VDMA Battery Production

Battery Production

Lyoner Str. 18
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Phone +49 69 6603-1592
Fax +49 69 6603-2592
E-Mail sabine.egerer@vdma.org
Internet http://battprod.vdma.org

Roadmap
Battery Production Equipment
2030

http://battprod.vdma.org/

150831VDMA_Roadmap_TI_RT_K1.indd 2-4 26.09.14 12:08

The VDMA "Battery Production" Industry Circle is a
multi-industry-segment activity under the auspices
of the VDMA Electromobility Forum E-MOTIVE, in
which users, manufacturers, machine builders and
researchers work together. In view of the synergy
effects with electronics and photovoltaic
production, the VDMA Productronic Association
(Electronics Production) acts as the leader of the
Industry Circle. The members of this Industry Circle
include 15 industry segments and six German
regional VDMA associations; these contribute the
specific know-how of their members and thus help
to maximise synergy effects.
http://battprod.vdma.org
http://elektromobilitaet.vdma.org
The Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility
Components (PEM) of the RWTH Aachen
University is a synonym for successful and future-
oriented research and innovation in the field of e-
mobility production. The Battery Production group
within Professor Kampker's department is
concerned with production processes for lithium-
ion cells and the assembly processes for battery
packs. The focus is on approaches which will allow
integrated product and process development in
order to optimise the cost and quality drivers in
the manufacturing and assembly process. Thanks
to its participation in a number of international
industrial projects and its central position in well-
known research projects, the PEM of the RWTH
Aachen University offers a broad-based expertise
in the areas of battery cells and battery packs.
The Fraunhofer Institute of System and Innovation
Research ISI analyses the development and effects
of innovations. We research the short- and long-
term development of innovation processes and the
social effects of new technologies and services.
Based on this, we offer our clients from the worlds
of industry, politics and science recommendations
for action and information to assist with important
decision-making. Our expertise is in our solidly-
founded scientific competency and our
interdisciplinary and systematic approach to
research.
http://www.isi.fraunhofer.de

http://www.pem.rwth-aachen.de

About this book

Publisher
VDMA Battery Production
Lyoner Str. 18
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Phone +49 69 6603-1592
Fax +49 69 6603-2592
E-mail sabine.egerer@vdma.org
Website http://battprod.vdma.org

Authors
VDMA Batterieproduktion Dr. Eric Maiser, Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Daniel Müller
PEM der RWTH Aachen Prof. Dr. Achim Kampker, Dr. Christoph Deutskens, Heiner Heimes, Nemanja Sarovic, Niklas Klusmann
Fraunhofer ISI Dr. Axel Thielmann, Andreas Sauer

Editors
Dr. Eric Maiser, Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Daniel Müller
Peter Haan, Paul Merz, Volker Eberlein, Dr. Stefan Jakschik, Dr. Florian Schott, Christian Werner

Publishing house and production

VDMA Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main

Printing
h. reuffurth gmbh, Mühlheim am Main

Copyright 2014
This work and all parts of it are protected by copyright law.

Picture credits
Cover picture © jaflippo bei Fotolia.com
“All the signals are at green“:
German manufacturers of battery production equipment aim to be the leaders of the industry..
Other pictures See individual picture credits
Battery Production

Roadmap
Battery
Production Equipment
2030

In cooperation with

Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)

Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI

2 CONTENTS

Contents

Executive Summary 3

Introduction 4
Roadmapping: The whole picture 4
Technology roadmapping in the production equipment industry 4
Methodology 6

The biggest challenges 9

Red brick walls: an overview 9
Grand Challenges 11

Roadmap for battery production equipment 13

User markets 13
The demand for electrical energy storage devices up to 2030 15
Lithium ion technology as a reference scenario 19
Product requirements and specifications 21
The requirements placed on battery manufacturers 25
Solutions offered by machinery and production equipment builders today 26
Where technological breakthroughs are required in the future –
red brick walls in detail 28
Beyond lithium ion technology 48

Conclusion and recommendations for action 56

Conclusion 56
Recommendations for action 58

Appendix 60
References 60
Participants 64

Executive Summary
Electrical energy storage devices are the key
components for the success of electromobility
and stationary applications, such as the
buffering of energy from renewable supplies.
Worldwide, the battery industry is now looking
for reliable estimates of market and technologi-
cal factors. Up to now, discussions have centred
on the reduction of costs and the choice of
battery technology.
This present roadmap is focusing on production
technology for the first time. It is the result of a
broad-based objective-oriented dialogue
between German machinery and production
equipment builders and battery producers, user
industries and production researchers. This was
initiated by VDMA Battery Production and
moderated by this together with members and
partners from the field of research. The aim was
to formulate solutions to be offered by German
players in the field of battery production
equipment for the large-scale production of
high-capacity energy storage devices in the
period up to 2030.
In five workshops, with contributions from 240
experts from the entire field of battery produc-
tion, the present situation in the industry was
analysed and technological alternatives for
production technology were evaluated and
projected forward for the period up to 2030. This
was carried out using the roadmapping
methodology of the semiconductor industry.
The main focus was on large-sized lithium ion
batteries. A comparison of the solutions offered
by machinery and production equipment
builders with the requirements of battery
manufacturers underlined the necessity for
technological breakthroughs, breaking down the
so-called "red brick walls". On this basis, a list
was compiled of the areas of production
technology requiring concrete research. This
present roadmap describes research needs for
15 core areas. The biggest challenges proved to
be process stability coupled with a simultaneous
increase in production throughput, scalability
with regard to volume production, sustainability
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3
and above all enhanced quality together with a
simultaneous reduction of costs.
The following recommendations for action were
made: the need for research which has been
revealed should be met in a targeted way
through cooperation between industrial
partners and research organisations. Pilot lines
are important platforms for machinery and
production equipment builders, since these
allow innovations to be tested in production
environments which are very similar to genuine
production lines and refined to make them
suitable for volume production. At the same
time, the German players require access to large
projects in order to gain experience directly in
high-volume production. They should aim at
being able to offer customers complete
production lines. It will be possible to make
significant progress towards this aim through
cooperation between players in consortiums or
associations and by accompanying measures
such as line integration, life-cycle cost studies
and joint publicity work. This will allow the
battery production equipment industry to
achieve international competitiveness across a
broad front. It is also important in general to
conduct positive public relations work in order
to encourage investment in battery production.
Finally, the roadmapping process which has
been initiated should be continued.
Activities have already begun in all these areas
within the VDMA. VDMA Battery Production will
continue to actively drive forward the
roadmapping process which has been initiated
and the implementation of this.
 4 INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Electromobility and renewable energy have
become megatrends. This has in recent times
generated new interest in electrical energy
storage devices. The worlds of industry, politics
and research are looking worldwide for
strategies which will allow them to position
themselves successfully in this field. Roadmaps
are a well-proved method of creating clarity:
they provide a coherent picture of a future
vision, represent in ideal cases a consensus
across a broad industrial front, act as an invest-
ment guide and facilitate pre-competition
collaboration between all the players concerned
within the roadmapping process.
Roadmapping: The whole picture
Technology roadmapping is a strategic tool used
by innovation management. It links scenarios
describing technological developments and
capacity to the implementation of these in
terms of corporate objectives and market
opportunities. Forecasts of future megatrends
and markets1 ("know why") can benefit everyone
who is able to generate concrete requirements
[Phaal2003a] for products ("know what"), the
Timeline
(know-when)
Time
Vision/
Market M1 M2
Purpose
(know-why)
P1 P2 P3
Purpose Product
(know-what) P4
technologies to be deployed ("know how") and
the required research and development
programmes over a defined period of time. This
generates separate "travel routes" which can be
considered in each case with separate but
related roadmaps2: requirements are formulated
by working from top to bottom, while solutions
are created working from bottom to top. The
overall roadmapping process accordingly leads
from an overarching scenario through to
products and feasibility and on to concrete
needs for research, which can be visualised in a
milestone chart3 [Phaal2003b].
If we adapt this to our present case, the
following picture emerges: electro mobility and
stationary energy storage devices represent the
blue route "Market", while the green route
"Product" is the battery, the yellow route
specifies the production technology, and the red
route designates battery or production research
as appropriate.
Technology roadmapping in the
production equipment industry
The development of user markets and research
into battery technologies has already been
studied worldwide in numerous roadmaps. In
Germany, too, roadmaps with details of market-
related and technological factors have been
published within the NPE4 and in projects
organised by the innovation alliance LiB20155 of
the Federal German Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF) [LiB 2015].

Purpose T1 T2
Technology
(know-how)
T3 T4 2
Identified by different colours in the milestone chart
Implemen- RD1 RD2 RD4 RD6 3
R&D Strictly speaking, our roadmapping follows the development
tation
programmes RD3 RD5
paths shown in the milestone chart in reverse
4
The National Platform for Electromobility (NPE) is a German
Roadmapping: from an overarching scenario through to products and feasibility and on to concrete needs Government advisory committee.
for research. Development paths in a milestone chart [Phaal2003b] http://www.bmub.bund.de/themen/luft-laerm-
verkehr/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/nationale-plattform-
elektromobilitaet/
1
Popular examples include theageing society, shortages of
5
raw materials, sustainability, climate change, etc. http://www.lib2015.de

There have as yet been no roadmaps available
which focus on battery production beyond the
horizon of the internal plans of individual
companies. VDMA Battery Production began
already in 2011 to initiate a broad public
objective -oriented dialogue between battery
producers, production researchers and
machinery and production equipment builders
and to encourage exchanges of ideas between
suppliers. This present study describes the
results of this process.
Starting point, objectives and target groups
VDMA Battery Production conducts roadmap-
ping from the point of view of machinery and
production equipment builders. A previous study
[Schlick2011] has already described the
strengths and weaknesses of the industry with
regard to battery production. The major
conclusions of the study were as follows:
• German machinery and production
equipment builders offer solutions applicable
to the entire process chain of battery
manufacturing. Individual companies have
already offered complete solutions,
particularly in the field of module production.
• Asian players have a lead over German
companies in experience, due to the many
years in which they have equipped factories
for consumer batteries. They are currently
dominant as suppliers of production
equipment. In view, however, of the necessity
for new concepts for high-capacity energy
storage devices, opportunities are emerging
to make good this lead.
• Experience from related industries, such as
semiconductor, photovoltaics and
automobile production, and also the food and
packaging industry, has already been
successfully applied. The excellent German
position in the automation industry creates a
INTRODUCTION 5
starting point with good prospects for
success.
The roadmapping process should therefore aim
to achieve the following:
• Determination of the position of German
machinery and production equipment
builders in the field of battery production and
technological further development through
collaboration with production research. The
result will provide both a coherent picture for
a shared development vision and also a
comprehensive catalogue of solutions for
customers and will enhance the international
competitiveness of the suppliers concerned.
• Gain in know-how for new suppliers among
machinery and production equipment
builders by illustrating the interrelationships
throughout the process chain. This will make
it possible for participating companies to
position their own product portfolios
appropriately. Benchmarks will be created
allowing comparison with (international)
competitors, resulting in opportunities to
expand companies' own product portfolios.
• Research needs of production technology will
be identified. The aim should be to identify
not only the required machine solutions but
also the points in time at which these must
be available. This will result in a guideline for
public and private finance providers.
• Recommendations for action for all players
will be derived from the results. These will be
aimed both at the manufacturers of
production equipment and at research
service providers, the world of politics and
investors. They will also form a guideline for
the work of associations in the VDMA.
This present roadmap in itself can represent only
a part of the results which emerged from the
dialogue initiated within the roadmapping
process between production equipment
6 INTRODUCTION
VDMA roadmapping workshop: dialogue between production equipment manufacturers, battery
producers, users and research organisations. Photo: VDMA
manufacturers, battery producers, users and
research organisations. As a general principle,
those who will benefit the most will be the
participants in this dialogue [Groenveld1997,
Phaal2009]. It is important to involve all the
relevant players in the dialogue and proceed in a
structured way.
Methodology
The VDMA's experience with roadmapping
[adria2005, VDMA-PV2010] has underlined the
importance of clearly specified methodology for
the roadmapping process. Particularly with new
technologies, there is a wide range of possible
paths. As with previous activities, we adapted
the roadmapping process used in the semi-
conductor industry to the needs of battery
production:
Roadmapping in the semiconductor industry
One of the best-known technology roadmapping
methods is the ITRS1. The global semiconductor
industry uses this to coordinate the wide range
of development work aimed at increasing
performance and cutting costs in chip produc-
tion. Over 1,200 experts worldwide are
participating in the creation of this method
today. It is to a very high degree binding for the
1
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
http://www.itrs.net
Milestones are referred to here as “Technology Nodes”.
whole industry. The basic principles and para-
meters are described in detail in [Garcia1997]. In
this study, we describe the basic pillars support-
ing the method to which we have orientated
ourselves.
The concept of separate roadmaps for
customers and production equipment builders
One of the most important conclusions of the
ITRS process is: "Technology roadmapping is
driven by needs, not by solutions" [Garcia1998].
In roadmapping workshops in the past, we often
observed the following attitudes: producers
made the formulation of requirements placed
on machine builders dependent on the feasibil-
ity (as imagined at the present time) of process
technology for volume production. This did not
lead to the ambitious objectives which should
have resulted from the product requirements of
the end customers. On the contrary, technology
suppliers felt able to make statements on the
development of new process solutions only
when there were prospects of high-volume
production. This in turn did not lead to the
generation of proactive innovative machine
solutions. In cases of this kind, no fruitful discus-
sion takes place. It is possible to achieve a break-
through here only if the two sides – producers
and machine builders – each formulate separate
roadmaps.
Manufacturers analyse critical system
parameters and define specifications for their
products, in our case batteries. This results in
"non-negotiable" requirements placed on the
manufacturers of production equipment.
Parallel to and independently of this step, the
manufacturers of production equipment
extrapolate the process technologies available
today, develop technological alternatives and in
this way formulate future feasibility from their
point of view. In this way, a wide range of
possible ideas for machine solutions is created.
Only after this are the individual roadmaps
combined together. It is important in this

process to define a harmonising time grid. In our
dialogue, we have defined the following time
grid in order to obtain comparability:
(1) „State of Art“, (2) Up to 2015,
(3) Up to 2020, (4) Up to 2030.
The importance of "red brick walls"
The bringing-together of the requirements
placed on battery manufacturers and on
feasibility from the point of view of process
development within the defined time grid
reveals the following for each individual process
step: (1) Process solutions which are already
available in the field, (2) Process solutions which
are available only at a pilot stage (3) Process
solutions which have been demonstrated or
exist as part-solutions, and (4) Process solutions
which are unknown from the present-day point
of view. Cases of this last kind are marked in the
tables in red ("red brick"). If solutions are
Value chain
Lead acid
Ni-MH
Li-ionen
Li-S
Future prospects Li-air
for other battery
technologies
markets and
products
Existing
mechanical Today 2030 Time
engineering
roadmap, lithium
ion technology
Battery
technology
If we regard a milestone chart as roadmapping for production technology, further charts emerge
for each battery technology. This present book is concerned with the challenges associated with
the volume production of lithium ion technology. We do however also consider the future market
and product prospects of alternative battery technologies.
Source: VDMA
INTRODUCTION 7
unknown in several process steps required to
meet a manufacturer requirement, then in
metaphorical terms a so-called "red brick wall"
arises. This indicates that technological
breakthroughs are necessary.
Research efforts must now be targeted at
overcoming the "red brick walls" in order to fulfil
the manufacturers' requirements. The
identification of red brick walls is thus a core
task within the roadmapping process. From this
it is possible to derive clearly stated concrete
research requirements.
Multi-dimensional roadmaps – focus on the
production equipment industry
A holistic roadmapping approach "from the
overarching scenario through products and
feasibility and down to concrete research
requirements" as shown in the milestone chart
above would have been too complex for our
purposes. We wished to focus explicitly on
machinery and production equipment builders.
We have thus interpreted "research" to mean
"production research". Continuing to think in
terms of the milestone chart, a separate chart
results for each battery technology, creating a
multidimensional roadmap.
To allow an intensive study of the process chain,
we have accordingly focused on the battery
technology which appears most promising at
the present time, lithium ion technology. In view
of the competitive environment for German
companies, we shall furthermore limit ourselves
to considering large-sized cells for high-capacity
applications. In conclusion, we shall take a look
ahead at the market and product prospects for
future alternative battery technologies, which in
certain cases exist today only at the
demonstration stage.
8 INTRODUCTION

Workshops at the VDMA times – one of the critical factors for high-
quality roadmaps [Kostoff2001]3. The EXCEL
For the dialogue, we selected an expert-based tables could also be filled out by members
approach [Kostoff2001], featuring five work- outside of the workshops.
shops in which first the manufacturers of
production equipment discussed issues with The tables were then validated, consolidated4
each other, to be joined in the last workshop by and discussed with customers and researchers.
representatives of companies in client indus- The results of these discussions were used to
tries. Among those participating right from the define the red brick walls which form the basis
start were experts from the PEM of the RWTH for this roadmap.
Aachen (production technology research) and
the Fraunhofer-Institute of System and
Innovation Research ISI (customer roadmaps,
particularly LiB 2015 roadmapping). The To sum up: this present roadmap formulates
compilation of this present roadmap was a joint solutions offered by German machinery and
activity. production equipment builders and describes
the need for research for the high-volume
In the discussion of the production technology production of high-capacity lithium ion energy
solutions offered and the evaluation of these, storage devices in the period up to 2030.
we pursued a strictly systematic approach:
standardised EXCEL tables were used to examine
production methods with a high degree of detail
for their suitability for large-scale production1.
For this purpose, the competency fields of the
participating machine builders were evaluated
and, on this basis, four task forces were formed
along the process chain2. The participants in the
task forces compiled ideas for solutions in
separate workshops, using this systematic
approach. This ensured comparability at all

1
Multi-dimensional matrix for the evaluation of solutions for
machines, production equipment and components with the
following criteria:
Degree of maturity: Demonstrator, prototype, pilot
production, volume production.
When will the solution be ready for volume production? "State
of the art", 2020, 2030
Relevance for volume production: Seven evaluation criteria,
including costs, quality, time. Data related to the process step
under consideration compared with the present-day standard
process.
Obstacles to introduction?
Who is driving the introduction? Seven further evaluation
criteria
What customer need is being met? Evaluation according to
type and measured variables
3
2
TF1: Front end cell production: from mixing to calendaring [Kostoff2001] defines further critical factors for the creation
TF2: Back end cell production: from separation to formation of high-quality roadmaps, which we also considered.
and clean room technology 4
The details were known only to participants in the
TF3: Module and pack assembly
roadmapping workshops and the people who contributed to
TF4: Overarching topics: measuring and testing, automation,
the contents of the tables.
software, safety technology

The biggest challenges
Red brick walls: an overview
A large part of the added value of a battery pack
is created in the production of the battery cells.
It is this area that requires the most investment
[Kampker2012a], offers the greatest potential
for reducing costs [Schlick2012] and ultimately
presents the biggest opportunities and risks
with regard to business success. At the same
time, a number of different technological
alternatives are available today for cell produc-
tion, which means that battery manufacturers
are faced with a bewildering choice of options
for the equipment of a cell line. On the other
hand, there are only a few production equip-
ment manufacturers which are able to offer
complete cell lines. In our roadmapping
workshops, too, we found that the biggest
challenges and potentials from the point of view
of German machinery and production
equipment builders lie in the production of
battery cells. We thus attached particular
importance to the identification of possible red
brick walls for the production technology of
lithium ion foil cells. A total of nine red brick
walls were found in this area alone.
The production process of a battery cell is
divided into three main processes: the
production of electrodes, cell assembly, and
formation and testing [Kampker2012a].
In the area of electrode production, three red
brick walls were identified. These are associated
with the mixing of slurry and the challenges of
the coating process. Five red brick walls relate to
the area of cell-assembly. Here, we found that
special requirements apply to the separation
and stacking of the electrode sheets. We also
found red brick walls relating to the production
and sealing of the cell housings. Filling with
liquid electrolyte was the subject of a further red
brick wall. In the last main process, two red brick
walls were identified. These are concerned with
ways of speeding up the formation process and
forecasting the service life of individual cells.
THE BIGGEST CHALLENGES 9
The area of module and pack assembly requires
considerably less investment. There are not as
many process alternatives [Kampker2012b] and
line suppliers are already enjoying success,
including suppliers from Germany. There are,
however, a number of decisions to be taken and
challenges to be met, resulting from the
different form factors and the absence of
standards [Maiser2014], but solutions are
already available today in certain cases.
Nonetheless, a red brick wall was identified in
the workshops in the area of pack assembly
whose core concern was to replace the
laboriously welded aluminium housings.
Above and beyond this, there are five further red
brick walls which relate to non-process-specific
topics. These include, for example, the high
operating costs of clean rooms and drying
rooms, recycling processes and standardisation.
The presentation of the red brick walls is
oriented to the sequence of the main process
steps. A total of 15 red brick walls (RBW) were
identified:
• RBW 1: Mixing - continuous process
operation
• RBW 2: Coating - increasing speed and
width
• RBW 3: Coating – double sided and
simultaneous
• RBW 4 Separating – contamination
during process step
• RBW 5: Stacking – increasing speed
• RBW 6: Cell assembly - deep-drawing
more than 11 mm
• RBW 7: Cell assembly - sealing of foil
cells
10 THE BIGGEST CHALLENGES

• RBW 8: Filling - increasing speed • RBW 15: Overarching topic – relevant

• RBW 9: Formation – a more reliable
and faster process
• RBW 10: Long-term forecast –
statements concerning service life
• RBW 11: Pack assembly – plastic pack
housings
• RBW 12 Overarching topic – clean
rooms and drying rooms
• RBW 13: Overarching topic – recycling
• RBW 14: Overarching topic –
standardisation
RBW RBW
9 14
high
parameters for process control
In the chapters which follow, these 15 red brick
walls relating to future battery production will
be discussed in depth. Basic principles and
challenges will be analysed in detail and
approaches proposed to overcome the various
red brick walls.
Notwithstanding that it is important all in all for
the success of process technology that all the
red brick walls should be addressed at the
correct point in time, there is always the
question for the individual suppliers of
production equipment of the cost and benefits
associated with the development of a solution.
This applies in particular to new entrants. In
order to visualise the individual red brick walls,
these have been shown and evaluated in a new
reference system, the portfolio matrix1. The
knowledge of the existence of red brick walls is
valuable in itself. However, the discussion above

RBW RBW has also shown that the implementation of

15 10
measures to counteract each red brick wall
RBW RBW involves a high level of research costs.
13 5
Notwithstanding this, the portfolio matrix
RBW RBW allows the 15 red brick walls which we have
1 3
derived to be related to each other - from 'low
Benefit
medium

RBW
hanging fruits' (upper right corner) to 'hard to
8
handle' (lower left corner). This results in a
RBW RBW
qualitative representation of attractiveness
2 11
from the point of view of the suppliers of
RBW
production technology.
7
low

RBW RBW
12 4

RBW
6

high medium low 1

Benefits and costs were evaluated by awarding points from
Cost 1-9 (low being 1…3 and high being 7…9). The values for
benefits and costs are inversely related to the attractiveness of
Key: 2020 2030 each red brick wall. For benefits, values which are as high as
possible are advantageous, while for costs, the value should be
Portfolio matrix: comparison of time horizons, cost and benefit for the as low as possible. This is the reason why the value 1 for
overcoming of the identified red brick walls. benefits and 9 for costs lie at the origin of the matrix. At the
Source: RWTH Aachen top right-hand corner of the matrix are the so-called low-
hanging fruits – challenges which offer high benefits and can
be achieved at acceptable cost.
 THE BIGGEST CHALLENGES 11

Grand Challenges
this is processed further to form part of a
Increasing quality while simultaneously reducing costs module and battery pack, this represents a
significant cost driver. A simple increase in
process speed has a negative effect on
Process stability
Scale up of process stability. Wider process windows or
with higher Sustainability
throughput production more precise control systems allow higher
process speeds with the same process
stability as before and lower reject rates.
RBW 4 RBW 2
RBW 7 RBW 3 • The third grand challenge is sustainability in
RBW 1 RBW 13
RBW 10 RBW 9 RBW 5
RBW 8 battery production. The phrase "green
RBW 12 RBW 6
RBW 11
RBW 15 RBW 14 production" relates both to environmental
friendliness and the safe processing of the
The Grand Challenges for battery production and their relationship to the identified red brick raw materials in a product and to the
walls. Source: RWTH Aachen, VDMA materials and solvents used in the process: a
further important factor is also energy and
resource efficiency in production. An
important aspect of recycling, however, is
closed-loop production: this ensures that as
Grand Challenges much of battery raw material as possible is
fed back into battery production after
We have described the biggest challenges facing recycling and not converted into other waste
battery production on the basis of the "Grand products which are left to decay.
Challenges" defined for the semiconductor
industry. All the red brick walls which have been • The fourth overarching grand challenge for
identified can be correlated to four overarching battery production is achieving higher quality
grand challenges. while at the same time reducing costs. This is
the core challenge by which the
• The first grand challenge is the scaling-up of manufacturers and suppliers of production
production solutions from the demonstrator technology must measure themselves in the
level through to pilot lines and volume long term. For one thing, the success of
production. Many working steps are not yet electromobility depends crucially on this.
ready for volume production and have a high Related industries such as the semiconductor,
potential for automation. Particular attention display and photovoltaic industries have
must be paid to scalability in the case of new succeeded in meeting this challenge over a
process steps. In order to be able to meet the period of decades. The aim is to achieve this
increased future demand for batteries, the for battery production, too.
throughput time must be significantly
reduced.

• The second grand challenge is process

stability with a simultaneous increase in
production throughput. In comparison with
related industries, present-day battery
production lines have a very high reject rate.
Against the background of the high material
costs of a battery cell, which are multiplied as
12 THE BIGGEST CHALLENGES

Coating technology is an important process technology for battery production. Seen here: a pilot
production line at the RWTH Aachen. This coating machine was selected as an example in the
VDMA workshop series entitled "Total Cost of Ownership for Battery Production." Source: PEM of
RWTH Aachen

Cost evaluation facilitates cost reduction

A reduction of the costs of battery production

demands knowledge of the individual cost
components. Only through a holistic evaluation
is it possible to identify and eliminate cost
drivers. More and more manufacturers are
asking their suppliers for details of the
consequential costs of an investment.
Understanding costs fully requires an evaluation
over the complete life-cycle1 of products
(development, operation and recycling).
Differences in manufacturers' cost models,
however, make it difficult to obtain an overview.
The VDMA publication 34160:2006 provides a
standard for uniform calculation which is
matched to the needs of battery machine
builders. Since this would have exceeded the
limits of the roadmapping workshops, VDMA
Battery Production initiated a series of
workshops entitled "Total Cost of Ownership for
Battery Production" in 2012. This series will
shortly be completed. The results will be
published separately.

1
Also referred to as "Total Cost of Ownership".
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 13
Roadmap for battery production equipment
In this section, we will now describe the results
of the roadmapping process in detail. As a
starting point, it was necessary to answer the
following: is our involvement justified by the
expected size of the battery market? Which
battery technology will be dominant in the
coming decades and will represent the biggest
demand for production solutions? What is the
driving factor behind the requirements placed
by battery manufacturers on their suppliers?
These questions can be answered by studying
markets and the product specifications on the
user side. The user applications determine the
requirements placed on battery manufacturers.
From this, it is possible to derive and understand
the requirements placed by battery manufactur-
ers on the suppliers of production technologies.
For this purpose, we made reference to existing
roadmaps.
User markets
The possible applications of electrical energy
storage technologies lie not only in the area of
electromobility but also in many forms in the
field of stationary energy storage [Schlick2012,
Thielmann2012a]. Small electric vehicles
demand storage devices of a few kilowatt hours
(kWh) capacity, while large electric vehicles
require ratings of up to 25 kWh and more1. The
available range of stationary storage devices, for
example for use as buffers with renewable
energy supplies or for mobile phone masts, runs
from small (<100 kWh) decentralised systems to
large (>100 kWh) centralised systems. Stationary
electrical energy storage devices with capacities
up to the megawatt hour range are already
commercially available. As applications become
larger, the level of distribution in both
1
The range of available devices is varied, including everything
from bicycles already available in the mass-market, small
guided conveyor vehicles, boats, electric vehicles and buses
through to hybrid rail vehicles, various working machines and
even ships.
electromobility and stationary energy storage
becomes smaller, as does the speed of market
diffusion
Developments in the electric car market
In the electric car market, there is a particular
focus on the development of plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHEVs) and battery-driven electric
vehicles (BEVs), with the automobile industry,
both in Germany and elsewhere, acting as the
driver for the development of other applications,
such as small commercial vehicles.
The time at which this market will take off
depends very heavily on the development of
external variables acting on cost/benefit
calculations, for example the prices of crude oil
or generated electricity [Plötz2013]. An equally
critical factor is the need for cost-reduction
targets to be met with regard to vehicle
batteries and for broader social acceptance to be
built up through positive experiences with
electromobility in the population at large. In
general, all present-day forecasts include a high
level of elements of uncertainty.
The sales figures for more heavily electrified
electric vehicles (PHEVs and BEVs) have exhib-
ited very promising growth in recent years, from
45,000 vehicles in the year 2011 to 113,000
vehicles in 2012 [IEA2013] and more than
210,000 vehicles in 2013 [ICCT2013]. This
means, however, that the total number of
electric vehicles in operation worldwide is still
well below half a million and thus below the
global target figures specified in [IEA2013]. This
represents far less than 1% of all cars world-
wide. Nonetheless, optimists believe that the
high rate of growth will continue [King2013].
14 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

The market share of PHEVs and BEVs in 2030 will

lie between low single-digit values and
approximately 50% of all new-vehicle
registrations in the countries included in the
study.

If we consider the entire worldwide pool of

vehicles, there is a giant market potential for
electromobility. In the year 2012, internationally
Target values for regional market shares for electric vehicles (PHEVs and BEVs) in the world's major
a total of around 77 million vehicles were sold,
markets 2010-2020[IEA2013].
which represents an increase of 6% over the
previous year [ICCT2013]. This figure includes 50
One of the current challenges is the lack of million cars. The three largest markets in terms
diversity among the vehicle models available of numbers of sold vehicles in 2012 were China
with regard to different price classes and (19 million), the USA (15 million) and the EU 27
functionality. The present products on offer are (14 million).
very far from being able to cover all customer
segments and their special requirements. The expectation for electromobility is also that
the most important markets will be in Asia, the
As the result of the dominance of hybrid cars USA and the EU.
(HEVs), the lion's share of all electric vehicles is
currently being produced in Japan, followed by
Year EU-27 U.S. China
the USA. Much further back in the field are
Korea, France and Germany [Marklines2014].
2020 7% 10% 9%

Estimates published by research institutions and 2030 30% 35% 40%

corporate consultants as to the size of the Forecast market shares for electric vehicles (PHEVs and BEVs)
in the most important markets. Quelle: [ICCT2013, IEA2013]
market for electric vehicles in the year 2020
often seem to be characterised by the optimism
described above [Martin2013, Frost2014].1 In
One very large potential is predicted to be
general, however, all studies are based on a
electric vehicles deployed in large fleets (for
number of assumptions regarding influential
example, car sharing providers or large
variables and the development of these, for
companies). These vehicles account for 30% of
example the price of crude oil or batteries. This
annual new-vehicle registrations in Germany.
then results in a considerable bandwidth of
Similar values are reported from other European
possible market development scenarios. The
countries.
results may accordingly deviate sharply from
one another. The forecasts generally do not
attempt to describe the most probable
development scenario.

1
The innovation report "Electromobility and its Importance for
Industry, Society and the Environment" (Working Report No.
153), [Peters2012] includes an overview and comparison of
current studies which are concerned with the future market
penetration of electric and hybrid vehicles.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 15

US-Dollar

44 bn 43 bn

36 bn
Developments in the market for stationary
13 bn 32 bn applications

11.4 bn 19.9 bn In this field, the popular discussion is of products

11 bn
8 bn
2.9 3 4 bn
bn bn 1.6 bn
878 m
The wide bandwidth of forecasts for the worldwide development of the market for lithium ion batteries in unit
sales [Thielmann2012a].
Development in the market for heavy-duty
hybrid (commercial) vehicles
In addition to the particularly promising pas-
senger car applications, there are further
applications which have begun to be adopted
but are as yet far less significant in terms of unit
sales. These are generally summarised under the
heading "Heavy-duty hybrid (commercial)
vehicles".
While, for example, there is a relatively large
market potential for electrified buses and trucks,
non-road mobile machinery generally involves
niche applications with comparatively low unit
sales.1 The market for heavy-duty hybrid
(commercial) vehicles has progressed beyond
the prototype phase and is now, particularly in
the case of buses and trucks, either at the
demonstration stage or just about to undergo
successful commercialisation.
as buffers for energy from renewable sources
[Hollinger2013, Fürstenwerth2014]. This market
ranges from photovoltaic installations for
private users to large containers for wind power
generators or companies with production facili-
ty. Mobile phone masts represent a further mar-
ket for batteries which is less often discussed in
public. The position with stationary applications
of electrical energy storage devices is similar to
that for electromobility: smaller concepts such
as solar power storage devices are already avail-
able on the market [Märtel2013b]. However, the
larger an electrochemical storage medium for a
given application is, the lower the expected unit
sales and the further away such devices are from
their market launch, not to mention mass-
market success. However, demonstration pro-
jects already exist for all kinds of applications.
The demand for electrical energy
storage devices up to 2030
For a number of years, numerous new sales
forecasts have been appearing from time to
time relating to the development of the
worldwide market volume for electrical energy
storage devices in general and lithium ion
batteries in particular. Notwithstanding that
there are significant differences between these
in terms of absolute values, all forecasts predict
healthy growth. The market for lithium ion
batteries worldwide is predicted to grow by
several multiples, the exact number depending
on the source, driven both by a wider choice of
products on the market and falling production
costs.

1
One exception is, for example, fork-lift trucks, which continue
to use lead acid batteries as before.
16 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
The market for rechargeable batteries from 2000 to 2025 in MWh
180000
120000
60000
0 the production capacities of large battery manu-
2000 2010 2020 2025
Ni-Cd Ni-MH without cars LIB without cars Ni-MH for HEV
LIB for HEV LIB for P-HEV LIB for EV
The market for rechargeable batteries from 2000 to 2025 in MWh according to battery
technologies, including beyond lithium ion technology. The average annual growth rate is 12
percent. Data taken from [Pillot2013]
It is estimated that the value of the global
lithium ion battery market in 2013 was approxi-
mately US$18 billion [Sapru2014, Frost2010,
Yano11]. The estimates for the period up to
2020 vary from US$15 bn [Statista2014] to over
US$70 bn. As, however, the latter figure is based
on estimates from the years 2008 to 2011 (see
graphic on previous page) and is quoted
increasingly frequently, it can be assumed that
the size of the market of the future will be
subject to an upward trend [Oyama2011,
Trans2013, Pillot2013].
As described in the previous chapter, this growth
will be a consequence of the forecast rising de-
mand in all areas in which lithium ion batteries
are used, namely in stationary applications as
buffers for energy from renewable sources, in
electric vehicles, and also as before in numerous
types of consumer goods (mobile communica-
tions and tools) and in the industrial sector (elec-
tric tools and accessories). A further factor is
that all assumptions are that lithium ion bat-
teries will gradually take the place of nickel
metal hydride batteries, which were the main
type previously used in HEVs. In the period up to
2030, it can be expected that nickel metal
hydride batteries will have completely disap-
peared from the market – linked to the fact that
HEVs will gradually be replaced by PHEVs
[Anderman2013, Pillot2013, Global2013]. The
lithium ion battery market for electric vehicles
will grow more strongly in future years than the
market for other applications, such as consumer
goods or the industrial sector (see graphic on
left).
A particularly important role will be played by
the expected development in battery prices –
facturers, which have been built up worldwide
and are not currently fully utilised, have already
in recent months led to a significant fall in bat-
tery prices and may in the medium term lead to
a pronounced amalgamation process among
suppliers [Anderman2013]. While battery prices
remain low, the market will grow faster and the
remaining manufacturers will be able to make
healthy profits even with low profit margins.
Size of market for consumer batteries and other
small and medium-sized batteries
The value of the market for batteries for por-
table consumer goods, such as mobile tools and
communication devices1, in 2014 will be bet-
ween US$9bn [Yano2011] and US$12bn [Frost
2010]. Then there are the small and medium-
sized batteries which are not used directly by
consumers but are used, for example, in medical
technology. The size of this market was approxy-
mately US$3bn in 2014 [Yano2011]. The ex-
pectations for the year 2020 are that the market
for consumer batteries will grow to a value of
between US$12 bn and US$19 bn, while the
market for other small and medium-sized
batteries will have a value of approximately
US$5 billion.
1
Referred to in the following as "consumer batteries"
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 17

Global LiB markets (consumer batteries) in bn. $ Global LiB markets (vehicle batteries) in bn. $

20 40
35

15 30
25
20
10
15
10
5
5
0
0 2015 2020
2015 2020 AAB - Anderman (2013) Avicenne (2013) Navigant (2014)
Avicenne (2013) Yano (2011) Frost&Sullivan (2012) Frost&Sullivan (2014) Yano (2011)
Frost&Sullivan (2010) Frost&Sullivan (2014) Frost&Sullivan (2010) Global Data (2013) Navigant (2012)

Global LiB markets (industrial batteries) in bn. $ Global LiB markets (stationary energy storage) in bn. $

10 20

15

5 10

0 0
2015 2020 2015 2020

Yano (2011) Frost&Sullivan (2010) Frost&Sullivan (2014) iSupply (2011) Pike (2010) Frost&Sullivan (2014)

Global markets for lithium ion batteries (LIB) in total and according to applications. Sources: see individual graphics

• [Anderman2013] forecasts a world-

The size of the market for lithium ion batteries wide market for large-sized lithium ion
for electromobility applications batteries for HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs at
pack level of just under US$4 billion as
Particularly in the next several years, electric ve- early as 2014. The prediction is that
hicles will represent a central application for this market will be worth over US$9
large-sized lithium ion batteries in the mass billion in the year 2020. If we consider
market. Since, in addition to this, various de- the statements made at cell level,
grees of electrification of the vehicle drivetrains these agree closely with [Pillot2013].
are possible, the question must always be con-
sidered in studying the market as a whole as to • [Pillot2013] forecasts a value for the
the size of the market shares of the individual market at cell level of just under US$3
degrees of electrification (HEVs, PHEVs, BEVs). billion for the year 2014. The forecast
This information will allow statements to be for the year 2020 is over US$7 billion.
made regarding the market development of the Both these figures agree with [Ander-
various lithium ion cells chemistries1. Further man2013].
details on the battery technologies used will be
given in the chapter "Product requirements and • [Global2013] goes well beyond this and
specifications". forecasts a market size of over US$12
billion for the year 2014 and US$36 bil-
The figures for the market volume for lithium lion for the year 2020.
ion batteries for electromobility in the years
2014 and 2020 vary widely in the currently- • [Frost2010] as an older publication is
available studies: more conservative than [Global2013]
regarding the market size in the year
2014 at just under $7 billion but fore-
casts the same figure of US$37 billion
1
The various vehicle types require different types of lithium
for the year 2020.
ion batteries, among other things with different cell chemis-
tries. The growth rates of the various degrees of electrification
therefore have an influence on the market for the various
types of lithium ion batteries. Market data is, however, not
usually broken down on the basis of cell chemistries.
18 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
As already mentioned, there are also a number
of further estimates and forecasts [Navigant
2013, Navigant2014, Yano2011, Roland 2011].
The size of the market for industrial batteries
With regard to the batteries used in the indus-
trial sector, and thus, for example, in electrical
tools and accessories, the expectation is that the
market in 2014 will have been worth approxi-
mately US$3 billion [Frost2010]. This market is
also expected to grow, to a value of US$7 billion.
The size of the market for stationary energy
storage devices
There have as yet been few market analyses for
stationary electrochemical storage devices. At
the transmission network level, demand for this
type of storage device is expected to develop
only in the long term together with the wide-
spread expansion of fluctuating energy supplies
from renewable sources as part of the changing
energy policy in Germany [Fürstenwerth2014].
Energy balancing and/or other more economic
types of storage devices will also prevent or at
least limit the adoption of lithium ion batteries
as electrical energy storage devices at trans-
mission network level in the coming decades,
since they will then be economically viable only
in special cases such as island solutions [VDE
2012]. At the distribution network level, lithium
ion batteries may have a part to play in photo-
voltaics or in the storage of solar energy in pri-
vate households, photovoltaics or wind energy
parks and network stabilisation systems
[Younicos2013]. The prediction for the market
volume of electrical energy storage devices in
photovoltaic or home solar applications up to
2020 is for a value of €2.4 billion, with lithium
ion batteries expected to be preferred to lead
acid batteries through standardisation on the
basis of calculations of total cost of ownership.
Further studies also predict markets for lithium
ion batteries up to 2020 of several billion US dol-
lars worldwide for on- and off-grid applications.
The applications of lithium ion batteries in the
field of stationary storage devices are however
many and various and it is expected that a va-
riety of business models will be developed in the
coming years. A dependable estimate of market
developments in this as yet young field of the
future, even beyond photovoltaics, is barely pos-
sible at the present time. There is however no
doubt, that lithium ion batteries will also play a
significant role in this field.
It is as a general principle interesting to see how
the market for batteries can be estimated for a
given customer sector. One example: the deve-
lopment of the worldwide sales figures for elec-
tric vehicles varies between conservative esti-
mates of around 1 million PHEVs/BEVs up to
2020 [Anderman 2013, Pillot2013] and the tar-
get values which may be achieved by this time
of around 5 - 6 million vehicles [IEA 2013]. This
translates directly via the relevant assumptions
regarding battery sizes (e.g. 8 - 12 kWh for typ-
ical PHEVs or 20 - 25 kWh for typical BEVs) into
demand for batteries and via assumptions re-
garding price developments with PHEV/BEV bat-
teries (in US$/kWh, PHEV batteries are more
expensive than BEV batteries, typical assump-
tions for the period up to 2020 are 200 - 300
US$/kWh at cell level) into the billion-dollar
markets described in the market studies. These
studies reflect bandwidths varying from US$6 -
9 bn for vehicle batteries up to 5 times this
value. The position is similar with regard to esti-
mates for other sub-markets for lithium ion bat-
teries, such as the still young area of stationary
electrical energy storage devices.
All these figures show clearly that while in
general exceptionally high growth is expected,
the precise magnitude of this up to a certain
point in time fluctuates within the broad
bandwidth covering the various estimates.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 19
Lithium ion technology as a
reference scenario
As consumer batteries, they are a vital part of
our daily lives, but lithium ion batteries do not
as yet have the same degree of technological
maturity as conventional lead acid or nickel
metal hydride batteries. Depending on the di-
mensioning of the cells, however, they can offer
significantly higher energy and power densities
and are thus regarded mainly for this reason as
the battery systems of choice for mobile and
stationary applications. In the following, there-
fore, we will describe the current state of the art,
using the present-day reference system. This
firstly represents the starting point for our focus
area of production technology and secondly
serves as a basis for a look ahead into the further
development of battery technology overall (see
chapter "Beyond lithium ion technology") [Peters
2012, Thielmann2012b].1 The progress which
has been achieved in the field of electromobility
is also the driver for the development of energy
storage devices for stationary applications.
Since, however, these must in certain cases meet
significantly different performance require-
ments; we will at various points deal explicitly
and separately with these two areas of applica-
tions.
Rechargeable batteries differ one from another
in the choice of chemical storage system, the
cathode and anode material, electrolyte and
separators used and various other characteristic
features, such as operating temperature.
1 order to be sure of achieving the necessary EUCAR level.
Our remarks are based on the technological overview
contained in the innovation report "Electromobility and its
Importance for Business, Society and the Environment"
(Working Report No. 153)“ [Peters2012] and on the
"Technology Roadmap: Energy Storage Devices for
Electromobility 2030“ [Thielmann2012b]
4-volt lithium ion batteries as a current
reference technology
The current reference system of "classic" lithium
ion batteries for use both in electromobility and
stationary applications is the already very highly
developed four-volt lithium ion battery with an
energy density of over 110 Wh/kg (gravimetric)
or 179 Wh/l (volumetric), a service life of more
than 5000 cycles, equivalent to 10 - 15 years, re-
liability at a maximum of EUCAR level 42 and
costs which at the moment, depending on the
quantities produced, lie between 300-400
€/kWh.3 In electrochemical terms, the current
reference system is based on a cathode made of
nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) or lithium iron
phosphate (LFP) and an anode made of graphite.
Lithium titanate is also suitable as an alternative
anode material, particularly for use in large-
sized stationary storage devices or energy stor-
age devices for HEVs in the field of electromo-
bility [Korthauer2013].
The declared aim of the industry is to lower the
cost of this system, realistic forecasts name a
figure of 250€/kWh for the year 20204. This ob-
jective was also the main motivation for this
present book. Among the tools for reducing
costs are not only industrial volume production
and the associated learning-curve effect and
economies of scale [Schlick2011] but also pro-
gress in the production of materials and an im-
provement in quality [Roland2011]. The increa-
singly tough competition between global bat-
tery producers and the current production
2
European Council for Automotive R&D (EUCAR); This is an
association of interested parties, including Europe's major car
and commercial vehicle manufacturers, which defines hazard
levels for electrical energy storage technologies, based on the
resistance of a technology to abuse. Manufacturers and
suppliers must develop and test their batteries accordingly in
3
All parameter specifications at system level and for use in
BEVs
4
See chapter entitled "Developments to be expected in central
performance parameters".
20 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
overcapacity1 in large-sized cells [Andermann
2013] have caused prices to fall and have increa-
sed the cost pressure on manufacturers. The
latitude for the improvement of system para-
meters, such as an increase in energy density, is
intrinsically limited by the system itself. Break-
throughs can be expected not in the current
generation but the next generation of lithium-
based batteries (see chapter entitled "beyond
lithium ion technology"). Nonetheless, we have
in the VDMA roadmapping process focused on
lithium ion technology.
Large-sized lithium ion batteries as a suitable
reference system for the introduction of volume
production
As has been shown in the preceding chapters,
lithium ion technology has reached an advanced
stage of development and an adequate degree
of penetration of mass markets. Large-sized cells
for high energy and high-capacity applications
are already available in the market. It can be
assumed that areas which are currently domi-
nated by other technologies such as lead acid or
nickel metal hydride2 will be taken over by
lithium ion technology. Current cell chemistries
and packaging allow sufficient latitude for the
various requirements of electromobility and
stationary energy storage devices.
The overall picture in battery technology re-
search and development shows that the current
generation of "classic" large-sized lithium ion
batteries is being improved on an evolutionary
1
The production overcapacity should be regarded as tempo-
rary, since the markets mentioned above have not yet "come
alive" and the expected demand is not yet present. Falling pri-
ces will activate the market. As the rate of growth increases,
overcapacity will soon be eliminated and, due to the lead time
in the building of factors, production bottlenecks will result.
There has been experience of this in numerous industries, par-
ticularly the semiconductor and photovoltaic cell industries.
2
Lead acid in the stationary energy storage market or as
traction batteries in mobile machinery, nickel metal hydride
especially for use in HEVs. This is discussed in more detail in
the chapter entitled "beyond lithium ion technology".
basis, thus gradually closing the gap in energy
density relative to consumer batteries (250
Wh/kg). Within the next 10 years, it is likely that
no fundamentally different battery technologies
will be available on a commercial scale, which is
why the upcoming rise in the market for electric
vehicles (particularly BEVs) up to the year 2020
and beyond will be based on the current lithium
ion battery generation. For the period after 2025
and beyond 2030, lithium sulphur batteries can
be considered as the most promising battery
technology for use in electromobility, together
with completely different energy storage solu-
tions such as fuel cells, which may possibly de-
liver decisive advantages with regard to energy
density and thus to the working range of BEVs.
These however, have not yet been sufficiently
evaluated and made available in the market. For
use in stationary applications requiring small to
medium storage capacities and cycles, the cur-
rent lithium ion battery generation will continue
for many years to represent the reference
system, due to the dimensioning breadth and
the consequent wide variety of applications
which it offers.
For large-sized cells, however, lithium ion tech-
nology has not yet succeeded in making the leap
into volume production. Quality must be in-
creased and costs must be reduced. This is the
great challenge for production technology. We
have accordingly decided to focus the VDMA
roadmapping process on lithium ion technology.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 21
Product requirements and
specifications
The investment costs for electrical energy stor-
age devices are a crucial factor in gaining accep-
tance by end customers and are accordingly at
centre stage from the point of view of the sup-
pliers of electric vehicles and stationary storage
systems. In the case of electromobility, further
important factors include a large working range,
fast acceleration and fast charging. For station-
ary applications, the crucial factors are a long
service life and low total cost of ownership
throughout the battery life cycle. These and
other requirements mean that it is important to
select the right electrical energy storage device
for a specific application. They ultimately lead to
concrete requirements for the performance
parameters of batteries.
Central performance parameters
The most important technical performance
parameters are listed below:
• Energy density, gravimetrically in
Wh/kg and volumetrically in Wh/l,
• Power density, gravimetrically in W/kg
and volumetrically in W/l,
• Service life, operating service life in
cycles and calendar service life in years,
• Environmental conditions or accept-
able maximum and minimum temp-
eratures in °C,
• Safety expressed by a EUCAR level,
• Costs in €/kWh,
• Efficiency in percent.
Further criteria for the selection of the most
suitable battery system are charging capacity,
voltage stability during discharge, the duration
of a charging operation and degradation effects
which lead to a reduction in calendar service life.
In addition to fulfilling technical specifications,
modern battery systems are expected to be
capable of being produced in an environmen-
tally-friendly way and allowing inexpensive and
environmentally-friendly disposal. Linkage at an
early point in time between product develop-
ment and later battery recycling will allow the
logical design of a sustainable and ecological
battery technology. What is more, the develop-
ment of processes for the reclamation of lithium
and cobalt is of strategic importance for the
safeguarding of suppliers of raw materials for
battery production in Germany [Peters2012].
A comparison of the performance data listed
above is useful in deriving the requirements
which are to be placed on machinery and pro-
duction equipment builders and on which the
roadmapping process is based. It should, how-
ever, be noted that different priorities should be
defined for electromobility and stationary
applications.
Performance parameters for electromobility
applications
In the case of the electric bicycles and scooters
already available on the mass market, the most
important factors with regard to acceptance and
cost-effectiveness are calendar service life,
safety and investment and operating costs.
HEVs are subject to stringent requirements
regarding power density, service life and safety.
The importance of lower costs will increase as
market diffusion becomes more widespread.
This trend can also be observed with PHEVs,
however here the explicit emphasis is on
volumetric energy and power density rather
than calendar service life and safety. In the case
of BEVs and small commercial vehicles, the
emphasis is on energy density instead of power
density. The various performance parameters
 22 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

Cell Energy Specific

Chemistry Capacity Form Voltage Weight Volume Used in:
manufacturer density energy

Anode/ Modell
Ah V kg l Wh/l WH/kg Firma
Cathode

AESC G/LMO- Leaf

33 Pouch 3,75 0,80 0,40 309 155 Nissan
NCA
LG Chem G/NMC- Zoe
36 Pouch 3,75 0,86 0,49 275 157 Renault
LMO
Li-Tec G/NMC 52 Pouch 3,65 1,25 0,60 316 152 Daimler Smart
Li Energy G/LMO-
50 Prismatic 3,7 1,70 0,85 218 109 Mitsubishi i-MiEV
Japan NMC
Samsung G/LMO- 500
64 Prismatic 3,7 1,80 0,97 243 132 Fiat
NMC
Lishen Tianjin G-LFP 16 Prismatic 3,25 0,45 0,23 226 116 Coda EV
Toshiba LTO-NMC 20 Prismatic 2,3 0,52 0,23 200 89 Honda Fit
Panasonic G/NCA 3,1 Cylindrical 3,6 0,045 0,018 630 248 Tesla Model S

Performance parameters of lithium ion battery cells used in commercially available BEVs, including cell chemistries [Andermann 2013].

can be considerably influenced by the choice of cathode. The difference is due to compromises
cell chemistry. The following cell chemistries are made in favour of greater safety, reliability, ser-
the most important ones for battery cells which vice life and energy density and lower costs [An-
are used in BEVs such as the Nissan Leaf, Tesla derman2013]. The result is, however, also by far
Model S and Renault Zoë (see table above): the highest energy density.
graphite anodes are in certain cases mixed with
LMO or NMC and combined with cathodes made For battery cells used in PHEV models such as
of NCA, LMO or NMC in prismatic or pouch cells. the Chevy Volt, Toyota Prius PHEV and Mitsubi-
Lishen Tianjin battery cells have an LFP cathode, shi Outlander PHEV, similar cell chemistries play
which results in a cell chemistry with low energy a dominant role – notwithstanding that signifi-
density, which is still installed today, particularly cantly lower capacity can be expected (see
by Chinese companies, due to its safety advan- graphic on left).
tages. Toshiba uses cells with an LTO anode and
NMC cathode, which results in a lower specific In the case of hybrid buses, there are stringent
energy density in comparison with other cell requirements regarding power density and
chemistries. The cylindrical 18650 battery cell costs. The reason for this latter requirement is
from Panasonic uses an extremely low capacity that these buses are ordered in the main by
cell design with a graphite anode and an NCA public and private transportation companies
and therefore need to be cost-effective both as
Cell Chemistry Capacity Form Voltage Weight Specific investments and in operation. Coupled with this
manufacturer energy
is a requirement for long service life and a high
Anode/ Ah V kg Wh/kg level of safety.
cathode
Sanyo 112
NMC 22 Prismatic 3,68 0,73
Performance parameters for stationary
Samsung NMC- 113 applications
26 Prismatic 3,7 0,85
LMO
LEJ 21 Prismatic 3,3 0,64 108 Even when dealing with individual segments of
LFP
the stationary storage device market, such as
LG LMO- 148
15 Pouch 3,7 0,38 large cyclically operated storage devices, it is
NMC
important to know what specific application is
A123 135
LFP 20 Pouch 3,3 0,49 concerned. It is generally assumed that the re-
quirements regarding service life and costs will
AESC 151
LMO-NCA 23 Pouch 3,75 0,57 be stringent and will need to be studied in
calculations of total cost of ownership through-
Performance parameters for lithium ion cells installed in commercially-available PHEVs, including cell out the service life of the product in question.
chemistries [Andermann 2013].

The objectives of the world's
leading countries with regard to
energy densities (Wh/kg) for
large-sized LIB cells of the third
battery generation (use in
BEVs/PHEVs)
The objectives of the world's
leading countries with regard to
the costs (€/kWh) for large-sized
LIB cells of the third battery
generation (use in BEVs/PHEVs)
Japan (NEDO)
South Korea (MKE)
China (MOST/MIT)
USA (DOE)
Germany (BMBF/ISI)
Target values based on roadmaps of governments and industrial associations worldwide
[Thielmann2012b]
ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 23
Energy density in Wh/kg
Cost in €/kWh
In certain cases, different definitions of market maturity and quantities
have been taken as a basis (e.g. differences such as prototypes with low
volume and market launch/short production runs with high volume).
The level of investment and operating costs will
be influenced very strongly by the way in which
the requirements for long cycle life of energy
storage device technologies are fulfilled. The
efficiency of electrical energy storage systems is
also an important factor.
Performance parameters of battery
technologies which appear promising for the
future
Lithium high-energy and high voltage batteries
are planned for use in electromobility applica-
tions in the medium and long term as an evolu-
tionary further development of current lithium
ion batteries. For the distant future the concept
of lithium sulphur batteries can also be regarded
as highly promising for the period after 2020
due to the high possible energy density of these
batteries, particularly for BEVs. In addition to
lithium-based batteries, however, fuel cell tech-
nology can also be considered as relevant to
electromobility, in particular proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEM-FC, hydrogen-based).
Particularly for large vehicles and long working
ranges, these cells offer good technological pro-
perties, fast tank filling and an easy means of
providing air-conditioning for passenger cells.
An approach other than the further develop-
ment of large-sized cells is being adopted by
Tesla Motors Inc. with the use of conventional
18650 round cells in its electric vehicles. These
cells are used, for example, in laptops and are
already being produced in large quantities. Auto-
makers can benefit in this way from the per-
formance parameters already achieved (e.g.
energy density) and economies of scale. In this
case, the need for innovations shifts in particular
to battery management systems and system
integration.
In the case of stationary applications, lithium-
based batteries are in competition in particular
with lead acid, redox flow and sodium sulphur
batteries with capacities in the kWh to MWh
range (and possibly also the rechargeable zinc
air batteries of the future). In addition to these
electrochemical storage systems, mechanical
energy storage technologies such as compressed
air reservoirs may offer alternatives to lithium
ion technology, particularly in the field of home
solar systems
Since the main emphasis regarding require-
ments is completely different in stationary
application fields compared with electro-
mobility, cell chemistries other than lithium ion
technology are used, see the chapter "Beyond
lithium ion technology“.
Developments which can be expected in central
performance parameters
A comparison of the roadmaps of different
governments worldwide provides a good over-
view of the different philosophies which apply
to individual technical parameters, such as
energy density and costs. It can be seen that the
USA has had very ambitious objectives even up
to 2015, as reflected in the government's
generally risk-loving attitude and promotional
policy, which is based on research into and
development of potentially disruptive
technologies. While South Korea orientates itself
24 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
very closely to the target values specified by the
Japanese NEDO, China intends to achieve more,
particularly in the long term. The roadmaps
published by the NDEO in 2006, 2008, 2010 and
2013 are at the centre of all published strategy
documents and provide orientation for the
entire battery community worldwide, due to,
among other things, traditional reasons associ-
ated with Japan's role as the longstanding
technological leader in electrical energy storage
devices. The German roadmap for the NPE
[NPE2010] adopts a significantly more conserva-
tive attitude (see graphic), with data stated for
the system level.
With regard to energy density, there has indeed
been a gradual rise in recent years by approxi-
mately 10 to 15% to the present values of 150 -
160 Wh/kg at cell level and 110 - 120 Wh/kg at
system level. While this evolutionary develop-
ment will continue, lithium sulphur batteries
could allow three times more energy density
[Thielmann2012b]. Progress with regards to
Volumetric energy (Wh/l)
Gravimetric energy Peak power (Wh/l)
(Wh/kg)
Quality (failure rates
Safety
in % as average per
(EUCAR level)
year over 10 years)
Costs > 250,000
Cold start power
Euros/year (Euro/kWh
(W/kg)
Service life (years)
The development of major parameters for a BEV from the point of view of the NPE om the point of
view of the NPE[Peters2012]
service life and in particular numbers of cycles
will decide if and when lithium sulphur battery
technology will be ripe for market launch. The
use of conventional 18650 consumer cells in
electric vehicles in the case of Tesla Motors Inc.
results even today in a significantly higher
energy density of approximately 250 Wh/kg. The
gap between the 160 Wh/kg of present-day
large-sized lithium ion batteries and the 250
Wh/kg of consumer cells must be closed in order
to allow future use of electric energy storage
devices in electromobility applications. With
regard to stationary applications, the emphasis
is on other performance parameters. Here, even
within the current generation of large-sized
lithium ion batteries, there is great potential for
improvement, since there are high losses at all
points from the materials/components used
through to the cells and fully developed systems
[Köhler2013].
Given a continuous reduction of costs, lithium
ion batteries could gradually replace lead acid
batteries completely in home solar applications.
The falling battery prices which can be expected,
together with longer service life, should result in
significant advantages for lithium ion batteries
over their total life cycle [Schlick2011].
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 25
The requirements placed on battery
manufacturers
While we were able to obtain product require-
ments, and the performance parameters derived
from these, for high-energy and high-capacity
applications from existing sources and incorpo-
rate these into the roadmapping process, we
were not able to obtain battery manufacturers'
specifications. We have therefore incorporated
the battery manufacturers into the roadmap-
ping process and, in this way, compiled a list of
the requirements placed on machinery and
production equipment builders. The highest
priorities are for the following areas:
The requirements placed by battery manufactur-
ers on machine builders are based first and
foremost on the objective of achieving a signifi-
cant reduction in the costs of lithium ion
batteries. The aim is to increase the degree of
automation, exploit economies of scale and
avoid rejects. At the same time, the field of
stationary and electromobility applications
demands high quality standards. In view of this,
stable processes are essential if quantities to be
increased.
Continuous process operation in a mixed pro-
cess would save time and money. It is, however,
first necessary to develop better concepts for
changes to processes. High-quality slurry must
also be ensured for the purposes of continuous
process operation.
As regards the coating process, the aim is to
increase speed from the current value of
30 m/min. to 70 to 100 m/min. A further in-
crease in output can be obtained by imple-
menting simultaneous double-sided coating.
There must be no loss of quality as the result of
either a speed increase or simultaneous double-
sided coating.
The stacking process is regarded as one of the
most time-critical steps in the process chain.
Here, the use of reliable grippers which operate
cleanly, quickly and gently should make it
possible to achieve a stacking speed of one
second per sheet.
As regards filling with electrolyte, the crucial
factor is good wetting of the surface. This must
be achieved in future even with higher filling
speeds.
There is considerable potential in the formation
and ageing process for saving time and money.
The target is formation times of two hours
instead of 24 hours and a significant reduction
in the ageing time, which currently takes several
weeks. It is vitally important here to avoid
affecting service life and quality adversely.
For customers, a further crucial factor is to be
able to predict service life correctly both at cell
level and system level. The obstacle to be
overcome here is the reduction of reject rates by
using non-destructive test methods while
simultaneously reducing the test duration.
In addition to increasing process speeds,
customers have other wishes, aimed at reducing
costs. One of these wishes is concerned with
larger cells, together with an increased level of
standardisation of interfaces. Further ad-
vantages can be achieved by reducing drying
rooms to mini environments. In the medium
term, battery manufacturers expect that
machines and production equipment can also be
adapted to changes in the materials used to
manufacture products. It would be conceivable
to use plastic housings instead of aluminium.
With all processes, it is important to take into
account the recycling factor. It is possible to save
money here if cells are designed right from the
start for recycling ("design for recyclability"). In
this way, the recycling of the raw materials used
can generate a financial return even at an early
stage.
26 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
The general wish of manufacturers is that stable
processes should make quality checks superflu-
ous. Furthermore, for a higher degree of auto-
mation, it is important to guarantee fail-safe
operation. Only under these conditions is it
meaningful to fully interlink the individual
process steps. In order to meet this customer
wish, it is first necessary to achieve an adequate
understanding of the processes. By no means all
the parameters are known which may have an
effect on the quality of the end product. It is
thus all the more important to get to grips with
known process-critical parameters. For the
separation process, this means dealing success-
fully with the particle contamination which can
impair quality. It is also necessary to avoid
leakages during the cell sealing process.
Supplier of cell production equipment
Machine and plant manufacturer
Process steps
Experts High Potentials
Supplier of module and pack assembly equipment
Machine and plant manufacturer
Process steps
Experts High Potentials
Competencies of the German suppliers of production technology for lithium ion
batteries. Particularly in cell manufacturing, the structure of the value chain is
heavily sub-divided. Source: Heimes, PEM of RWTH Aachen.
Solutions offered by machinery and
production equipment builders
today
The disruptive change from conventional to
electrified drive trains [Kampker2014] is creating
attractive opportunities in the newly-emerging
electromobility market. Growing markets are
also expected for stationary energy storage
devices, due among other things to changes in
energy sources. In addition to battery manufac-
turers, a number of machinery and production
equipment builders are attempting to gain a
share of the value creation process in these new
markets. The industry is focusing on the most
promising battery technology, lithium ion
technology. By providing intelligent production
technology, machinery and production
equipment industry is offering a major tool with
which to achieve urgently-needed cost
reductions. German players offer solutions for
all points along the process chain. Competencies
in the industry cover a broad front, the main
distinction being between cell production on the
one hand and module and pack assembly on the
other.
Particularly in the case of module production,
individual German companies are already
offering complete solutions. A few of them have
even succeeded in winning out against estab-
lished process technologies with new solutions.
In cell production, on the other hand, there is a
heavily sub-divided value creation structure.
Experience from related industries, such as the
semiconductor and photovoltaic industries and
automobile production, and also the food and
packaging industries [Schlick2011], is already
being successfully applied in both areas. The
solid foundation of the German industry and the
future prospects in the automation industry
(Industry 4.01) provide German companies with
an excellent starting point.
1
The next step in automation technology, under the heading
"Industry 4.0", is being actively driven forward, particularly by
German companies. Production operations increasingly
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 27

Mixing principle Intensive mixer Classic mixer

Mixing

Tempering With air conditiong system Without air conditioning system

Morphological
Batch system
chart of
Chargierung Continuous Discontinuous

Atmosphere
Atmosphäre Vaccuum Shielding gas Normal atmosphere

Application tool
Auftragswerkzeug Commabar Slot nizzle Roller application battery production
Coating

Track position
Bahnlage Longitudial Transverse Strips

Type of coating
Beschichtungsart Normal atmosphere Shielding gas
Cleaning Surface Edges None

rating
Sepa-
Atmosphere
Atmosphäre Cutting principle Stamping Wedge Laser

Layering method Z-folding (one sided) Z-folding (two sided) Individual

Stack-
Type of conveyor

ing
Bahnführung Roller conveyor Suction jet dryer Floating Gripper technology Contactless (ultrasound) Vacuum

Welding Laser welding Friction welding Induction roller plating Pulse joining Ultrasound welding

Type of process
Verfahrensart Single sided Double sided
Drying

Layering method Deep drawn foil Folded foil Foil bag

Packing
Cleaning of joints Chlorine Laser None

Heating principle
Erwärmungsprinzip Circulating air Fresh air HeatedmetauscherFoil seal Pulse sealing Contact sealing Hot sealing

Filling technology Injection Cell stack insertion

Filling
Overall length
Gesamtlänge Short Long
Type of olive Narrow Wide Fan nozzle

Metering method Fixed quantity Metering pump

Cooling
Kühlen Cooling roller Colling zone
Position of cells Horizontal Vertical

Contact making Connection to cell Cell to connection

Type of contact Gripper Spring contact pins

Pre-treatment Cleaning Charge dissipation Tempering Ohne

Formation
Damage allowed Yes No
Calendaring

Feedback Cell to cell To network None

Number of rollerpairs 1 2 Current intensity 25 A 50 A

Connection of cells Individual circuits Cell dropout system

Line pressure 300 kN 500 kN Process temperature Low High

Piercing principle Laser Needle

Degas
sing
Track widths
Bahnbreite 300 mm 500 mm Rolling of cells With Without

Position of cells Horizontal Vertical

Ageing
Roller material
Walzenmaterial Cast iron Chromed steel chromed Storage zone temperature High Low Time-variable

Ageing period Two weeks Four weeks

Drying room
Trockenraum Installed Not installed Weight measurement Comparative measurement Absolute measurement

Monitoring
Dimensions Coordinate measuring device Gauges Laser measurement

Slitting
Slitting Blade Laser beam
Density measurement Gas outflow Weight differences Pressure differences

Capacitance measurement High current discharge Standard current discharge

Morphological chart for battery production. Numerous technological alternatives are available today for each individual process step. Source: PEM of RWTH Aachen

Asian players have a lead in experience over number of interfaces. German machinery and
German companies thanks to the fact that they production equipment builders will, however, be
have for many years equipped factories produc- able to master this challenge through close
ing consumer batteries. They are currently domi- corporation and will be able to offer holistic
nant as providers of production equipment. solutions.
However, the requirements for the production of
large-sized the batteries are also a challenge for The heterogeneous competency profile of
these players. Accordingly, German suppliers of machinery and production equipment builders
production equipment have a realistic opportu- has led to a wide bandwidth of alternative
nity of catching up the Asian lead [Schlick2011]. solutions or technical implementations (e.g.
single-sheet stacking or Z folding, ultrasound
Lithium ion battery cells are of special impor- welding or laser welding, stamping or laser
tance in view of their major influence on the cutting) [Kampker2013c]. It is a characteristic
cost of complete systems [Kampker2013a]. It is feature of cell production that reference needs
therefore on these that the world is focusing to be made to a variety of technological
with regard to production technology. By draw- production processes. These include not only
ing on the existing competencies gained in other coating and cutting but also shaping, joining
industries, German machinery and production and the modification of materials characteris-
equipment builders are also in a position to tics. As a result, cell manufacturers have a
make a valuable contribution within the pro- variety of solutions at their disposal which can
duction process for lithium ion battery cells. The be implemented in various production resour-
investment costs for battery cells are due to the ces. This is both a blessing and a curse. For
sub-divided value creation structure in the manufacturers, the selection of processes for a
machinery and production equipment industry complete line is very complex. Each of these
[Kampker2012a]. An analysis of more than 200 alternative solutions is, however, characterised
national and international machinery and by individual advantages. A study showed that it
production equipment builders has shown that, was possible to identify over 100 alternative
within cell production, these companies focus production resources in the area of cell produc-
on selected sub-process steps according to their tion and classify these in the morphological
existing competencies. This means a challenge charts shown above [Kampker2012c].
when it comes to the formation of technology
chains. This is made more difficult by the large

control themselves through a network of machines and

workpieces. For further information, see
http://www.plattform-i40.de
28 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
Production resources vary in terms of their
performance characteristics (time, costs, quality,
flexibility and degree of maturity). Cell manu-
facturers therefore need to take the perfor-
mance characteristics of an overall process into
account when selecting production resources. In
addition to this, so manufacturers must ensure
that the selected production resources are able
both to deliver the required product character-
istics (e.g. the required layer thickness) and also
to harmonise together in a process chain
[Kampker2013b]. The selection of alternative
production resources is thus particularly impor-
tant within the production planning for lithium
ion battery cells.
The preceding description of the present
situation shows clearly that it will be possible to
offer a holistic technologically harmonised
production concept at the present time only by
drawing on the products offered by a number of
different companies. A core challenge for cell
manufacturers is thus to integrate different
production resources to form a single overall
process. "Operators of production facilities for
lithium ion cells are thus confronted with the
challenge of identifying a suitable machinery
and production equipment builders for each
process step." [Kampker2013c]
Our task is to change this situation by deploying
existing and newly-developed know-how in the
field of battery production equipment in a
targeted way and further developing this.
Where technological breakthroughs
are required in the future – red brick
walls in detail
In the following, the 15 identified red brick walls
are discussed in detail on the basis of milestone
charts adapted for our purposes.
Visualisation in a milestone chart
As described in the introduction, we use mile-
stone charts with parallel "routes" to visualise
and analyse forecast technological development
paths. The green route contains critical system
parameters for the battery and symbolises the
requirements of the battery manufacturers. The
yellow route represents production technology
and stands for the solutions offered by machin-
ery and production equipment builders. Finally,
the red route represents battery production re-
search. The milestone charts show the network-
ing of the individual routes. From top to bottom,
requirements are formulated, while from bot-
tom to top solutions are shown.
The charts which follow show only battery
manufacturer requirements for which no pro-
duction solutions as yet exist – by definition,
these are the red brick walls. In the interests of
clarity, a milestone chart has been produced for
each red brick wall. In view of the fact that the
discussion did not reveal any short-term red
brick walls (time horizon 2015); we have limited
ourselves to medium- to long-term time
horizons. The present state of the art in
production technology for volume production
has been discussed in the preceding check and is
the starting point "Today" in the milestone
chart1.
1
In the roadmapping workshops, 2012 was defined as "today".
Here, we have taken as a basis the situation which developed
in the course of the roadmapping process 2011 – 2013.

RBW 1: Mixing – Continuous process operation
The development of a continuous mixer will increase the degree of
automation in the process. Changes in the mixing ratio of active and
passive material will be necessary.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Batch
by
Engineering batch
mixing
solutions
Alternative
mixers
R&D Water-based
programs solvents
Reduced binder Extruders
content
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
Four symbols are used to represent the
milestones in the development path. The circle
represents the process technology currently
used. The hexagon stands for the need for
research or research properties. The rectangles
with rounded corners represent pilot production
lines or demonstrated approaches to solutions,
while technologies suitable for mass production
are identified by a rectangle with sharp corners1.
Potential for improvement in the target system
The milestone chart is supplemented by a
graphic showing the potential for improvement
for volume production which would result from
overcoming the red brick wall2. This is a simpli-
fied representation of the assessment criteria by
which each process technology was measured in
the roadmapping workshop. In this present
roadmap, we have limited ourselves to three
categories which cover the target system. "Time"
designates an increase in process speed, i.e. a
faster throughput time. "Quality" stands for an
improvement of the product, e.g. the perfor-
mance parameters or the service life of batter-
ies, or a reduction in the reject rate. "Costs"
represent investment and/or operating costs.
1
Graphic: Design RWTH Aachen based on [Phaal2003b].
2
Improvement of process steps – in the case of overarching
topics, improvement of an entire production phase.
ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 29
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Continuous
mixing process
Industrial
continuous
mixing
Continuous
mixing in labo-
ratory operation
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
RBW 1 Mixing: Continuous process operation
Challenges and basic principles
Mixing is the first process step in battery pro-
duction, and in this step active material, carbon,
binder, solvents and additives are used to pro-
duce a slurry. The input of energy, the process
temperature and also the order in which active
and passive materials are added (dry mixing,
wet mixing) considerably influence the charac-
teristics of the slurry. The challenges on the
process side are to avoid air enclosures and to
ensure consistent physical properties across the
individual fractions. The viscometry in particular,
to which the subsequent coating process is
matched, must be kept constant. Above and
beyond this, it is crucial to avoid the formation
of agglomerates and to ensure that further pro-
cessing of the slurry takes place immediately, in
order to avoid sedimentation effects.
After as little as an hour, de-mixing of the binder
and the rest of the slurry can occur. Currently-
used mixing technologies operate with batch
production. These include planetary mixing
systems and single- or multi-shaft mixing sys-
tems with and without vacuum extraction. The
aim is to develop a continuous mixing process in
the laboratory by 2020 and to be able by 2030 to
offer machine solutions for stable large-scale
production.
30 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
Continuous process operation, which has al-
ready been practised in other industries for
many years, allows a significantly higher degree
of automation of the process. It makes it possi-
ble to significantly reduce costs, since the
throughput time is reduced, the need for human
labour is reduced and susceptibility to faults is
minimised. Moreover, with this type of process
operation, it is possible to produce slurry in ac-
cordance with the needs of the downstream
processes and feed this in an ideal way directly
to the coating machine. This allows the occur-
rence of inhomogeneities due to long waiting
times to be avoided. At the present time, the
quality losses with regard resulting from a
changeover of the mixing principle are too high.
What is more, the required engineering work for
continuous process operation is considerably
more complex. Any necessary interventions and
corrections can be made only at the end of the
process. In continuous operation, the demands
on the instrumentation and control equipment
to be used are therefore higher. There is a need
for research so that continuous mixing technolo-
gies for battery operation with consistent slurry
quality can be developed.
Possible solutions
The requirements for a continuous mixer are
based on the current mixing process. This means
that allowance must be made for developments
directly in the mixing process. In order to in-
crease the power density of the electrodes, it is
an attractive idea to reduce the use of passive
materials, in particular binder (generally poly-
vinylidene fluoride, or PVDF). It would also be de-
sirable to replace the use of the toxic and explo-
sive solvent n-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) by
cheaper water-based solutions. Research efforts
are also being driven by the current discussion of
a possible general ban of NMP as a solvent. This
may become even more necessary, since NMP
appears on the ECHA list of materials giving par-
ticular cause for concern. It is therefore possible
that a general ban on use may be imposed
through the REACH decree [ECHA2014].
However, even without a ban on use, there are
incentives to change to water-based systems.
The use of these is not only cheaper but also
speeds up the drying time, as they evaporate
more quickly (see also RBW 12) [Guerfi2007]. It
will also be necessary to develop valid high-
speed tests for the slurry. At the present time, it
is possible to detect incorrect parameter settings
only later in the process chain. With batch-by-
batch mixing operation, this would lead to a dis-
crete quantity of reject material. Incorrect para-
meter settings must be regarded significantly
more critically in a continuous mixing process.
It has already been possible to achieve progress
in the production of anodes. It is possible here to
significantly reduce the proportion of binder by
adding a fluid. The exploitation of capillary
effects allows the adhesion properties of the
slurry on the collector foil to be improved. The
fluid evaporates completely during the drying
process [Bitsch2014]. In the Asian region, the
use of a water-based solvent is already the state
of the art. On the cathode side, it is more diffi-
cult to implement the use of water-based sol-
vents, since the lithium which is present must
be prevented from reacting with the water
[Mossbauer2010]. For the production of lithium
ion phosphate batteries (LFP), progress has al-
ready been achieved by using a water-soluble
elastomer as a binder. No solutions are as yet
available for the further permutations of lithium
ion batteries (NMC, NCA).
Research in this area is focusing primarily on
materials. Since this work in the main involves
internal company developments and patented
applications, machinery and production equip-
ment builders have only limited information
available. In order to ensure the necessary
quality and reproducibility for a water-based
electrode production process using production
technology relevant to industrial needs, it is
necessary to design production equipment tech-
nology and processes specifically for the use of
water as a solvent.

RBW 2: Coating – Increasing speed and width
It will be possible to increase production throughput by a step-by-step
increase in belt speed to 100 m/min and by increasing the width of the
foil to 2 m. Process must be maintained after every increase.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Coating
Engineering 30m/min
0,6m width
solutions
Coating Coating
30m/min 70-100m/min
1,3m width 1,3m width
R&D New coating
programs Laser drying
technologies
Production of a
foil wider than 2m
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
A complete abandonment of solvents would fur-
ther reduce costs and make the subsequent dry-
ing process, and possibly the calendaring pro-
cess, obsolete. It will be possible to use a mixer
based on the functional principle of an extruder
for this purpose. Due to the physical working
principle of an extruder, it would seem possible
in general to dispense with the use of solvents.
There has, however, as yet been no concrete ex-
pression of this development direction.
RBW 2 Coating: Increasing speed and width
Challenges and basic principles
During the coating process, the slurry is applied
either continuously or intermittently to a sub-
strate for made of copper (for the anode) or alu-
minium (for the cathode) using an applicator
system and to a thickness of 50 - 300 µm, de-
pending on the cell type and variant. Among the
coating technologies used are slot nozzles,
comma wipers and gridded rollers, with slot
nozzles offering the greatest advantages.
Present-day coating machines operate at a
speed of 30 m/min. and a width of approxi-
mately 0.6 m. The critical factors for quality are
precise metering of the slurry in the applicator
tool and an even coating thickness across the
width of the foil. An uneven coating thickness
will lead to differing line pressures in the
calendaring process. These will in turn lead to
ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 31
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Coating
100m/min 2m
width
Coating Coating
70-100m/min 70-100m/min
1,3m width 2m width
Coating
70-100m/min
2m width
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
differences in the porosity of the material and
thus to a loss of quality. Projecting edges can
produce the same effect in intermediate opera-
tion. Edge sharpness is a further quality crite-
rion. Moreover, a crucial factor for cyclical service
life and subsequent battery performance is the
adhesion of the coating to the substrate foil.
In order to exploit economies of scale and meet
rising demand, future coating machines in the
period up to 2030 must be capable of stable
operation in the order of magnitude of 100
m/min across a width of 2 m. At the same
time, it must be ensured that the increase in
width and conveyor belt speed is not at the
expense of electrode quality.
Possible solutions
An initial pilot production lines with a slot nozzle
operates at a speed of 30 m/min. over a doubled
width of 1.2 m. However, it is not yet possible to
guarantee stability of the even lateral distribu-
tion of the coating thickness. Only when this has
been achieved by adapting process parameters
will it then be possible to increase the speed. An
increase in speed would have a direct effect on
the length of the drying machine, since the two
processes are directly coupled. New drying tech-
nologies such as laser drying deliver faster re-
sults than conventional machines. However, it
remains to be determined to what extent the
new drying technologies will influence coating
32 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

RBW 3: Coating – Double-sided and simultaneous Target system

A double-sided, simultaneous coating system halves the throughput time Time

compared with serially operating machines. There are further positive

effects on the subsequent drying process, through only one pass is
required.
Quality Costs

Requirements of Double-sided coating

and drying
manufacturer simultaneously

Serial Industrial
coating double-sided
Engineering and process line
solutions drying

New coating
systems
Pilot facility for
R&D double-sided
New job tools coating and
programs drying
Non-contact Extruder
drying

Today 2020 2025 2030

Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production

compositions (keyword "de-mixing") and surface thin to store the necessary energy density.
quality. Depending on the application, a coating thick-
ness of 200 µm is applied to the cathode of foil.
An increase in width from 1.2 to 2.0 m using a The graphic at bottom left illustrates the devel-
slot nozzle as an applicator system should be opment in the speed and width of the collector
regarded as critical. The formation of a meniscus foil in the coating process.
is necessary for the application process. It should
be determined whether it is possible to coat In order to increase width, it is necessary to
across a width of 2.0 m with existing nozzle sys- adapt the relevant substrate foils. It is currently
tems or whether this technology is at its limit not possible to produce 10 - 20 µm thick foils
even with a lesser width. It is necessary to de- with a width of 2.0 m in an adequate quality.
velop new coating systems. The following coat- Here, too, appropriate development is required.
ing methods have already been considered but
had to be rejected: sputtering, CVD coating, eva-
poration, ink-jet printing and powder coating. RBW 3 Coating: Double-sided and simultaneous
The coating thicknesses produced are in this
case in the nanometre range and are thus too Challenges and basic principles
A double-sided simultaneous coating machine
[m/min] [m] would halve throughput time compared with
100 2,0
Speed serially-operating machines. There are further
positive effects on the subsequent drying pro-
cess, through which only one pass is required. In
this process, one electrode side passes through
the drying process twice. With simultaneous
70 1,2
double-sided coating, there is no second pass,
resulting in time and cost advantages. A suitable
coating machine should be ready for market
launch by 2020.
Coating width
30 0,6
In addition to the existing challenges presented
Status quo 2020 2025 2030
by the coating process, such as achieving even
Development in speed and width of collector foil in the coating process. Source: PEM of RWTH lateral distribution of the slurry (see RBW 2), it is
Aachen
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 33

RBW 4: Separation – Contamination in process step Target system

Time
The particle contamination resulting from the separation process may cause
short-circuits in the cells. The particle size varies, depending on the separation
technology used.
Quality Costs

Requirements of No damaging
particle
manufacturer contamination

Stamping
Engineering Integration of Avoidance of
particles, with
quality assurance
solutions Laser into process detection if
necessary
cutting

Extraction of
particles (silver
technology)
R&D
Particle detection
programs
Further devel- Pilot plants for new
opment of existing separation
technology technologies

Today 2020 2025 2030

Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production

also necessary to avoid running of the slurry
after application due to the effect of gravity.
Possible solutions
In order to implement double-sided simultane-
ous coating, there must be developments in
various areas. New coating machines will re-
quire an alternative routing of the foil in order to
prevent running of the slurry. It would also be
possible to introduce innovative applicator
systems which are designed for double-sided
coating and can operate independently of the
effects of gravity.
The drying technology must also be changed to
allow double-sided simultaneous operation. One
possible solution is contactless drying machines.
Floating dryers are a commonly-use system for
contactless drying. With this solution, the foil
floats over air cushions in a sinusoidal shape
created by air cushions. It will be necessary to
identify a suitable design, providing non-
damaging floating and drying characteristics, in
order to meet the high quality requirements of
electrode coating.
Slurries which are able to operate without
solvent cannot run, which has a positive effect
on the development of simultaneous double-
sided coating. Possible solutions include the
extruder already described in connection with
RBW 1 or a form of powder pressing. There have
as yet been no concrete implementations. An
Asian machinery and production equipment
builders has already shown a double-sided
coating machine at a trade fair. It was not
possible to determine whether this machine
meets quality requirements and is suitable for
industrial operation.
RBW 4 Separation: Contamination in process
step
Challenges and basic principles
During separation, the electrode coils are cut
into sheets. A critical quality factor is particle
contamination of the sheets resulting from the
cut, which may damage the separator and lead
to a short-circuit. The objective is to stabilise the
process sufficiently by 2030 so that quality-
damaging particle contamination is avoided.
The state of the art is represented by two
separation technologies – stamping and laser
cutting. In the case of stamping, the quality of
the cut edges depends on tool wear. The quality
of the cut edges decreases over time, which
means that particle contamination increases. In
the case of laser cutting, the tool does not wear
and no change in quality therefore takes place.
Furthermore, changing the geometry involves
only low additional cost [Kronthaler2012].
34 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
RBW 5: Stacking – Increasing speed
The stacking process is a bottleneck in foil cell production, due to the
lower speeds involved. The process involves a trade-off between speed,
positioning accuracy, cleanliness and gentle material handling.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Winding
Engineering
solutions
Stacking
individual
sheets
New gripper
technologies Generation of
innovative
R&D Alternatives stacking solutions
without handling
programs operations
Stacking solid
Z-folding electrolyte
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
Stamping tools allow a very clean cut edge to be
achieved. With laser cutting, the electrode is
heated locally. Since the coating vaporises with a
lower input of energy than the support foil, the
collector foil is exposed in a certain vicinity of
the cut edge. This may then cause a short circuit
[Schmitz2014]. In the opinion of experts, the
intensity of the contamination produced with
both technologies is identical, varying only in the
size of the particles created.
Possible solutions
In the short term, it will be possible to integrate
quality assurance systems into the separation
process. For the laser cutting method, suction of
the vaporised material is meaningful, as already
practised in certain cases after slitting. This
prevents the sublimation of particles. Suitable
filter technology, with adaptation to the particle
sizes generated, is commercially available.
Furthermore, light optical systems can be used
to inspect the cleaning quality. As the quality of
the cut edges obtained by stamping decreases
with time, these measures are also relevant to
this technology. Moreover, consideration should
also be given to inspection of the separator,
using the same light optical technologies. Small
pinholes or variations in porosity also affect the
risk of a short circuit.
In the long term, the technologies using the
separation process should be developed further
and stabilised to the degree that monitoring for
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Stacking
operation << 1
second
Industrial
stacking
technology
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
particle contamination is no longer necessary.
The trend towards increasing coating thick-
nesses, in the interests of higher energy density,
is impeding the development process of laser
cutting in particular. As coating thicknesses
increase, more energy is required, which means
that more coating material evaporates at the cut
edges.
RBW 5 Stacking: Increasing speed
Challenges and basic principles
In the production of foil cells, electrodes and
separator sheets are stacked alternately. The
stacking process is time-critical and represents a
bottleneck within the cell production process as
a whole. The process involves a trade-off be-
tween speed, positioning accuracy, cleanliness
and gentle material handling. Any increase in
speed is always at the expense of the other
parameters. The challenge of the process is to
achieve precise positioning of the non-rigid
sheets without damaging these. The separator
sheets are particularly sensitive. The positioning
accuracy is necessary because the separator is
required to isolate the electrodes at all points.
Contact between the cathode and anode will
lead to a short-circuit in the cell. Since the
stacking process is carried out in the drying
room, electrostatic charges on all surfaces are an
inherent problem. This may lead to several
sheets being stacked at once or remaining
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 35
RBW 6: Cell assembly – Deep drawing more than 11 mm
The reason for the trend towards larger cells is customers' desire for a
doubling of the capacity of foil cells to at least 50 Ah by 2020. To allow
this, the base of the aluminium packing foil must be drawn to a greater
depth, more than 11 mm compared with the present 5 - 6 mm.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Improved
Engineering Deep
drawing industrial deep-
drawing
solutions 5 - 6 mm process
R&D Deep drawing Improvement
expertise of material
programs properties
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators
hanging on the gripper (see RBW 12). The
objective is to significantly speed up the stacking
process by 2020 and achieve a speed of well
below one second per sheet.
The present state of the art is vacuum grippers
in combination with a camera system to align
the sheets one to another. Alternative grippers,
such as ultrasound grippers, allow contactless
stacking. This solves the problem of possible
damage. On the other hand, the problems of low
process speed and the need for a camera system
remain. It is not possible to achieve an increase
in speed with ultrasound grippers. At higher
speeds, these would lose their grip on the
sheets. It is questionable whether the desired
objective can be achieved with gripper systems,
since high grippers speeds increase the risk of
damage to the sheets.
Possible solutions
Better scalability of process speed can be
achieved by the use of stacking systems without
handling operations. In order to do this, a
substitute must be found for the gripping
process. Furthermore, future systems must
include the alignment of sheets and must
operate without camera systems. One possibility
could be to develop intelligent magazine
systems in which the sheets are transported on
conveyor belts. There has as yet been no
concrete implementation of this.
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Deep drawing
> 11 mm
2025 2030
Technology suitable for volume production
Z-folding as a technology is currently at the pilot
phase. This avoids the problem of the precise
positioning of separators by dealing with these
not singly but as a strip folded between the
electrodes. The electrodes are transported by a
gripper, just as before. There is an overall gain in
process speed compared with the conventional
stacking process.
In view of the bottleneck effect in the
production process as a whole, it is important to
generate innovative stacking solutions from the
available alternatives. The development in bat-
tery technology towards so-called solid-state
batteries allows liquid electrolytes to be
replaced by a solid (e.g. a polymer membrane).
The stacking process will in the future need to
be expanded to include the insertion of an
electrolyte sheet.
RBW 6 Cell assembly: Deep drawing more than
11 mm
Challenges and basic principles
Foil cells have a packing made of aluminium foil.
The underside of the packing is produced by
deep drawing. In order to accommodate a stack
with the usual capacity of 20 Ah, the packing foil
must be drawn to a depth of 5 - 6 mm. The
desire to exploit economies of scale has
generated a trend towards larger and thicker
cells. In both automotive and stationary
36 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
RBW 7: Cell assembly – Sealing the foil cells
The sealing process for foil cells (in the vicinity of the contact lugs) is
process critical. If the packing is not 100% hermetically sealed, this may
result in premature ageing of the cell or in leakage of the electrolyte.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Engineering Integration into
Sealing bar mass production
solutions
R&D New sealing Study of leakage
methods in laboratory
programs experiments
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators
applications, there is a desire to be able to buy
cells larger than 50 Ah from 2020 onwards. This
will have effects on the thickness of current foil
cells, which will need to be enlarged to at least
11 mm. Deep drawing of the packing foil to this
extent is regarded by producers as critical, since
it may lead to more base cracks and creases
[Dietrich2013].
Possible solutions
This topic appears trivial, which is precisely why
there is the risk that deep drawing may become
an inhibiting factor of the trend towards larger
cells. Additional expertise in this area must be
gathered as quickly as possible in order to
express the problem in concrete terms. Deep
drawing is a production process which has
proved itself over decades. Improvements could
be achieved in various ways, including varying
the parameters controlling the forces acting on
blank workpieces and also at the level of
materials. A prerequisite for the use of new
materials is that the costs of packing should not
increase. Research should be conducted into
appropriate modification of material properties
in order to be able to produce an industrialised
stable deep drawing process for depths greater
than 11 mm by 2020.
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
100%
leakproof
housing
2025 2030
Technology suitable for volume production
RBW 7 Cell assembly: Sealing of foil cells
Challenges and basic principles
After the electrode stack has been inserted into
the packing housing, the foil cell is hermetically
sealed to prevent leakage of the liquid electro-
lyte. This process is particularly important, since
an escape of electrolyte would make the cell
unfit for further use. Moreover, the electrolyte is
environmentally damaging. The sealing around
the area of the contact lugs is critical for the
process. Leaks are more likely to occur here due
to the change in geometry. Developments on
the process side must be carried out in the
period up to 2020 in order to reduce the occur-
rence of leaks and the resulting wastage of
material.
At the present time, a sealing bar is used to heat
and seal the foil of the cell. In the opinion of
experts, the heating which occurs does not
result in a significant loss of quality, since firstly
the process is short and secondly it is to the edge
of the cell that heat is applied.
Possible solutions
In order to prevent leakages in general, the seal
must have a minimum width. According to a
rule of thumb, service life increases by one year
for each additional millimetre of seal width. A
wide seal seam at the same time has an
influence on the geometry of the cell and makes
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 37

RBW 8: Filling – Increasing speed Target system

By 2030, the electrolyte filling process should be speeded up from the current Time

30 seconds to 5 seconds. Foam formation and the even wetting of the material
are quality-critical factors. The development of solid electrolytes will simplify
the process.
Quality Costs

Requirements of Filling
in < 5
manufacturer seconds

Engineering Filling in Filling in Filling in Filling in

30 seconds. 20 seconds 10 seconds 5 seconds
solutions

Alternative
materials
Alternative
filling technology
R&D Filling in 20 Filling in 10 Filling in 5
seconds seconds seconds
programs Alternatives
cell design
Supportive Further Further
measurement research research
technology
Today 2020 2025 2030
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production

this more awkward to handle. As with other
process steps, it is necessary to accept a
compromise. Sealing around the contact lugs is
more complex. Here, pastes are also used in
order to prevent leakage. In the same way as
with the separation process, the future trend
towards thicker cells and thus thicker contact
lugs will make the problem worse. In addition to
further development of new sealing methods, it
would be possible to use innovative adhesives to
seal the cells and eliminate the use of sealing
pastes.
Currently, the vacuum filling method is com-
monly used. In a first step, air is completely
extracted from the cell. This prevents subse-
quent reaction between the moisture in the air
and the electrolyte. Following this, part of the
electrolyte liquid is poured into the cell. The
process is interrupted to allow the foam which is
generated to die away. Wetting of the cell takes
place at this time, by capillary force from bottom
to top [Schmalz2012]. This step is repeated until
the cell is completely wetted up to the top and
there is sufficient electrolyte liquid in the cell.

RBW 8 Filling: Increasing speed
Challenges and basic principles
Filling liquid electrolyte into the cells is a time-
consuming and quality-critical process. Standard
electrolyte containing LiPF6 as a conducting salt
forms hydrofluoric acid in reaction with water,
which significantly reduces cell service life
[Hartnig2013]. What is more, the electrolytes
which are used are highly flammable. Due to
their porosity, electrodes have a large area
which must be completely wetted by the
electrolyte liquid. Unwetted areas are unable to
exchange charges and are inactive. The foam
which forms during the filling operation is the
main reason for the long process time. In the
period up to 2030, the filling operation must be
significantly speeded up from the current 30
seconds to less than 5 seconds.
Possible solutions
The two most important tools to increase the
speed of electrolyte filling are the avoidance of
the formation of foam and faster wetting of the
stack. The problem of foam formation can be
mitigated by developments in the area of new
filling technologies and innovative cell designs.
For example, consideration could be given to
filling foil cells lying horizontally from the side.
The electrolyte would be poured in from a lower
height and would therefore foam less. Moreover,
additives in the electrolyte could be used to
reduce foam formation. A further approach for
better wetting would be changes to the surface
structure of the electrodes. A number of
research institutes are currently examining
these topics and have developed a promising
approaches for solutions [Schinarakis2011].
Quality assurance systems will in future be able
to support the process. Impedance spectroscopy
38 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
RBW 9: Formation – A more reliable and faster process
Various approaches are available as a means of shortening formation
times. These must not have a negative effect on service life. Problems
with process operation may lead to whole batches of the cells becoming
rejects.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Mechanical Chemical
Engineering process – process –
a few
solutions minutes.
24 hours.
RRT rule
Improved
R&D flowchart
programs Alternative pro-
Pilot plant to test all
cess operation
peripheral
processes
Software stability
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
can be considered as a means of monitoring the
degree of wetting, while precision weighing
could be used to verify that the filling volume of
electrolyte liquid is correct. There is a need for
further research in these areas before industrial
implementation is possible.
The requirements regarding the electrode are
being driven not only on the process side but
also on the product side. In order to develop
high-voltage cells with a voltage of 5 V, it is
necessary to carry out adaptations with regard
to electrochemical stability. Current electrolyte
liquids are stable only up to a voltage of 4.3 V
[Graf2013]. Further developments, such as solid-
state batteries, do not have a liquid electrolyte
but instead a polymer membrane or other solid
body. A solid electrolyte of this kind can either be
coated onto the electrodes or integrated into the
stacking process.
RBW 9 Formation: A more reliable and faster
process
Challenges and basic principles
During the formation process, the battery cells
are charged and discharged for the first time
cyclically with an increasing current intensity.
This causes a protective layer, the so-called solid
electrolyte interface (SEI), to form from the
electrolyte on the graphite anode. The parame-
ters for the cycles are recorded in flow charts. For
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Formation time
< 2 hours
Reduction of Shorter formation
wastage in industrial process in volume
process production
Pilot plant for
formation
experiments
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
the purposes of the charging process, formation
cables are connected to the cells. Several cells
are formed simultaneously via a charging
station. Due to the explosion hazard present, the
entire formation machine is subject to strict
safety instructions and a regulation of room
temperature.
Current practice is to attach the formation
cables to the cells. The cables are subject to
heavy wear as the result of this. In order to
reduce the contact resistance, high contact
pressures are required between the contact lugs
and the formation cables. This results in
cosmetic damage to the contact lugs, which is
undesirable from the customer's point of view. If
a channel failure occurs with a cell due to
contacting problems or unstable software, there
is the danger that an entire batch of battery cells
will become unusable. The chemical formation
process is, among other things, responsible for
the formation of the SEI and is thus a crucial
factor in governing the service life of the cells.
The chemical formation process currently takes
approximately 24 hours.
The objective in the short term is to improve the
mechanical process with a view to reducing the
number of reject cells and by 2030 to speed up
the chemical process to a total time of 2 hours.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 39
Possible solutions
Possible solutions for the mechanical process
offer an alternative means of process operation
in which cells are transported to a permanently-
installed contacting unit by means of workpiece
carriers. Connections are no longer brought to
the cell, rather, the cells are transported to a
fixed connection. This avoids the problem of
cable wear. There must also be new formation
systems which ensure that any problems which
occur do not affect several cells at the same
time. There must be improvements in software
stability and the contacting method used. The
contact lugs can be kept longer during the pro-
duction process. After the formation operation,
the damaged parts of the lugs can be cut off to
give the cells a perfect cosmetic appearance.
The chemical formation process is very largely
under-researched. In the opinion of experts, it is
probable that present-day flowcharts and stan-
dards incorporate an excessive safety factor.
This causes unnecessary costs and lengthens the
throughput time. A result of equal quality can be
achieved by adapting the parameters (number
of cycles, magnitude of increase of current in-
tensity, etc.). Pre-formation of the cells would
also be possible. There is a need for research
with regard to the generation of new flowcharts
based on simulations and/or experiments. It
would also be possible to significantly reduce
the formation time by increasing the room tem-
perature. This would exploit the reaction
Connection brought to cell Cell brought to connection
Variants of cell connection in formation process. Technological
alternative as a possible solution to avoid wear of contact lugs. Source:
RWTH Aachen
rate/temperature (RRT) rule which states that
chemical processes take place overproportion-
ally faster as temperature increases. At the same
time, it is necessary to ensure the thermal stabil-
ity of the cells (in particular the electrolyte and
electrodes). Thermal stability is a multi-disciplin-
ary topic into which research is already being
carried out with regard to new active materials
and high-voltage electrolytes. There are as yet
no research projects aimed in concrete terms at
speeding up formation time, and consideration
should be given to initiating projects of this kind.
While formation takes approximately 24 hours,
the longest process step is ageing, which takes
several weeks. Only after this process is it pos-
sible to determine the parameters for each cell.
The long process time ties up a great deal of
capital, since storage space and carriers are
required for the cells. There is great interest in
reducing the length of the ageing process. How-
ever, the relevant chemical processes are very
largely under-researched. Experts hope that an
increase in room temperature will make it
possible to speed up the process. There is also
the idea of turning the cells at certain intervals
or exposing them to different pressures.
RBW 10 Long-term forecasts: Statements
regarding service life
Challenges and basic principles
Long-term guarantees go beyond legal require-
ments and are a service provided voluntarily by
manufacturers in order to offer customers in-
creased benefits. In order to ensure that
guarantee promises do not mean higher costs
for manufacturers, stochastically supported
estimates of service life are required. It is
planned to develop new test methods by 2030
which will allow a certificated forecast of the
service life of cells to be made.
40 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
RBW 10: Long-term forecasts – Statements regarding service life
In order to give a guarantee for cells, it is necessary to estimate service
life reliably. The test methods currently used are very time-consuming
and of a destructive type. It will be necessary to develop new non-
destructive testing methods.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Soak test,
Engineering cycle test
(destructive)
solutions
Simulations,
degradation
experiments
R&D Research into
parameters which
programs influence ageing
Test methods
(non-destructive)
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators
Service life can be specified in both cyclical and
calendar form. It is possible at the present time
to examine these two types of ageing effects
separately in a cycle test or storage test. Despite
accelerating ageing of the cells through the use
of increased temperatures in a climatic cham-
ber, the storage test takes several months. What
is more, both these test methods are destruc-
tive. Due to the wide variation between cells, a
guarantee promise based on tests with
individual cells is risky.
In addition to cell chemistry, the type of connec-
tions used at cell and module level also plays a
crucial role in studies of service life. Here, it is
important to guarantee that no reduction in
efficiency or a safety risk will occur. Particularly
in the case of traction batteries, which are
subject to high levels of mechanical stress, this
must be ensured even after years of use.
Possible solutions
Non-destructive test methods permit 100% test-
ing of cells and allow individual statements to
be made regarding probable service life. There
have already been similar developments in the
photovoltaic industry with the flasher test for PV
modules and in the automotive industry with
pulse tests for airbags.
The service life of a battery cell is determined by
a complex network of internal cell parameters
and external factors. The list of possible
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Guaranteed
service life
statement
100% solution
suitable for volume
production
(non-destructive)
Laboratory
experiments and
extrapolation of
measured values
2025 2030
Technology suitable for volume production
influential factors is long, starting with the
porosity of the electrodes, the thickness of the
SEI, the degree of wetting of the stack or the
electrolytes used and continuing with operating
conditions, including, for example, average
discharge depths, ambient temperatures,
mechanical effects and vibration. Intensive
studies of degradation could help to derive the
most important parameters required for the
determination of service life. It would then be
possible to develop new test methods for the
recording of these parameters. It would, for
example, be conceivable to measure the internal
resistance of cells or to record the degree of
wetting by means of thermography. The main
emphasis should be on the development of a
model which is able to extrapolate measured
values to arrive at a prediction of service life. For
this purpose, heuristic approaches are more
pragmatic than lengthy calculations, due to the
complexity involved. A link to quality assurance
(see RBW 15) would also be conceivable. The
data recorded for this purpose could be used not
only to distinguish between good workpieces
and rejects but also as raw data for the
determination of service life.
As yet, no concrete efforts have been made to
develop non-destructive individual tests; this
work should be started as soon as possible.

RBW 11: Pack assembly – Plastic pack housing
A major cost factor in the pack assembly is th complex welded
construction of the aluminium pack housing. Less expensive housings
made of plastic could be used if the pack is sufficiently protected in the
overall system.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Engineering Aluminium
component into
pack
solutions housings
Need for crash
safety design work Cell safety
R&D
programs
Plastic pack
housings
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
RBW 11 Pack assembly: Plastic pack housing
Challenges and principles
Vehicle safety is a central concern for the auto-
motive industry. Battery cells may suffer thermal
overload and catch fire due to short-circuits or
mechanical damage. Furthermore, battery packs
are required to generate high currents and volt-
ages for the operation of electric motors. Pack
housings have the task of protecting the battery
cells and other electronics against external in-
fluences, stabilising the packs and suppressing
vibration. In regular operation, pack housings
prevent the penetration of moisture into the
packs. The cell contacting is particularly sensitive
and will corrode in a humid environment. In the
case of an accident, the housings protect the
cells against mechanical deformation. Pack
housings represent a significant materials cost
factor in module and pack assembly. Currently,
pack housings are produced as complex welded
aluminium constructions. The objective for the
period up to 2020 is to significantly reduce the
material costs of the housings.
Possible solutions
The aluminium construction could be replaced
by lighter and less expensive plastic housings.
Production methods such as thermal moulding
could be used for these. The requirements for
ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 41
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Plastic pack
housings
Integration of
vehicle design
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
housing safety depend on the placement in the
vehicle. The space which becomes free through
the omission of an internal combustion engine
under the vehicle bonnet is unsuitable for this
purpose. At the present time, most electric
vehicles are conversions of previous designs.
New vehicle concepts and designs will offer new
installation space and allow an interaction of
vehicle and battery safety at the design stage.
The sub-division of battery packs into smaller
standardised module units results in higher
flexibility and adaptability to the various
installation spaces available in the many
different types of vehicles. At the same time,
standardised series production will allow a
reduction of the costs of production equipment
[Schlick2012].
The development of solid-state batteries will
increase cell safety, since there is no liquid
electrolyte to escape. This will have a positive
effect on pack safety. There will, however, still be
the danger of externally induced short-circuits
via the contacting, which means that pack
safety is not determined exclusively by cell
safety. A further safety factor relating to the use
of plastic housings is equipotential bonding.
The earthing of packs requires greater design
effort in the case of plastic housings.
42 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

RBW 12: Overarching – Clean and drying rooms Target system

Time

Many process steps require clean and drying rooms. The previously high
operating costs can be reduced through the use of mini-environments.

Quality Costs

Requirements of Cost reduction for

clean and drying
manufacturer rooms

Engineering Standardised Integration into

Clean and interfaces
drying all necessary
solutions rooms between mini- process steps
environments

Mini-
environments
R&D
programs Pilot facility for
Influence of dew impact analysis
point on quality of different dew
points

Today 2020 2025 2030

Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production

calendaring) and cell assembly, including the

RBW 12 Overarching: Clean and drying rooms sealing of cells [Rudolf2013].

Challenges and basic principles
Virtually all the steps in the production of lith-
ium ion batteries require monitoring and control
of the ambient parameters. Only after the cells
have been sealed do less strict environmental
requirements apply. The operation of large clean
and drying rooms is a cost driver, since it re-
quires an enormous amount of technology and
building features. The objective is to reduce the
general costs resulting from the operation of
these rooms by 2020.
Clean rooms are required in production in order
to prevent cross-contamination in the running
process and thus to maintain product quality. In
the battery production, clean rooms are used
with a classification of ISO 6 in the vicinity of
electrode manufacturing (coating, drying,
Classic clean room Mini environment
In the case of drying rooms, moisture is ex-
tracted from the ambient air in order to prevent
a reaction between this and the materials used.
Since air humidity always depends on room tem-
perature, drying rooms are characterised by
means of their dew points. This is necessary be-
cause even the smallest quantities of moisture
in the air will have an influence on quality and
long-term stability. The lowest dew points, -40
to -70°C, are needed in the cell assembly and
electrolyte filling stages. Standard electrolyte
will react with even the smallest quantities of
water and will form hydrochloric acid, which will
significantly reduce the service life of cells (see
RBW 8). An inherent problem of drying rooms is
their electrostatic charges, due to the fact that
the conductivity of the dry air is too low. This can
lead to problems with the use of a gripper in the
stacking process, since the sheets stick to one
another. This problem can be resolved by mak-
ing all surfaces electrically conductive.

Possible solutions
The introduction of small encapsulated clean
and drying rooms, so-called mini environments,
can help reduce operating costs. These can be
Clean room boundary Clean room boundary
integrated into the various machines. In order to
Mini environments help to reduce costs. Source: RWTH Aachen achieve this, it will be necessary to standardise
dimensions and adapt machines appropriately.
It will also be necessary to standardise the

RBW 13: Overarching - Recycling
An increase in large-scale recycling is expected only when the first EV
batteries come to the end of their service life (~2020). Technical
processes must be available which allow almost 100% recycling of
metals.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Engineering Chemical
separation
Mechanical
separation
solutions methods methods
Further deve-
New materials lopment of recycling
R&D process
programs Design for
recyclability
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects
interfaces between machines in order to ensure
a protected transition to the next process step
(see RBW 14). The costs of drying rooms rise
overproportionally as the requirements placed
on the ambient air become more stringent and
are a particularly significant factor with large
rooms The use of mini environments allows a
higher-quality atmosphere to be created with
comparatively low additional costs. New
methods for electrolyte filling, such as the
vacuum method, already use encapsulated
systems (see RBW 8). The replacement
mentioned in RBW 1 of the solvent NMP by
water-based solvents also reduces the costs of
controlling air humidity in electrode production.
A further approach to costs reduction would be
to precisely investigate the relationships
between ambient parameters and the cell
performance. Depending on the product
segment concerned (high-tech batteries versus
costs leadership), excessive air preparation may
lead to the generation of reactive power, while
at other points quality assurance measures may
be inadequate (see also RBW 15).
RBW 13 Overarching: Recycling
Challenges and basic principles
It will be possible to achieve the principal aim of
a sustainable future energy supply provided by
batteries only by developing appropriate
ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 43
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Recyclability
Large-scale
recycling plants
Pilot plant for
closed-loop
recycling
2025 2030
Pilot facilities, demonstrators Technology suitable for volume production
recycling strategies. The first larger quantities of
EOL (End of Life) batteries from the field of
electromobility are expected to appear from
2020 onwards. Forecasts estimate that from
2035 onwards sufficient lithium will be in
circulation to meet a large part of demand from
secondary sources [Kleine2012]. The objective is
to develop a complete recycling concept by 2030
which will allow most of the materials used to
be fed back into the battery production loop.
The recycling of lithium ion batteries is not only
an economic question but also a political one.
The EU Directive 2006/66/EC stipulates that at
least 50% of battery waste, without regard to
the area of application, must be recycled [Beer-
mann2010]. Moreover, Germany has no primary
sources and could become less dependent on
these by making use of secondary sources. The
shortage of resources affects cobalt in particular.
The production of 1 million electric vehicles
based on lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) battery
technology corresponds to 117% of the annual
production of cobalt worldwide. In the case of
lithium, an assured supply would theoretically
be possible without recycling until 2050.
Possible Solutions
The data mentioned above indicates two central
tasks for future development work. Firstly, the
use of cobalt must be reduced or replaced by
other active materials. Secondly, cell design
must support an efficient recycling process.
44 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
European countries are in a leading position
with their recycling concept for lithium ion and
nickel metal hydride batteries from consumer
goods. This allows reclamation of the valuable
metals cobalt, nickel and copper. Lithium, on the
other hand, is bound into slag and recycled as a
building material. This corresponds to the
definition of recycling in the EU Directive. Better,
however, is a recycling concept in the form of a
closed loop, in which all materials can be fed
back into the battery process. In the case of the
recycling of large battery modules, there are
additional costs, for example, for discharging the
batteries before opening them.
Current projects in Germany are working on a
promising method of implementation. In this
case, the recycling process consists of seven
steps with mechanical and chemical separation,
as shown in the figure on the left. The objective
is to achieve overall reclamation rates of 60% for
lithium and 85% for cobalt [Konietzko2011].
At the present time there are a variety of
permutations of lithium ion batteries, which
differ in their metal content. A wide variety of
Battery Dismanting Discharging
Mechanical Electrolyte
Shredding
separation reclamation
Hydro- Synthesis of New battery
metallurgy active material cell
Recycling chain for lithium ion batteries in closed-loop configuration - old batteries are turned into
new ones. Source: LITHOREC
production technologies and a fragmented value
creation structure mean a large number of
interfaces in the overall process chain. It is
extremely important to standardise these
interfaces. The economic return of the recycling
process depends on the battery type concerned.
An NMC cathode has 50% more lithium than an
LFP cathode. Moreover, an LFP cathode contains
no cobalt. An LCO cathode, on the other hand,
has 300% more cobalt than an NMC cathode.
"Design for recyclability" is a central research
topic in this context and will simplify the
reclamation of materials by adapting the cell
design. This topic includes aspects such as
modularisation, the identification of substitutes
for all glued joints and composite materials and
a reduction in the battery module voltage
[Treffer2011]. These requirements in certain
cases stand in contradiction to the current
developments in battery technology.
The service life of a battery is regarded as ended
when it still has 70 - 80% of its original capacity.
Subsequent use for stationary applications
(second use) is also worthy of consideration1. A
decision on this could be taken on the basis of a
calculation of the total cost of ownership (see
chapter "Grand challenges").
1
A further approach would be to use "worn out" batteries and
cells from vehicles further as stationary energy storage
devices, since here the requirements and loads are lower,
which means that batteries of this kind can continue to be
used. However, opinions regarding the prospects of success
with this "second use" recycling concept vary widely.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 45
RBW 14: Overarching - Standardisation
The variety of production technologies as well as a fragmented value
chain lead to many interfaces in the overall process chain.
Standardization of these interfaces is absolutely necessary.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Engineering Individual
equipment
solutions
Comparison of
various process Pilot line with
R&D technologies useful
technology Line integration
programs chain
Setting cell size
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators
RBW 14 Overarching: Standardisation
Challenges and basic principles
The production of lithium ion cells is character-
ised by a variety of production technologies and
the heterogeneous distribution of competencies.
For this reason, production lines consist of ma-
chines from various different manufacturers.
Even in the future, it appears unlikely that a
single manufacturer will be able to provide a
complete production line. A large number of cell
shapes and sizes and module variants are
currently available in the modern energy storage
market. This variety, combined with the low
level of demand and the large number of market
players, increases the number of individual
solutions for machines. Specialised machinery
and production equipment technology and
assembly processes which are adapted to
specific products and are thus expensive are
designed to deal with the generally heavily
fluctuating volumes of products. In the interests
of facilitating the installation of a production
line, there is an increased need for the
adaptation of interfaces with regard to software
and the physical transport of workpieces. The
standardisation of interfaces would allow
process costs to be reduced significantly. The
objective is to eliminate excess process costs to
the greatest possible extent by 2030 and
concentrate on value-creating processes.
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Standard-
isation
Standardization
of all facilities
Development of
technological
standard
2025 2030
Technology suitable for volume production
Possible solutions
It is necessary, given the variety of production
alternatives mentioned above, to select a mean-
ingful technology chain in accordance with pro-
duct requirements which offers a technological
standard in each process step. At the present
time, ways of doing this are being studied at
various points at cell and module level. For ex-
ample, coating machines can operate with a slot
nozzle, wiper or gridded roller as an applicator
tool. The first of these offers the greatest advan-
tages with regard to battery production and can
therefore be defined as a technological stand-
ard. The second important point is to define cell
sizes. This will require discussions on meaning-
ful values. By defining these parameters, it will
be possible to reduce the need for expensive in-
dividual solutions, and machine manufacturers
will be able to offer standard machines.
A similar standardisation process has already
taken place with regard to wafer diameters in
the field of semiconductor technology. It is also
possible to carry out standardisation on the
product side [Schlick2012].
A standardised battery module can be used
universally. This would allow one production
location to be used for the production of battery
modules for different end users. This would lead
to a better degree of utilisation of the produc-
tion line and thus to lower product costs.
46 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
RBW 15: Overarching - Relevant parameters for process control
The amount of process parameters as well as an insufficient
understanding of the consequences of single processes on quality
(“effects od defects”) complicates the development of new measuring
technologies for quality assurance.
Requirements of
manufacturer
Engineering Existing
metrology
solutions
Adapting of
metrology
R&D Known critical
measuremennt
programs parameters
Preselection
Adopting process of critical
knowledge parameters
Today 2020
Key: State of the art Research projects Pilot facilities, demonstrators
As an alternative to standardisation, the use of
flexible assembly concepts is another way to
avoid expensive highly specialised machinery
and production equipment technology.
Standardisation at interfaces can be imple-
mented through line integration. It is necessary
here to consider the interfaces "machine to
machine" and "machine to SCADA and MES".1
The physical interface between machines can be
improved through horizontal line integration.
Here, for example, it would be possible to use
generic workpiece carriers which simplify the
transfer of products through standardisation.
The use of the mini environments described in
RBW 12 also requires adaptation in this area.
The second and larger interface is located verti-
cally between the machine and the master con-
trol centre software. Vertical line integration is
meaningful between all machines, even if these
are not physically linked together [Haan2014].
This includes, for example, the standardisation
of transfer protocols from the machine to the
master control system. It is currently necessary
for both machine manufacturers and master
control system manufacturers to implement this
interface. This high level of additional cost for
both sides is generally not paid for by cell manu-
facturers and represents waste which can be
eliminated by standardisation. There has already
1
Abbreviations: SCADA = Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition, MES = Manufacturing Execution System
Target system
Time
Quality Costs
Relevant process
control
Integrated
metrology
Validation in
pilot lines
2025 2030
Technology suitable for volume production
been a similar development in the field of pho-
tovoltaics, for which the VDMA has already run a
workshop with the subject of "Line integration".
RBW 15 Overarching: Relevant parameters for
process control
Challenges and basic principles
The value creation chain in cell production
passes through many stations, from the mixing
of the electrode materials through to ageing and
final testing. Each production step in the chain
includes critical process parameters which may
affect overall quality in different ways. The
differences in the effect and magnitude of effect
of all individual processes on overall quality
(effects of defects) are very largely unknown.
The result of this is that too few quality
assurance units are deployed in production
operations, since there is a lack of knowledge
concerning the relevant process parameters and
their tolerances, and already-known influential
parameters cannot be detected reliably.
For example, it is essential in the mixing process
to be able to detect agglomerates in order to
determine the quality and service life of
electrodes. Due to the fact that electrode slurries
are highly-absorbing black suspensions, there
are as yet no in-line-capable methods available
for the detection of possible agglomerates,
particles or bubbles. Only on the finished
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 47

electrodes is it possible to detect the resulting lines. This knowledge would make it possible to
faults by optical methods. It is frequently the update the list.
case that the majority of reject components are
detected only during formation or in the final This iterative process would provide an
testing after ageing. This increases production optimum means of generating a Pareto
costs, since even reject components are sequence of relevant parameters, from which
processed further up to a certain point. the most important measuring points and
pieces of measuring equipment could be
There is a variety of measuring equipment derived.
available in the market which allows virtually all
the process parameters to be measured. The On the technical side, the available measuring
challenge is to identify which parameters and technology must adapt to the needs of cell
tolerances need to be measured. Process production with regard to measuring speed and
knowledge should be expanded in the period up accuracy. The corresponding need for research
to 2030 to allow integrated measuring technol- should, however, not be a deal-breaker for this
ogy to be offered on an individual basis in RBW.
accordance with the quality demands of cell
manufacturers. The last step would be implementation in a
form suitable for a volume production
Currently, the effects of individual processes on environment. The relevant measuring technolo-
overall quality are a matter of guesswork. gies must be capable of being integrated in line
Process knowledge of critical parameters is at into production operations, with data streams in
best a by-product of production operations and real-time and a manageable format. The use of
is "paid for" at a high price through high reject measuring technology inevitably involves a
rates. In the preceding descriptions of RBWs, we trade-off between operating costs and the
have already mentioned a number of these resulting benefits. The priorities of cell manu-
critical parameters, for example homogeneity facturers differ with regard to product require-
and viscosity in the mixing process or particle ments and price categories. The deployment of
contamination and burrs in the separating measuring technology must be flexible and
process. must be aligned on an individual basis to the
requirements of cell manufacturers.
Possible solutions
The interrelationships between all parameters
and their effects are highly complex and can be
represented theoretically only to a limited
degree. A practical approach in the form of a
pilot production line is more appropriate in this
area. This would require as comprehensive a list
as possible of possible relevant parameters. The
list of critical parameters already described in
this book does not claim to be complete but can
serve as the basis for a database to be expanded
further in the future. Experts could exchange
views in suitable workshops and expand the list
appropriately with further parameters. The
validation and actual generation of process
knowledge would take place via pilot production
48 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
Beyond lithium ion technology
This study1 also considers other relevant
technologies besides lithium-ion batteries. They
are discussed divided into age and degree of
maturity in the following.
Already launched in market technologies
Lead acid batteries
In foreign markets, particularly those of
emerging nations, lead acid batteries will
continue to be used as before to produce low-
cost vehicles and ensure widely available low-
cost mobility for society. As far as the German or
European market goes, these batteries are
regarded as not particularly promising for
traction purposes in the automotive sector. In
these markets, they are considered as state of
the art in particular for use as starter batteries.
Lead acid traction batteries will continue to be
used widely in logistics applications, such as fork
lift trucks and micro hybrids.
The significantly lower performance or energy
density of lead acid batteries compared with
lithium ion technology is less critical in these
areas than in the automotive sector. The same
applies for stationary applications, for which
lead acid batteries are also the first choice
[Schlick2012]. Only after the costs of lithium ion
batteries have been significantly reduced will
these batteries be able to take the place of lead
acid technology in these markets.
Nickel metal hydride batteries
Nickel metal hydride batteries will still be
relevant for a certain transitional period in the
automotive sector, especially with regard to
HEVs. In the long term, however, they offer only
low potential for the automotive industry, since
nickel and the supply situation with this raw
material is itself a problem. Nickel metal hydride
batteries are very sensitive to handling and react
irreversibly to incorrect polarity, deep discharge
or overcharging. Moreover, they can only be
used to the full within a limited temperature
range. Further disadvantages are associated not
only with a costs comparison with lithium ion
batteries (because of the use of nickel, among
other reasons) but also with the noticeably
worse environmental balance.
For use in stationary applications, there are not
only lead acid and lithium ion batteries but also
a whole spectrum of different energy storage
technologies. Particularly in decentralised
stationary energy storage applications with
strong links to photovoltaic systems or wind
turbines, possible choices for small to medium-
sized storage facilities and cycles also include
high-temperature storage devices such as
sodium nickel chloride batteries, sodium sulphur
batteries and redox flow energy storage devices.
In the following, we will first concentrate on the
further developments in lithium-based systems
and the resulting necessary adaptations of the
production process before we move on to
consider these other technologies.
Further development of lithium-based battery
technologies
Even at the present time, lithium ion technology
has gained a footing in the application areas
under consideration. In the future, however, this
technology must be improved for use in both
the stationary storage sector and for electric
vehicles beyond the reference system presented
above of 4 V lithium ion batteries. In particular,
systems must achieve higher energy densities
while offering at least as good service life and
safety as before. Costs savings will be achievable
not only by the economies of scale in volume
production but also if the system voltage or
energy storage density can be increased, which
would mean a reduction in the number of cells
in systems. On the basis of the reference system
described previously, it will be possible to
continuously improve high-voltage cells without
specification of a particular cell chemistry and
develop these further to form high-energy
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 49
systems, moving via 4.3 V lithium ion batteries,
which already exist at cell level, and 4.4 V
systems, which will be ready for integration into
electric vehicles around the year 2025, to 5 V
lithium ion batteries, whose commercial use can
be expected only after the year 2030. The precise
development path with regard to cell chemistry
is however as yet an open question.
Lithium polymer batteries
Lithium polymer battery cells differ from normal
lithium ion batteries in the form of their electro-
lyte. They offer improvements in terms of energy
density of between 15 and 20% over the refer-
ence system, at system level their advantage is
around 10%. Service life in terms of numbers of
cycles can be expected to be less than 1000
cycles, and the calendar service life is difficult to
predict at present. Safety can be regarded as the
key parameter, since it would appear that it will
be possible to use this system only if a signifi-
cantly higher safety level (EUCAR level less than
or equal to 2) can be reached. Costs cannot at
present be estimated accurately but will be
higher than those of the reference system,
which is why lithium polymer batteries have not
yet been able to gain widespread acceptance
despite their somewhat higher energy densities.
Lithium polymer systems are expected to be
available in the period after 2020 and will
probably go into mass production only after the
year 2025. They are, however, not considered
attractive for use in electromobility but rather
for stationary applications, due to the fact that
their only advantage of safety can also be pro-
vided by other battery technologies, in particular
improved "classic" lithium ion batteries.
Lithium polymer batteries will change the
production process to the extent that, due to the
different type of electrolyte, it will be possible
one day to eliminate the electrolyte filling
process. In contrast to the foil separators used at
present, the installation of separators/electro-
lyte will be more difficult with this battery
technology, since the polymer film is not as
robust mechanically.
Lithium alloy/carbon composite batteries
The cathode material of these battery cells
remains unchanged compared with the
reference system, but improved anode material
will result in 30 to 50% more specific energy.
This will raise the energy density both gravi-
metrically and volumetrically by 15% at system
level. With these systems, service life may well
be a key parameter, and a longer development
time may be necessary in order to meet the
mark of a service life of around 2500 cycles or 10
years. It should be possible with this system to
achieve safety at a EUCAR level of less than or
equal to 4, but this is not a critical parameter.
Both cell and system costs will probably be
slightly higher than the costs of the reference
system. In a way similar to the granularity of
electrolytes according to voltage in high-energy
system, it would also be possible to achieve
granularity with anode materials, for example in
accordance with specific capacity in systems
with lithium alloy/carbon composites.
With regard to the production process, elec-
trodes for lithium alloys/carbon composite
batteries must be produced in a water- and
oxygen-free environment as soon as lithium is
used as an alloy component or electrode metal.
This is generally not the case today. Further
processing of finished electrodes, on the other
hand, could be carried out without any major
further changes.
Lithium sulphur batteries
Rapid progress is being made at present in the
research and development of lithium sulphur
batteries. In the case of energy density, there is
still some uncertainty as to what development
has actually been achieved, but an improvement
factor of 1.5 (volumetric) to 3 (gravimetric) for
the cells and system when these are used in
electric vehicles seems realistic. With the best
possible cells, the energy density of the system
can even be larger than in the reference system
by a factor of as much as 4. However, this does
not make these batteries automatically suitable
for use in electric vehicles. In terms of service
50 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
life, 500 to 600 cycles are already being achieved
at cell level in a laboratory environment, which
indicates development and improvement by a
factor of three within the last 2 to 3 years.
Availability of these systems is expected by the
year 2020, with use in BEVs between the years
2025 and 2030. While the achievable number of
cycles by the year 2020 is estimated at around
1000, and is a key parameter, it is barely possible
at present to produce a serious estimate of the
calendar service life of the system. In view of the
anode material used, safety also represents a
major problem and a key parameter and is also
difficult to estimate. A costs estimate for the
system indicates a large potential for savings,
which can, however, not be expressed precisely
in figures at the present time due to the major
persisting safety problem. Estimates lead us to
expect a halving in comparison with the
reference system to less than 200 €/kWh at cell
level and 250 €/kWh at system level. It would be
possible to complete the process of integrating
the systems into electromobility applications (in
particular, BEVs due to the reduced number of
cycles) in the period between 2025 and 2030.
With regard to lithium sulphur batteries, there is
little that can be said at present concerning the
possibly necessary changes to the production
process. Technological developments and
materials research and the design of battery
cells are as yet not concrete enough or too
diverse for general statements to be made.
Efforts are naturally being made to change the
production process as little as possible and to
conduct research and development to this end.
For use in stationary applications, this system
represents an alternative only if power density
comparable with the reference system (a further
key parameter) can be achieved.
Solid state lithium and lithium metal batteries
With these systems, there is the question of
whether and how lithium-conductive solid
materials such as polymers, glass or ceramics
and lithium metal can be used in the future.
Solid state lithium batteries are especially heat
resistant, particularly when ceramics are used,
and can operate even at temperatures around
100°C. Lithium ion batteries or lithium polymer
batteries start to burn at these temperatures or
their liquid components begin to boil. Solid state
lithium batteries thus not only eliminate the
need for complex cooling measures and reduce
space requirements while delivering the same or
higher power but also meet the requirement for
electric vehicles of a high level of safety. Solid
state lithium systems will complete develop-
ment from the year 2020 onwards, however
integration into electromobility applications can
be expected only after the year 2030.1
Solid state lithium batteries will give rise to
major changes in the production process, since
the technology involved here is completely
different from that of lithium ion batteries. The
batteries are assembled in successive layers
using all kinds of different methods (for exam-
ple, sputtering). In the case of lithium metal
batteries, the production of anodes using
lithium as the electrode metal must be carried
out in a water- and oxygen-free environment.
5 V lithium ion batteries
Lithium ion batteries with a 5 V cell voltage
increase energy density by approximately 20%
compared with the reference system both at cell
and system level. The number of cycles should
be of the order of magnitude of 1500. One of the
critical parameters, on the other hand, is the
calendar service life, since it has not as yet been
clarified which electrolyte will be used and how
far this will be developed by the year 2020. This
is the greatest challenge associated with 5V
lithium ion battery systems. A further key
1
For further estimates of the status of research and
development and a look into the future, see [Burkert2014]
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 51
parameter is the required level of safety (EUCAR
less than or equal to 4). It should be possible to
achieve a costs reduction to 320 €/kWh at cell
level and 400 €/kWh at system level. All in all,
the system will represent an alternative only if
levels of service life and safety comparable to
those of the reference system can be achieved.
5V lithium ion batteries will probably not
generate any changes relative to today's
production process.
Lithium air batteries
Rechargeable lithium air batteries are not
expected even at cell level until after the year
2030, and the question is still open as to
whether rechargeable systems can be produced
at all for use in electric vehicles. The concept is,
however, very attractive. Since air can be
obtained from the environment, the capacity
would be limited only by the anode size. The
expected energy density available for commer-
cial applications is accordingly very high (by a
factor of approximately 7 to 10 compared with
today's reference system). In comparison with
the concepts described previously, lithium air
batteries represent the optimum in lithium-
based systems in terms of energy density.
Despite the intensive discussions concerning
lithium air batteries as a potential energy
storage technology, no definite technological
concept or prototype capable of functioning over
numerous charging cycles has as yet emerged.
The technological challenges are very large, and
current research is still at the basic level. From
today's point of view, it is therefore not possible
to estimate any reliable performance data. Due
to the long development times required to
produce a system and introduce this into appli-
cations, technologies of this kind will not play a
part for the foreseeable future in traction
applications and stationary storage.
The position with lithium air batteries is that,
due to the immense uncertainty as to the
ultimate form which lithium air battery cells will
take, it is also possible to say only very little at
present concerning the changes to the pro-
duction system which may possibly be neces-
sary. Once again, since the anodes are produced
with lithium as the electrode metal, the produc-
tion process must be water- and oxygen-free
right from the beginning. The position is com-
pletely different as regards the cathode, which
will probably similar to that of a fuel cell, but
otherwise many questions remain open.
Developments in the remainder of the battery
environment and their relevance
In the far future, it may also be possible to
produce non-lithium-based battery
technologies. A common feature of these new
concepts is the desire to develop batteries with a
considerably higher energy density and thus
make possible electric vehicles with working
ranges which exceed those of present-day
vehicles with internal combustion engines.
Moreover, there are, in addition to lithium ion
batteries, further technologies (e.g. with solid
electrolytes, so-called solid-state batteries),
which it may be possible to implement in the
medium term (perhaps by 2020) and which
would in particular significantly increase the
safety of batteries for use in electric vehicles.
52 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
Nickel zinc batteries
Nickel zinc cells will be relevant to electromobil-
ity in the long term but are not yet sufficiently
technologically mature. They will probably be
available for applications only after 2020. Up to
the present time, despite long years of research
and development, no nickel zinc cell has achiev-
ed a service life of more than 100 cycles. For this
reason, these cells would appear at present to be
unsuitable for use as the main power source in
PHEVs or BEVs.
They are already commercially available today in
the MWh range for use as auxiliary power
sources. This shows that it is entirely possible
that nickel zinc cells will in future be used for
specific stationary applications [Power2014].
The production process for nickel zinc batteries
is based on the process for nickel cadmium or
nickel metal hydride batteries. If this battery
technology is used for large-sized battery cells in
stationary applications, this will probably be in
the plate-type designs familiar from lead acid or
nickel cadmium batteries.
Redox flow batteries
Redox flow energy storage devices with two
liquid electrolytes in various loops, for example
vanadium based, are already commercially
available today in low rating classes. For electro-
mobile applications, these batteries would
admittedly offer the advantage of simple charg-
ing by re-filling the electrolyte and would thus
simplify the process of infrastructure develop-
ment, but the energy density is significantly
worse than "classic" lithium ion batteries. Due to
their high power density, redox flow batteries
are far more suitable for large stationary
applications. With improved energy density and
calendar service life in comparison to the
systems already commercially available today,
redox flow energy storage devices could
represent a good alternative in the future. In the
long term, it will be necessary to distinguish
between water-based and non-water-based
storage devices. Non-water-based batteries can
be expected only after 2030, particularly – if at
all – for mobile applications. In the period up to
2030, the discussion will be principally of water-
based redox flow batteries.
Redox flow batteries will pass through a produc-
tion process which will be completely different
from that used at the present time for lithium
ion batteries and which is currently under
development.
Metal air batteries
The non-lithium-based battery technologies in
this category have only limited relevance to
electromobility. They offer the highest
achievable energy densities of all battery tech-
nologies but are as a rule primary batteries and
are thus not rechargeable. While the mechanical
replacement of metal, similar to the principle of
the fuel cell but with a solid fuel, would be pos-
sible, metal air systems for use in electric ve-
hicles should, however, be electrically recharge-
able. We expect to see a competitive mechani-
cally rechargeable zinc air battery before the
year 2020. The disadvantages are the absence of
an infrastructure and the resulting high trans-
port costs for recycling. Electrically rechargeable
zinc air batteries are expected at the earliest in
the period after 2020. At the present time, the
number of charging cycles which can be
achieved is, however, still far too low.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 53
Other metal air batteries are also subject to the
same challenges as lithium air batteries. The
technical prerequisites for magnesium air
batteries will probably be fulfilled by the year
2030, and sufficient quantities of magnesium
are available as a raw material. However, we do
not expect to see mechanically rechargeable
magnesium air batteries in electromobility
applications. Both with these batteries and
aluminium air batteries, there is the question as
to whether they can be produced at all without a
solid electrolyte. The physical reasons already
known today make this seem improbable. High
operating temperatures will be necessary, and,
for example, for aluminium-based batteries, no
workable concept is available which is able to
withstand these high temperatures. If these
systems are to be at all relevant to electromo-
bility, this will be well after the year 2030.
Metal air batteries require a similar production
process to lithium air batteries: the persistent
and high level of uncertainty regarding the type
of battery cells to be produced means that no
genuinely reliable statements can be made
regarding possible changes in the production
process. In contrast to anodes with lithium as
the electrode material, electrodes for zinc air,
magnesium air or aluminium air batteries do not
necessarily have to be produced under water-
and oxygen-free conditions.
Supplementary technology concepts
In certain cases, electric vehicles make
performance demands on electrical storage
devices which cannot be met in an ideal way
with batteries. For example, high-capacity
double-layer capacitors (supercaps) offer high
power density which is available for a brief
period. Use of these smooths the power input
into or drawn from batteries and therefore
prolongs their service life. They are thus a good
complement to batteries with high energy
density. Fuel cells are a further popular
technology.
Other hybrid technology concepts, such as a
combination of lithium and fuel cell technology
for stationary applications, also have promise for
the future, since they allow the advantages of
the different technologies to be exploited. With
regard to their development and use, it is
naturally necessary in each case to weigh the
achievable cost-effectiveness and the necessary
parameters against applications of existing
technology.
Supercaps
High-capacity double-layer capacitors, or
supercaps, offer high power density for a short
time both to absorb high short-term charging
currents resulting from sudden braking events in
electromobility and to cover demand peaks with
stationary energy storage systems and are thus
a good complement to batteries with high
energy density. At present, supercaps are used
only in individual HEV models. In general, how-
ever, they can be excluded as energy storage
devices with high power density, since the focus
in electromobility is on high long-term energy
density. In the automotive industry, however,
supercaps can continue to be considered for use
in on-board networks and for microsystems (less
than 60 V). In order for the technology to be
used more widely in stationary applications, it
would be essential to increase efficiency, signifi-
cantly improve manufacturing quality and
reliability and drastically reduce manufacturing
costs.
54 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
Battery production at GM. Picture source: GM, John F. Martin
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells
While lithium-based technologies are most
suitable for short working ranges and smaller
vehicles, fuel cells offer arguably the best
technological characteristics for larger vehicles
and long working ranges. As, however, fuel cells
cannot stand alone as energy converters, we
normally, for use in electromobility applications,
speak of proton exchange membrane fuel cells
as low-temperature fuel cells with a stack and
hydrogen tank [Peters2012]. There are no
generally practical alternative fuel cell
technologies for electromobility
[Thielmann2012b]. The improvement of the
storage of hydrogen in gas form does, however,
represent a technical challenge – the mass of
suitable tanks is large relative to the quantity of
energy to be transported, which also limits the
working range of the vehicles [Kaiser2008].
Furthermore, efficiency as revealed by a well-to-
wheel analysis [Wietschel2010b] is approxi-
mately 35%, which means that the energy
balance of fuel cell vehicles is not so good as
that of battery vehicles.
With regard to performance parameters, the
energy density of proton exchange membrane
fuel cells lies in the range of 450 – 500 Wh/l or
1100 Wh/kg, well above the energy densities
achievable either today or in the foreseeable
future with lithium-based battery systems. With
a reference vehicle, such as a medium-sized
automobile with a working range of 400 – 500
km built in small-scale series production of more
than 5000 vehicles/year, a total distance
covered of 250,000 km is possible. The
automobile would be designed for a service life
of 10 years. Even today, vehicle manufacturers
guarantee a service life of 2000 operating hours
[Wietschel2010a], corresponding to a distance
covered of approximately 100,000 kilometres.
System costs today are around 150 €/kWh, it
being necessary for a comparison between
reference systems to convert the costs for the
fuel cell on the basis of the reference vehicle
described above into euros per kilowatt-hour.
With 100,000 units/year, the costs fall to 100
€/kWh, a value which can be expected to be
achieved around the year 2020.
 ROADMAP FOR BATTERY PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT 55

"Groundbreaking" technological developments

and "miracle" batteries

Claims of new "groundbreaking" technological

developments appear regularly, even in scientific
publications, and also from time to time cause a
certain amount of excitement among the public
at large. At least in the early stages, these claims
are very difficult to assess, since the basic
research mentioned is not described to a suffi-
cient degree. Attempts to apply new knowledge
to the cell and system level and to industrial
mass production show that the technological
development in question is far from ready for
commercial marketing. The same applies to
press releases from individual companies
concerning new prototypes of products, for
which frequently no data sheets or detailed
explanations are available for the key parame-
ters involved. It is not possible in these cases to
conduct a realistic assessment. Reports of new
"miracle" batteries appear with fanfares of
publicity from time to time, but recent history
shows that there have been no relevant break-
throughs since the introduction of lithium ion
batteries by the Sony Corporation in the early
1990s. It has therefore proved to be a correct
decision for VDMA roadmapping activities to
focus on the lithium ion battery system
described in the reference scenario.
56 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION
Conclusion and recommendations for action
Conclusion
Even though the expectations for growth in the
two user markets of electromobility and
stationary storage devices differ widely, it is
clear that, at least in the medium to long term,
there will be a great demand for high-capacity
energy storage devices worldwide. Battery
investors – whether private or public – are trying
desperately to identify the correct point in time
at which to enter the market and thus have a
great deal of interest in future scenarios with
details of market-related and technological
factors. To supply these, a number of roadmaps
have already been produced, but these have
essentially been concerned with developments
in user markets or research into battery technol-
ogies. Roadmaps which focus on battery produc-
tion have as a rule being produced only
internally within companies. A broad public
objective-oriented dialogue between battery
producers, production research and machinery
and production equipment builders has not until
now been available, nor have there been any
exchanges between machine builders. It is
therefore important that VDMA Battery
Production has initiated this dialogue and
moderated it together with partners from
industry and research.
Precisely-defined parameters
The different requirements from the user side as
well as the differences in the development stage
of electrical energy storage technologies on the
one hand and the wide variety of process
technologies on the other hand mean that the
field to be covered is wide. It was therefore of
crucial importance to arrive at precisely-defined
parameters for the "Roadmap for Battery
Production Equipment 2030":
• Focus on lithium ion technology, the most
promising battery technology from today's
point of view, with a limitation to large-sized
cells for high-capacity applications. Without
this focus, there would have been the danger
that a discussion of production technology
would have been constantly shifting to
reflect rapidly-changing standpoints regard-
ing battery technologies which are in certain
cases still at an early stage of development.
Lithium ion technology has been sufficiently
demonstrated to be viable and is already
commonly found in the market in consumer
goods such as laptops or mobile phones. The
various available cell chemistries and form
factors meant that there were no resulting
limitations for high-capacity applications.
• Focus on production technology, starting
with a thorough review of the state of the art
and a study of the complete process chain,
from the preparation of material through to
pack assembly. There was still room in the
discussion for consideration of unusual and
disruptive battery production technologies. A
further important factor was the objective of
evaluating all production solutions with
regard to their relevance for volume
production.
• Use of a strictly-defined roadmapping
process: We took the roadmapping process
commonly used in the semiconductor
industry and applied this to battery produc-
tion. The requirements of producers define
fixed target corridors for which machine
builders attempt to formulate solutions. In
cases where solutions do not exist from
today's point of view, this process identifies
technological barriers, the so-called "red brick
walls". From these, it is possible to identify
clearly delineated concrete needs for
research.
• Definition of the study period as being the
years up to 2030 in order to ensure
comparability with other roadmaps.
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 57

Involvement of all players marketing alternative process technologies.

Experience gained in related industries, such as
The results of the present roadmapping process semiconductor, photovoltaic and automotive
are based on the discussions held in five VDMA production and also in the food and packaging
workshops, to which 240 experts from the entire industry, has already been applied to battery
field of battery production contributed. In addi- production. Moreover, the excellent basis and
tion to this, we conducted thorough research of the future prospects of the automation industry
existing works and made efforts to ensure ("Industry 4.0") provide German companies with
complementarity and congruence with current a promising starting basis.
activities. Even though the roadmapping
methodology calls initially for a separate discus-
sion of the different "routes" (users, battery The need of research has been concretised
producers, machinery and production
equipment builders and researchers), it was Our objective was to clearly map out the future
nonetheless essential in the course of the prospects of a battery production technology for
discussions to bring all the players to a single high-capacity applications. This present
table. Another reason why this was necessary roadmap now for the first time describes the
was that precise specifications for production concrete need for research in the machinery and
parameters were not publicly available. This was production equipment industry for 15 core areas
discussed with manufacturers and research in order to meet the requirements of battery
institutes to form a starting basis. manufacturers in the period up to 2030. The
biggest challenges which emerged were process
stability coupled with a simultaneous increase in
Starting basis for German machinery and production throughput, scalability up to volume
production equipment builders production, sustainability and above all an
increase in quality together at the same time
Machinery and production equipment builders with a reduction of costs.
are able with intelligent production technology
to offer an important means of achieving the
urgently-required reduction of costs associated
with batteries. Asian players have a lead in
experience over their German counterparts due
to the fact that they have for many years
equipped factories producing consumer
batteries. They are currently dominant as
suppliers of production equipment. The
requirements for the production of large-sized
batteries are, however, also high for Asian
players. The obstacles to be overcome which are
formulated in the roadmap apply to everybody.
In other words, the cards have been re-mixed.

German machinery and production equipment

builders offer solutions for all points along the
process chain. In module production in
particular, individual companies are already
offering complete solutions and successfully
58 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION
Recommendations for action
Purposeful approach to need for research
The task now is to take a purposeful approach to
the defined need for research through coopera-
tion between industrial partners and research
organisations. This will require a broad-based
increasing of awareness on the part of all
players throughout the battery production value
chain and among possible private and public
investors. A foundation has been created in the
form of the national programmes of the NPE
and the pilot line approach as part of the key
enabling technologies of the umbrella program
"Horizon 2020" of the EU Commission. The
successful networks for pre-competition
cooperation with the automotive industry, such
as E-MOTIVE in the VDMA, will make it possible
even for smaller machine builders to develop
new technologies further. A large number of
research institutes are able to provide specific
know-how for industrial projects of this kind.
Pilot lines in Germany as platforms for
machinery and production equipment
In Germany there are a number of publicly-
supported pilot production lines which map the
process chain in a complementary way. These
are an excellent means of establishing new
process technologies and new materials and
optimising batteries for practical applications.
For machine builders, it is important to be able
to test individual processes and their effects on
production lines in research environments
which closely resemble actual production
conditions, drive forward modularisation and
automation and make provision for the
scalability of processes. It is easier to obtain
access to field data in projects of this kind than
in customer projects.
Strengthening international competitiveness
German machinery and production equipment
builders will enjoy a lucrative market in the field
of battery production if they are able to
strengthen their international competitiveness.
National pilot lines form an excellent starting
basis, but the fact is that successful players must
also be active at an international level. The
proportion of output exported is more than 75%
for the German mechanical engineering industry
as a whole and is in certain cases significantly
higher than this in areas related to battery
production. How can this increase in
competitiveness be achieved?
Cooperation, line integration, cost awareness,
publicity
A considerable competitive advantage is created
by the ability to act as a system supplier and
offer customers complete production lines. This
has been shown by the success of the German
manufacturers of photovoltaic production
equipment, who are currently the world market
leaders. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to
strengthen cooperation between process
suppliers. A further step is the ability to combine
machines, machine components and production
equipment with one other and with automation
systems (key phrase "line integration"). At the
present time, this has hardly been achieved
anywhere in the world in battery production. In
order to be able to offer cost-effective solutions,
there must be increased awareness of the costs
of individual process steps and throughout
product life cycles. Finally, the competencies of
the industry must be advertised, particularly to
overseas customers. VDMA Battery Production
has developed activities for its members
covering each of these points.
Creating access to large projects
Manufacturers of production equipment can
gain experience of volume production only
through direct participation in major projects.
Large factories are currently being built in the
USA and Asia. German machinery and
production equipment builders should also learn
from overseas projects and further develop this
know-how. A number of German companies are
already enjoying success here. The objective
must be to expand this involvement.
 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 59

Participants in the fifth "Roadmapping" workshop for machinery and production equipment builders. Photo: VDMA

Encouraging investments Activities have already been started within the

The ultimate objective must be to create a VDMA in all these areas. VDMA Battery
positive public climate for battery production. A Production will continue to actively drive
reduction in costs can be achieved only through forward the roadmapping process which has
volume production. In the semiconductor, been started and the implementation of this.
display and photovoltaic industries, we have
seen how dynamically markets can develop.
With regard to electromobility and the storage
of energy from renewable sources, we are right
at the start of the development process. With
this roadmap, we have illustrated ways in which
investment in production capacity could be
made more attractive.

Continuing the roadmapping process

Roadmapping is a dynamic and iterative process.
It is therefore important to revive the dialogue
after a certain time and adapt it to new realities.
In related industries such as the semiconductor
industry, this is carried out at intervals of 1 to 2
years.
60 APPENDIX

Appendix

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 APPENDIX 63

[Schlick2012] Schlick, T., Hagemann, B., Kramer, M., Garrelfs, J., & Rassmann, A. (2012). Zukunftsfeld Energiespeicher -
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64 APPENDIX

Participants

The following companies and organisations took part in the five roadmapping workshops organised by
VDMA Battery Production. We thank them for the fruitful discussions!

ABB Automation GmbH ACI Group KUKA Systems GmbH

Adam Opel AG Leybold Optics GmbH
AIS Automation Dresden GmbH M+W Group GmbH
ASM Assembly Systems GmbH & Co. KG Mahr GmbH
ASYS Automatisierungssysteme GmbH Manz AG
Bernd Münstermann GmbH & Co. KG Maschinenbau GEROLD GmbH & Co. KG
Bosch Rexroth AG Maschinenfabrik Gustav Eirich GmbH & Co. KG
Brückner Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG mfk GmbH
camLINE GmbH NETZSCH-Feinmahltechnik GmbH
centrotherm photovoltaics AG CHEMETALL GmbH OBE Ohnmacht & Baumgärtner GmbH & Co. KG
Deutsche Mechatronics GmbH Oerlikon Leybold Vacuum GmbH
Dispatch Energy Innovations GmbH Oskar Frech GmbH + Co. KG
Dorst Technologies GmbH & Co. KG Lapmaster Wolters GmbH
EKATO HOLDING GmbH Pfeiffer Vacuum GmbH
ERSA GmbH Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR)
Evonik Litarion GmbH PVA TePla AG
F&K Delvotec Bondtechnik GmbH RCT-Solutions GmbH
Festo AG & Co. KG Rehm Thermal Systems GmbH
FIX Maschinenbau GmbH Reis GmbH & Co. KG Maschinenfabrik
Fraunhofer-Institut für Siliziumtechnologie (ISIT) Rittal GmbH & Co. KG
Fraunhofer-Institut für keramische Technologien und Systeme Robert Bosch Battery Systems GmbH
(IKTS) Robert Bürkle GmbH
Fraunhofer-Institut für Physikalische Messtechnik (IPM) ROFIN-SINAR Technologies, Inc
Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung (ISI) Roth & Rau AG
Fraunhofer-Institut für Produktionstechnik und Intertek Holding Deutschland GmbH
Automatisierung (IPA) RWTH Aachen, PEM
Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesysteme (ISE) SCHILLER AUTOMATION GmbH & Co. KG
Fraunhofer-Institut für Techno- und Wirtschaftsmathematik SCHUNK GmbH & Co. KG
(ITWM) Siemens AG
Fraunhofer-Institut für Werkstoff- und Strahltechnik (IWS) Singulus Technologies AG
Gebrüder Lödige Maschinenbau GmbH SITEC Industrietechnologie GmbH
GOEBEL Schneid- und Wickelsysteme GmbH GP Solar GmbH SMC Pneumatik AG
Grenzebach Maschinenbau GmbH Groz-Beckert KG Sterling SIHI GmbH
H&T ProduktionsTechnologie GmbH teamtechnik Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH
Hammermeister Sondermaschinenentwicklung GmbH ThyssenKrupp System Engineering GmbH
Harmonic Drive AG TRUMPF Laser- und Systemtechnik GmbH
Harro Höfliger Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH Technische Universität Braunschweig
Henkel AG & Co. KGaA ULT AG
Herding GmbH Filtertechnik Verband der Chemischen Industrie e.V. (VCI)
HNP Mikrosysteme GmbH VDMA Battery Production
Hochschule für angewandte Wissenschaften Landshut VDMA Photovoltaik-Produktionsmittel
HOSOKAWA ALPINE AG HTTM.LLC - H&T Marsberg VDMA Productronic
Hydro Aluminium Rolled Products GmbH VDMA Forum Elektromobiltät E-MOTIVE
Intertek Holding Deutschland GmbH Viscom AG
ISRA VISION AG VITRONIC Dr.-Ing. Stein Bildverarbeitungssysteme GmbH
JENOPTIK AG VOLKSWAGEN AG
Jonas & Redmann Group GmbH WITTENSTEIN AG
Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), competence-e Zeppelin Systems GmbH
Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), wbk, Institut für Zimmer GmbH
Produktionstechnik ZS-Handling GmbH
KMS Automation GmbH Zentrum für Solarenergie und Wasserstoffforschung ZSW
KROENERT GmbH & Co. KG Weiterbildungszentrum für innovative Energietechnologien
KUKA Roboter GmbH der Handwerkskammer Ulm (WBZU)
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the involvement of numerous experts from the battery production equipment
industry and beyond. The VDMA Battery Production team would like to express its grateful thanks for this, particularly with regard to
the following groups :

We thank Prof. Kampker and Mr. Deutskens of PEM at the RWTH Aachen, who contributed their great technical understanding in all
matters relating to production technology and their high level of professionalism. We benefited in particular from their support during
the moderation of the workshops, their continuous participation and the discussion and preparation of the red brick walls illustrations.
As a representative of all the participating experts of the RWTH Aachen, we would like to thank Mr. Heimes, who provided us with
excellent support right from the start of our roadmapping workshops in October 2011. In particular, his knowledge concerning the
present state of development of battery production technology and process alternatives – the subject of his doctoral thesis – formed a
solid foundation and a starting point for our dialogue with the future. The preparatory work to illustrate the process chain in cell and
module production brought all workshop participants up to a high level of knowledge right from the beginning and quickly made clear
the opportunities offered by the networking of battery competencies in machinery and production equipment building. The efforts to
estimate investment costs on the basis of this work culminated in our workshop "Total Cost of Ownership", which the RWTH Aachen
also supported. Many thanks for your cooperation and your exceptional commitment!

Our grateful thanks also go to Dr. Thielmann and Mr. Sauer of the Fraunhofer Institute of System and Innovation Research ISI, which
contributed its comprehensive know-how of customer markets and research into battery technologies. Thanks to the product and
technology roadmaps produced by the Fraunhofer ISI, in certain cases as part of projects associated with the innovation alliance LiB
2015, we were able to conduct discussions of customers' requirements in a purposeful way, answering questions such as: What
requirements are placed on battery manufacturers as the result of the different applications in the field of electromobility and
stationary systems? What battery markets are attractive from the production point of view? The work of Dr. Thielmann and Mr. Sauer
also supplied a basis for estimates as to whether new battery technologies are ready for production. We thank you, too, for your
valuable contribution to our joint project.

The members of the VDMA Battery Production Steering Committee were able to provide us with support on the basis of their
comprehensive background of experience of industrial practice. Our special thanks go to Mr. Haan (SIEMENS), who as the spokesman
of the Steering Committee was able again and again to generate crucial new impetuses. His enthusiasm for line integration and
control technology was a crucial factor in the further development of roadmapping activities in the direction of interface standards.
We also thank in particular Mr. Merz (Reis Robotics) for his work as spokesman of the Roadmapping Working Group. He was also able
to contribute a great deal of experience with international production lines and automation. Particularly in the final phase, the experts
from the Steering Committee subjected the roadmap to a thorough review in their specialist areas. We are very grateful for this!

We also thank our colleagues in the VDMA Electromobility Forum, particularly Mr. Hagemann. He and his team made a particularly
valuable contribution to the discussions of battery functions and the needs of user industries. Also of crucial importance was the work
on standardisation and module level and the reflection of our activities in the Working Group for "Electrical Energy Storage Devices". A
link to project work was provided by the joint industrial research conducted by the E-MOTIVE group of the Drive Technology Research
Association (FVA), for which our special thanks go to Mr. Arnold. Our sincere thanks also go to all our colleagues in the relevant VDMA
technical and German regional associations.

Finally, we thank all the participants in our roadmapping activities for their interest and their contributions during and after our
workshops. We look forward to the "next round"!

Frankfurt am Main, 06.10.2014.

 VDMA Battery Production
Battery Production

Lyoner Str. 18
60528 Frankfurt am Main
Phone +49 69 6603-1592
Fax +49 69 6603-2592
E-Mail sabine.egerer@vdma.org
Internet http://battprod.vdma.org

Roadmap
Battery Production Equipment
2030

http://battprod.vdma.org

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