Temperature & Heat

Temperature at the macroscopic level is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. If two
objects are at the same temperature, then no heat will flow between them, and they are said to be
in thermal equilibrium. In microscopic terms (atomic), temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles (atoms and molecules).

Temperature is measured using either the Celsius or Kelvin scale. The only difference between
the Kelvin and Celsius scales is in the choice of the zero point. The zero point for the Celsius
scale was chosen to be the freezing point of water. The zero of the Kelvin scale is chosen to be
the lowest possible temperature, that is, absolute zero. Absolute zero corresponds to - 273.15°C.
To convert between the two we add or subtract 273.15.

If two objects are brought into (thermal) contact with each other, then energy will flow between
them. Heat is the name given to the flow of energy from one object to another. Heat flows from
the ‘hotter’ object to the ‘colder’ object, i.e. from the object at the higher temperature to the object
at the lower temperature. If no heat flows, we say the objects are in thermal equilibrium with
each other, i.e. they are at the same temperature. Heat transfer takes place because the colliding
molecules transfer kinetic energy.

Heat and temperature are often confused. It is important to realize that heat is a measure of the
energy transferred when two objects are brought into contact with each other, and temperature is
an indicator of which way the heat will flow.

Heat is energy. Therefore the units of heat are the same as the units of energy. The unit of
energy is the joule. Joule is the unit of heat as well.

Heat and Mechanical Work

Recall that heat is the energy transferred from one object to another. The equivalence between
work and heat was first explored quantitatively by the British physicist James Joule. In his
experiments, Joule was able to show that mechanical energy had been converted to heat and an
increased temperature. Before Joule’s work, heat was measured in a unit called the calorie (cal).
One calorie was defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water
from 14.5oC to 15.5oC. With his experiments, Joule was able to show that 1 cal = 4.186 J. This is
referred to as the mechanical equivalent of heat:

1 cal = 4.186 J.
Heat Capacity

Suppose we add the heat Q to a given object, and its temperature increases by the amount ΔT.
The heat capacity C in this object is defined as follows:

Q
C=
ΔT
The heat capacity C has SI unit: J/K = J/Co.

Note that Q is positive if ΔT is positive; that is, if heat is added to a system. Q is negative if
ΔT is negative; that is, if heat is removed from a system.

Since heat capacity varies with the amount of substance, even the substances are of the same
type. The specific heat depends on the substance, and not on the amount of the substance.

Q
c=
mΔT

The specific heat c has SI unit: J/(kg⋅K) = J/(kg⋅Co).

For example the specific heat of water is c water = 4186 J /( kg ⋅ K ) .

The specific heat of water is by far the largest of any common material. Having such a large
specific heat means that water can give off or take in large quantities of heat with little change in
temperature.

Phase Transitions

There are three phases of matter that exist in nature: solid, liquid, and vapor (gas). Nearly all
substances can exist in all three phases, depending on the conditions of temperature and
pressure that prevail. The changes in state are called phase changes.

It is important to note that phase changes always occur at a single temperature, with the
addition or subtraction of heat. For example, in order to melt 1 kg of ice, the ice must be at 0°C,
and we need to add 33.5 104 J of heat to get 1 kg of liquid water which will still be at 0°C.

The amount of heat per kilogram required to produce a change of phase for a substance is
known as the latent heat of that substance. The latent heat of fusion, Lf, refers to a phase
change between the liquid and solid phases, and the latent heat of vaporization, Lv, refers to a
change between liquid and vapor phases.
The amount of heat required to complete a phase change differs from material to material and
must be determined experimentally. The amount of heat required to convert one unit of the
material from its solid to its liquid phase or vice versa is LF and is called the heat of fusion. The
amount of heat required to convert m units of the material from its solid to its liquid phase is given
by Q = LFm.

Similarly, the amount of heat required to convert one unit of the material from its liquid to gaseous
phase or vice versa is Lv and is called the heat of vaporization. The amount of heat required to
convert m units of the material from its liquid to gaseous phase is given by Q = LVm.