Why Do Ship’s Hull Fail at Midship Region?

We have had a lot of marine accidents that involved failure of the hull structures. Whether it was a
crack in the midship region, or a total split-off of the hull girder, or failures due to propagation of
cracks, the crux of the matter boils down to a handful of causes that are of great concern to ship
designers and operators. Mostly, crack propagation takes place due to fatigue, which is not
something this article is about. This article gives an insight into the causes that lead to the failure of
the hull girder from a longitudinal strength point of view. And before we start, we have to ask
ourselves a few questions. Why have ships split-off? Why have many hull structures split-off after
grounding? Why are midships highly prone to such failures? Is it because of a design flaw? Or for that
matter, a glitch in the operation standards that have not been maintained?

Marine Engineers and ship operators use loading manuals to maintain the distribution of deadweight
load on the hull girder. But what if the key to the design of those manuals lies in a deeper context?
What if we tried to understand the phenomenon from a ship designer’s point of view? When ships are
designed, a Naval Architect takes into consideration each and every factor that might affect the
structural response of the hull girder with respect to the required loading conditions. In order to see
the inner picture, we need to look at it from designer’s point of view.

When the hull girder of a ship is designed, the designers analyze the structure as a beam. But this
beam is different from those that are used by civil engineers, in as much as ships are structures that
are subjected to unpredictably variable loads. Look at it this way- the buoyancy on the hull is never
predictable given the fact that sea surface being characterized by waves, the buoyancy on the ship is
always varying periodically along the ship’s length. Also, ships are not always in the same cargo
loading conditions. Where they may ply one voyage in a fully loaded condition, in the return voyage
the ship may not have cargo but be induced to ballast loading condition. So we design the ship
structure keeping in mind the uncertainty of the loads, and what helps in quantifying the response is a
theory that has been widely used- Euler’s Beam Bending Theory.

This great theory has been used by structural engineers in analyzing the bending aspects of beams.
Naval Architects have adopted this theory, but in a slightly different way. Unlike civil structures, a ship
structure (which will
be referred to as
hull girder from now
on) is always
supported by an
“elastic foundation”
(sea surface). The
direction of
buoyancy on the
girder is upwards,
and its longitudinal
distribution
depends upon the
longitudinal
distribution of the
ship’s underwater
volume. Which
means, there is
Figure 1: Buoyancy curve of a ship (Max surf screenshot)
more buoyancy at the midship region than the fore and aft ends. This leads us to a buoyancy
distribution which looks similar to Figure 1.There is another factor that contributes to the load on the
girder. It is the weight that acts onto the hull girder; the weight comprising of individual weights of hull
steel, machinery, outfit, cargo, fuel oil, lube oil, fresh water, ballast, and non-fuel cargo. Depending
upon the longitudinal distribution of these weights and their individual magnitudes, we obtain the
longitudinal distribution of load on the girder, which is referred to as Weight Curve. It is this load curve
that holds utmost importance in the longitudinal strength aspect.

 Designers obtain the weight curve after developing the General Arrangement Plan of the ship.
 The load curve is subject to change, depending on the various loading conditions of the ship.
For example, in fully loaded condition the load is generally more in the parallel mid body of
the ship, i.e the region where most of the cargo is stowed, be it any type of a ship. But in
ballast condition where aft and fore ballast tanks are to be filled up, the weight curve changes
its shape owing to the increased weight at the aft and fore ends.
 Your loading manuals are basically a guide to load the ship by the design standards, which are
nothing but inferences to these different conditions of weight distributions.
 Hull Girder Shear Forces and Bending Moments - Bulk Carrier
Limitations

As with any cargo ship it is important to load the cargo so that stresses in
the ship remain at a minimum or at least evenly distributed. This is
especially so with large bulk carriers. All ships are designed with
limitations imposed upon their operability to ensure that the structural
integrity is maintained. Therefore, exceeding these limitations may result
in over-stressing of the ship's structure which may lead to catastrophic
failure.

The ship's approved loading manual provides a description of the

operational loading conditions upon which the design of the hull structure
has been based. The loading instrument provides a means to readily
calculate the still water shear forces and bending moments, in any load
or ballast condition, and assess these values against the design limits.

A ship's structure is designed to withstand the static and dynamic loads

likely to be experienced by the ship throughout its service life. The loads
acting on the hull structure when a ship is floating in still (calm) water
are static loads, one of the major ones being created by the cargo.

The main hull stresses set up by the cargo are hogging, sagging and
shearing. These can be minimized by evenly distributing the cargo -
homogenous loading.

Dynamic loads are those additional loads exerted on the ship's hull
structure through the action of the waves and the effects of the resultant
ship motions (i.e. acceleration forces, slamming and sloshing loads).
 Hogging and sagging forces are at a maximum when the wave length is
equal to the length of the ship.

Sloshing loads may be induced on the ship's internal structure through

the movement of the fluids in tanks/holds whilst slamming of the bottom
shell structure forward may occur due to emergence of the fore end of
the ship from the sea in heavy weather.

Cargo over-loading in individual hold spaces will increase the static stress
levels in the ship's structure and reduce the strength capability of the
structure to sustain the dynamic loads exerted in adverse sea conditions.

In harbour, where the ship is in sheltered water and is subjected to

reduced dynamic loads, the hull is permitted to carry a higher level of
stress imposed by the static loads, so a certain amount of difference in
the loading of each hold is allowable.


Fig: bulk carrier strain monitoring sensor

Most modern bulkers have strain monitoring equipment so that hull
stresses that cause hull fractures as above are minimised.

Bending Moment

The bending moment is the amount of bending caused to the ship's hull
by external forces. For example, the bending moment is the highest in
the midship section when the ship's ends are supported by crests of a
wave known as `sagging' or `positive bending'. When the ship is riding
the crest of a wave at its midships, the bending moment is known as
`hogging' or `negative bending'. Bending moments are measured in
tonne- metres.

Shearing Force

When two external parallel forces act in opposite directions on any part of
a structure to break it apar or shear it, the forces are known as shearing
forces and are measured in tonnes. Shearing stress is, therefore, the
stress that may break or shear the structure apart.

All classification society member bulk carriers are assigned with

permissible still water shear forces (SWSF) and still water bending
moment (SWBM) limits. There are normally two sets of permissible SWSF
and SWBM limits assigned to each ship, namely:

i) Seagoing (at sea) SWSF and SWBM limits.

ii) Harbour (in port) SWSF and SWBM limits.

The seagoing SWSF and SWBM limits are not to be exceeded when the
ship puts to sea or during any part of a seagoing voyage. In harbour,
where the ship is in sheltered water and is subjected to reduced dynamic
loads, the hull girder is permitted to carry a higher level of stress
imposed by the static loads. The harbour SWSF and SWBM limits are not
to be exceeded during any stage of harbour cargo operations.

When a ship is floating in still water, the ship's lightweight (the weight of
the ship's structure and its machinery) and deadweight (all other
weights, such as the weight of the bunkers, ballast, provisions and cargo)
 are supported by the global buoyancy upthrust acting on the exterior of
the hull. Along the ship's length there will be local differences in the
vertical forces of buoyancy and the ship's weight. These unbalanced net
vertical forces acting along the length of the ship will cause the hull
girder to shear and to bend ,inducing a vertical still water shear force
(SWSF) and still water bending moment (SWBM) at each section of the
hull.

At sea, the ship is subjected to cyclical shearing and bending actions

induced by continuously changing wave pressures acting on the hull.
These cyclical shearing and bending actions give rise to an additional
component of dynamic, wave induced, shear force and bending moment
in the hull girder. At any one time, the hull girder is subjected to a
combination of still water and wave induced shear forces and bending
moments.

The stresses in the hull section caused by these shearing forces and
bending moments are carried by continuous longitudinal structural
members. These structural members are the strength deck, side shell
and bottom shell plating and longitudinals, inner bottom plating and
longitudinals, double bottom girders and topside and hopper tank sloping
plating and longitudinals, which are generally defined as the hull girder.

Figure 2: Load Curve obtained from buoyancy curve and weight curve
What we do next, is superimpose both the graphs and subtract the magnitudes of weight from the
buoyancy at every point along the length to obtain the longitudinal distribution of total load on the
girder, as shown in Figure 2. Notice how the direction of the net load may be upwards or downwards
at different positions along the hull girder length, depending upon the buoyancy and weight
distributions.

It is from this stage of the analysis that Euler’s Beam Bending Theory comes of great use. The theory
says, if we plot the magnitude of area under the load curve from the aft end upto a certain point fore
of the aft, we obtain the shear force acting on the hull section at that point. A longitudinal plot of this
parameter gives us the distribution of the shear force, which is the SF Diagram of the ship at that
loading condition. If such an area integration is performed on the SF curve, we obtain the Bending
Moment curve of the ship for that loading condition, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: SF and BM Diagrams of a ship

This very diagram can answer all the questions that we asked in the beginning. The answers, along
with some very important ship structural criteria as discussed below:

 The shear force on any transverse section of the hull girder is zero at the aft end, fore end and
midships. So failure due to shearing is a least concern in these regions.
 The bending moment is always maximum at the midships. It is due to this effect, that the
bending stress always reaches a maxima at the midship region of any ship, irrespective of its
loading condition. The magnitudes may vary, but this nature is followed through any loading
condition that the ship encounters in its lifetime.
 Owing to the maximum bending stresses occurring at the midships, designers consider the
bending moment of midships as a threshold for design with a certain factor of safety.
 If in any case of loading, the bending stress at any section of the hull exceeds the bending
strength of the material of the hull, it goes for a failure. So why midships? It is because of the
maximum bending moment always occurring at midships, that the midship region is prone to
exceed the threshold of bending strength of the material in a given condition of improper
loading.
 Grounding has many a times resulted in midship cracks or split offs. Why? Try recalling what
happens during grounding. Breaching occurs, resulting in unwanted load distributions along
the hull, which result in hogging or sagging, which are nothing but modes of bending of the
hull girder. So when you’ve seen ships split due to grounding, it is the bending moment at the
 midships that had already exceeded the strength of the hull material, and eventually led to the
failure!

As mentioned earlier, the points mentioned in this article is not an exhaustive list of reasons leading
to ship hull failure but enumerates causes that lead to the failure of the hull girder from a longitudinal
strength point of view.

Risk of Heavy cargoes loaded in Bulk carriers & deviation from the
loading limitations

In most cases in which bulk carriers have been lost, heavy cargoes such as
iron and other dense ores are a common factor. Ships are also vulnerable
when carrying certain break-bulk cargoes such as steel products. This could
include other ship types.

The small volume taken up by the cargo in the ships' holds results in a large
unoccupied space. This provides potential in a flooding scenario for large
volumes of water to rapidly destroy the ship's residual buoyancy and, in the
case of smaller vessels, its stability. Larger vessels are also highly susceptible
to structural failure due to increases of weights caused by the influx of water.

Heavy cargoes place high loads on the structure, and structural failure is
therefore more probable when subjected to the additional forces associated
with flooding.

Monitoring the Ship's Loading limits

Exceeding the permissible limits specified in the ship's approved loading

manual will lead to over-stressing of the ship's structure and may result in
catastrophic failure of the hull structure. When deviating from the cargo load
conditions contained in the ship's approved loading manual, it is necessary to
ensure that both the global and local structural limits are not exceeded.

It is important to be aware that over-stressing of local structural members can

occur even when the hull girder still water shear forces (SWSF) and bending
moments (SWBM) are within their permissible limits. Exceeding the maximum
permissible cargo load in any hold will lead to over-stressing of local structure.
Over-stressing of the local structure will occur when:-

1) The weight of cargo loaded into a hold exceeds the maximum permissible
value specified at full draught.
2) The weight of cargo loaded into adjacent holds exceeds the maximum
combined value at full or reduced draught.

Over-stressing of the local structure may also occur when the weight of cargo
loaded into an individual hold has insufficient support of upward buoyancy
force; this circumstance can occur when cargo is transported by the ship in a
shallow draught condition (for example, partial load condition with some holds
full and remaining holds empty).

Proper Monitoring and how to load cargo in a shallow draught

condition

Loading cargo in a shallow draught condition can impose high stresses in the
double bottom, cross deck and transverse bulkhead structures if the cargo in
the hold is not adequately supported by the buoyancy upthrust. If applicable,
the cargo weight limits for each cargo hold, and two adjacent cargo holds, as a
function of draught, (the local loading criteria) are not to be exceeded.

To minimize the risks of over-stressing the local structure, the largest possible
number of non-successive pours should be used for each cargo hold.

Special care needs to be taken with heavy cargoes such as iron ore, scrap
iron, lead and other concentrates. On general bulk carriers with uniform hold
lengths alternate hold loading or block hold loading may be utilized to stow
high density cargoes.
INTERCARGO Issues Nickel ore guidance

The International Association of Dry Cargo Shipowners, INTERCARGO has

issued a formal guidance document, which aims to guide and inform
Shipowners, Masters and other industry stakeholders regarding the particular
risks associated with carrying Nickel Ore.

The guide gives practical advice to shippers, shipowners and charterers. The
guide also points to other areas of assistance including from a vessel's P&I
Club. The Club would like to remind Members of its own extensive information
regarding the carriage of Group A cargoes and especially those regarding
Nickel Ore in particular. (Source: UK |P&I |CLUB)

In response to the loss of many Bulk carrying vessels and life of seafarers in
little under 12 months INTERCARGO has sought to highlight the potential
dangers of carrying Nickel Ore cargoes. There were problem reported relating
to loading of nickel ore in Indonesian ports and elsewhrere in particular the
failure of certain parties to adhere to the IMSBC code , and an apparent
refusal to allow access for third party surveying of cargoes.

Intercargo has been lobbying the IMO to change the existing IMSBC code. One
problem INTERCARGO stated, was lack of a specific section in the code relating
to the loading of nickel ore. The cargo is prone to liquefy when its moisture
content is too high. Cargo surveyors and ship masters often face too much
pressure to accept cargoes. The cargo needs to have a well- defined moisture
content, a legal requirement with SOLAS.

Related Information
1. Hazards of handling bulk sulphur
2. Loading, carrying and discharging of bulk coal
3. Special precaution & IMSBC code guideline for handling bulk coal
4. Special arrangements for carrying grain cargo
5. Grain handling precautions - various limitations
6. Safety precautions for loading and carriage of iron ores
7. Risk of carrying high density iron ores in bulk
8. Salt loading guideline - Precautions & hold preparation
9. Pig iron preparations for bulk loading
10. Risk of iron ore liquefaction during sea passage & countermeasures
11. Preparations, loading, carrying & discharging bulk cement
12. Petcoke loading in bulk & associated problems for bulk carriers
13. Handling of bauxite - The environmental impact of Jamaica bauxite mining
14. Carrying gypsum -Toxins, physical reactions & environmental degradation
15. Cargo liquefaction & potential problem for transporting bulk cargo
Related Information

1. Additional cargo documents required for bulk cargo loading

2. Suitability of Shore Terminals for handling bulk cargo
3. Bulk carrier acceptability of loading regulation
4. Preparation for ships carrying bulk cargo & standard loading condition
5. Information to ship from terminal prior loading bulk cargo
6. Local loading criteria defining maximum allowable cargo weight in each cargo hold
7. High loading rates by shore terminal and potential problems for bulk carriers
8. Risk of partially filled ballast tanks
9. Shearing forces & bending moments limitations in bulk carriers
10. Deterioration of ships hull and consequences of hull damage /forward flooding
11. Bulk carrier hull damage - causes and preventive measures
12. Risk of exceeding loading limits provided in the loading manual
13. Local loading criteria defining maximum allowable cargo weight in each cargo hold
14. Bulk carrier water ingress problem

Operation of sea going bulk carriers involved numerous hazards . Careful

planning and exercising due caution for all critical shipboard matters are
important. This site is a quick reference to international shipping community
with guidance and information on the loading and discharging of modern bulk
carriers so as to remain within the limitations as specified by the classification
society. It is vital to reduce the likelihood of over-stressing the ship's
structure and also complying with all essential safety measures for a safe
passage at sea.

Deterioration of bulk carriers hull and consequences of hull damage

/forward flooding

Hull damage : Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion,

fatigue and damage is identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships
carrying cargo in bulk . Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to
sudden and unexpected accident. Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the
vulnerability of these vessel types. The consequential loss of a ship carrying
heavy cargo can be expected to be very rapid, should a major failure occur.

Progressive flooding in the forward region

Spaces forward of the collision bulkhead will, in the event of flooding,
significantly affect the trim of the ship and reduce freeboard at the bow. In
rough weather condition this further threatens the ship as open seas come
inboard and impact on hatch covers and other fittings that protect the water or
weathertight integrity of the ship. Hull plating in the region of the bow protects
the fore peak tank and other spaces as do air pipes and ventilators. If any of
them are damaged the ship's ability to resist further escalation of flooding is
compromised.

Fig: Structural failure and flooding of bulk carrier

Early warning

Bilge well high water level alarms in all cargo holds , or in conveyor tunnels, as
appropriate , giving an audible and visual alarm on the navigation bridge and
cargo control room can give warning of ingrss of sea water and should be dealt
with promptly.When it occurs or is likely to occur, masters should quickly
assess damage to their ships by being alert to water ingress and its
consequences.
The following guidelines are given to assist them in this assessment.

Measuring cargo temperature

Temperature of cargoes like coal and grains should be regularly checked in
order to detect signs of heating. Temperature should be obtained by lowering
a thermometer into the sounding pipes on the port and starboard sides at the
after end of each hold.

An additional temperature pipe should be sited beside the hold ladder at the
fore end of the hold. A thermometer for each position should be placed at a
designated place and withdrawn immediately when readings are required.
The most accurate and reliable readings can be obtained by making sure that
the thermometers are lowered to a level, which is well below the surface of the
cargo, and that they are left in position for several minutes.

Where possible there should be a thermometer for each position and

thermometers should be left in place permanently and withdrawn rapidly when
readings are required. Mercury thermometers are considered to be less
satisfactory for taking cargo temperatures unless fitted with a maximum
temperature indicator and reset before the taking of each reading, and one
authority recommends the use of suitably calibrated pyrometers.

When carrying coal it is necessary to test the air in the holds for hazardous
gases. If the cargo was fumigated before departure from the loading port and
if fumigation is continued in transit, regular checks should be made for leakage
of the fumigant for so long as it remains active.

Bulk carrier losses in the early 1990s were dramatic: ships sank rapidly, often
with the loss of all lives. Many were old and had suffered structural damage. A
study by IACS (International Association of Classification Societies) found that
after flooding in the foremost hold, the bulkhead between this hold and the
adjacent hold can collapse from the pressure of cargo and water, leading to
progressive flooding and sinking.

Indication of unusual motion or attitude of bulk carriers and risk management

/ evacuation
If a ship takes on an unusual trim or heel, or if her motions become changed,
breach of the hull envelope should be suspected immediately: i) Unusual
collections of water on decks may be indicating trim or heel abnormality. ii)
Sudden changes of heel or trim will indicate flooding or in smaller ships with
lighter cargoes it may indicate cargo shift.

Areas of bulk carrier likely to fracture

Handling water ingress problems in bulk carrier, investigation and

countermeasures
Based on experience of accidents with lesser consequences it was concluded
that the casualties occurred through local structural failure leading to loss of
watertight integrity of the side shell followed by progressive flooding through
damaged bulkheads. Any prudent Master may wish to investigate any
suspected water ingress more closely but preparations for evacuating the ship
should be made instantly and concurrent with any investigation.

Survival and safety procedure for bulk carriers

Particular emphasis has been placed on being ready for early evacuation or
abandonment of the vessel. For ships carrying high-density cargoes this is of
importance while they are at sea. There may however be cases where
abandonment may be the worst option and for bulk carriers as with other ship
types this is most probably true in the event of grounding.

Damage investigation and countermeasures for bulk carriers

Damage to side shell, externally through contact with docksides or tugs and,
internally from impact by cargo dislodging equipment during discharge, can
result in initiating fractures and/or fatigue of the structure. In single side-skin
bulk carriers, bulkheads, trunks and ballast tank boundaries, can present
"hard spots" that concentrate forces where the change in construction occurs
(e.g. longitudinal to transverse framing). This may lead to undetected
fractures.

Structural standards & strengthening of bulk carriers

Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and damage is
identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in bulk .
Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected
accident. Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these
vessel types. The consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be
expected to be very rapid, should a major failure occur.
Monitoring hull stresses during rough sea conditions
The stresses upon the structure of bulk carriers are at their extreme limit in
heavy seas; this is the time when most bulk carrier losses have been
recorded. The IMO, therefore, recommended fitting hull stress monitoring
systems on bulk carriers over 20,000 tonnes to minimise the dangers
associated with longitudinal stresses due to vessels bending and pitching in a
seaway and possibly triggering fatigue failure and above.

Bulk carriers structural problems associated with corrosion, metal

fatigues & other operational factors

Deterioration of ships hull / structure through corrosion, fatigue and damage is

identified as a principal factor in the loss of many ships carrying cargo in bulk .
Failing to identify such deterioration may lead to sudden and unexpected
accident. Bulk carrier crews may be unaware of the vulnerability of these
vessel types. The consequential loss of a ship carrying heavy cargo can be
expected to be very rapid, should a major failure occur.

The following structural problems are associated with bulk carriers:

Ships Corrosion

Ships are built of steel, which in a marine environment exposed to water (both
fresh and sea) and air is prone to the formation of rust. Contributing factors
that accelerate the rate of corrosion include:

1. Cargo damage this occurs when heavy bulk cargo is allowed to freefall
from height onto the tank tops. The heavy impact of this cargo on the
tank top causes damage and breakdown of the coatings on the ceiling of
the double bottom tank underneath
2. corrosive cargoes a number of bulk cargoes contain chemicals of a
corrosive nature and this is particularly the case in newly mined coal. It is
essential that the data sheet is inspected prior to loading the cargo. For
example, in the case of a high sulphur contact coal cargo, severe pitting
can result. To counter this, the hold floor can be coated in lime, but this
does not protect the bilges or bilge lines

3. equipment damage grab damage to the hold floor, frames and ladders
can occur at most discharge ports. This not only causes material damage
to the ship's structure, but can also break down the paint coatings
exposing the base steel to the atmosphere. The deliberate hammering of
the floor and sides of the hold by grabs and bulldozers to free cargo
residues trapped between the frames will result in structural damage and
the breakdown of the paint coatings

4. seawater corrosion in the majority of cases, this will take place in the
ballast tanks. Many companies now place sacrificial anodes in the ballast
tanks, which considerably reduce the corrosive effect of air and saltwater

5. under SOLAS Chapter II-1 double side skin spaces must be provided with
a compliant protection coating.
Fig : Cargo hold construction of a typical bulk carrier

Metal fatigue

The weakening of the steel in a structure due to constant flexing, under the
repeated cycles of stress may result in structural fatigue failure. The concern
about fatigue failure is that it occurs without any apparent forewarning (eg
deformation of a structure that results in a crack).

Fatigue usually begins at welded joints, notches, discontinuities in structures

and areas of high rigidity in particular. However, variations in the size, shape
and design of each component and the conditions that the ship operates mean
this may not necessarily result in a structural failure. Areas where extra
vigilant inspection is recommended include:

1. The brackets at the connection of frames to the upper and lower wing
tanks
2. the upper and lower connection of corrugated transverse bulkheads
3. corners of the hatch coamings where they are joined to the main deck.

Bulk carriers in particular become progressively weaker due to continuous

corrosion. In addition, the repetitive cycles of changing loads and the resulting
stresses due to hogging, sagging, panting, pounding and vibration all increase
fatigue.
High tensile steel (which is stronger than mild steel) is used in all areas likely
to experience high levels of stress. It means that scantlings can be reduced
but the vessel will still have higher strength and resistance to stresses, eg
slamming due to heavy pitching that may cause fatigue on the forward section
of the hull.

It is recommended that, as soon as any cracks are seen, arrangements are

made immediately to repair them. Where possible, a crack arrestor hole
should be drilled at each end of the crack before any temporary repair is
made. If the extent of the crack is not evident, a detector dye can be used to
establish this. As soon as possible, Class should be called for a survey to make
a permanent repair because a crack that is overlooked may become a central
point for localized stress resulting in structural failure.

A crack may also damage protective coatings such as paintwork, creating an

`open' area for corrosion. While cracks may not initially be apparent, corrosion
in any area should be carefully checked for signs of minor cracks, particularly
if there are dents in the structure.

Operational Factors

Corrosion and fatigue will gradually weaken the hull over time. This can be
increased by variations in loading patterns and particularly heavy density
cargoes such as iron ore.

Another factor that gradually weakens a ship's structure is the abrasive and
corrosive nature of bulk cargoes such as coal, which can cause unintentional
damage to cargo hold coatings. Areas such as welded frame joints with
tanktop or deck plating are very likely to develop corrosion and subsequently
crack if the coatings are damaged.

Other factors include:

 Liquefaction of cargoes, caused by water ingress or moisture in the

cargo, can cause cargo shift during the voyage
 movement of ballast water in partly filled ballast water tanks or holds can
cause damage and create corrosion. To avoid this, tanks and holds
should be completely filled.
Fig: These holds are unlikely to pass a grain survey, as they are heavily pitted
with rust scale and embedded with coal staining

Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection is a system of preventing corrosion by forcing all surfaces

of a structure (e.g. hull) to be cathodes by providing external anodes. It can
be achieved by superimposing on the hull an impressed current provided by a
remote power source through a small number of inert anodes (impressed
current cathodic protection). Also accomplished by fitting aluminium,
magnesium or zinc anodes in tanks or underwater portion of a ship, which
waste away by galvanic action (sacrificial anode cathodic protection).

Causes of bulk carrier hull damage and failure in operation

Ships hull damage

Damage to side shell, externally through contact with docksides or tugs and,
internally from impact by cargo dislodging equipment during discharge, can
result in initiating fractures and/or fatigue of the structure. In single side-skin
bulk carriers, bulkheads, trunks and ballast tank boundaries, can present
"hard spots" that concentrate forces where the change in construction occurs
(e.g. longitudinal to transverse framing). This may lead to undetected
fractures.

Internal degradation through corrosion may be accelerated through chemical

action from certain cargoes. Welds in particular may be subject to "grooving"
corrosion, in which the material forming the weld corrodes at a faster rate
than the plating to which it is attached. Fatigue failure may result due to loss
of cross-sectional area in the plating joints.
A ship loaded a full cargo of aluminium hydroxide in Australia for discharge in
the USA. The ship was equipped with box holds, which allowed for easier
cleaning and inspection before loading. At the discharge port, at the same time
as the ship was being unloaded, seawater ballast was being taken onboard. It
was later found during the discharge that 500 tonnes of the cargo was water
damaged by the ballast, which was confirmed to come from a hole measuring
100mm x 20mm in the hold/ballast tank steel plating. The hole was most
likely to have been caused by stevedore grab damage in the discharge port.

In ballast holds, sloshing forces due to partially filled spaces (such as may
occur when changing ballast for environmental reasons) may result in damage
to the structure. This damage may go unnoticed if it is in inaccessible
positions. Sloshing is also a known cause of secondary damage after a space
has become flooded.

Fig:Bulk carrier encountering bad weather at sea

Damage to bow plating such as is possible through impacts associated with

swinging or loosely stowed anchors may cause an initiating fracture or fatigue
in bow shell plating that could lead to failure and subsequent flooding. Internal
integrity of forward spaces (that are usually used for ballast and/or stores) is
therefore of vital importance. Corrosion degradation will seriously reduce the
ability of plating and stiffening to withstand the forces to which it will be
subjected. In larger ships, partially filled forepeak tanks may set up
destructive sloshing forces unless the tank structure is designed for this.

External forces horizontal and/or vertical - may cause hatch cover

dislodgement. The cargo hatchway, if it loses its protection in this way, is a
major access for water ingress and a serious threat to the integrity of the hull.
When a vessel requires repairs to damaged equipment or to the hull it is
necessary for the work to be carried out to the satisfaction of the classification
society surveyors. In order that the ship maintains its class, approval of the
repairs undertaken must be obtained from the surveyors either at the time of
the repair or at the earliest opportunity.

The main engine of a bulk carrier was seriously damaged when alumina in the
cargo hold got into its fuel tank. There was a hole in the air pipe that passed
through the cargo hold into the tank. Cost – $850,000. The pipe had never
been properly examined during surveys.

Use of damage control book

Damage control books issued to cargo ships contain text, tables and diagrams
providing information concerning the ship’s damage control characteristics and
systems. These books normally include the information from tank sounding
tables, stability and loading data booklets, cross curves of stability and other
sources. Copies of the damage control book should be readily available in the
event of any shipboard emergency.

Tables and Drawings.

The Damage Control Book includes tables and drawings showing the locations
of:

1. i) Watertight and fume tight doors, hatches and scuttles.

2. ii) Ventilation fittings, fans and controllers.
3. iii) Fire main piping valves and stations.
4. iv) Drainage system piping and valves.
5. v) Sound-powered phone circuits and jacks.

What is a draft diagram ?

The draft diagram in the Damage Control Book is a nomograph for

determining the displacement from observed drafts. There are several
forms of draft diagrams. In the simplest form, drafts are plotted on
vertical scales at the forward and after draft marks, and displacement is
plotted along a line describing the position of the center of flotation
relative to the draft marks at any draft. Additional scales can be added to
show other hydrostatic functions.
 Displacement in saltwater is read from the intersection of the
displacement scale with a straight line connecting forward and after
drafts. Other parameters are shown by the intersection of the appropriate
scale with a horizontal line passing through the displacement (the
intersection of this line with the draft scales shows the draft at LCF). A
second form is similar, except that drafts are plotted on the center of
flotation scale and a table gives displacements for LCF drafts. A third
form reads displacement from a vertical scale at midships and gives a
correction for trim on the diagram. Draft diagrams are generally less
accurate than the displacement curve, are developed for saltwater only,
and are not accurate when the ship has excessive trim.

Limitations of overloading of cargo holds - How to avoid damage from

high density cargo

To enhance safety and flexibility, some bulk carriers are provided with local
loading criteria which define the maximum allowable cargo weight in each
cargo hold, and each pair of adjacent cargo holds (i.e. block hold loading
condition), for various ship draught conditions. The local loading criteria is
normally provided in tabular and diagrammatic form.

Over-loading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse

bulkheads, hatch coamings, hatch corners, main frames and associated
brackets of individual cargo holds,

The double bottom, cross deck and transverse bulkhead structures are
designed for specific cargo loads and sailing draught conditions. These
structural configurations are sensitive to the net vertical load acting on the
ship's double bottom. The net vertical load is the difference between the
vertical downward weight of the cargo and water ballast in the double bottom
and the hopper ballast tanks in way of the cargo hold and the upward
buoyancy force which is dependent on the ship's draught.

Overloading of the cargo hold in association with insufficient draught will result
in an excessive net vertical load on the double bottom which may distort the
overall structural configuration in way of the hold .

The important trend to note from the local loading diagram is that there is a
reduction in the cargo carrying capacity of a hold with a reduction in the mean
draught. To exceed these limits will impose high stresses in the ship's
structure in way of the over-loaded cargo hold. There are two sets of local
loading criteria depending upon the cargo load distribution namely, individual
hold loading or two adjacent hold loading.

The allowable cargo loads for each hold or combined cargo loads in two
adjacent holds are usually provided in association with empty double bottom
and hopper wing ballast tanks directly in way of the cargo hold. When water
ballast is carried in the double bottom and hopper wing tanks, the maximum
allowable cargo weight should be obtained by deducting the weight of water
ballast being carried in the tanks in way of the cargo hold.

The maximum cargo loads given in the Local Loading Criteria should be
considered in association with the mean draught in way of the cargo hold(s).
In the case of a single cargo hold, the ship draught at the mid-length of the
hold should be used. For two adjacent cargo holds, the average of the draught
in the mid-length of each cargo hold should be used.

Fig: Check the tank top indents after discharge and after cleaning

Structural Damage due to High Density Cargoes

High density cargoes have a greater weight than their volume may imply.
Lighter cargoes occupy more space. For example, the stowage factor for corn
is 1.42 m3/tonne while for iron ore, the stowage factor can be as small as 0.24
m3/tonne. Tanktop strength is provided in the ship's stability booklet .
However, as a ship ages, this strength reduces and a greater safety margin is
recommended for older ships.

According to the IMSBC Code, any cargo with a Stowage Factor less than 0.56
m3/tonne is considered a high density cargo. There are three recommended
ways by which maximum tonnage allowed in any cargo hold (not just bulk
carriers) can be calculated if no other information is provided in the ship's
documentation. These are:

i) Maximum cargo loaded (in tonnes) in a hold = 0.9 × L × B × D

Where L = Length (in metres) of cargo hold
B = Breadth (in metres) of cargo hold
D = Summer load draught (in metres).

ii. If the cargo is untrimmed or partially trimmed, then:

Maximum height of cargo pile = 1.1 × D × Stowage Factor
Where Stowage Factor is given in m3/tonne.

iii. If the cargo is trimmed level, then 20% more cargo may be loaded (as
calculated in [i] above) in the lower hold.

The cargo officer should calculate the maximum permissible tonnage for each
cargo hold. This is found in the ship's stability book, but can be calculated by
the formula:

Permissible Tonnage = Total Area of Tanktop (m2) × Allowed Load

(ie Tanktop Strength in Tonnes per m2).

(Note: the above formula may only be used for homogeneous bulk cargoes
and not cargoes such as steel coils.)

Another peculiar characteristic of high density cargoes is that they do not

provide much support to the internal structure of the cargo hold, which may
increase the risk of damage from panting stresses. This is particularly true
with ships where the maximum safe load for cargo holds is either not given or
is not considered when loading such cargoes.

Panting is a term used to describe the movement of the ship caused by the
shock of contact with a succession of waves at the bow or the stern. It can be
thought of as breathing-like movement in the fore and aft plane of the vessel.
Fig : Typical bulk carrier manoeuvering with tug

The International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) estimates that

an extra 10% load on a vessel's structure increases the still water bending
moments by 40% and shearing forces by 20%. These small variations in loads
can easily be caused by inappropriate and/or careless loading/discharging. For
example, in the loading port, if the rate of discharge of ballast water is not
similar to the rate of cargo being loaded then stresses are likely to cause
severe damage to the ship's structure.

It is the job of the ship's officers to ensure that this does not happen and the
procedure should be established in the cargo plans. If it is suspected that a
vessel has been overloaded, tank top and deck structures (particularly deck
plates between hatchways and at hatch corners) should be carefully inspected
for any signs of cracking or buckling.