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Cancer is the second highest leading cause of death among adult men and women in
the United States. It is estimated that 1,600 people die of cancer each day, or on average, one
death every 60 seconds. Moreover, the probability of developing an invasive tumor is 38% for
women and 45% for men (1). Cancer is attributed to the unregulated proliferation of cells.
Cancer cells do not respond appropriately to signals that control normal cell behavior and as a
result, grow and divide uncontrollably. Eventually, the cancer cells can invade normal tissues
and organs and spread throughout the body (2). There is a vast amount of ongoing research
Epidemiological and experimental data suggest that nutrition plays a significant role in
preventing disease and promoting health. For nearly a century, studies have focused on the
effects of food intake reduction – known as calorie restriction. In a study conducted by McCay
and colleagues (1935), the authors suggest that food restriction without malnutrition increases
the average and maximal lifespan in rats (3). Subsequent research has consistently shown
similar results in yeasts, fruit flies, nematode worms, fish, hamsters, and in a wide variety of
mice and rat strains. Among these various species, it has been demonstrated that restricting
food intake without malnutrition slows aging, and results in increased lifespan. Moreover, both
the earlier onset of calorie restriction and the degree of restriction are important factors
Although experiments in calorie restriction among rodents and other species produce
health benefits, the impacts are dependent on other variables such as sex and type of low
calorie diet, and do not consistently translate into “longer-lived mammals” (5). For example, in
the 1980s, two longitudinal studies on non-human primates were conducted independently.
Both studies support the finding that “calorie restriction delays the onset of age-associated
diseases” (5). It should be noted that in one of the studies, the monkeys fed ad libitum did not
live longer than the monkeys in the control group, but they did display a delayed onset of age-
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related diseases. While this appears to contradict the results from the second study where the
monkeys fed a low-calorie diet lived longer than the monkeys fed ad libitum, the difference in
lifespan could be a result of differences between the diets (5). For example, the quality of
carbohydrate differed between the two studies whereby the monkeys in the first study received
significantly less sucrose in their diets than those in the second. Further, the diets for the
monkeys in the first study were considered diets rich in natural ingredients mostly derived from
plants while the diet from the second study contained semi-purified food and protein derived
from lactalbumin rather than plant sources. These differences could account for the inconsistent
results between the two studies thereby supporting the theory that the type of low calorie diet is
Recent studies have expanded their scope to examine the specific reduction in dietary
components such as proteins and suggest that the health benefits of calorie restriction might be
due to reducing protein intake specifically as opposed to total calorie consumption. A cross-
sectional study conducted by Levine et. al measured the effects of a low protein diet on middle-
age and older individuals. Data was collected from NHANES III on 6,381 adults over the age of
50. The subjects were categorized into three groups – high protein, moderate protein, and low
protein – depending on the percent of their calorie intake from protein. For the high protein
group, 20% or more of calories was from protein; for the moderate protein group, 10%-19% of
calories were from protein; and for the low protein group, less than 10% of calories were from
protein. These groups were further classified based on two age groups: 50-65 (middle-age) and
66+ (older population). Based on the results, researchers concluded that the middle-age group,
which consumed a high protein diet, was at a 74% increased risk of mortality. This group was
also four times more likely to die of cancer when compared to the low protein group (6).
between animal protein and mortality. It showed that when the calories were derived from plant-
based protein, there was a significant reduction, or even elimination, of death due to cancer. In
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contrast, diets high in animal protein showed an association between increased cancer-based
mortality. This study should not be interpreted such that plant-based protein diet has a
protective effect; rather, animal protein diets have a negative effect. (6)
The graph shows a correlation between low protein and protection against all-cause and cancer
mortality prior to age 66. Beyond age 66, low-protein becomes detrimental. The graphs also indicate
that no correlation between protein intake level and cardiovascular disease or diabetes mortality (6).
Levine et. al looked at the IGF-1 levels in the available 2,253 subjects to determine its
effect on associations between protein and mortality (6). IGF-1 is an activator of mTORC, and
mTORC regulates protein synthesis. Evidence suggests that deregulation of protein synthesis,
and thus of mTORC and IGF-1, is linked to human diseases including tumor growth and cancer.
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autophagy (protein breakdown), which is important for recycling damaged organelles (7). When
mTORC is activated, autophagy is inhibited and cell proliferation is promoted. The exact
mechanism by which autophagy affects cancer is unclear, but studies show that it can act as
http://www.musclechemistry.com/upload/bodybuilding-steroid-and-training-
articles/83536-mtor-pathway-protein-synthesis.html
The results of Levine et. al’s study revealed that “for every 10 ng/ml increase in IGF-1,
the mortality risk of cancer among subjects ages 50-65 increases for the high protein versus the
low protein group by an additional 9%.” However, when the older subjects’ IGF-1 levels were
examined, subjects with high or moderate protein diets had reduced risk of cardiovascular
disease mortality when IGF-1 was low, but no benefits were linked to increased IGF-1 (6).
Levine et. al expanded upon their previous research by conducting a mouse study that
examined a range of protein intake (4%-18%) and the correlation to levels of circulating IGF-1,
cancer incidence, and cancer progression. In the study, 18-week-old male mice were fed for 39
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days on either a high or low protein diet; calorie intake for the respective mice remained
consistent for the duration of the experiment. Both groups of mice were implanted with
melanoma cells. After 22 days, the mice consuming the high protein diet had a 100% tumor
prevalence compared to an 80% tumor rate in the low protein group. Further, after 39 days, the
mean tumor size was 78% larger in the high protein group. The researchers also found that
IGF-1 levels were 35% lower in the low protein group. An additional trial was conducted using
female mice fed the same dietary regimen as the male mice and implanted with murine breast
cancer cells. After 18 days, there was a 100% incidence of tumor growth in the high protein
group and 70% in the low protein group. Additionally, the tumors in the low protein group were
45% smaller and IGF-1 levels 30% lower. The results of this data suggest a correlation between
a lower protein intake and a decrease in cancer incidence and/or progression due to decreased
Taken together, the above results suggest that a low protein, primarily plant-based diet
can help regulate IGF-1 levels and help prevent cancer. Additionally, human and animal studies
suggest that consuming a low protein, primarily plant-based diet during middle age can help
prevent cancer, reduce overall mortality rate, and reduce the probability of diabetes by
regulating IGF-1 and insulin levels. However, once people reach the age of 65-70, they should
increase protein consumption to ensure adequate weight and prevent fragility (6).
lifestyle and cancer” (9) further suggests that both decreased calorie and protein intake can lead
and low physical activity. The study included three groups of middle-aged men and women:
group one participants were all vegetarians who, for the purpose of the study, altered their diets
by consuming only uncooked and unprocessed plant-based food; the second group consisted of
endurance runners consuming a low-calorie and low non-plant based calorie diet; the third
group, the control group, consisted of healthy, non-obese participants eating a Western diet.
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Certain biomarkers were measured at the start of the study, including IGF-1 levels. It is
important to note that medical evaluations of the participants revealed that all were non-smokers
and there was no evidence of chronic or autoimmune diseases, cancer, or diabetes (9).
After participating in the study for seven days, the participants in the low-protein, low-
calorie diet group had lower IGF-1 levels than those in the Western diet group. Furthermore,
there was no significant difference between the IGF-1 levels in the endurance running group
and the Western diet group. Data from the study also showed an association between
participating in regular endurance exercise training and a decrease in plasma factors such as
insulin and inflammatory markers that are linked to certain types of cancer. The results of the
study suggest that dietary factors, including plant-based low-protein diets, may provide
Another
http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/84/6/1456.long
approach to
examining the effects of plant-based protein on cancer is by comparing cancer rates and diets
between Western and Asian countries. Research suggests that one explanation for variation in
cancer rates across nations is due to diet. For example, Asian countries such as China, Japan,
and Korea, where soybean intake is exponentially higher compared to Western countries, have
lower rates of breast, colon, and prostate cancer (10). More specifically, breast cancer incidence
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among women in China and other Asian countries are almost seven times lower than in
American women. Further, there is a higher incidence of breast cancer in Asian women who
immigrated to the United State compared to women residing in Asian countries. This suggests
risk factors might be related to environmental and dietary factors and not just genetic factors
(11).
Filipino-American women living in several cities in California, showed that intake of soybean
products was more than twice as high among Asian-American women born in Asia compared to
those born in the United States (12). Intake of tofu – a soy-based product – among immigrants
decreased in subsequent years after living in America. Further, breast cancer risk decreased as
Soybeans contain all of the essential amino acids and are therefore a complete source
of protein. They are an isoflavone genistein - plant derived compound - with a high protein to
carbohydrate ratio (13). They are strong antioxidants (14) and have anti-cancer properties (10).
Genistein is found to have estrogenic properties; this is significant because high levels of
estrogen are linked to breast cancer (11). Estrogen synthesized in the body can impact gene
regulation by activating estrogen receptors in various cell types. E2, found in high levels in
therefore, genistein competes with E2 for binding to estrogen receptors (11). In theory,
competition for the receptors between E2 and genistein reduces the amount of estrogen.
Table 2 (see Appendix A) outlines findings from a series of 26 animal studies looking at
the correlation between dietary isoflavone-containing soy intake and breast cancer incidence
and prognosis (10). In each study, carcinogenesis was initiated and the animals were fed soy or
soybean isoflavones. Of all 26 studies, 65% reported “protective effects” (10) and no study
indicated increased tumor development. Further, results suggest that isoflavones have positive
health effects in breast cells. Eight of the studies listed involve soybean products and
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experimental mammary cancer of which four showed that soy inhibited carcinogenesis. Only
one study showed a decrease in tumor prevalence, and the other studies showed no effect.
Despite these observations, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that soy reduces cancer
While several studies have begun to examine potential causes of cancer as well as
possible treatments, there remains a critical need for additional research. Diet, undoubtedly,
reveals itself as a protective or preventative factor against cancer. Current research suggests a
correlation between high-protein diets and increased risk of cancer. Furthermore, certain studies
suggest that animal-based protein increases the risk of cancer. Additional longitudinal
experiments as well as more global studies that compare the dietary practices of different
References
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Appendix A
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Appendix A
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