Heliosphere

The heliosphere is the bubble-like region of space dominated by the

Sun, which extends far beyond the orbit of Pluto. Plasma "blown" out
from the Sun, known as the solar wind, creates and maintains this
bubble against the outside pressure of the interstellar medium, the
hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the Milky Way Galaxy. The
solar wind flows outward from the Sun until encountering the
termination shock, where motion slows abruptly. The Voyager
spacecraft have explored the outer reaches of the heliosphere, passing
through the shock and entering the heliosheath, a transitional region
which is in turn bounded by the outermost edge of the heliosphere,
called the heliopause. The shape of the heliosphere is controlled by
the interstellar medium through which it is traveling, as well as the Sun
and is not perfectly spherical.[1] The limited data available and
unexplored nature of these structures have resulted in many theories.[2]
The word "heliosphere" is said to have been coined by Alexander J.
Dessler, who is credited with first use of the word in the scientific
literature.[3]

On September 12, 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 left the

heliopause on August 25, 2012, when it measured a sudden increase in
plasma density of about forty times.[4] Because the heliopause marks
one boundary between the Sun's solar wind and the rest of the galaxy,
a spacecraft such as Voyager 1 which has departed the heliosphere, can
be said to have reachedinterstellar space. Top: Diagram of the heliosphere as it travels
through the interstellar medium:

a. Heliosheath: the outer region of the

Contents heliosphere; the solar wind is compressed
Summary and turbulent
Solar wind b. Heliopause: the boundary between solar
Structure wind and interstellar wind where they are in
Heliospheric current sheet equilibrium.
Outer structure
Middle: water running into a sink as an
Termination shock
analogy for the heliosphere and its different
Heliosheath
zones (left) and Voyager measuring a drop
Heliopause
Heliotail of the solar wind's high-energy particles at
the termination shock (right)
Additional Heliosphere structures
Hydrogen wall Bottom: Logarithmic scale of the Solar
Bow shock System and Voyager's position
Observational methods
Detection by spacecraft
Cassini results
IBEX results
Locally
Timeline
 Gallery
See also
References
Notes
External links

Summary
The idea of Heliosphere is an area of the influence of the Sun, and a major
component is magnetic field lines and the solar wind; three major aspects to its edge
are the termination shock, the heliosheath, and the heliopause. Five spacecraft have
returned much of the data about its furthest reaches including Pioneer 10 (1972-
1997; data to 67 AU), Pioneer 11 (1973-1995;44 AU), Voyager 1 and 2 (launched
1977, ongoing), and New Horizons (Launched 2006). A type of particle called an
ENA has also been observed to have been produced from its edges. Near the Sun,
Energetic neutral atomsmap by
there is a host of spacecraft that observe the Sun and interplanetary space, and one of
IBEX. Credit: NASA / Goddard
the latest to explore nearer to the Sun than ever before is the Parker Solar Probe Space Flight Center Scientific
launched in 2018. Solar observations, such by Solar eclipses that allow observation Visualization Studio.
of the Corona and various types of space observatories also provide data on the Sun
and its influences. The study
of other Stars can also allow
insights indirectly.

Except for regions near

obstacles such as planets or
comets, the heliosphere is
dominated by material
emanating from the Sun,
although cosmic rays, fast-
moving neutral atoms, and
cosmic dust can penetrate the
heliosphere from the outside.
Originating at the extremely
hot surface of the corona, solar
wind particles reach escape
velocity, streaming outwards
at 300 to 800 km/s (671
thousand to 1.79 million mph
Graph of detections by Voyager 1 & 2
or 1 to 2.9 million km/h).[5] As
it begins to interact with the
interstellar medium, its velocity slows to a stop. The point where the solar wind becomes slower than the speed of sound is called the
termination shock; the solar wind continues to slow as it passes through the heliosheath leading to a boundary called the heliopause,
where the interstellar medium and solar wind pressures balance. The termination shock was traversed by Voyager 1 in 2004,[6] and
Voyager 2 in 2007.[1]

It was thought that beyond the heliopause there was abow shock, but data from Interstellar Boundary Explorersuggested the velocity
of the Sun through the interstellar medium is too low for it to form.[7] It may be a more gentle "bow wave".[8] Voyager data led to a
[9][10]
new theory that the heliosheath has "magnetic bubbles" and a stagnation zone.
The 'stagnation region' within the heliosheath, starting around 113 au (1.69 × 1010 km; 1.05 × 1010 mi), was detected by Voyager 1 in
2010.[9] There the solar wind velocity drops to zero, the magnetic field intensity doubles and high-energy electrons from the galaxy
increase 100-fold.[9] Starting in May 2012 at 120 au (1.8 × 1010 km; 1.1 × 1010 mi), Voyager 1 detected a sudden increase in cosmic
rays, an apparent signature of approach to the heliopause.[11] In December 2012 NASA announced that in late August 2012 Voyager
1, at about 122 au (1.83 × 1010 km; 1.13 × 1010 mi) from the Sun, entered a new region they called the "magnetic highway", an area
still under the influence of the Sun but with some dramatic differences.[6] In the summer of 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1
had reached interstellar space as of August 25, 2012.[12]

Cassini and IBEX data challenged the "heliotail" theory in 2009.[13][14] In July 2013, IBEX results revealed a 4-lobed tail on the
Solar System's heliosphere.[15]

Pioneer 10 was launched in March 1972, and within 10 hours passed by the Moon; over the next 35 years or so the mission would be
the first out laying out many firsts of discoveries about the nature of heliosphere as well as Jupiter's impact on it.[16] Pioneer 10 was
the first spacecraft to detect sodium and aluminum ions in the Solar Wind, as well as helium in the inner solar system.[17] In
November of 1972, Pioneer 10 encountered Jupiter's enormous (compared to Earth) magnetosphere, and would pass in and out of it
and heliosphere 17 times charting its interaction with the Solar Wind.[18] Pioneer 10 returned scientific data until March 1997,
including data on the Solar wind out to about 67 AU at that time.[19] It was also contacted in 2003, when it was a distance of 7.6
ind was returned then.[20][21]
billion miles from Earth (82 AU), but no instrument data about the Solar W

Voyager 1, surpassed the radial distance from Sun of Pioneer 10 at 69.4 AU on 17 February 1998, because it was traveling faster
gaining about 1.02 AU per year.[22] Pioneer 11, launched a year after Pioneer 10, took similar data as Pioneer out to 44.7 AU in 1995
when that mission was concluded.[23] Pioneer 11 had a similar instrument suite as 10, but also had a Flux-Gate Magnetometer.[24]
Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft were on different trajectories, and thus recorded data on the heliosphere in different overall directions
away from the Sun.[25] Pioneer and Voyager data helped corroborate the detection of a hydrogen wall.
[26]

Voyager 1 and 2 were launched in 1977 and operated continuously to at least the late 2010s, and encountered various aspects of the
Heliosphere past Pluto and Neptune.[27] In 2012 Voyager 1 is thought to have pass through the Heliopause, and in 2018 there is some
indications Voyager 2 may be experiencing the same threshold.[28]

Solar wind
The solar wind consists of particles (ionized atoms from the solar corona) and fields
(in particular, magnetic fields). Because the Sun rotates once approximately every 25
days, the magnetic field transported by the solar wind gets wrapped into a spiral.
Variations in the Sun's magnetic field are carried outward by the solar wind and can
produce magnetic storms in the Earth's own magnetosphere.

Structure

Heliospheric current
sheet
Earth's Sun as seen at a wavelength
The heliospheric current sheet is a of 19.3 nanometers (ultraviolet)
ripple in the heliosphere created by the
rotating magnetic field of the Sun.
Extending throughout the heliosphere, it is considered the largest structure in the Solar
[29]
System and is said to resemble a "ballerina's skirt".
The heliospheric current sheet
out to the orbit of Jupiter

Outer structure
The outer structure of the heliosphere is determined by the interactions between the solar wind and the winds of interstellar space.
The solar wind streams away from the Sun in all directions at speeds of several hundred km/s in the Earth's vicinity. At some distance
from the Sun, well beyond the orbit of Neptune, this supersonic wind must slow down to meet the gases in the interstellar medium.
This takes place in several stages:

The solar wind is traveling atsupersonic speeds within the Solar System. At the termination shock, a standingshock
wave, the solar wind falls below the speed of sound and becomessubsonic.
It was previously thought that, once subsonic, the solar wind would be shaped by the ambient flow of the interstellar
medium, forming blunt nose on one side and comet-like heliotail behind, a region called the heliosheath. However ,
observations in 2009 showed that this model is incorrect. [13][14] As of 2011, it is thought to be filled with a magnetic

bubble "foam".[30]
The outer surface of the heliosheath, where the heliosphere meets the interstellar medium, is called the heliopause.
This is the edge of the entire heliosphere. Observations in 2009 led to changes to this model. [13][14]

In theory, the heliopause causes turbulence ni the interstellar medium as the sun orbits theGalactic Center. Outside
the heliopause, would be a turbulent region caused by the pressure of the advancing heliopause against the
interstellar medium. However, the velocity of Solar wind relativeto the interstellar medium is probably too low for a
bow shock.[7]

Termination shock
The termination shock is the point in the heliosphere where the solar wind slows
down to subsonic speed (relative to the Sun) because of interactions with the local
interstellar medium. This causes compression, heating, and a change in the magnetic
field. In the Solar System the termination shock is believed to be 75 to 90
astronomical units[31] from the Sun. In 2004, Voyager 1 crossed the Sun's
termination shock followed byVoyager 2 in 2007.[32][33][34][35][36][4][37][1]

The shock arises because solar wind particles are emitted from the Sun at about
400 km/s, while the speed of sound (in the interstellar medium) is about 100 km/s.
A termination shock in a sink basin
(The exact speed depends on the density, which fluctuates considerably.) The
interstellar medium, although very low in density, nonetheless has a constant
pressure associated with it; the pressure from the solar wind decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun. As one moves far
enough away from the Sun, the pressure of the solar wind drops to where it can no longer maintain supersonic flow against the
pressure of the interstellar medium, at which point the solar wind slows to below its speed of sound, causing a shock wave. Further
from the Sun, the termination shock is followed by the heliopause, where the two pressures become equal and solar wind particles are
stopped by the interstellar medium.

Other termination shocks can be seen in terrestrial systems; perhaps the easiest may be seen by simply running a water tap into a sink
creating a hydraulic jump. Upon hitting the floor of the sink, the flowing water spreads out at a speed that is higher than the local
wave speed, forming a disk of shallow, rapidly diverging flow (analogous to the tenuous, supersonic solar wind). Around the
periphery of the disk, a shock front or wall of water forms; outside the shock front, the water moves slower than the local wave speed
(analogous to the subsonic interstellar medium).

Evidence presented at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in May 2005 by Ed Stone suggests that the Voyager 1
spacecraft passed the termination shock in December 2004, when it was about 94 AU from the Sun, by virtue of the change in
magnetic readings taken from the craft. In contrast, Voyager 2 began detecting returning particles when it was only 76 AU from the
Sun, in May 2006. This implies that the heliosphere may be irregularly shaped, bulging outwards in the Sun's northern hemisphere
and pushed inward in the south.[38]

Heliosheath
The heliosheath is the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock. Here
the wind is slowed, compressed and made turbulent by its interaction with the
interstellar medium. Its distance from the Sun is approximately 80 to 100
astronomical units (AU) at its closest point.

A proposed model hypothesizes that the heliosheath is shaped like the coma of a
comet, and trails several times that distance in the direction opposite to the Sun's
path through space. At its windward side, its thickness is estimated to be between 10
and 100 AU.[40] However, observations in 2009 showed that model may be
incorrect.[13][14] This picture about the heliosphere
was released on June 28, 2013 and
The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft have studied the heliosheath. In late 2010, incorporates results from the Voyager
Voyager 1 reached a region of the heliosheath where the solar wind's velocity had spacecraft.[39]
dropped to zero.[41][42][43][44] In 2011, astronomers announced that the Voyagers
had determined that the heliosheath is not smooth, but is filled with 100 million-
mile-wide bubbles created by the impact of the solar wind and the interstellar medium.[45][46] Voyager 1 and 2 began detecting
evidence for the bubbles in 2007 and 2008, respectively.[46] The probably sausage-shaped bubbles are formed by magnetic
reconnection between oppositely oriented sectors of the solar magnetic field as the solar wind slows down.[46] They probably
represent self-contained structures that have detached from theinterplanetary magnetic field.[45][46]

Heliopause
The heliopause is the theoretical boundary where the Sun's solar wind is stopped by the interstellar medium; where the solar wind's
strength is no longer great enough to push back the stellar winds of the surrounding stars. This is the boundary where the interstellar
medium and solar wind pressures balance. The crossing of the heliopause should be signaled by a sharp drop in the temperature of
charged particles,[42] a change in the direction of the magnetic field, and an increase in the number of galactic cosmic rays.[11] In
May 2012, Voyager 1 detected a rapid increase in such cosmic rays (a 9% increase in a month, following a more gradual increase of
25% from Jan. 2009 to Jan. 2012), suggesting it was approaching the heliopause.[11] In September of 2013, NASA announced that
Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause as of August 25, 2012.[12] This was at a distance of 121 AU (18 billion km) from the Sun.[47]
[48]
Contrary to predictions, data from Voyager 1 indicates the magnetic field of the galaxy is aligned with the solar magnetic field.
 "..solar wind and the interstellar medium interact to create a region known as the inner heliosheath, bounded on the
inside by the termination shock, and on the outside by the heliopause."-NASA [49]

Heliotail
The heliotail is the tail of the heliosphere, and thus the solar system's tail. It can be compared to the tail of a comet (however, a
comet's tail does not stretch behind it as it moves; it is always pointing away from the Sun). The tail is a region where the Sun's solar
wind slows down and ultimately escapes the heliosphere, slowly evaporating because of charge exchange.[50] The shape of the
heliotail (newly found by NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer - IBEX), is that of a four-leaf clover.[51] The particles in the tail do
not shine, therefore it cannot be seen with conventional optical instruments. IBEX made the first observations of the heliotail by
r system's boundary zone.[51]
measuring the energy of "energetic neutral atoms", neutral particles created by collisions in the sola

The tail has been shown to contain fast and slow particles; the slow particles are on the side and the fast particles are encompassed in
the center. The shape of the tail can be linked to the sun sending out fast solar winds near its poles and slow solar wind near its
equator more recently. The clover-shaped tail moves further away from the sun, which makes the charged particles begin to morph
into a new orientation.

Additional Heliosphere structures

The heliopause is the final known boundary between the heliosphere and the interstellar space that is filled with material, especially
plasma, not from our own star, the Sun, but from other stars.[53] Even so, just outside the heliosphere (i.e. the "solar bubble") there is
a transitional region, as detected by Voyager 1.[54] Just as some interstellar pressure was detected as early as 2004, some of the Sun's
material seeps into the interstellar medium.[54] The heliosphere is thought to reside in the Local Interstellar Cloud inside the Local
Bubble, which is a region in theOrion Arm of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Outside the heliosphere there is a forty-fold increase in plasma density.[54] There is also a radical reduction in the detection of certain
types of particles from the Sun, and a large increase in Galactic cosmic rays.[55]
The flow of the interstellar medium (ISM) into the heliosphere has been measured
by at least 11 different spacecraft as of 2013.[56] By 2013, it was suspected that the
direction of the flow had changed over time.[56] The flow, coming from Earth's
perspective from the constellation Scorpius, has probably changed direction by
several degrees since the 1970s.[56]

Hydrogen wall
According to one hypothesis,[57] there exists a region of hot hydrogen known as the The bubble-like heliosphere moving
through the interstellar medium
hydrogen wall between the bow shock and the heliopause. The wall is composed of
interstellar material interacting with the edge of the heliosphere. One paper released
[8]
in 2013 studied the concept of a bow wave and hydrogen wall.

Another hypothesis suggests that the heliopause could be smaller on the side of the
Solar System facing the Sun's orbital motion through the galaxy. It may also vary
depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the
interstellar medium. It is known to lie far outside the orbit of Neptune. The current
mission of the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft is to find and study the termination shock,
heliosheath, and heliopause. Meanwhile, the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)
Solar map with the location of the
mission is attempting to image the heliopause from Earth orbit within two years of hypothetical hydrogen wall and bow
its 2008 launch. Initial results (October 2009) from IBEX suggest that previous shock
assumptions are insufficiently cognisant of the true complexities of the
heliopause.[58]

In August 2018, long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by the New Horizons
spacecraft confirmed results first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager
spacecrafts.[59][60] The hydrogen is being detected by extra ultraviolet light, which
is possible may come from another source, but the detection by New Horizons
corroborates the earlier detections by Voyager at a much higher level of
sensitivity.[61]

Bow shock
It was long hypothesized that the Sun produces a "shock wave" in its travels within
the interstellar medium. It would occur if the interstellar medium is moving
supersonically "toward" the Sun, since its solar wind moves "away" from the Sun
ENA detection is more concentrated
supersonically. When the interstellar wind hits the heliosphere it slows and creates a one direction.[52]
region of turbulence. A bow shock was thought to possibly occur at about
230 AU,[31] but in 2012 it was determined it probably does not exist.[7] This
conclusion resulted from new measurements: The velocity of the LISM (Local Interstellar Medium) relative to the Sun's was
previously measured to be 26.3 km/s byUlysses, whereas IBEX measured it at 23.2 km/s.[62]

This phenomenon has been observed outside the Solar System, around stars other than the Sun, by NASA's now retired orbital
GALEX telescope. The red giant star Mira in the constellation Cetus has been shown to have both a debris tail of ejecta from the star
and a distinct shock in the direction of its movement through space (at over 130 kilometers per second).

Observational methods

Detection by spacecraft
The precise distance to, and shape of the heliopause is still uncertain.
Interplanetary/interstellarspacecraft such as Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, New Horizons
and Voyager 2 are traveling outward through the Solar System and will eventually
pass through the heliopause. Contact to Pioneer 10 and 1 has been lost.

Cassini results
Rather than a comet-like shape, the heliosphere appears to be bubble-shaped
according to data from Cassini's Ion and Neutral Camera (MIMI / INCA). Rather Pioneer H, on display at the National
than being dominated by the collisions between the solar wind and the interstellar Air and Space Museum, was a
medium, the INCA (ENA) maps suggest that the interaction is controlled more by canceled probe to study the Sun.[63]
particle pressure and magnetic field energy density.[13][64]

IBEX results
Initial data from Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX), launched in October 2008,
revealed a previously unpredicted "very narrow ribbon that is two to three times
brighter than anything else in the sky."[14] Initial interpretations suggest that "the
interstellar environment has far more influence on structuring the heliosphere than
anyone previously believed"[65] "No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic
neutral atoms) ribbon, ..."[66]

"The IBEX results are truly remarkable! What we are seeing in these maps does not
match with any of the previous theoretical models of this region. It will be exciting
for scientists to review these (ENA) maps and revise the way we understand our
."[67] In October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after 6 months,
heliosphere and how it interacts with the galaxy
based on the second set of IBEX observations.[68] IBEX data did not support the existence of a bow shock,[7] but there might be a
'bow wave' according to one study.[8]

Locally
Of particular interest is the Earth's interaction with the heliosphere, but its extent and
interaction with other bodies in the solar system have also been studied. Some
examples of missions that have or continue to collect data related to the heliosphere
include (see also List of heliophysics missions):

Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Solar Dynamics Observatory
STEREO
Ulysses (spacecraft)
Parker Solar Probe
During a total eclipse the high-temperature corona can be more readily observed
from Earth solar observatories. During the Apollo program the Solar wind was
Overview of Heliophysics spacecraft
measured on the Moon via the Solar Wind Composition Experiment. Some
circa 2011
examples of Earth surface based Solar observatories include the McMath–Pierce
solar telescope or the newer GREGOR Solar Telescope, and the refurbished Big
Bear Solar Observatory. (see also [[List of solar telescopes])

Timeline
 In 1992, Pioneer and Voyager probes detected Lyα radiation resonantly scattered by heliospheric hydrogen. [69]

As of March 2005, it was reported that measurements by the Solar Wind Anisotropies (SW AN) instrument on board
the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory(SOHO) have shown that the heliosphere, the solar wind-filled volume which
prevents the Solar System from becoming embedded in the local (ambient) interstellar medium, is not
axisymmetrical, but is distorted, very likely under the effect of the local galactic magnetic field.[70]
[14]
As of 2008, there is a previously unpredicted narrow ribbon of ENAs.
As of October 2009, the heliosphere may be bubble, not comet shaped. [13]

As of October 2010, significant changes were detected in the ribbon after 6 months, based on the second set of
IBEX observations.[68]
As of June 2011, the heliosheath area is thought to be filled with magnetic bubbles (each about AU
1 wide), creating
[30]
a "foamy zone". The theory helps explainin situ heliosphere measurements by the two V oyager probes.
[7]
As of May 2012, IBEX data implies there is probably not a bow "shock".
As of June 2012 at 119 AU Voyager 1 detected an increase in cosmic rays.[11]
Between late August and early September 2012, V oyager 1 witnessed a sharp drop in protons from the sun, from 25
.[71] It was later determined that it
particles per sec in late August, to about 2 particles per second by early October
entered interstellar space on August 25, 2012. [4]

August 2018, long-term studies about the hydrogen wall by theNew Horizons spacecraft confirmed results first
detected in 1992 by the twoVoyager spacecraft.[59][60]

Gallery
[7][13][14][30]
These depictions include features that may not reflect most recent models.

Heliosphere: classical model Heliosphere interacting Moving heliosphere, showing a

with the interstellar wind heliosheath filled with magnetic bubble
"foam" (red)[30]

Play media

Fragment of the film Sentinels of the

Heliosphere, tracking some researching
satellites deployed to analyse the Sun

See also
Coronal mass ejection
Fermi glow
Heliospheric current sheet
 Interplanetary medium
Interstellar medium
Interstellar Boundary Explorer(IBEX)
Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11
Solar flare
Solar wind
Tom Krimigis
Ulysses probe
Voyager Program

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Notes
"Heliopause Seems to Be 23 Billion Kilometres"
. Universe Today. December 9, 2003. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
"Space probes reveal Solar System's bullet shape"
. COSMOS magazine. May 11, 2007. Archived fromthe original
on May 13, 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-12.

External links
Moving into Interstellar Space (Artist Concept)
"Cassini Data Helps Redraw Shape of Our Solar System" 2010
Publications in Refereed Journals
Voyager Interstellar Mission Objectives
The Heliosphere (Cosmicopia)
NASA GALEX (Galaxy evolution Explorer) homepage at Caltech
The Solar and Heliospheric Research Group at the University of Michigan
Ribbon at Edge of Our Solar System: Will the Sun Enter a Million-Degree Cloud of Interstellar Gas this century ?
A Big Surprise from the Edge of the Solar System(NASA 06.09.11)
Schwadron, N. A.; et al. (6 September 2011). "Does the Space Environment Affect the Ecosphere?". Eos. 92 (36):
297–301. Bibcode:2011EOSTr..92..297S. doi:10.1029/2011eo360001.

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