Ropes may be classified according to the direction of twist of the individual

wires and that of strands relative to each other. Two types of windings are in use .

These are:

i) Regular lay ropes; In this the direction of twist of wires in the strands is opposite to
the direction of twist of the strands in the rope;

ii) Long lay ropes: In this, the direction of twist of wires and strands in a rope is the
same.

3.4. Chain Drive

Chain drive consists of an endless chain running over special profile toothed
wheels called sprockets. One of the sprockets will be the driver and the other driven.
The smaller sprocket is called pinion and the bigger one is called wheel. The chain is
made up of plates, pins and bushing. These parts are usually made of high grade
steel.

From the application point of view chain drives are classified as power
transmission chains, hoisting chains and pulling chains. Power transmission chains
are used when power is to be transmitted from one shaft to another. Hoisting chains
are used for lifting loads. Pulling chains are used in elevators, conveyors etc.

Main types of chains used to transmit power are:

i) Roller Chain:. It consists of rollers, bushes, pins inner plates and outer plates. The
pin passes centrally through the bush and the roller surrounds the bush. The roller,
turns freely on the bush and the bush turns freely on the pin. Two adjacent rollers are
held by two inner plate (roller link plates). These inner plates connect the two bushes
as shown in the figure. The bushes turn freely on the inner plates. Two adjacent
bushes are held by two outer plates called pin link plates. These outer plates connect
the two central pins and keep them in position. To prevent the sliding of outer plates
laterally outwards, the pin ends are hammered to the shape of rivet head. In order to
reduce friction all the contact surfaces are lubricated. .

ii) Silent or inverted tooth chain: Refer fig. 3.6. It consists of special profile plates
corresponding to the profile of the sprocket teeth. These types of chains are more
complex in design and require careful maintenance. It is employed when heavier
loads are to be transmitted and maximum quietness is desired.

3.5. Gear Drive

The term gear is generally used to denote toothed wheel. For transmission of
power one gear is mounted on the driving shaft and another one of the driven shaft,
their teeth meshing with each other. The distance between the two shafts should be
just sufficient to enable meshing of the gear teeth. If the driving and driven shafts are
at a long distance so that a direct meshing of two gears is not possible, then required
number of gears may have to be incorporated in between the two gears so as to make
the drive possible.

Gear teeth are formed either by casting or by machine cutting. The cutting of
gear teeth is done by milling, shaping or hobbing. A variety of materials are used for
the manufacture of gears depending on requirement. The cheapest material used is
ordinary grey iron. For heavy duty gears cast steel and alloy steel are preferred. Non-
ferrous metals like phosphor bronze, nickel, manganese etc. are used under corrosive
environments.

There are many types of gears and the following are the important ones:

i) Spur gears: Spur gears are those which have teeth cut parallel to the axis of the
shaft. Spur gears are used to transmit power between parallel shafts. Fig. 3.7 (a)
ii) Helical gears: Helical gears are used in the same way as spur gears, but the teeth
cut on the periphery are of helical screw form. A helical tooth is thus inclined at an
angle to the axis of the shaft. Fig. 3.7 (b)

iii) Bevel gears : Bevel gears are used to connect two non parallel shafts with
intersecting axes. Even though bevel gears are meant for shafts at right angle to each
other, it can also be used for any angle. Fig. 3.7 (c)

iv) Worm gears: Worm gears are used for power transmission between non-
intersecting shafts that are generally at right angles to each other. The worm gearing
consists of worm and worm wheel. A worm is a threaded screw and is used as the
driver. The worm wheel is a toothed wheel. The teeth of the worm wheel remain
engaged with the threads of the worm. Fig. 3.7 (d).

3.6. Fields of Application

Belt drive is commonly used for transmission of power when exact velocity
ratio is not required. Flat belts are used when the distance between the shafts is more
and only moderate amount of power is to be transmitted. When the distance between
the shafts is less and a large amount of power is to be transmitted, the V - belts are
used. Belt drive is comparatively cheaper than other drives.

Some of the advantages of flat belts are:

i) Can be used with high speed drives.

ii) Can be used in industrial and abbrassive environment.

iii) Absorbs shock and vibrations. .

iv) Offers longer life when properly maintained.

Some of advantages of V-belts are:

i) Can be used for high speed ratios as high as 10:1.

ii) No possibility of belt coming out of grooves.

iii) Low percentage of slip.

iv) A number of drives can be taken from a single pulley by providing a

number of grooves on the same pulley.
 Rope drives are used for transmission of large amount of power over long
distances. Wire ropes are extensively used in elevators, mine hoist, cranes,
conveyors, hauling devices, tramways, lifting tackless, suspension bridges etc.
Manila ropes are used only for hoisting in very small capacity hoists.

The following are the advantages of rope drives.

i) Smooth and silent operation.

ii) Less weight

iii) Ability to withstand shocks

iv) Longer life

Chain drives are used in bicycles, motorcycles, agriculture machinery, rolling

mills, conveyors, transport mechanisms etc.

Advantages of chain drives are:

i) Can provide non-slip drive

ii) Very high efficiency

iii) Less load on shafts

iv) Occupies less space

v) Can be operated at adverse temperatures.

vi) Can transmit motion to several shafts by a single chain.

Disadvantages of chain drives are:

i) High cost

ii) More weight

iii) Velocity fluctuations due to stretching during use.

iv) Needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance

Gear drives are used when positive drives are necessary and when the centre
to centre distance between the shafts is relatively short. Also gears are used
whenever motion is to be transmitted between non parallel and non-intersecting
shafts. Gears are of great practical utility in almost all kinds of precission
engineering works. Hardened gear find application in aircraft, automobile and other
industries.

Advantages of gear drives are:

i) High efficiency

ii) Less maintenance cost

iii) Can be used for non intersecting and non parallel shafts.

iv) Very high accuracy.

3.7. Calculation of length of belt (a) Open belt drive

In open belt drive, the two pulleys rotate in the same direction. Let
x = distance between centres of pulleys

rl, r2 = radii of larger and smaller pulleys respectively L = total length of belt

The belt leaves the larger pulley at A and C and the smaller pulley at D and F.
Through O2 draw O2G parallel to CD. Since angle O1 CD is 90o, O2G will be
perpendicular to O1C. Let angle O1O2G be , then it can be shown that O1A, O1C,
O2D and O2F make angle with the vertical. Hence the arc of contact between the
belt and larger pulley is (  + 2 ) radian and arc of contact between the belt in
contact with larger pulley, length of belt in contact with the smaller pulley and the
length of the belt not in contact with the pulleys.

ie., L = Arc AB + Arc DEF + (CD + AF)

Arc ABC =    2  r1

Arc DEF =    2  r2

(CD + AF) = 2O2G  2  O1O2 2   O1G 2

2
 r r 
 2 x 2   r1  r2 
2
 2x 1   1 2 
 x 

2
 r r 
Expanding 1   1 2  using Binomial theorem.
 x 

2 2
 r r  1 r r  r r 
1   1 2   1   1 2  + high powers of  1 2 
 x  2 x   x 

r r 
Neglecting higer powers of  1 2 
 x 

 1  r  r 2   r1  r2 
2
CD  AF  2x 1      2x 
1 2
 2  x   x

 L     2  r1     2  r2  2x 
 r1  r2 
2

 r1  2r1  r2  2r2  2x 

 r1  r2 2
x

   r1  r2   2  r1  r2    2x 
 r1  r2 
2

From the right angled triangle O1O2G,

O1G  rl  r2 
sin   
O1O2 x

Since  is very small, sin    

 r1  r2 
x

Substituting this value of in the expression for L,

L    r1  r2   2  r1  r2 
 r1  r2   2x   r1  r2 2
x x

   r1  r2  2
 r1  r2 
2
 2x 
 r1  r2 
2

x x

L    r1  r2  
 r1  r2 
2
 2x ............... (i)
x

(b) Crossed belt drive

In cross belt drive, the two pulleys rotate in opposite directions.

Let, x = distance between centres of pulleys

r1, r2 = radii of larger and smaller pulleys respectively.

L = total length of belt.

The belt leaves the larger pulley at A and C and smaller pulley at D and F.
Through O2 draw O2G parallel to CD. Since angle O1CD is 90o, O2G will be
perpendicular to O1C. Let angle O1O2G be , then O1A, O1C, O2D and O2F make
angle  with the vertical. Hence the arc of contact between the belt and each pulley
is    2  radian.

Total length of belt is the sum of the length of belt in contact with larger
pulley, length of belt in contact with smaller pulley and the length of the belt not in
contact with the pulleys.

ie, L = Arc ABC + Arc DEF + (CD + AF)

Arc ABC =    2  r1

Arc DEF =    2  r2

(CD + AF) = 2O2G

2  O1O2 2   O1G 2

 2 x 2   r1  r2 
2

2
r r 
 2x 1   1 2 
 x 

2
r r 
Expanding 1   1 2  by Binomial theorem,
 x 

2 2
r r  1r r  r r
1   1 2   1   1 2  + higher powers of 1 2
 x  2 x  x

r r 
Neglecting higher powers of  1 2 
 x 

 1  r  r 2   r1  r2 
2
 CD  AF  2x 1   1 2
   2x 
 2 x   x

 L     2  r1     2  r2  2x 
 r1  r2 
2

 r1  2r1  r2  2r   2x 

 r1  r2 
2

2
x

   r1  r2   2  r1  r2    2x 
 r1  r2 
2

From the right angled triangle O1O2 G,

O1G  r1  r2 
sin   
O1O2 x
Since is small, sin    
 r1  r2 
x

Substituting this value of  in the expression for L,

L    r1  r2   2  r1  r2 
 r1  r2   2x   r1  r2 2
x x

   r1  r2  2
 r1  r2   r1  r2 
2

2
 2x
x x

 r1  r2 
2
ie, L    r1  r2    2x .......... (ii)
x

Comparing equations (i) and (ii), it can be seen that the length of belt required
to connect two pulleys at a fixed distance apart is more for a cross belt drive than for
an open belt drive.

Problem 3.1

Two parallel shafts 6 meters apart are provided with 60 cm and 80 cm

diameter pulleys and are connected by means of a cross belt. The direction of
rotation of the follower pulley is to be reversed by changing over to an open belt
drive. How much length of the belt has to be reduced?

Solution:

Given: d1 = 80 cm, r1 = 40 cm, d2 = 60 cm, r2 = 30 cm, x = 6 m = 600 cm

To find: Change in length of belt.

 r1  r2 
2
Length of cross belt    r1  r2    2x
x

   40  30  
 40  30 
2
 2  600  1428.08 cm
600

 r1  r2 
2
Length of open belt =    r1  r2    2x
x
   40  30  
 40  30 
2
 2  600  1420.08 cm
600

Length of belt to be reduced = 1428.08 – 1420.08

Change in length = 8 cm

3.8 Expression for ratio of belt tensions

Fig. shows a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction.

The angle of contact between the belt and pulley is  radian. Let the tight side
tension be T1 and slack side tension T2. Consider a short length MN of belt, which
substends an angle  at the pulley centre. Let T be the tension at the end M and T +
T, the tension at the end N. The difference in tension is due to the friction between
the length MN of the belt and pulley. The frictional force depends upon the normal
reaction Rn between length MN of belt and pulley and is equal to Rn where is
the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley. The belt MN is in equilibrium
under the action of four forces,

(i) Tension T at M (ii) Tension T + T at N

(iii) Normal reaction Rn, and (iv) Frictional force Rn.

Resolving the forces vertically,

 
T sin   T  T  sin  Rn  0
2 2
   
Since is very small, sin 
2 2 2

 
T   T  T   Rn  0
2 2

  T. 
T T   Rn  0
2 2 2

T . 
Since is very small, it can be neglected.
2

 T   Rn ......... (i)

Resolving the force horizontally,

 
 T  T  cos  T cos  Rn  0
2 2

 
Since is very small cos 1
2 2

  T  T   T  Rn  0

ie, T  Rn

Substituting the value of Rn from equation (i)

T  T 

T
 
T

Integrating between corresponding limits,

T1 
T
 T
 u  
T2 0

T 
ln  1   
 T2 

T1
or,  e
T2
where is the arc of contact of belt and smaller pulley, in radian.

Problem 3.2

A belt, 250 mm, wide and 9 mm thick is used to transmit power from one
pulley to another. The angle of contact at the smaller pulley is 120o and coefficient
of friction between belt and pulley is 0.35. Determine the tight side and slack side
tensions, if the stress in the belt on tight side is 200 N/cm2.

Solution:

Given: b = 250 mm = 25 cm = 0.35 t = 9 mm = 0.9 cm


  120o  120 radian ft = 200 N/cm2
180

To find: T1 , T2

Tension on the tight side = stress × area of cross section of belt.

= 200 × 25 × 0.9 = 4500 N

T1 = 4.5 kN

T1
We have,  e
T2

 o
4.5 0.35 120
e 180  2.08
T2

4.5
T2   2.16
2.08

T2 = 2.16 kN

3.9 Power transmitted by belt drive

Knowing the tension on the two sides of the belt and the belt velocity, power
transmitted can be calculated.

Let T1 = tight side tension, N.

T2 = slack side tension, N

r = radius of pulley, m

= angular velocity, rad/s

V = velocity of belt, m/s

N = speed of pulley, rpm.

The effective turning force at the circumference of the pulley is the difference
between the two tensions, T1 and T2.

Effective turning force = (T1 – T2)

Torque exerted on the pulley = Force × radius = (T1 – T2)r

Work done/s = Torque × angular velocity = (T1 – T2) r ×

But × r = V, velocity of the belt in m/s.

Rate of work done or power transmitted = (T1 – T2) × VN m/s

= (T1 – T2) × V Watts

2N dN
Since V   r  r 
60 60

dN
Power transmitted   T1  T2  Watts
60

Note:- In the above expression, if d is the diameter of driver pulley then N should be
the speed of driver pulley and if d is the diameter of driven pulley then N should be
the speed of driven pulley.

Problem 3.3

An open belt drive transmits 36 kW with a belt velocity of 5 m/s. Determine

the tension on each side of the belt, if the coefficient of friction is 0.3 and the angle
of lap is 180o.

Solution:

Given: V = 5 m/s. P = 36 kW = 36000 Watts = 0.3

 
  180o    radian
180

To find : T1, T2

T1
We have,  e
T2

T1  T2 e  T2e0.3

T1 = 2.57 T2

P   T1  T2  V

36000 = (2.57 T2 – T2)5

T2 = 4586 N

Since T1 = 2.57 T2

T1 = 2.57 × 4586 = 11786

Tr = 11786 N

Problem 3.4

A flat belt 68.5 mm × 10 mm, running on a pulley 1 m diameter is to transmit

power at 200 rpm. Taking angle of lap is 170o and coefficient of friction as 0.25,
determine the maximum power that can be transmitted, if the stress on the belt is not
to exceed 200 N/cm2.

Solution:

Given : d = 1 m N = 200 rpm b = 68.5 mm = 6.85 cm

ft = 200 N/cm2 t = 10 mm = 1 cm = 170o = 2.97 radian

= 0.25

To find: max. power

Maximum Tension, T1  f t  b  t = 200 × 6.85 × 1 = 1370 N

T1
We have,  e
T2
T1  T2e

1370 = T2e0.252.97  2.1T2

T2  652.38 N

d N 1 200
Power transmitted =  T1  T2   1370  652.38  7514.9
60 60

= 7514.9 Watts

Problem 3.5

A flat belt is installed with an initial tension of 2 kN. The angle of lap on the
smaller pulley is 150o. The friction coefficient between the belt and pulley surface is
0.3. The belt runs at a speed of 20 m/s. Determine the power that can be transmitted
by the above drive, if it is assumed that the belt is perfectly elastic and the centrifugal
effect is ignored.

Solution:

Given: T0  2kN  2000 N = 0.3

  150o  2.62 rad V = 20 m/s.

To find : P

T1  T2
T0 
2

 T1  T2  2T0  2  2000  4000 N ........ (i)

T1
 e
T2

T1  T2  e

T1  T2  e0.32.62

T1  2.19 T2

From (i)
2.19T2  T2  4000

T2  1253.92 N

T1  2.19 1253.91  27446.08 N

P   T1  T2  V = (2746.08 – 1253.92) × 20 = 29843.2 N . m/s

P = 29.84 kW

Problem 3.6

The distance between the centres of two pulleys of 300 mm and 750 mm.
diameter is 1.5 m. The pulleys are connected by leather belt, 150 mm. wide and 10
mm. thick, by open belt drive. The maximum tension of the belt should not exceed
14 N/mm. width of belt. Assuming the coefficient of friction between the belt and
pulley as 0.25, determine the maximum power that can be transmitted at a belt speed
of 9 m/s.

Solution:

Given: x = 1.5 m = 1500 mm w = 150 mm d1 = 750 mm

r1 = 375 mm t = 10 mm d2 = 300 mm r2 = 150 mm

T1
 14 N / mm V = 9.m/s
w

To find: P

T1 = 14 × w = 14 × 150 = 2100 N

For an open belt drive

  180 – 2 (Refer fig. 3.8)

r1  r2 375  150
sin     0.15
x 1500

  sin1 0.15  8.627o

   180 – 2  180  2  8.627  162.746o

 
 162.746  2.84 rad
180

T1
 e  e0.252.84  2.034
T2

T1  2.034T2

2100 = 2.034 T2

 T2  1032.45 N

P   T1  T2  V   2100 1032.45 9  9607.95

P = 9.61 kW

3.10 Velocity Ratio and slip of belt drive

In belt drive the power is transmitted by the frictional resistance between the
belt and pulleys. If the frictional resistance between the driver pulley and belt is
insufficient then it may cause some forward motion of the driver pulley without
carrying the belt with it. Similarly if the frictional resistance between the belt and
driven pulley is insufficient it may cause some forward motion of the belt without
carrying the driven pulley with it. In such a case the difference between the speed of
driver pulley and belt, belt and driven pulley is called slip and is generally expressed
as percentage.

Velocity ratio of a belt drive

It is the ratio of velocities of the driven shaft and the driver shaft.

r1 = radius of driver pulley.

2N1
1 = angular velocity of driver pulley  where N1 is the speed of the driver
60
pulley.

r2 = radius of the driven pulley.

2 = angular velocity of driven pulley.

 2N 2
 where N2 is the speed of the driven pulley.
60

Peripheral velocity of driver pulley = 1r1

Peripheral velocity of driven pulley = 2 r2

If there is no slip between the belt and driver pulley, then belt velocity will be
equal to peripheral velocity of driver pulley.

Velocity of belt, V = 1r1

If there is no slip between the belt and driven pulley, then peripheral velocity
of the driven pulley will be equal to belt velocity.

ie, 2 r2 = V

1r1  2 r2

1 r1 d1
  where d1, d2 are the diameter of the driver and driven pulleys.
2 r2 d 2

2N 2
or 60  d1
2N1 d 2
60

N 2 d1

N1 d 2

speed of driven shaft diameter of driver pulley

ie, Velocity ratio, 
speed of driver shaft diameter of driven pulley

If the thickness of the belt, t is also considered, then

N 2 d1  t

N1 d 2  t

Effect of slip on velocity ratio

Let s1% be the slip between the driver pulley and belt.

s2%, slip between belt and driven pulley.

1, 2 , angular velocities of driver and driven pulleys.

N1, N2, speed of the driver and driven pulleys

r2, r1, radii of the driver and driven pulleys.

d1, d2, diameters of driver and driven pulleys, then,

Peripheral velocity of driver = 1r1,

Velocity of belt = s1% less than peripheral velocity of driver

100  s1   r  s 
 100  s1  % 1r1  11  1  1  1r1
100  100 

Peripheral velocity of the driven pulley = s2% less than the velocity of the belt.

ie, 2r2  100  s2  % of the velocity of the belt


100  s2   1  s1 
  1r1
100  100 

2 r1  s  s 
  1  1 1  2 
1 r2  100  100 

r1  s2 s s1s2 
 1   1  
r2  100 100 100 100 

s1s 2
Neglecting the very small value turn
100  100

2 d1  s s 
 1  1  2 
1 d 2  100 100 

2 d1  s1  s2 
ie,  1  
1 d 2  100 

2N 2
60  d1 1  s  where s is the total percentage of slip
2N1 d 2  100 
60

ie, s = s1 + s2.
 N2 d1  s 
  1  
N1 d 2  100 

From the above equation it can be seen that as slip increases the velocity ratio
decreases. So the effect of slip is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. If the
effect of belt thickness and slip are considered, then velocity ration,

N 2  d1  t   s 
 1  
N1  d 2  t   100 

Problem 3.7

A horizontal shaft running at 200 rpm is driving a shaft parallel to it at 300

rpm. The pulley on the driving shaft is 50 cm diameter. Find the diameter of the
driven pulley under the following conditions:- (i) Neglecting belt thickness, (ii)
Taking 0.5 cm for belt thickness (iii) Assuming a slip of 5% in the later case.

Solution:

Given: N1 = 200 rpm t = 0.5 cm N2 = 300 rpm s = 5% d1 = 50 cm

To find : d2

(i) Neglecting belt thickness,

N 2 d1
We have, 
N1 d 2

N1d 2 200  50
d2    33.33 cm
N2 300

(ii) Considering the belt thickness,

We have,

N 2 d1  t

N1 d 2  t

200
d 2  0.5   50  0.5  
300

d 2  33.17 cm

(iii) Considering slip and belt thickness

We have,

N2 d1  t  s 
 1  
N1 d 2  t  100 

N1  s 
d2  t    d1  t  1  
N2  100 

200
d 2  0.5   50  0.51  0.05
300

d 2  31.48 cm

Problem 3.8

An engine running at 150 rpm drives a line shaft by means of a belt. The
engine pulley shaft is 75 cm diameter and pulley on the line shaft is 45 cm. A 90 cm
diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a 15 cm diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo
shaft. Find the speed of the dynamo shaft, when (i) there is no slip (ii) there is a slip
of 2% at each drive.

Solution:

Given:

N1 = 150 rpm d1 = 75 cm d2 = 45 cm d3 = 90 cm d4 = 15 cm

s = 2%

To find: N4

(i) When there is no slip

N 2 d1
We have, 
N1 d 2

d1 75
N 2  N1   1500  N2 = 250 rpm
d2 45

N3 = N2

(Pulleys 2 & 3 are on the same shaft)

 N 4 d3
Also, 
N3 d 4

d3 90
N 4  N3  = 250 
d4 15

N4 = 1500 rpm

(ii) When there is 2% slip,

N 2 d1  s 
We have  1  
N1 d 2  100 

d1  s  75  2 
N2  N1  1    150  45  1  100 
d 2  100   

N2 = 245 rpm

N3  N2  245 rpm

N 4 d3  s 
Also,   1  
N3 d 4  100 

d3  s  90
N 4  N3  1    245  15  1  2 100
d 4  100 

N4 = 1440.6 rpm.

3.11 Gear terminology

Various terms used in the study of gears have been explain below:

1. Pitch cylinders: Pitch cylinders of a pair of gears in mesh are the

imaginary cylinders which by rolling together transmit the same
motion as the pair of gears.

2. Pitch circle: It is the circle with radius equal to the radius of the pitch
cylinder.

3. Pitch circle diameter: It is the diameter of pitch circle.

4. Pitch point: It is the point of contact of two pitch circles.

5. Circular pitch: It is the distance measured along the circumference of
pitch circle from a point from one tooth to the corresponding point on
the adjacent tooth. It is denoted by pC.

d
pC  , where d is the pitch circle diameter and T is the number of
T
teeth.

6. Pitch angle: It is the angle substended by the circular pitch at the

centre of the pitch circle.

7. Diametral pitch: It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch
circle diameter. It is denoted by P.

T
P
d

8. Module: It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter in millimeter to the

number of teeth. It is denoted by m.

d
m
T

9. Addendum circle: It is the circle passing through the tips of teeth.

10. Addendum: It is the radial distance between pitch circle and

addendum circle.

11. Dedendum or root circle: It is the circle passing through the roots of
the teeth.

12. Dedendum: It is the radial distance between pitch circle and

dedendum circle.

13. Full depth of teeth: It is the radial distance between dedendum circle
and addendum circle

Full depth = Addendum + Dedendum

14. Clearance: It is the radial difference between the addendum and the
dedendum of a tooth.

15. Top land: It is the surface at the top of tooth.

 16. Bottom land: It is the surface at the root of tooth, in between two
adjacent teeth.

17. Tooth thickness: It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch
circle

18. Tooth space: It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth
measured along the pitch circle.

19. Backlash: It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth
thickness, measured along the pitch circle.

20. Face: It is the tooth surface between the pitch circle and the top land.

21. Flank: It is the tooth surface between the pitch circle and the bottom
land.

22. Face width: It is the length of tooth measured parallel to the axis of
gear.

23. Profile: It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.

3.12. Velocity ratio of gear drive I

The gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the speed of driven gear to the speed
of driving gear. It is denoted by the letter 'G'. A schematic diagram of two p1ating
spur gears A and B is shown in fig. 3.14. Let the pitch circle diameters of A and B be
d1 and d2 respectively.

In case of driving gear A rotates with N1 rpm ( 1 rad/sec) in clockwise

direction, then the driven gear B rotates with N2 rpm ( 2 rad/sec) in anticlockwise
direction.

1d1
The peripheral velocity of driving gear A is equal to .
2

2 d 2
The peripheral velocity of driven gear B is equal to . Since the gear
2
drive is positive, the peripheral velocity of driven gear will be equal to the peripheral
velocity of driven gear will be equal to the peripheral velocity of the driver gear.
 d2 d
Hence, 2  1 1
2 2

2 d1

1 d 2

N 2 d1
or  .......... (i)
N1 d 2

d1
Circular pitch of gear A, pCI   where T1 is the number of teeth on driving gear
T1
A.

d2
Circular pitch of gear B, PC2   , where T2 is the number of teeth on
T2
driven gear B. Two gears will mesh together correctly, only if the gears have the
same circular pitch.

 PC1  PC2

d1 d
  2
T1 T2

d1 T1
or  ........... (ii)
d 2 T2

N 2 T1
From (i) and (ii) 
N1 T2

N 2 T1 d1
i.e, Velocity ratio or gear ratio, ‘G’,  
N1 T2 d 2

Problem 3.9

Two spur wheels, A and B, on parallel shafts, are in mesh. A has 40 teeth and
rotates at 250 r.p.m. B is rotate at 100 r.p.m. Find the number of teech on B.

Solution:

Given: TA = 40 NB = 100 rpm NA = 250 rpm

To find: TB
 N B TA
We have, 
N A TB

NA 250
TB  TA   40   100
NB 100

TB = 100

Problem 3.10

Two mating spur gears have 60 and 40 teeth. Their common module is 5 mm.
Determine the centre to centre distance between the gears axis.

Solution:

Given: T1 = 60 m = 5 mm T2 = 40

To find : L

d
Module, m =
T

d1 = mT1 = 5 × 60 = 300 mm.

d2 = mT2 = 5 × 40 = 200 mm

We have,

d1 d1 300 200
L  r1  r2     = 150 + 100 = 250
2 2 2 2

L = 250 mm
 Module – 4

Steam Power Plant

Introduction

Steam is an important medium of producing mechanical energy. Steam has

the advantage that it can be raised from water which is available in abundance it does
not react much with the materials of the equipment of power plant and is stable at the
temperature required in the plant. Steam is used to drive steam engines, steam
turbines etc. Steam power station is most suitable where coal is available in
abundance. Thermal electrical power generation is one of the major method. Out of
total power developed in India about 60% is thermal. For a thermal power plant the
2
range of pressure may vary from 10 kg/cm to super critical pressures and the range
of temperature may be from 250° to 650°C.

The average all India Plant load factor (P.L.F.) of thermal power plants in
1987-88 has been worked out to be 56·4% which is the highest P.L.F. recorded by
thermal sector so' far.

Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment

A steam power plant must have following equipments :

(i) A furnace to bum the fuel.

(ii) Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generate I in the

furnace is utilized to convert water in steam.

(iii) Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy
of steam and perform work.

(iv) Piping system to convey steam and water.

In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and
accessories depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which
the plant is intended.

The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits

(i) Feed water and steam flow circuit.

 (ii) Coal and ash circuit.

(iii) Air and gas circuit.

(iv) Cooling water circuit.

A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on

Ranking cycle.

Fig1

Fig. 1 shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station.

Coal received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the fUl"1!8ce by
coal handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilised in converting
water contained in boiler drum into steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The
steam generated is passed through the super-heater. Superheated steam then flows
through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine the pressure of steam is
reduced". Steam leaving the turbine passes. through the condenser, which maintain
the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine. Steam pressure in the condenser
depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air
removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be- taken from the
various sources such as river, lake or se~ If sufficient quantity of water is not
available the hot water coming out of the condenser may be cooled in cooling towers
and circulated again through the condenser.

Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low
pressure and high pressure water heaters.
 Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where
it is heated by flue gases.

Nuclear Energy

It has been found that one kilogram of U can produce as much energy as can
be produced by burning 4500 tonnes of high grade coal. This shows that nuclear
energy can be successfully employed for producing low cost energy in abundance as
required by the expanding and industrialising population of future.

1. Hydro-electric power is of storage type and is largely dependent of

monsoons. The systems getting power from such plants have to shed
load during the period of low rainfall.

2. Oil is mainly needed for transport, fertilizers and petrochemicals and

thus cannot be used in large quantities for power generation?

3. Coal is available only in some parts of the country and transportation

of coal requires big investments.

4. Nuclear power is partially independent of geographical factors, the

only requirement being that there should be reasonably good supply
of water. Fuel transportation networks and larger storage facilities are
not needed and nuclear power plant is a clean source of power which
does not pollute the air if radio-active hazards are

World's first nuclear power plant was commissioned in 1954 in U.S.S.R.

Since then efforts are being made to make use of nuclear power.

Nuclear power plan s resemble, conventional thermal power plants insofar as

they produce steam to drive a turbine whose rotational energy is converted into
electricity by means of a generator. In contrast to power plants fired by coal, oil, or
gas, nuclear power plant use the energy released from splitting atoms to convert
water into steam. The "fuel" that leads itself to this splitting procedure is the uranium
atoms, and its splitting, or fission, is engineered within a reactor.
Chain Reaction

Uranium exist as isotopes of U238, U234 and U235. Out of these isotopes U235 is
most unstable. When a neutron is captured by nucleus of an atom of U235, it splits up
roughly into two equal fragments and about 2·5 neutrons are released and a large
amount of energy (nearly 200 million electron volts MeV) is produced. This is called
fission process. The neutrons so produced are very fast moving neutrons and can be
made to fission other nuclei of U235 thus enabling a chain reaction to take place.
When a large number of fissions occurs, enormous amount of heat is produced.
7
The neutrons released have a very high velocity of the order of 1.5 × 10
metres per second. The energy liberated in the chain reaction is according to Einstein
law
2
E = mc

where E = Energy produced

m = mass in grams
10
c = speed of light in em/sec equivalent to 3 × 10 em/sec.

Out of 2·5 neutrons released in fission of each nuclei of U235, one neutron is
used to sustain the chain reaction, about 0·9 neutron is captured by U238 which gets
239
converted into fissionable material, PU and about 0.6 neutrons is partly absorbed
by control rod material, coolant moderator and partly escape from the reactor.
239
Production of the fissionable material Pu during chain reaction compensates the
239
burn up of primary fuel U235 U238 + neutron = PU . If thorium is used in the reactor
33
core it produces fissionable material U2 .
232
Th + Neutron U233
239
PU and U233 so produced are fissionable material and can be used as nuclear fuel
and are known as secondary fuel. U235 is called primary fuel:

The chain reaction producing a constant rate of heat energy can continue only
if the neutron liberated by fission, balance the disposal of neutrons by different ways
listed below:
 1. Escape of neutrons from the fissionable materials.

2. Fission capture by U235, and Pu239 and U233.

3. Non-fission capture by moderator, control rods, fission fragments and

by impurities etc.

Fertile Material

It is defined as the material which absorbs neutrons and undergoes

238
spontaneous changes which lead to the formation of fissionable material. U and
232
Th are fertile materials. They absorb neutrons and produce fissionable materials
239
Pu and U233 respectively.

Parts of a Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in which heat is produced due to nuclear

fission chain reaction. Figure shows the various parts of reactor, which are as
follows:

(i) Nuclear Fuel (ii) Moderator

(iii) Control Rods (iv) Reflector

(v) Reactors Vessel (vi) Biological Shielding

(vii) Coolant

Nuclear Fuel. Fuel of a nuclear reactor should be fissionable material which can be
defined as an element or isotope whose nuclei can be caused to undergo nuclear
fission by nuclear bombardment and to produce a fission chain reaction. It can be one
or all of the following U233 U235 and Pu239.

Natural uranium found in earth crust contains three isotopes namely U 234,
U235, U238 and their average percentage is as follows:

U238 – 99.3% ; U235 – 0.7% ; U234 - Trace.

Out of these U235 is most unstable and is capable of sustaining chain reaction
239
and has been given the name as primary fuel. U233 and Pu are artificially produced
232
from Th and U238 respectively and are called secondary fuel.

Pu239 and U233 so produced can be fissioned by thermal neutrons.

Nuclear fuel should not be expensive to fabricate. It should be able to operate

at high temperatures and should be resistant to radiation damage.

Uranium deposits ate found in various countries such as Congo, Canada,

U.S.A., U.S.S.R., U.K., Australia, Czechoslovakia and Portugal etc.

The fuel should be protected from corrosion and erosion of the coolant and for
this it is encased in metal cladding generally stainless steel or aluminium.

Adequate arrangements should be made for fuel supply, charging or

discharging and storing of the fuel.

For economical operation of a nuclear power plant special attention should be

paid to reprocess the spent up (burnt) fuel elements to recover the unconsumed fuel.
The spent up fuel elements are intensively radioactive and emits some neutrons and
gamma rays and should be handled carefully.

In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by fission products, a

protective coating or cladding must separate the fuel from the coolant stream. Fuel
element cladding should possess the following properties:

(i) It should be able to withstand high temperature within the reactor.

(ii) It should have high corrosion resistance.

(iii) It should have high thermal conductivity.

(iv) It should not have a tendency to absorb neutrons.

Moderator. In the chain reaction the neutrons produced are fast moving neutrons.
235
These fast moving neutrons are far less effective in causing the fission of U and try
to escape from the reactor. To improve the utilization of these neutrons their speed is
reduced. It is done by colliding them with the nuclei of other material which is
lighter, does not capture the neutrons but scatters them. Each such collision causes
loss of energy, and the speed of the fast moving neutrons is reduced. Such material is
called Moderator. The slow neutrons (Thermal Neutrons) so produced are easily
captured by the nuclear fuel and the chain reaction proceeds smoothly. Graphite,
heavy water and beryllium are generally used as moderator.

Reactors using enriched uranium do not require moderator.

But enriched uranium is costly due to processing needed.

A moderator should process the following properties: (i) It should have high thermal
conductivity.

(ii) It should be available in large quantities in pure form.

(iii) It should have high melting point in case of solid moderators and low
melting point in case of liquid moderators. Solid moderators should
also possess good strength and machinability.

(iv) It should provide good resistance to corrosion.

(v) It should be stable under heat and radiation.

(vi) It should be able to slow down neutrons.

Control Rods. The control and operation of a nuclear reactor is quite different from
a fossil and fueled (coal or oil fired) furnace. The furnace is fed continuously and the
heat energy in the furnace is controlled by regulating the fuel feed and the
combustion air whereas a nuclear reactor contains as much fuel as is sufficient to
operate a large power plant for some months. The consumption of this fuel and the
power level of the reactor depends upon its neutron flux in the reactor core. The
energy produced in the reactor due to fission of nuclear fuel during chain reaction is
so much that if it is not controlled properly the entire core and surrounding structure
may melt and radioactive fission products may come out of the reactor thus making it
uninhabitable. This implies that we should have some means to control the power of
the react r. This is done by means of control rods. Control rods in the cylindrical or
sheet form are made of boron or cadmium. These rods c n be moved in and out of the
holes in the reactor core assembly. Their insertion withdrawal absorbs less neutrons.
Thus power of reaction is controlled by shifting control rods which may be done
manually or automatically.

Control rods should possess the following properties:

(i) They should have adequate heat transfer properties.

(ii) They should be stable under heat and radiation.
(iii) They should be corrosion resistant.
(iv) They should be sufficient strong and should be able to shut down the
reactor almost instantly under all conditions.
(v) They should have sufficient cross-sectional area for the absorption.

Reflector. The neutrons produced during the fission process will be partly absorbed
by the fuel rods, moderator, coolant or structural material etc. Neutrons left
unabsorbed will try to leave the reactor core never to return to it and will be lost.
Such losses should be minimised. It is done by surrounding the reactor core by a
material called reflector which will send the neutrons back into the core. The
returned neutrons can then cause more fission and improve the neutrons economy of
the reactor. Generally the reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.

Reactor Vessel. It is a strong walled container housing the core of the power reactor.
It contains moderator, reflector, thermal shielding and control rods.

Biological Shielding. Shielding the radioactive zones in the reactor from possible
radiation hazard is essential to protect, the operating men from the harmful effects.
During fission of nuclear fuel, alpha particles, beta particles, deadly gamma rays and
neutrons are produced. Out of these neutrons and gamma rays are of main
significance. A protection must be provided against them. Thick layers of lead or
concrete are provided all round the reactor for stopping the gamma rays. Thick layers
of metals or plastics are sufficient to stop the alpha and beta particles.

(a) Coolant. Coolant flows through and around the reactor core. It is used to transfer
the large amount of heat produced in the reactor due to fission of the nuclear fuel
during chain reaction. The coolant either transfers its heat to another medium or if
the coolant used is water it takes up the heat and gets converted into steam in the
reactor which is directly sent to the turbine.

Coolant used should be stable under thermal condition. It should have a low
melting point and high boiling point. It should not corrode the material with which it
comes in contact. The coolant should have high heat transfer coefficient. The
radioactivity induced in coolant by the neutrons bombardment should be nil. The
various fluids used as coolant are water (light water or heavy water), gas (Air, CO2,
hydrogen. Helium) and liquid metals such as sodium or mixture of sodium and
potassium and inorganic and organic fluids.

Power required to pump the coolant should be minimum. A coolant of greater

density and higher specific heat demands less pumping power and water satisfies this
condition to a great extent. Water is a good coolant as it is available in large qualities
can be easily handled. provides some lubrication also and offers no unusual corrosion
problems. But due to its low boiling point (212°F at atmospheric pressure) it is to be
kept under high pressure to keep it in the liquid state to achieve a high that transfer
efficiency. Water when used as coolant should be free from impurities otherwise the
impurities may become radioactive and handling of water will be difficult.

Main Component of a Nuclear Power Plant

The main components of a nuclear power plant are shown in fig.2

Fig2
 These include nuclear reactor, heat exchanger (steam generator), turbine,
electric generator and condenser. Reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the
furnace of steam power plant. The heat liberation in the reactor due to the nuclear
fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating through the reactor core. Hot
coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows through the tubes of steam generator
(boiler) and passes on its heat to the feed water. The steam produced is passed
through the turbine and after work has been done by the expansion of steam in the
turbine steam leaves the turbine and flows to the condenser. Pumps are provided to
maintain the flow of coolant, condensate and feed water.

Boiling Water Reactor (B.W.R.)

Fig3. shows nuclear power plant using B.W.R. In this reactor enriched
uranium (enriched uranium contains more fissionable isotope 1]235 then the
naturally occurring percentage 0.7%) is used as nuclear fuel and water is used as
coolant. Water enters the reactor at the bottom. It takes up the heat generated due to
the fission of fuel and gets converted into steam. Steam leaves the reactor at the top
and flows into the turbine. Water also serves as moderator. India's first nuclear
power plant at Tarapur has two reactors (each of 200 MW capacity) of boiling water
reactor type.

Fig3
Pressurised Water Reactor (P.W.R.)

A P.W.R. nuclear plant is shown in Fig4. It uses enriched U as fuel. Water is

used as coolant and moderator. Water passes through the reactor core and takes up
the heat liberated due to nuclear fission of the fuel. In order that water may not boil
(due to its low boiling point 212°F at atmospheric conditions) and remain in liquid
state it is kept under a pressure of about 1200 p.s.i.g. by the pressuriser. This enables
water to take up more heat from the reactor. From the pressuriser water flows to the
steam generator where it passes on its heat to the feed water which in turn gets
converted into steam.

Fig4

Sodium Graphite Reactor (SGR)

The reactor shown in Fig.5uses two liquid metal coolants. Liquid sodium (Na)
serves as the primary coolant and an alloy of sodium potassium (NaK) as the
secondary coolant.
 Fig5

Sodium melts at 208°C and boils at 1625°F. This enable to achieve high outlet
coolant temperature in the reactor at moderate pressure nearly atmospheric which can
be utilized in producing steam of high temperature, thereby increasing the efficiency
of the plant. Steam .at temperature as high as 1000°F has been obtained by this
system. This shows that by using liquid sodium as coolant more electrical power can
be generated for a given quantity of the fuel burn up. Secondly low pressure in the
primary and secondary coolant circuits, permit the use of less expensive pressure
vessel and pipes etc. Further sodium can transfer its heat very easily. The only
disadvantage in this system is that sodium becomes radio active while passing
through the core and reacts chemically with water. So it is not used directly to
transfer its heat to the feed water, but a secondary coolant is used. Primary coolant
while passing through the tubes of intermediate heat exchanges (I.H.X.) transfers its
heat to the secondary coolant. The secondary coolant then flows through the tubes of
steam generator and passes on its heat to the feed water. Graphite is used as
moderator in this reactor. For heat exchanger refer Fig. Liquid metals used as heat
transfer media have certain advantages over other common liquids used for heat
transfer purposes. The various advantages of using liquid metals as heat transfer
media are that they have relatively low melting points and combine high densities
with low vapour pressure at high temperatures as well as with large thermal
conductivities.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

Fig. shows a fast breeder reactor system. In this reactor the core containing
1J235 is surrounded by a blanket (a layer of fertile material placed outside the core)
238
or fertile material U . In this reactor no moderator is used. The fast moving
neutrons liberated due to fission of U235 are absorbed by U238 which gets converted
239
into fissionable material PU which is capable of sustaining chain reaction. Thus
this reactor is important because it breeds fissionable material from fertile material
U238 available in large quantities. Like sodium graphite nuclear reactor this reactor
also uses two liquid metal coolant circuits. Liquid sodium is used as primary coolant
when circulated through the tubes of intermediate heat exchange transfers its heat to
secondary coolant sodium potassium alloy. The secondary coolant while flowing
through the tubes of steam generator transfer its heat to feed water.

Fast breeder reactors are better than conventional reactor both from the point
of view of safety and thermal efficiency. For India which already is fast advancing
towards self reliance in the field of nuclear power technology.

Water Power

Water power has some inherent advantages as follows:

(i) Running cost of hydro power plant is low as compared to steam power plant or
nuclear power plant of same capacity.

(ii) The hydro plant system reliability is greater than that of other power plants.

(iii) The hydraulic turbines can be put off and on in matter of minutes. Nuclear
power plants and steam power plants lack this facility.

(iv) Modern hydropower plant equipment has a greater life expectancy which is
about 50 years or more" whereas as nuclear power plant has an effective life
about 30 years.

(v) Steam power plants have problem of ash disposal where as hydro power plants
have no comparable problem.

(vi) Modern hydro generators give very high efficiency over a considerable range of
load.
 Besides power generation this plant is quite useful for irrigation and flood
control. This plant can be used both as base load plant and peak load plant.

Fig6

A schematic diagram of hydro-electric power plant is shown in Fig6. Water

surface in the storage reservoir is known as head race level or simply headrace.
Penstocks or canals are used to bring water from the dam to the turbines fitted in the
power house which is built at some lower level. Penstocks are made up of steel,
wood or reinforced concrete. Water centers the turbine through the inlet valve.
Hydraulic turbines convert the potential energy of water into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy developed by the turbine is used in running the electric generator
which is directly coupled to shaft of the turbine.

Water power can be divided into two types as follows:

(i) Primary or firm power

(ii) Secondary or surplus power.

Primary power is the power corresponding to minimum stream flow with due
consideration to the effects of pond age and load factor. It is the power always
available to supply the load. The secondary power is available only when quantity of
water and storage are sufficient.
 Hydro power is a conventional renewable source of energy which is clean,
free from pollution and generally having good environmental effect. The pace of
utilization of hydro potential during the last decades has been slow compared to total
energy development. Large investments, long gestation period and increased cost of
power transmission are major obstacles in the utilisation of hydro power resources.

Hydro power is important next to thermal power. About 30% of total power
of the world is met by hydro electric power plants. The total hydro potential of the
world is about 5000 GW. There are some countries in the world where almost entire
power generation is hydrobased. For example in Norway the hydropower forms 99%
of total installed capacity.

Power output from a hydro power plant depends on the lul10wing three factors:

(0 Head (ii) Efficiency. (iii) Discharge.

Essential Feature or Elements of Hydro-electric Power Plant

The essential elements of hydro-electric power plant are as follows:

(i) Reservoir (ii) Dam

(iii) Forebay (iv) Trash rack

(v) Water way (vi) Draft tube

(vii) Surge tank (viii) Spill way

(ix) Power house and equipment

1. Water Reservoir. It is the basic requirement of a hydro-electric power plant.

Water reservoir is used to store water which may be utilized to run the turbines to
produce electric power. Reservoir may be natural such as lake or artificial reservoir
can be built by erecting a dam across the river. Water held in upstream reservoir is
called storage whereas water behind the dam at the plant is called pondage.

2. Dam. A dam is structure of masonry or some other material built at a suitable

location across a river. The primary function of the dam is to provide a head of
water. It also creates pondage or storage. Economy and safety are the basic
requirement of a dam. Dam should be capable of resisting pressure of water and
should be stable under all conditions.

Dams are classified based on the following factors:

(i) Function (ii) shape

(iii) Construction materials (iv) Design.

Based on functions the dams may be called as storage dams, diversion dams or
detention dams. Storage dams are mainly for storing water whereas diversion dams
are c6nstructed to raise the water level and to divert the river flow in another
direction. Detention dams are primarily used to store flood waters.

Based on shape the dams may of trapezoidal section, and arch type. The commonly
used materials for constructing dams are earth, rock pieces, stone masonry, concrete
and RC.C. concrete dams may be plain as well as steel reinforced, earthen and
rockfill dams are the three most popular categories of dams based on the material
classification.

According to structural design the dams may be classified as :

(a) Gravity dam (b) Arch dam

(c) Buttress dam (d) Earthen dams.

(e) Rock fill dam.

A gravity dam is one in which the retained water thrust is resisted by gravity
action whereas in arch dam the thrust is resisted by the arch action. A buttress dam
resists the water thrust with the help of buttresses which support the water through an
inclined structural member such as a buttress. Based on hydraulic design dams may
be classified as :

(i) Non-over flow dams

(ii) Over-flow dams.

In non-over flow type dam water is not allowed to flow over top of dam
whereas in overflow type water is allowed to flow over top of dam.
 The various structural material used for dams may be concrete or stone
masonry, earth, rock fill or timber. The type selected depends upon the topography of
the site, foundation condition and economics. The foundation should be sufficiently
impervious to prevent seepage of water under the dam. Timber dams are rarely used
and need constant inspection to keep them in good condition. Masonry dams are
quite popular and are of three major types:

(i) The solid gravity dam (ii) The buttress dam

(iii) The arched dam.

Bio-Gas

The most important sources of organic waste for the production of bio gas in
India is cow-dung: and agricultural wastes. The cow-dung and agricultural waste are
used extensively as direct sources of energy in rural areas. The development of the
technology for bio-gas production from organic wastes to preserved their manurial
value and at the same time to provide the rural area with a substitute source of energy
has been recognised. Indian has about 237 million cattle population and if the entire
dung field from the cattle population is utilized for the bio gas production in an
3
optimum manner, the annual gas availability would be about 66,000 million m .
Agricultural wastes have the capacity to produce a lot more gas than cow-dung. A
kilogram of paddy straw can produce about six cubic feet of a gas as against a
kilogram of cow-dung which can produce about 1·3-;eubic feet of gas. In a bio-gas
plant apart from the gas that is produced, enriched manure is also obtained.

One of the main advantages of street lighting or home lighting with bio-gas is
that the entire process will be simple with absolutely no recurring expenditure. Also
in case of bio-gas system failure the villagers themselves will be able to rectify the
fault. Further the same gas that is used for cooking can after a simple process of
conversion be used to light a bulb. The maintenance costs on a community type
gobar gas plant are easy to bear as it is run by a group of persons.

Gobar gas plants are cheap, simple easy to handle and can be made locally by
using indigenous materials. The plant not only produces enough gas for the kitchen
and oil engines but also makes available fertilisers to increase food production. Bio-
gas plants have proved to be a boon to the farmer because the manure from bio-gas
plants is richer in nitrogen content and more in quantity than that obtained by
conventional composing. The gobar gas plants also reduce firewood consumption.

In the gobar gas plant the cow-dung is fermented to yield a combustible gas
which can be used for cooking as well as lighting purposes. The residue becomes
available for use as manure.

A gobar gas plant consists of two main parts namely digester and gas holder.
The digester is a sort of wall, constructed of masonry work below the surface of
ground. The gas holder is built with bricks and cement as dome cover of the well of
the digester into which a mixture of various organic wastes mostly cow and buffalo
dung and water is fed at regular intervals. When the gas is formed by' fermentation of
cow-dung in the digester it ascends towards the top of dome and pushes the slurry
down.

The displaced level of slurry provides necessary pressure for the release of the
gas up to the burners of kitchens or other outlets. The manure obtained from bio-gas
plants in richer in nitrogen content and more in quantity than obtained by
conventional composting.

Bio-gas, a mixture of methane 55-65%, carbon dioxide (CO2) 30-40% and

other impurities is produced during decomposition. The materials for generation of
the gas should possess the following characteristics:

(a) Proper carbon to nitrogen (CIN) ratio.

(b) Appropriate Volatile-solid concentration.

(c) Particle size as small as possible.

Material from which bio-gas is produced retains its nutrient value and can be
used as fertilizer.

Bio-gas is produced by digestion or hydrogasification process.

Digestion is biological process that occurs in the absence of oxygen and in the
presence of anaeorbic organisms at ambient pressure and temperature 350°C.
 The gobar gas plant should be near the kitchen, in an open place and away
from any wall or tree so as to be under sunshine as much as possible. This will
ensure better fermentation and better gas production. This plant helps to keep the
environment clean.

In the face of global energy crisis and depleting forest resources in the country
bio-gas energy assumes great importance in strengthening rural economy. Today
along with other items like food, shelter and clothing energy also forms part of the
basic needs of the rural household.

Fuel from gobar gas plant has a very high thermal efficiency of about 60%
whereas efficiency of cow-dung is only 11%.

Bio-gas is a flammable gas. The combustible portion is only methane in the

3
gas. One m of gas may be thought of equivalent to 0·7 kg of gasoline for power
output. A bio-gas lamp of a luminosity of about 60 watts equivalent electrical light
3
can be functioning for six to seven hours if one m gas is available. One horse power
3
engine can work for nearly two hours with a m of gas. The gas has' a flame
temperature of about 500°C.

The major constraints in the wide spread adoption of bio-gas technology are
as follows:

(i) The high cost of gas plants with the models now in use.

(ii) The constant attention required in operation at these plants.

Biogas manure plant: Fig7. shows a precast R.C.C. biogas manure plant. This plant
is easy to operate and is simple in construction. The raw material of the material is
mixture of dung and water which flows down through the inlet pipe to the bottom of
digester. A pipe is provided at the top for flow of gas for usage.
 Fig7

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

In our country power is needed in plenty to sustain our industrial growth and
agricultural production. Existing sources of energy such as coal, oil, water and
uranium may not be sufficient to meet the increasing energy demands. This requires
that scientists and engineers should undertake research work which would help in
exploring the possibilities of harnessing energy from several non-conventional
sources of energy. The various non-conventional sources of energy are as follows:-

(i) Solar energy (ii) Wind energy

(iii) Bio-gas and bio-mass (iv) MHD generator

(v) Geothermal (vi) Tidal power

(vii) Fuel cells (viii) Thermo-electric generation

(ix) Thermionic converter.

The main advantages of non-conventional sources of energy are as follows:

(i) They are widely available

(ii) They are non-polluting

(iii) They are well suited for decentralised use a distinct advantage in a large
country like India.
Solar Energy

Among the various non-conventional sources of energy the solar energy

seems to hold out the greatest promise for the mankind. It is free, in exhaustible, non-
polluting and devoid of political control. Rapid depletion of fossil fuels and
combined crisis of pollution and of steep rise in oil prices have brought about an up
surge of interest in solar energy.

Solar radiations can be converted directly or in directly in the form of energy

such as heat and electricity. Solar power would eliminate most of the serious
environmental problems associated with fossil fuel and nuclear power. Energy is
released by the sun as electromagnetic Waves of which 99% have wave lengths
between 0.2 to 4.0 , where,  is micrometer. Solar energy reaching the top of earth's
atmosphere consists of about 8% ultra violet radiation (short wave length less than
0.39 ), 46% visible light (0.39) to (0.78 .) and 46% infrared radiation Gong wave
length more than 0.78 ).

Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground
directly from the sun is called Direct Radiation. It is the radiation which produces a
shadow when interrupted by an opaque object. The radiations received after
scattering is called Diffuse Radiation. Diffuse radiation comes to earth from all parts
of the sky, The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the
sum of direct and diffuse radiation.

Solar Radiation Measurement

Following two type of instruments are used for solar radiation measurement:

(i) Pyrheliometer. It collimates the radiation to determine the beam

intensity as a function of incident angle.

(ii) Pyranometer. It measures the total hemi-spherical solar radiation. The

pyranometer is quite popular.

Solar Energy Collectors

Solar energy can be exploited in various ways as follows: (i) By direct

conversion to a fuel by photosynthesis
 (ii) By direct conversion to electricity by photo voltaic.

(iii) By conversion to electricity via thermo-electric power system.

However thermo-electric system is most commonly used to as other two

systems are still far away from acceptable limits.

Following thermo-electric systems are presently used for power generation .

(i) Low temperatures cycles using flat plate collectors.

(ii) Concentrator collector for medium and high temperature cycles.

(iii) Power concept for power generation.

Flat Plate Collectors

A flat plate collector is shown in Fig8.. Flat plate collectors are made in
rectangular panels from about 1·7 to 2·9 sq. m in area and are realtively simple to
construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and scattered solar
radiation they are thus partially effective even on cloudy days where there is no
direct radiation.

Fig8

The solar rays pass through transparent covers and fall on absorbing surface.
The absorbing surface which is usually made of copper, aluminium, or steel coated
with a heat resistant black (carbon) point intercepts and absorbs the solar radiation
energy. Radiation energy is converted into heat and water flowing through the tubes
gets heated. It is not possible to generate steam with plate collectors so this system
can not be used directly to run the prime mover. So some other organic fluid such as
Freon-14, 150 butane etc. which evaporate at low temperature and high pressure by
absorbing heat from heated water. The vapours formed can be used to run the prime
mover (turbine or engine) to generate power.

Insulation is used to prevent loss of heat from the absorber and heat transpor-
ting fluid. The insulating materials commonly used are fibreglass or styrofoam.

Flat plate collecters are also called non-concentrating type.

Collectors, are classified as low temperature collectors because they can

generate temperature less than 90° and have a collection efficiency of about 30 to
50%.

Concentrating Collectors

Concentrating or focusing collectors are of two types:

(i) Line focusing collectors (ii) Point focusing collectors.

Focusing collectors collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiations
on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use optical system in the
form of reflectors or refractors and can heat the fluids up to about 500°C. An
important difference between collectors of non-focusing and focusing types is that
the latter concentrate only direct radiation coming from a specific direction.

Line Focusing Collectors

Fig9. shows a parabolic trough collector. In this collector the solar radiations
coming from a particular direction are collected over the area of the reflecting
surface and is concentrated at the focus (F) of parabola. Mostly cylindrical parabolic
concentrators are used in which absorber is placed along focus axis. Fig. 11·3 shows
a typical cylindrical parabolic collector. It consists of parabolic cylinder reflector to
concentrate sun light on to a collecting pipe. The reflector is steered during day time
to keep sun light focused on the collector. This type of concentrator produces much
higher temperature than flat plate collectors. The dimensions of parabolic trough
collector or parabolic cylindrical collector can vary over a wide range, the length of a
reflector unit may be above 3 to 5 m arid width about 1·5 to 2·4 m. Ten or more such
units may be connected end to end in a row, several rows being connected in parallel.
Parabolic trough reflectors may be made from polished aluminium, silvered glass or
a thin film of highly aluminised plastic on a firm base.

Fig9

Point Focusing tollector

Fig. shows a paraboloidal dish collector which bring solar radiation to a focus
at a point. In this collector a dish 6.6. metre in

The vapour now passes through a condenser where it is condensed to a liquid.

This liquid is pumped back to the evaporator where cycle is repeated. .

Another type of low temperature solar power plant is shown in Fig. 10.

Fig10

This system uses an array of flat plate collectors to heat water to about 70°C
and then in heat exchanger the heat of water is used to boil butane. The butane at
high pressure is made to pass through a turbine. This scheme is quite commonly used
for lift irrigation purposes.

High Temperature Systems

Two basic arrangements for converting solar radiation into electrical energy
systems are as follows.

Tower Concept Type Solar Power Plant

This type of power plant uses an array of plane mirrors or heliostats which are
individually controlled to reflect radiation from the sun into a boiler mounted on a
tall (about 500 m high) tower. The steam is generated in the boiler. The steam may
attain a temperature up to 2000oK The steam so produced is used to drive a turbine
coupled to a generator Fig11. shows a tower concept type solar power plant.

Fig11

Photovoltaic (PV) Cells or Solar Cells

These cells directly convert solar energy to D.C. power. These cells are made
of semiconductors that generate electricity when they absorb light. Solar cells made
of single crystal silicon are commonly used as its theoretical efficiency is about 24%.
But commercially available cells have an efficiency of about 10 to 12%. Gallium
arsenide is the another solar cell material. Cells of this material may achieve an
efficiency of 20 to 25%. Solar cells made of gallium arsenide can retain efficiency at
much higher temperature than cells made of silicon.

The silicon cell consists of a single crystal of silicon into which a doping
material is diffused to form a semi-conductor. The best known application of
photovoltaic cells for electrical power generation has been space craft for which
silicon solar cell is the most highly developed type.

Various advantages of solar cells are as follows:

 (i) They need little maintenance

(ii) They have longer life

(iii) They do not create pollution problem.

(iv) Their energy source is unlimited.

(v) These are easy to fabricate

(vi) They can be made from raw materials which are easily available in
larger quantities.

The disadvantages of solar cells are as follows:

(i) Compared with other sources of energy solar cells produce electric
power at very high cost.

(ii) Solar cell output is not constant and it varies with the time of day and
weather.

(iii) They can be used to generate small amount of electric power.

Solar cells have also been used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational
signals, highway emergency cell systems, rail road crossing signals etc.

The most common configuration of a typical solar cell to form a p-n junction
semi conductor is shown in Fig12.

Fig12
Wind Energy

Energy of wind can be used for the generation of electrical energy. The
potential of wind energy as a source of power is large. Wind energy which is an
indirect source of energy can be utilised to run wind mill which in turn drives a
generator to produce electricity.

Some of the characteristics of wind energy are as follows:

(i) Wind power systems are non-polluting

(ii) It is a renewable source of energy.
(iii) The energy generated by wind-power systems is cheaper when produced on
small scale. On large scale it is competitive with conventional power
generating systems.
(iv) Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport.
However following problems are associated with wind energy :
(i) Wind energy is fluctuating in nature
(ii) Because of its irregularity it needs storage devices
(iii) There is sufficient noise produced by wind energy power generating
systems.

Wind Mills

Wind energy is used to run wind mill which in tern drives a generator to
produce electricity. A wind mill converts the kinetic energy of moving air into
mechanical motion that can be either used directly to run the machine or to turn the
generator to produce electricity. Various types of wind mills are as follows:

(i) Horizontal axis wind mills

(a) Multi blade type wind mill

(b) Sail type wind mill

(c) Propellor type wind mill.

(ii) Vertical axis wind mills

(a) Savionius type wind mill

(b) Darrieus type wind mill.

 Wind turbine generators have been built having capacity ranging from a
ki1lowatt or so to a few thousand kilowatts. Wind power has been successfully used
for cooling of homes, space heating, for operating irrigation pumps; navigational
signals and for offshore drilling operations.

Fig. shows the various parts of a wind -electric generating power plant. They are

(i) Wind turbine or rotor

(ii) Wind mill head

(iii) Generator

(iv) Supporting structure.

The wind mill head supports the rotor housing the rotor bearings. The moving
air makes the blades to rotate and the electricity is produced at the generator. Part A
indicates transmission; Speed increaser. Drive shaft and bearing brake clutch and
coupling.

Fig13 Fig 14

Fig13. shows schematic arrangement of a horizontal axis type and mill and
fig14. shows vertical axis type wind mill.

Tidal Power

Tide is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. In about 24 hours there
are two high tides and two low tides. These are called as semi-diurnal tides. The rise
and fall of wall level follows a sinusoidal curve .Tides occurs due to the attraction of
sea water by the moon. These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is
called tidal power. World's first tidal power plant was commissioned at Rance in
France. This plant is of 240 MW capacity.

Following are the important points for the selection of location of tidal power plant:

(i) The tidal range at the desired location should be adequate throughout
the year.
(ii) The site selected for tidal power plant should be free from the wave
attack of sea.
(iii) There should be no appreciable change in tidal pattern at the proposed
site
(iv) The site at which tidal power plant is to be located should not have
excessive sediment load.

Tidal Power plants. The large scale up and down movement of sea water represents
an unlimited source of energy. If some part of this vast energy can be converted into
electrical energy it would be of an important source of power.

The three main components of a tidal power plant are as follows

(i) The dyke to form basin or basin

(ii) Sluice ways from the basin to the sea and vice versa

(iii) The power house.

The turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipments are the main
equipments of power house.

Classification

Tidal power plants are classified on the basis of number of basin used for the
power generation. They are further subdivided as one way or two way system as per
the cycle of operation for power generation. Various types of tidal power plants are
as follows:
(i) Single basin systems
(a) One way system
(b) Two way system
(c) Two way with pump storage.
(ii) Double basin system
(a) Simple double basin system
(b) Double basin with pumping.

Fig15. shows a single basin one way tidal power plant. In this plant a basin is
allowed to .get filled during the flood tide and during the ebb tide, the water flowing
from the basin to the sea through the turbine and generates power. The power is
available for a short duration during ebb tide.

Fig15

In single basin two way tidal power plant the power is generated both during flood
tide as well as ebb tide. The direction of flow through the turbines during the ebb and
flood tides alternates but machine acts as a turbine for either direction of flow.

Fig16. shows a double basin one way tidal power plant. In this plant one basin
is intermittently filled by flood tide and other is intermittently drained by ebb tide.

Fig16
Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Power

Advantages:

Various advantages are as follows:

(i) It is free from pollution

(ii) It is inexhaustible and does not depend on rain.

(iii) Tidal power plants do not require large area of valuable land because
they are located on sea shore.

(iv) Tidal power has a unique capacity to meet peak power demand
effectively when it works in combination with hydropower plant or
thermal power plant.

Disadvantages

(i) The output varies because of variation in tidal range

(ii) The power transmission cost is high because the tidal power plants are
located away from load centres

(iii) Sedimentation and silteration of basins are the porblems associated with
tidal power plants.

(iv) Because of variable tidal range the turbines have to work on a wide
range of variable head.

(v) Capital cost of the plant is high.

Biogas

Biogas is produced by the decomposition of animal wastes, plant wastes and

.human wastes. It is produced by digestion, pyrolysis or hydro-gasification.
Digestion is a biological process that takes place in the absence of oxygen and in the
presence of an aerobic organisms at ambient pressures and temperature of 35-70°C.
The container used for digestion process is called digester. There are two significant
temperature zones in an aerobic digestion. It is observed that two types of micro-
organisms mesophilic and thermophilic are responsible for digestion at the two
temperature ranges. The optimum mesophilic temperature is around 35°C while
optimum thermophilic temperature is about 55°C. The gas temperature falling very
steeply when the temperature goes below 20°C. It is easier to maintain the
temperature of the digester at the mesophilic range rather than at the thermophilic
range. See some more details in Chapter 9.

Classification of Bio-gas Plants

Various types of bio-gas plants as follows:

(i) Continuous and batch type

(ii) The dome and drum type

(iii) Different variations in the drum type.

Thermo-Electric Power

This method of producing electrical energy uses see-beck effect according to

which an e.m.f. is produced when a loop of two dissimilar metals the junctions are
kept at different temperatures. The efficiency of thermo-electric generator depends
upon the temperatures of hot and cold junctions.

Fig17

Types of Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbine is a device which converts the energy of water into

mechanical energy.

The turbine drives the generator which converts the mechanical energy in to
electrical energy. Hydraulic turbine consists of a wheel called runner provided with a
number of curved or straight vanes (blades) on its periphery.

Hydraulic macrunes are classified on the basis of the action of water on these
moving blades. According to the action of water, turbines are classified as impulse
turbine and reaction turbine.
 In an impulse turbine, the potential energy of water is converted into kinetic
energy by a set of nozzles. This produces powerful jets impinging on the vanes,
buckets provided on the periphery of a wheel. The wheel is fixed to a shaft, which is
coupled with a generator.

Fig. shows a Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine, which is the most commonly
used impulse turbine. The nozzle producing the jets is shown in the fig. There is a
spear head provision in the nozzle to control the opening, which controls the velocity
of the issuing jet. The buckets provided on the wheel are in the form of double
hemispherical cups. The water after imparting its energy to the turbine, is discharged
into the tailrace.

This type of turbine is used where high head of water is available. Other
examples of impulse turbine include Turgo wheel, Jonval turbine and Girard turbine

In reaction turbines the water entering the runner possesses pressure, which in
turn does work on the vanes by the principle of reaction.
 Fig. shows a simple diagramatic representation of a Francis turbine, which is
the mostly used reaction turbine. It consists of an inner of rotating vanes forming the
runner, surrounded by an outer ring of stationary guiding mechanism. From the main
pipe water flows into a spiral casing surrounding the turbine. From the spiral water
flows through the guiding mechanism and enters the wheel. After imparting energy
to the wheel, the water discharges through draft tube. Draft tube is a metallic pipe or
concrete tunnel having gradually increasing cross-sectional area. It connects the
runner exit of the reaction turbine and the tailrace. Draft tube provides a negative
suction head at the runner outlet which increases the networking head on turbine and
thus the output.

Kaplan turbine, Thomson turbine and Scotch turbine are a few other examples
of reaction water turbines.

Specific speed of turbine

In order to compare the characteristics of turbines 'of different types and size
it is necessary to know a characteristic of an imaginary turbine identical in shape of
the original turbine. The imaginary turbine is called specific turbine. The specific
speed provides a means of comparing the speed of all types of hydraulic turbines on
the same basis of head and power.

Specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed at which the turbine run,
developing unit power under unit head it is given by

N P
Ns  where Ns is the specific speed, N is the speed in rpm under a head of H
H5 / 4
metre and P is the power in MKS system (HP).

1.165 N P
Ns  where P is the power in SI system (kW)
H5/ 4

Selection of turbines depending upon head, discharge and specific speed.

In MKS system the specific speed is the number of revolutions per minute at
which a given runner would revolve if it where so reduced in proportions that it
would develop one HP under a head of one metre.
 In SI system the specific speed is the number of revolutions per minute at
which a given runner would revolve if it where so reduced in proportions that it
would develop one kW under a head of one metre.

The overall cost of installation for a given head and power can be reduced by
selecting runner of high specific speed but at very high specific speed the velocity of
water at the throat of the draft tube would be very high. This may create a vacuum in
the extreme case.

The runner of too high specific speed with high head increases the cost of
turbine on account of high mechanical strength required. The runner of too low
specific speed with low head increases the cost of generator due to the low turbine
speed.

An increase in specific speed of turbine is accompanied by lower efficiency

and greater length of draft tube.

Experiment has determined that there is a range of heads and specific speed
for each type of turbine. The range of heads and specific speeds for different types of
turbine are as follows.

Types of turbine Range of head Specific speed in metre unit

Pelton 200 – 2000 10 – 15

Francis 15 – 300 80 – 420

Propeller 5 – 30 310 – 1000

Ns (SI unit) = Ns (MKS unit) × 0.04994

Steam turbines

Steam turbine is a primemover in which pressure energy of steam is

transformed into mechanical energy of rotation of turbine shaft. Transformation of
pressure energy of steam into mechanical work is brought about by different means.
Mechanical work is done by the action of kinetic and pressure energy of steam upon
blades mounted on a rotating wheel.

The pressure energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy and then it is
converted into mechanical work. Steam turbine is supposed to be an ideal
primemover and has got a variety of uses. In large size it is used for driving electric
generators in thermal power plants. In small size it is adoptable for driving
centrifugal pumps, fans, compressors and auxiliary equipments in power plants.

Classification of steam turbine

Steam turbines are broadly classified into two types, impulse turbine and
reaction turbine.

This classification is based on the principle of action of steam on curved

blades.

The turbine in which the impulse action of a high velocity jet of steam, due to
its change in direction, is used to rotate the turbine shaft is known as impulse turbine.
Refer fig. In this turbine the pressure energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy
in nozzles and then this kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy in the
moving blades.

The turbine in which the reaction force, due to expansion of high pressure
steam when it passes through sets of moving and fixed blades, is used to rotate the
turbine shaft is known as reaction turbine. Due to expansion of steam, pressure drop
occurs continuously over both fixed and moving blades. Because of this continuous
pressure drop there is always a difference of pressure between the two sides of both
fixed and moving blades. This pressure difference exerts a thrust on the blades. The
resulting reaction force imparts rotary motion.

Impulse turbine

The main components of an impulse turbine are,

(i) Nozzle, (ii) Shaft, (iii) Disc with curved blades fixed on its periphery and

(iv) Casing

Nozzle is a passage for the flow of steam where the pressure energy of steam
is converted into kinetic energy. The steam leaves the nozzle with very high velocity.

The shaft along with the disc mounted upon it comprises the most important
part of the turbine and is known as rotor. The rotor is housed in the turbine casing.
The function of the curved blade is to convert the kinetic energy of steam into
mechanical work.

Casing is the outer cover of the steam turbine. Nozzles are fitted in the casing,
as shown in fig.

Working principle of impulse turbine

The high pressure steam from the steam boiler is supplied to the fixed
nozzles, provided in the casing. As the steam flows through the nozzle, its pressure
falls from boiler pressure to condenser pressure. This reduction of pressure increases
the velocity of steam. This high velocity steam is directed to the moving blades as a
jet. As the high velocity steam jet impinges on the curved blades, it changes the
momentum of jet causing impulsive force on the blades. This impulsive force rotates
the disc on which the blades are fixed. The variation in the velocity" and pressure of
steam while flowing through the turbine is shown in fig.4.22. The entire pressure
drop takes place when the steam flows through the nozzles. Pressure of steam
remains constant when the expanded steam flows through the moving curved blades.
Velocity of steam increases when it passes through the nozzles and velocity of steam
decreases when it flows through the moving blades. De lavel turbine is an example of
simple impulse turbine. The use of this turbine is limited because of the following
reasons"

(i) The velocity of rotor is too high for practical purpose

 (ii) The velocity of steam leaving the turbine is considerably high and
hence there is a loss of kinetic energy.

The above said disadvantages can be overcome by ex- Fig. 4.22. Simple
impulse turbine panding the steam in several stages. This is known as compounding.
The various methods of compounding are discussed in a later section.

Reaction turbine

It consists of a wheel or rotor. fixed and moving blades and a casing Fig.
shows schematically the flow of steam through the fixed and moving blades of a
Parson's reaction turbine. Fixed and moving blades are attached alternately to the
casing and the rotor respectively. The function of fixed blades is same as that of
nozzle in the impulse turbine. When the steam passes through the fixed blades, its
pressure decreases and velocity increases. The fixed blade directs this expanded
steam to the adjacent moving blade. The diameter of the turbine is increased after
each group of blade rings. The increase in the diameter is required because the
continuous expansion of steam as it flows through the fixed and moving blades
increases its volume.

Since the pressure drop per stage is very small, the reaction turbines are as a
rule made only as multistage turbines. ie., there are more than one pair of fixed and
moving blades in the turbine. The graphical plot of the variations in pressure and
velocity of steam when it passes through the turbine.

Working principle of reaction turbine

High pressure steam from the boiler is directly supplied to the reaction
turbine, without passing through nozzles. Steam expands when it flows through the
fixed and moving blades. Since the steam expands as it flows through the moving
blades, there will be a continuous drop of pressure of steam. This produces a reaction
on the blades and this reaction force causes the rotor to rotate. Since the propulsive
force causing the rotation of the rotor is the reaction force, the turbine is called
reaction turbine.
 The present day reaction turbines are actually impulse reaction turbines. In
this there is application of both principles, namely, impulse and reaction. The
pressure drop in these turbines is continuous and it takes place when the steam passes
through both fixed and moving blades. The action of fixed blades is similar to that of
a nozzle in the impulse turbine. As the steam passes through the moving blades, it
suffers a change in the direction and therefore a change in momentum. This gives an
impulse to the blades. The blades are so designed that there is a small drop in
pressure of steam in the moving blades. This pressure drop gives rise to a reaction
force. Thus in the impulse reaction turbine the driving force is the sum of the impulse
and reaction forces.
Comparison of impulse and reaction turbines

1. In impulse turbine the propelling force causing rotation of the rotor is an

impulsive force whereas in reaction turbine it is a reaction force.

2. In impulse turbine complete expansion of steam takes place in the nozzle

whereas in reaction turbine the steam expands as it flows over the fixed and
moving blades.

3. In impulse turbine the pressure of steam remains constant when the steam flows
over the moving blades whereas in a reaction turbine the pressure of steam
decreases when it flows over moving blades.

4. In impulse turbine the cross sectional area of steam passage of blade is constant
whereas in reaction turbine the cross sectional area increases in the direction of
flow of steam.

5. In an impulse turbine the blades are of symmetrical profile whereas in a reaction

turbine the blades are of aerofoil profile.

6. The speed of rotation of impulse turbine is very high, because of the sudden
expansion of steam in the nozzle. In reaction turbine the expansion process is
gradual and hence the speed of rotation of wheel is not very high.

7. The size of an impulse turbine is small compared to the size of reaction turbine
for the same power output compared to reaction turbine.

8. The number of stages required for impulse turbine is less compared to reaction
turbine for the same power output.

9. The pressure on both ends of the moving blade of impulse turbine is the same
but in a reaction turbine it is different.

Compounding methods

The disadvantages of single stage impulse turbine is that its extremely high
speed, of the order of about 30,000 rpm, cannot be directly used for practical
purposes. To reduce the high speed, more than one set of moving blades are used.
This is called compounding of impulse turbine.
There are three main types of compounding. These are,

1) Velocity compounding

2) Pressure compounding and

3) Pressure - velocity compounding

Velocity compounding

In velocity compounding the velocity of steam jet is absorbed in stages. In

velocity compounded impulse turbine, moving and fixed blades, are placed
alternately. Moving blades are fitted with the disc while the fixed blades are fitted
with the casing. Velocity compounded impulse turbine with two velocity stages (two
rows of moving blades) is shown in fig.

The entire pressure drop takes place in the nozzles. Pressure of steam remains
constant when the steam flows over the moving and fixed blades. As a consequence
of the pressure drop in the nozzle the velocity of steam increases. The transformation
of the kinetic energy of the flowing steam into mechanical work take place in the two
rows of moving blades, The velocity of steam is reduced from very high velocity to
an intermediate velocity in the first row of moving blades. The fixed blades direct the
steam to the second set of moving blades where further decrease of kinetic energy of
steam takes place, Thus a fall in velocity occurs every time when the steam passes
over a set of moving blades. The pressure and velocity remain constant when the
steam passes through the fixed blades. Fig. also shows the variation of pressure and
velocity of steam while flowing through the nozzles and the two rows of moving
blades. Curtis turbine is an example of velocity compounded impulse turbine.

Pressure compounding

In pressure compounding the pressure energy of steam is absorbed in stages.

In pressure compounded impulse turbine, the expansion of steam takes place in more
than one set of nozzles and each set of nozzles is followed by a set of moving blades.
The nozzles are fitted to the turbine casing. The moving blades are keyed to a
common shaft as shown in fig. The steam from the boiler is passed through the first
row of nozzles. Here, the steam expands only partially, ie., only a part of the pressure
energy is converted into kinetic energy. This steam is then allowed to pass through
the first row of moving blades where kinetic energy possessed by the steam is
transformed into mechanical work. The exhaust steam from these moving blades are
then expanded in the next row of nozzles, resulting in further fall in pressure but
increase in velocity. This velocity gain absorbed by the next row of moving blades.
The process is continued till the entire pressure has been absorbed. Thus, the
arrangement amounts to splitting up the whole pressure drop from the boiler pressure
to the condenser pressure into a series of small pressure drops across the successive
impulse stages. Rateau turbine shown in fig. is an example of this type of turbine.

Pressure - velocity compounding

 It is a combination of the pressure compounding and the velocity
compounding. Fig. shows a two - stage pressure - velocity compounded turbine. In
this, the total drop in steam pressure is carried out in two stages and the velocity
obtained in each stage is also compounded. The first stage and second stage taken
separately are identical to velocity compounded turbine. This type of arrangement is
simple in construction compared to a pressure compounded turbine'. Also it
combines many of the advantages of both pressure and velocity compounding.
 Module 5
1. CASTING

1. History

Casting technology, according to biblical records, reaches back almost 5,000

years BC. Gold, pure in nature, most likely caught Prehistoric man's fancy, as he
probably hammered gold ornaments out of the gold nuggets he found. Silver would
have been treated similarly. Mankind next found copper, because it appeared in the
ash of his camp fires from copper-bearing ore that he lined his fire pits with. Man
soon found that copper was harder than gold or silver. Copper did not bend up when
used. So copper, found a 'nitch' in man's early tools, and then marched it's way into
Weaponry. But, long before all this, man found clay. So he made pottery - something
to eat from. Then he thought, "now, what else can I do with this mud." . Early man
thought about it, "they used this pottery stuff, (the first patterns), to shape metal into
bowls ".

2. Introduction

Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast metal
products. The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our
economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings,
factories, schools, and homes some metal cast parts.

Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting
means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and
allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the
mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is
called the casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity
frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which
the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting material. Sand is most often used
as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can
also be used to cast products.
ADVANTAGES

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its

many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be
made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining,
forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated.

2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.

3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight
can be achieved.

4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive.
As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed
this way.

6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

LIMITATIONS

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting
processes are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have
been developed which can take into consideration the aspects of dimensional
accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting process,
investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell molding
process.

2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.

PATTERN

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of
the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main
modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints.
If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these
cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon
the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and
the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive
pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial.

Functions of the Pattern

1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a
core and need to be made hollow.

3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may
form a part of the pattern.

4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.

5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern Material

Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has
its own advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for
making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and
rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight

3. Strong, hard and durable

4. Resistant to wear and abrasion

5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity

7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most
commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and of low
weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage
of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional
changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for
large-scale use of wood as a pattern material

GATING SYSTEM

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the
mold cavity is called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all
passage ways through which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The
nomenclature of gating system depends upon the function of different channels
which they perform.

 Down gates or sprue

 Cross gates or runners
 Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down
gate or sprue and passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates
before entering into the mold cavity.

Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

 To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

 To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify
 To avoid shrinkage
 Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so
that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required
cast part.
 Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions
 MOLDING MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES
 A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds
and cores. They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand,
parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their
processing properties. The properties that are generally required in molding
materials are:
 Refractoriness
  It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to
be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica
sand is highest.
 Permeability
 During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases
and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal
during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the
molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they
would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this
problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps
in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
 Green Strength
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand
particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to
the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold
retains its shape.
 Dry Strength
 When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is
quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the
heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient
strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be
able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
 Hot Strength
 As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature
when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is
required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
 Collapsibility
 The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of
the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks
in the castings. Besides these specific properties the molding material should be
cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity

CASTING DEFECTS

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

 Gas defects
  Shrinkage cavities
 Molding material defects
 Pouring metal defects
 Mold shift

Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten

metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this
category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are
spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the
casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets
entrapped during heating of molten metal.

Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower
venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower
permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in
mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in the mold.

 Metal contains gas

 Mold is too hot
 Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the
casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this
reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin,
too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is
recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion,
and swell.
Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand
not having enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The
former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can
be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a
rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was
applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal
penetration.

Fusion

This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a
brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the
clay or the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature
is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will
correct this defect.

Inclusions

Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are

trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the
gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are

 Mis-runs and
  Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity
completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too
cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin
sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do
not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the
molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple
liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the flowing metal
fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part.
Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient
superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the
mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be
improved by changing the composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring
temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not
been properly aligned.

Permanent Mold Process

In al the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the casting
produced. For large-scale production, making a mold, for every casting to be
produced, may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a permanent mold, called the
die may be made from which a large number of castings can be produced. , the molds
are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have
been used as mold materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings
is called permanent mold casting or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the
mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal with a high
pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die
casting process.
Advantages

• Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior mechanical

properties.
• The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher degree of
dimensional accuracy than castings produced in sand
• The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent quality of
finish on castings

Disadvantages

• The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings

• The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple
exterior design, although complex castings such as aluminum engine blocks and
heads are now commonplace.

Centrifugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is
poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting
on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get
separated from the metal and segregate towards the center. This process is normally
used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are
axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward
because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the concentric
hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about
its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are
fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the
amount of molten metal poured into the mold.

Advantages

• Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores

• Less material required for gate
• Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage
cavities and porosity
Disadvantages

• More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
• Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
• Inaccurate internal diameter

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING :

Welding of metals can be divided into two categories.

1. Plastic Welding and 2. Fusion Welding.

1. Plastic Welding : In this type of welding the metals to be joined are to be heated
to the plastic state and then forced together by external pressure without the
addition of filler material. Eg. Forge Welding, resistance welding.
2. Fusion Welding: In this type of welding no pressure is involved but a very high
temperature is produced in or near the joint. The metal at the joint is heated to the
molten state and allowed to solidify. The heat may be generated by electric arc,
combustion of gases or chemical action. A filler may be material is used during
the welding process. eg. Oxy-Acetylene Welding, Carbon Arc Welding etc
TYPES OF WELDING :

1. Gas Welding
a) Oxy-Acetylene Welding
b) Air-Acetylene Welding
c) Oxy-hydrogen Welding
d) Pressure Gas Welding
2. Arc Welding
a) Carbon Arc Welding
b) Plasma Arc Welding
c) Submerged Arc Welding
d) Metal Arc Welding
e) Electro-Slag Welding
f) Flux Cored Arc Welding
g) Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)
 h) Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG)
i) Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
3. Resistance Welding
a) Butt Welding
b) Projection Welding
c) Spot Welding
d) Percussion Welding
e) Seam Welding
4. Thermo Chemical Welding Process
a) Thermit Welding
5. Solid State Welding
a) Friction Welding
b) Explosive Welding
c) Ultrasonic Welding
d) Diffusion Welding
6. Radiant Energy Welding
a) Electron Beam Welding
b) Laser Welding
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING :

 It produces a permanent joint.

 Overall cost of welding equipment is low.
 Large number of metals can be welded.
 Welding operation can be mechanized.
 Welding operation is economical.
 High corrosion resistance compared to bolting and riveting.
 Portable welding equipments are available.
DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING :

 Welding operation distorts (deforms) the work-pieces.

 Skilled worker is a must to produce good weld.
 Welded joints requires heat treatment.
 Edge preparation is necessary.
 Produces chemical and physical changes.
 Some welding operation gives off harmful radiations.

Welding as compared to Riveting and Casting:

 Welding is economical and faster process compared to both riveting and casting.
 Fabricated parts have more strength as compared to cast parts.
 Welding can join dissimilar metals.
 Design of a welded structure is simpler as compared to cast part.
 Cost of pattern making and storing is eliminated.
 Fewer persons are involved in welding process.
 Welding is cheaper than riveting.
 Welded structures are comparatively lighter than riveted structures.
 Welded structure has better finish than riveted ones.
 Making changes in an already cast or riveted structures is difficult. But welded
structures can be repaired easily.

Practical Applications of Welding:

Welding has been employed in industry as a tool for :

a) Fabrication works.
b) Repair and maintenance works.
Few important applications are given below.

 Aircraft Constructions:- Engine Parts, Turbine engine frames for jet engine parts.
 Automobile Construction:- Car wheels, body parts etc.
 Bridges
 Buildings:- Trusses.
 Pressure Vessels and Tanks
 Storage Tanks
 Rail Road Equipment
 Piping and Pipelines
 Ships
 Machine Tool Frames
 Household and office furniture.
 Earthmoving machinery and cranes.
 PRESSURE WELDING PROCESSES

Pressure Welding Process consists of :-

1. Forge welding
2. Spot welding
3. Seam welding
4. Projection welding
5. Butt welding
6. Flash butt welding
7. Welding of tubes
8. Percussion welding.

ARC WELDING
 Arc welding is one of the most widely used Fusion process for joining metals
and alloys.
 In this the surface to be joined are fused by the heat produced from an electric
arc.
 Electric Arc is provided by A.C. or D.C power source.
 A metal electrode is used for obtaining an arc between the metal parts to be
joined and electrode.
 The electrode is allowed to touch the joint faces of the metal parts to be joined
and is quickly removed to create a gap (2mm to 4mm) such that current continues
to flow through a path of ionized particles called plasma. An electric arc is
produced due to this and which may generate a temperature up to 6000 to 7000°C
at the center of the arc depending up on the electrode. Intense heat so produced
melts the faces of the prepared joint forming a pool of molten metal.
 In most of the cases the electrode is also melted and is transferred across the arc
to the molten metal pool.
 The arc is maintained by uniformly moving the electrode towards the work piece
and hence keeping a constant gap between the electrode and work piece. At the
same time the electrode is moved along the desired line of welding. On
solidification this forms a joint between the two parent metals.
 The blast of Arc forces the molten metal out of the pool around forming a
depression in the parent metal, around which there is molten metal. This is
known as Arc Crater.
 Generally electrodes are coated with a slagging or fluxing materials. This
provide a gas shield around the arc to prevent direct contact of oxygen and
nitrogen in the air with the deposited metal. In also covers the weld metal with a
protective slag coating which prevents the oxidation of weld metal during
cooling. The slag is brushed off after cooling.
Welding Machine :

 Both A.C and D.C are used for Arc Welding. Each have advantages and
disadvantages.
 Normal Welding voltage is ranges from 50-90 V and current ranges from 100A
to 3000A. So a step down transformer is used for this purpose for A.C supply.
 Normal Welding voltage is ranges from 50-90 V and current ranges from 200A
to 600A. So a step down transformer is used for this purpose for D.C supply.

Parameter A.C Welding Supply D.C Welding Supply

Efficiency High, compared to D.C Low

Prime Cost Low High

Both bare and coated

Electrodes Only Coated Electrodes
electrodes.

Maintenance Less More

Stability of Arc Unstable Stable

Different Voltages can be

Voltage Supply Fixed Voltage Supply
obtained by Tapping

Has rotating parts to convert

Rotating Parts No rotating parts
A.C to D.C

Magnetization
No Yes
of work-piece

Polarity Cannot be changed Can be changed.

Striking of Arc Difficult Easy

Electrodes

1. Non-consumable Electrodes: May be made of carbon, tungsten or graphite

which do not consume during welding operation.
2. Consumable Electrodes:
 Are consumed during welding operation. May be made of various metals
depending upon the purpose and chemical composition of the metals to be
welded.
 Bare electrodes are used in coil form with out coating in MIG Welding.
 Metal Arc welding make use of coated electrode.
 Commonly used core wire materials are : mild steel, low alloy steel, nickel
steel etc.
 Consumable Electrodes may be classified into
1. Bare Electrodes : Molten metal is exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in
the atmosphere and so undesirable oxides and other substances decreasing
the strength of the weld formed.
2. Coated Electrodes: Coated electrodes (Flux Coated) are used to prevent
the formation of oxidizes and helps to form slag. Due to Flux coating the
molten metal is not exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere
resulting in strong bond. Commonly used fluxes are asbestos, mica, silica
etc. Coated Electrodes are again classified into
a) Lightly Coated Electrodes : Thin coating of Flux.
b) Heavily Coated Electrodes : Thick coating of Flux.
TYPES OF ARC WELDING :
1. Carbon-Arc Welding
2. Metal Arc Welding (MMAW-Manual Metal Arc Welding) or (SMAW-Shielded
Metal Arc Welding)
3. Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG)
4. Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG)
5. Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding
6. Plasma Arc Welding
7. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
8. Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
9. Electro-slag Welding
GAS WELDING

 Gas Welding is a Fusion-Welding process.

 It joins metals using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel gas.
(Acetylene, Hydrogen, Propane or Butane). Temperature produced ranges from
2600 C to 3300C.
 The intense heat produced melts and fuses together the edges of parts to be
welded, generally with the addition of Filler material.
Advantages Of Gas Welding :
 Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled.
 Suitable for thin sheets.
 Equipment is portable.
 It can weld most common materials.
 By changing the nozzle the torch can be use for heating, brazing and cutting
purposes.
 Cost is low.
 Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld
zone.
Disadvantages Of Gas Welding :
 Heavy sections cannot be joined.
 Flame temperature is less than that of arc.
 Refractory metals (eg. Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum etc) and reactive metals
(eg. Titanium and zirconium) cannot be gas welded.
 Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating to eyes, nose and lungs.
 Slower than Arc Welding Process.
 Distortion to the work piece is more compared to Arc Welding process.
 Gases are expensive.
 Careful handling and storing is required.
 Equipment is expensive.
Applications :
 Used for joining thin sections.
 Used for joining metals which cannot be heated to high temperatures.
 Uses in automobile and aircraft industry.
 Used for joining various ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Important Types of Gas Welding are
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding
 Air-Acetylene Welding
 Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
Oxy-Acetylene Welding :

Principle :
 When Acetylene gas is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the
welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is
sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal.
 The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature about 3200 C which is
sufficient to melt all commercial metals.
 A pool of metals to be joined which upon solidification forms a bond.
  Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.
 The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the same as that of the part
being welded.
 Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed.
 Flux is added to remove the impurities and oxides formed during welding
operation.

Important Parts of Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment:

1. Acetylene Cylinder :

 Acetylene cylinder is painted maroon and the valves are screwed left handed.
 Usual sizes are around 2800 and 5600 litres.
 Mild steel cylinder is charged to a pressure of 15.5 bar.
  The inside diameter is around 30cm.
 Acetylene cylinder is always kept upright for safety reasons.
 Acetylene cylinder is equipped with a number of fusible plugs which will
melt and release the pressure in case the cylinder is exposed to excessive
heat.
 Acetylene cylinder is filled with a spongy material such as balsa wood which
is saturated with a chemical solvent called Acetone. Acetone has to ability to
absorb a large volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls.
ROLLING
The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls is
known as ’Rolling'. In this process the work is subjected to high compressive
stresses from the squeezing action of rolls and to surface shear stresses as a result of
the friction between the rolls and the metal. Also, the frictional forces help for
drawing the metal into the rolls.

PRINCIPLE OF ROLLING :

 Rolling basically consists of passing the metal piece through two rolls rotating in
opposite directions. The space between the rolls is adjusted to the desired
thickness of the rolled section.
 The rolls are in contact with passing metal piece over a sufficient distance
represented by the arc AB in the diagram.
 The angle AOB is called Angle of Contact or the Maximum angle of Bite.
 The friction between metal piece and rolls provide sufficient grip for the rolls to
move the metal piece through the rolls.
 The reduction in thickness increases with coefficient of friction.
 The pressure exerted by over the metal by the rolls varies as represented by the
pressure distribution curve in the diagram.
 It will be minimum at both the extremities and will be maximum at a point
somewhere in the curve.
 The line representing the maximum pressure is called Neutral or No Slip Line
and the point C is known as No Slip Point or the Point of Maximum Pressure. As
the Arc of Contact increases, this point tends to move towards the exit B. Also
when this arc of contact becomes so big that the maximum angle of bite AOB
becomes more than two times the angle of friction between the rolls and the work
and hence point C coincides with B and then rolls cannot draw the work through
them.
 At the point C the surface of metal and the roll move at the same speed. Before
this point metal moves slower than the rolls. After crossing the rolls metal move
at a faster rate.
Hot Rolling :

 Hot rolling is the process of rolling a metal above its recrystallization

temperature. The first hot working operation for most steel products is done in
the blooming mills. Blooming mills are usually high reversing mills, with forged
rolls each weighing up to 20 tones. They are driven by a reversing electric motor
of up to 20 MW capacity.
 As a result of squeezing, the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and
after crossing the stress zone, grains start refining.
Advantages
 Hot rolling brings homogeneity in rolled components.
 Grain refinement gives optimum mechanical properties to the alloy.
 Time taken to produce the component is less compared to cold rolling.
Disadvantages
 Surface oxidation takes place.
 Chance of scale inclusion exists.
 Process is more expensive.
 More care is needed to handle the hot part.
Cold Rolling :

 Cold Rolling is a process of rolling metals and alloys below their recrystallization
temperatures. Generally they are worked at room temperatures.
 In Cold Rolling, the grains tend to retain the shape acquired during rolling.
Advantages
1. Cold rolling is used to produce sheets and strips of fine surface finish and
accuracy.
2. Strength of cold rolling will be high because of strain hardening.
3. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
4. Reduced defects.
Disadvantages
1. Internal stresses are induced into the cold worked metal thus making the metal
hard and brittle.
Types of Rolling Mills
Rolling mills can be conveniently classified with respect to the number and
arrangement of the rolls as follows:

1. Two High Mill

 This is the simplest and most common type of rolling.

 These are further classified as reversing and non reversing mills.
 In non reversing mills, rolls of equal size are rotated only in one direction.
 In two high reversing mill the work can be passed to and fro through the rolls
by reversing their direction of rotation.
 The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper
roll.
 Used for breaking down of ingots.
2.Three High Mill

 This consists of three rolls of equal size one above the other. In the upper and
lower rolls are power driven, while the middle roll rotates by friction.
 The direction of upper and lower rolls are the same.
 Used for the production of steel shapes such as I-beams, angles, channels etc.
2. Four High Mill

 This consists of two small diameter working rolls and two large diameter
backup rolls placed one above the other.
 The larger diameter called as Backup rolls and its function is to prevent the
deflection of small rolls.
 The smaller rolls are called as Working rolls.
 Less power needed as less friction due to less contact area.
 Generally used for sheet rolling.
 For rolling special sections, rolls are designed so as to obtain the desired
section.
 Used for slab production.
3. Cluster Mill

 Each of the work rolls (which are Power driven) are supported by two
backing rolls.
 Used for the production of thin sheet.
4. Tandem Mill

 In this, a series of rolling mills are after the other, to facilitate high production
each stand.
 Each set of rolls is called stand.
 Since different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip will be moving at
different velocities.
5. Steckel Mill:
 This mill-is similar to tandem except for no working roll is power driven.
Only the uncoiler and the wind up reels are power driven. In this mill, amount
of reduction is limited. But hard steels can be reduced to thin sections with
close tolerances.
FORGING TECHNOLOGY
 Process of Forging
 Forging
 Types of Forging
o Hammer Forging (Flat Die)
o Press Forging
 Die Forging
 Process: Forging is a metal forming process used to produce large quantities
of identical parts, as in the manufacture of automobiles, and to improve the
mechanical properties of the metal being forged, as in aerospace parts or
military equipment. The design of forged parts is limited when undercuts or
cored sections are required. All cavities must be comparatively straight and
largest at the mouth, so that the forging die may be withdrawn. The products
of forging may be tiny or massive and can be made of steel (automobile
axles), brass (water valves), tungsten (rocket nozzles), aluminum (aircraft
structural members), or any other metal. More than two thirds of forging in
the United States is concentrated in four general areas: 30 percent in the
 aerospace industry, 20 percent in automotive and truck manufacture, 10
percent in off-highway vehicles, and 10 percent in military equipment. This
process is also used for coining, but with slow continuous pushes.
 The forging metal forming process has been practiced since the Bronze Age.
Hammering metal by hand can be dated back over 4000 years ago. The
purpose, as it still is today, was to change the shape and/or properties of metal
into useful tools. Steel was hammered into shape and used mostly for
carpentry and farming tools. An ax made easy work of cutting down trees
and metal knives were much more efficient than stone cutting tools. Hunters
used metal-pointed spears and arrows to catch prey. Blacksmiths used a
forge and anvil to create many useful instruments such as horseshoes, nails,
wagon tires, and chains.
 Militaries used forged weapons to equip their armies, resulting in many
territories being won and lost with the use and strength of these
weapons. Today, forging is used to create various and sundry things. The
operation requires no cutting or shearing, and is merely a reshaping operation
that does not change the volume of the material.
 Forging: Forging changes the size and shape, but not the volume, of a part.
The change is made by force applied to the material so that it stretches
beyond the yield point. The force must be strong enough to make the
material deform. It must not be so strong, however, that it destroys the
material. The yield point is reached when the material will reform into a new
shape. The point at which the material would be destroyed is called the
fracture point.
 In forging, a block of metal is deformed under impact or pressure to form the
desired shape. Cold forging, in which the metal is not heated, is generally
limited to relatively soft metals. Most metals are hot forged; for example,
steel is forged at temperatures between 2,100oF and 2,300oF (1,150oC to
1,260oC). These temperatures cause deformation, in which the grains of the
metal elongate and assume a fibrous structure of increased strength along the
direction of flow. (See Figure)
 
 Figure - Flow lines in a forged part
 Normally this results in metallurgical soundness and improved mechanical
properties. Strength, toughness, and general durability depend upon the way
the grain is placed. Forgings are somewhat stronger and more ductile along
the grain structure than across it. The feature of greatest importance is that
along the grain structure there is a greater ability to resist shock, wear, and
impact than across the grain. Material properties also depend on the heat-
treating process after forging. Slow cooling in air may normalize workpieces,
or they can be quenched in oil and then tempered or reheated to achieve the
desired mechanical properties and to relieve any internal stresses. Good
forging practice makes it possible to control the flow pattern resulting in
maximum strength of the material and the least chances of fatigue failure.
These characteristics of forging, as well as fewer flaws and hidden defects,
make it more desirable than some other operations (i.e. casting) for products
that will undergo high stresses.
 In forging, the dimensional tolerances that can be held vary based on the size
of the workpiece. The process is capable of producing shapes of 0.5 to >50.0
cm in thickness and 10 to <100 cm in diameter. The tolerances vary from 
1
/32 in. for small parts to  ¼ in. for large forgings. Tolerances of 0.010 in.
have been held in some precision forgings, but the cost associated with such
precision is only justified in exceptional cases, such as some aircraft work
 Types of forging:
 Forging is divided into three main methods: hammer, press, and rolled types.
 (1) Hammer Forging (Flat Die): Preferred method for individual forgings.
The shaping of a metal, or other material, by an instantaneous application of
pressure to a relatively small area. A hammer or ram, delivering intermittent
blows to the section to be forged, applies this pressure. The hammer is
dropped from its maximum height, usually raised by steam or air pressure.
Hammer forging can produce a wide variety of shapes and sizes and, if
sufficiently reduced, can create a high degree of grain refinement at the same
time. The disadvantage to this process is that finish machining is often
required, as close dimensional tolerances cannot be obtained.

 (2) Press Forging: This process is similar to kneading, where a slow

continuous pressure is applied to the area to be forged. The pressure will
extend deep into the material and can be completed either cold or hot. A cold
press forging is used on a thin, annealed material, and a hot press forging is
done on large work such as armor plating, locomotives and heavy
machinery. Press Forging is more economical than hammer forging (except
when dealing with low production numbers), and closer tolerances can be
obtained. A greater proportion of the work done is transmitted to the
 workpiece, differing from that of the hammer forging operation, where much
of the work is absorbed by the machine and foundation. This method can
also be used to produce larger forgings, as there is no limitation in the size of
the machine.
 (3) Die Forging: Open and closed die operations can be used in forging. In
open-die forging the dies are either flat or rounded. Large forgings can be
formed by successive applications of force on different parts of the material.
Hydraulic presses and forging machines are both employed in closed die
forging. In closed-die forging the metal is trapped in recessed impressions,
which are machined into the top and bottom dies. As the dies press together,
the material is forced to fill the impressions. Flash, or excess metal, is
squeezed out between the dies. Closed-die forging can produce parts with
more complex shapes than open-die forging. Die forging is the best method,
as far as tolerances that can be met, and also results in a finished part that is
completely filled out and is produced with the least amount of flashing. The
final shape and the improvement in metallurgical properties are dependent on
the skill of the operator. Closer dimensional tolerances can be held with
closed die forgings than with open die forgings and the operator requires less
skill.

TYPES OF FORGING
Coining operation
• Force or pressure applied is 5 to 6 times the flow stress of the material
Heading
• Upsetting operation at the end of the rod
• Can be done in highly automatic machines called Headers.
• Piercing
– We can create holes or cavities on a part
• Hubbing
– A hardened puch with a particular tip geometry is pressed into the surface of
a blcok. Produce a die cavity
• Cogging
– Progressive pressing of a arge part