UNITED ARAB EMIRATES UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

A LABORATORY MANUAL

for

General Physics-II (PHYS 140)

&
Physics and Eng. App. II (PHYS 1120)

2009-2010
 CONTENTS

1. Electric Field Mapping 1

2. Wheatstone Bridge 8

3. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 16

4. Ohm’s Law 31

5. Capacitors 40

6. Slide Wire Potentiometer 48

7. RC Circuits 54

8. Kirchhoff’s Rules 66

9. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field 73

10. Magnetic Flux Density 83

11. Self Inductance 92

12. L-C-R Series Resonance 105

 EXPERIMENT No. 1

Electric Field Mapping

Objectives of the Experiment:

Drawing the equipotential lines between different electrodes

1. The two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor.

2. A point source and a ground ring.
3. A sharp point and a line.

and drawing the electric field lines between the electrodes in each case.

Equipment List:

1. Three sheets of conductive paper (carbon impregnated paper)

2. A conductive ink pen.
3. A corckboard working surface.
4. Push pins for attaching the paper to the board.
5. Wires for connecting the conductive paths.
6. A circle template for drawing the conductive paths.
7. A 6.4 volts DC battery.
8. A digital high impedance voltmeter.

Theory:

Consider a point charge +𝑞 as shown in Figure 1. The electrical potential 𝑉(𝑟) at any
point at a distance 𝑟 from the charge is given by:

1 𝑞
𝑉 𝑟 = . (1)
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟

1
 Figure 1

The locus of points at a distance 𝑟 from 𝑞 is the surface of a sphere of radius𝑟. All points
lying on this surface have the same potential. Such a surface is called an equipotential
surface. In two dimensions, however, all equipotential surfaces reduce to equipotential
lines. Since the potential energy of a charged particle is the same at all points of a given
equipotential surface, it follows that no work is done by the electric field E when a
charged particle moves over an equipotential surface. Hence the equipotential surface
through any point must be at right angle to the direction of the field at that point. If this
were not so, the electric field would have a component tangent to the surface, and work
would be done by the electric field force when a charge moved in the direction of this
component. Thus field lines and equipotential surface are mutually perpendicular as
shown in Figure 1. In two dimensions, the electric field lines and the equipotential lines
are mutually perpendicular. Therefore, mapping the equipotential lines between two
electrodes of any shape enables one to map the electric field lines between the electrodes.

In this experiment, the field mapped consists of two basic elements. The first is a carbon
impregnated paper in the resistance range of 5 KΩ per square. This paper forms the
conducting medium or space between the electrodes. The second element is a conductive
ink dispensed from a pen. The ink is produced from silver particle in a suspension liquid.
As the ink dries, the silver flakes settle on top of each other forming a conductive path (or
conductive ink electrodes). The resistance of the ink is between 0.03 and 0.05 Ω/m for
1 mm wide line. Because the paper has a finite resistance, a current must flow through it
to produce a potential difference. This current is supplied by a conductive ink electrode
(when connected to the terminal of a DC battery) which causes a potential drop to occur

2
across the paths. It would be desirable that the potential measuring instrument have
infinite impedance.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Shake the conductive ink pen several times. Put the conductive paper on the table
and draw two parallel lines about 6 cm apart. (Squeeze the pen slightly during
drawing). Fix the conductive paper on the cork board using push pins.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.

6.6 Volt

- +

-
V +
Figure 2

3. Hold a sharp pin with the test probe and let the pin touch the conductive paper and
move it slowly until the voltmeter reading is V. The potential of the point of contact
between the test probe and the conductive paper is V. Mark this point. Move the
test probe on the conducting paper and mark about 10 points in the space between
the electrodes and suitably outside them such that at each of these points the
voltmeter reading is V. Connect these points by a line. All points on this line have
the same potential i.e. V and the line is called an equipotential line.

3
4. Repeat step 3 and draw other 4 equipotential lines of potential 2, 3, 4 and 5 volts
respectively. Mark each line with the value of its potential.

5. Follow the same procedure and draw 5 equipotential lines for each of the electrode
configurations shown in Figure 3.

b
a

Figure 3

5. If you still have enough time, draw any configuration of electrodes you like and
b
a
draw 5 equipotential lines in the space between the electrodes.

6. Draw in the following space the general feature of the equipotential lines and the
electric field between each pair of electrodes you used in this experiment. Show on
your drawings the positive electrode and the earthed electrode; the potential of each
equipotential line and the direction of the electric field lines.

4
I. PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITOR

II. A POINT AND A GUARD RING

5
III. A POINT AND A PLANE SURFACE

6
 Questions

1. Explain a practical method to obtain a uniform electric field.

2. In the electrode configuration of Figure 3-a, you notice that the equipotential lines
are circles which are closer to each other near the point terminal. Explain.
Relate your explanation with the relation.

∆𝑉
𝐸=−
∆𝑥

3. In principle, how many equipotential lines can be drawn between a pair of

electrodes. What factors limit the number of equipotential lines that can be drawn
practically in an experiment?

Answers

7
 EXPERIMENT No. 2

Wheatstone Bridge

Objectives of the Experiment:

A side wire from the Wheatstone Bridge will be used to accomplish the following
objectives:

1. Studying the variation of the electrical resistance R of a uniform wire with its
length L.

2. Determination of the resistivity 𝜌 of the material from which the unknown

resistance is made.

Equipment List:

1. Slide wire Wheatstone Bridge.

2. Standard rd resistance bx.
3. Uniform wire about 2 m in length.
4. Sensitive galvanometer.
5. Battery.
6. Key.
7. Micrometer.
8. Crocodile clip.

Theory:

Consider a circuit containing there known resistors R1, R2 and R3 an unknown resistor R4,
a power supply, and a galvanometer connected as shown in Figure 1. Current I from the
power supply arrive at junction J where it divides. The current in R1 is I1, and the current
in R3 is I2, where I = I1 +I2. By experimentally varying the values of the resistance, a
condition can be achieved where there is no current in the galvanometer G. This
condition is called the balance condition.

8
 Figure 1

When there is no current in the galvanometer, then the current in R1 has no place to go
except through R2, and thus the current in R2 is also equal to I1. Similarly, when the
balance condition holds, the current through R4 must be the same as the current through
R3, and is thus equal to I2. Applying Kirchoff’s second rule on the loop JABJ,

𝐸 + 𝐸𝐼𝑅 = 0

0 + 𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅3 = 0

𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 (1)

9
Similarly, applying Kirchoff’s second rule on the loop AKBA, we get:

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 (2)

If equation (1) is divided be equation (2) the currents cancel, and its follows that:

𝑅1 𝑅3
= (3)
𝑅2 𝑅4

Therefore, when the balance condition has been experimentally achieved, equation (3)
can be used to determine the value of an unknown resistance if there if the four values of
resistance ware known. In this experiment a slide wire form of the Wheatstone bridge
which is shown in Figure 2 will be used. In it R3 and R4 are replaced by a uniform cross
section, the resistance of the two portions of the wire JB and BK are proportional to their
lengths.
R r
A

J L1 L2 K
B

Figure 2

10
When the balance condition is achieved (no current in the galvanometer) then:

𝑅 𝐿1
= (4)
𝑟 𝐿2

𝐿1
𝑅=𝑟 (5)
𝐿2

If the unknown resistance R is in the form of a wire of length L and diameter D then the
cross-sectional area of the wire is given by:

1
𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷2 (6)
4

and its resistance is given by:

𝜌𝐿
𝑅= 𝜋𝐷2
𝐴
4𝜌
𝑅= 𝐿 (7)
𝜋𝐷 2

Where 𝜌 (rho) is the resistivity of the material of the wire. Equation (7) shows that if the
resistance R is plotted as an ordinate versus the length L as an abscissa, a straight line is
obtained of slope:

𝑆 = 4𝜌/𝜋𝐷2 From which the resistivity 𝜌 is determined.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter D of the given wire three times and calculate the mean
diameter D.

2. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2. Choose a suitable known resistance from
the resistance box (r = 5 Ω). Take a suitable length (say L = 0.40 m) of the
uniform wire. Close the key k and let the contact wire touch the bridge wire near
point J and notice the deflection of the galvanometer. Let the contact wire touch

11
 the bridge wire near point K and notice the deflection of the galvanometer. If you
get two deflections in opposite direction then your circuit is correct. If you get
two deflections in the same direction then your circuit is wrong and should be
corrected before proceeding to the next step.

3. When your circuit is correct a balance condition may be achieved at a certain

point B along the bridge wire. Obtain the balance condition at a certain point B
and record the length JB as L1 and the length BK as L2.

4. Exchange the position of the unknown resistance R and the known resistance r
and obtain the balance condition at a pint B. Record the length KB now as L1 and
the length JB as L2.

5. Calculate the mean value of L1 and the mean value of L2 and calculate the known
resistance R.

6. Repeat step 2 through 5 for different values of the length L = 0.80 m; L = 1.40 m;
L = 1.70 m and L = 2.00 m.
Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

7. Calculate the electrical resistance R for each length L.

8. Plot R as an ordinate versus L as an abscissa. Calculate the slope S of the straight

line you obtain and determine the resistivity 𝜌 of the material of the used wire.

12
Name: Date:

Wheatstone bridge

Diameter of the wire D = ….. ; …. ; …. ; …… ; …..mm

Known resistance r = 5 Ω

Length L1 L2 Mean Mean R

L1 L2
L M cm Cm cm cm Ω

0.40

0.80

1.0

1.40

1.70

2.00

13
 Calculations

Calculate the slope of the straight line you obtained and determine the resistivity 𝜌 of the
material of the used wire.

Write down your conclusion from the graph you obtained.

14
 Questions

1. Derive the unit resistivity 𝜌 in S.I. units.

2. If this experiment is repeated on another wire of the same material but the
diameter of the new wire is twice the diameter of the previous wire i.e. D1 = 2D.

For the same values of L ; explain what would happen to:

1. The value of the unknown resistance R.

2. The value of the resistivity 𝜌.

Answers

15
 EXPERIMENT No. 3

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Acquire familiarity with the main features of the cathode ray oscilloscope
(C.R.O).

2. Measuring direct current voltage (DC voltage) using C.R.O.

3. Measuring alternating voltage (AC voltage) using C.R.O.

4. Measuring the frequency of an alternating signal and calibrating a signal generator

using C.R.O.

Equipment List:

1. Dual Channel Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

2. Battery (6.6 volt).
3. A vometer.
4. Alternating current (AC) power supply.
5. Signal generator.

Theory:

The cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) is an instrument which not only enables both DC
and AC potential differences to be measured, but it also enables the wave form of
alternating potential differences to be exhibited accurately and instantly on a screen. As it
has become an essential piece of equipment in laboratories for the study of AC circuits a
general description of it is given. A stream of electrons from a heated cathode inside an
evacuated glass envelope is focused on to a fluorescent screen, giving rise to a bright
spot. The essential features of the construction are as shown in Figure 1.

16
 Figure 1

The cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) is an instrument which not only enables both DC
and AC potential differences to be measured, but it also enables the wave form of
alternating potential differences to be exhibited accurately and instantly on a screen. As it
has become an essential piece of equipment in laboratories for the study of AC circuits a
general description of it is given. A stream of electrons from a heated cathode inside an
evacuated glass envelope is focused on to a fluorescent screen, giving rise to a bright
spot. The essential features of the construction are as shown in Figure 1.

The cathode C is heated by the heater H. The emitted electrons are accelerated by means
of two anodes A1 (the focusing anode) and A2 (the accelerating anode) in the shape of
discs with central holes to ensure that only a fine beam reaches the screen at O. Both A1
and A2 are at high positive potential relative to the cathode, but the potential of A1 is
somewhat lower than that of A2 and is also variable. This acts as a focusing control by
counteracting the mutual repulsion between the electrons in the electron stream. The
brightness of the spot O is governed by the number of electrons striking the spot area in a
given time, i.e. upon the electron or anode current, and it is controlled by a grid G placed
near to the cathode and held at a small negative potential with respect to the cathode.
This grid potential is variable, and the control is known as the brightness control. The
electrode assembly – C, G, A1, A2 – whose object is to produce a bright spot of light at O,
where the kinetic energy of the electrons is suddenly changed into heat and light, is often
called the electron gun. The high tension supply for the electron gun is of the order of
1000 V and is usually obtained from a rectifying unit. In practice, the point at highest
potential, A2, is connected to earth, and all other potentials – cathode, grid and A1are
negative with respect to earth. This does not alter the control exercised by any of these

17
electrodes on the electron stream and it enables the instrument to be handled with safety.
It is clearly necessary for the screen to be at earth potential to facilitate the handling of the
instrument and examination of the screen. An internal coating of conducting graphite
which is connected to the anode and earthed provides a return path to earth for the
electrons striking the screen.

Deflecting System:
Before reaching the screen the electron stream passes between two sets of deflecting
plates whose purpose is to deflect the bright spot to other positions on the screen; this is
done by the application of suitable voltage to the deflection plates. Two of the plates X1
and X2, serve to deflect the spot O in a horizontal direction and the other two, Y2 and Y2,
in a vertical direction. By means of X-shift controls, small steady voltage can be applied
to the X and Y plates so that the steady position of the spot of light may be adjusted to
any convenient place on the screen.

Time Base:
Usually the X-plates are used in a special way to create what is called a time base. By
means of a suitable electrical circuit the potential of X2 relative to X1 is made to increase
linearly with time, and so the spot moves in a horizontal direction from left to right with a
constant velocity. Then, before the spot has reached the extremity of the screen, the
potential difference between X1 and X2 is quite suddenly and as rapidly as possible
reduced to zero, with the result that the spot returns just as rapidly to its original position.
The whole sequence is then repeated. Figure 2 shows the variation of the potential
difference with time which has the shape of a saw-tooth.

Figure 2

18
If, while the spot is sweeping horizontally across the screen, potential differences are also
established between the Y-plates, the spot, besides travelling with a constant velocity in
the X-direction, will also be deflected in a vertical direction. Since (a) the vertical
deflection of the spot is proportional to the potential difference applied, and (b) the spot is
moving horizontally across the screen at constant velocity, it follows that the curve traced
out by the moving spot during one sweep will have the same form as the graph of the
potential difference applied to the Y-plates against time.

Whether or not the curve corresponding to a repetitive (periodic) applied voltage is

exactly repeated on the next sweep of the time base depends upon the speed of the time
base. By means of adjustment to the time base control this speed can be varied so that a
repeated and therefore steady picture or wave form is obtained.

A dual beam oscilloscope incorporating a system whereby the electron beam is split into
two halves controlled by the same time base. As an example, a 20 MHz Standard
Oscilloscope, whose picture is shown in Figure 3, will be used in this experiment.

Figure 3

19
Experimental Procedure:
1. First Time Operation:
Check that the instrument is set to the correct mains line voltage (240 V). Before
applying power to the oscilloscope it is recommended that the following simple
procedures are performed:
1) Check that all push buttons are in the OUT position: i.e. released.

2) Rotate the three variable controls with arrows, i.e. TIME/DIV variable control,
C.H.I and C.H.II attenuator variable controls, fully counter-clockwise to their
calibrated positions.

3) Set the variable controls with marker lines to their mid range positions (marker
lines pointing vertically).

4) The TRIGGER SELECTOR slide switch in the X-Section should be set to its
upper most position (AC).

5) Both input coupling slide switches for C.H.I and C.H.II in the Y-section should
be set to the GD (ground) position. Switch on the oscilloscope by de[pressing
the red POWER push button. An LED (Light Emitting Diode) will illuminate to
indicate working order. The trace, displaying one baseline, should be visible
after a short warm-up period of 10 seconds. Adjust Y-POS.I and X-POS,
controls to center the base line. Adjust INTENS (intensity) and FOCUS
controls for medium brightness and optimum sharpness of the trace. The
oscilloscope is now ready for use.
If only a spot appears, reduce the intensity immediately and check the X-Y push button is
in the released (OUT) position. If the trace is not visible, check the correct positions of
all knobs and switches (particularly AT/NORM, button in OUT position).
Caution: Particular care is required when a single spot is displayed, as a very high
intensity setting may cause damage to the fluorescent screen of the Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT). Switching the oscilloscope off and on at short intervals stresses the cathode of the
CRT and should therefore be avoided.

20
2. Measuring DC Potential Difference:
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.

+ C.R.O

+ -
V -
-

Figure 4

Use one cell of the battery. Center the baseline on the screen when the DC – AC – GD
slide switch of the used channel is in the GD position. Move this switch to the DC
position and observe the deflection of the base line. Adjust the position of the
VOLT/DIV variable control with the marker line to a suitable position to get a suitable
deflection of the baseline. Record the reading of the DC voltmeter, deflection of the base
line, VOLTS/DIV, and calculate the potential difference V where:
V = deflection of base line (cm) x volts/cm
Compare with this value with the reading of the voltmeter. Repeat for 2 cells; 3 cells; 4
cells and 5 cells that are connected in series.

Arrange your Data Table 1.

21
3. Measuring AC Potential Difference:

i) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 5.

++

C.R.O
+

-
0-20V

Figure 5

ii) Center the base line when the DC – AC – GD slide switch is in the GD position.
Move the switch to the AC position. Switch on the AC power supply. Increase
the output of the AC power supply to a suitable value and observe the sine wave
form on the screen of the CRO. Change the position of the time base control
until you get a convenient sine wave on the screen.

iii) Record the reading of the voltmeter. Measure the distance on the screen from
peak to peak (dp-p) as shown in Figure 6.

iv) Calculate the potential difference:

𝑉𝑝−𝑝 = 𝑑𝑝−𝑝 cm 𝑥 volt/cm

V p −p
v) Calculate Vmax 2

vi) Calculate the root mean square value:

22
 v

V
t
d p-p

Figure 6

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
2

and compare the 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 value with the voltmeter reading.

vii)Repeat for different values of the output potential difference of the AC

power supply.

Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

Write down your conclusion.

23
4. Measuring Frequency:

i) Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 7.

Signal generator C.R.O

+

Figure 7

ii) Switch on the signal generator. Fix the frequency of the output signal on 1000
Hz. Increase the amplitude of the output signal and observe a sine wave on the
screen. Change the position of the time base control (Time/Div) until you
obtain a convenient sine wave.

iii) Measure the distance on the screen that contains a whole number of wave (say 4
wave). Calculate the period T of the signal where:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑐𝑚) 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑇= x
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑚

24
iv) Calculate the frequency f = I/T of the signal and compare with the frequency
given on the signal generator.

v) Repeat for different frequencies, say: 2000, 3000, 4000 Hz.

Arrange your data in Data Table 3.

25
Name: Date:

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Measuring DC potential difference:

Data Table I:

Voltmeter Potential
Reading Deflection of difference
No of cells volt/cm
base line (cm)
V1 (volt) V (volt)

26
Measuring AC potential difference:

Data Table 2:

Voltmeter
𝒅𝒑−𝒑 (cm) volt/cm 𝑽𝒑−𝒑 (volt) 𝑽𝒑−𝒑 (volt) 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 (volt)
Reading

27
Conclusion

28
Measuring Frequency:

Data Table 3:

Frequency
from signal Distance Number of
Time/cm T (s) F (Hz) % error
generator d (cm) waves
(Hz)

1000

2000

3000

4000

Calculation of frequencies:

Show the calculation of each frequency.

29
 Questions

1. If the mains potential difference is measured to be 240 volts using as AC voltmeter.

What is the maximum value that the mains potential difference has?

2. A sinusoidally varying potential difference is represented as:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜔 𝑡 where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is the angular frequency of the signal.

The mean of the square of V is given by:

𝜔 2𝜋/𝜔 2
𝑉2 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2𝜋 0
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The root mean square (rms) value is given by:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑉 2 ) 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

Show that:

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

Answers

30
 EXPERIMENT No. 4

Ohm’s Law

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Verification of Ohm’s law that is the potential difference across an Ohmic

resistance is directly proportional to the electric current passing through the
resistance.

2. Verification of the equivalent resistance equations for resistors in series and in

parallel arrangements.

Equipment List:

1. 6 volts battery.

2. 3 unknown resistors (e.g. 2, 5 and 10 Ω).

3. Direct current ammeter.

4. Rheostat (350 Ω).

5. Connecting leads.

6. Key.

Theory:

If a potential difference V is applied across some element in an electrical circuit, the

current I in the element is determined by a quantity known as the resistance R. The
resistance R is given by:

𝑉
𝑅= (1)
𝐼

𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 (2)

31
Equation (2) is known as Ohm’s Law and any resistance obeying equation (2) is called an
Ohmic resistance. The resistance R of a certain resistor changes with temperature.
Therefore, the measurements taken to verify Ohm’s law must be taken at a constant
temperature. If three resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 are connected in series the equivalent resistance
𝑅𝑠 is given by:

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 (3)

If these resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑃 is
given by:

1 1 1 1
= + + (4)
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Experimental procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1 using the unknown resistance 𝑅1 .

+ - 6 Volt

b R1 a k

V
- +

Figure 1

32
2. Close the circuit and adjust the rheostat until a small current passes through the
resistance.

3. Adjust the rheostat and increase the current slowly and observe the
corresponding increase in the potential difference across the resistor. Record 5
different values of the current I with their corresponding values of the potential
difference V.
Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

4. Replace 𝑅1 by 𝑅2 and repeat step 3.

5. Replace 𝑅2 by 𝑅3 and repeat step 3.

Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

6. On the same graph paper, plot V as an ordinate versus 1 as an abscissa for the
three resistors. Label each line by the corresponding resistor 𝑅1 or 𝑅2 or 𝑅3 .

7. Calculate the slope of the line labeled 𝑅1 which is equal to the value of the
resistance 𝑅1 . Repeat this calculation for 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 .

8. Connect the resistors 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 in series between the points 𝑎 and 𝑏 as

shown in Figure 1. Record 5 values of the current I through these resistors and
the corresponding values of the total potential difference V between the points a
and b.
Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

9. Choose a suitable value of the current passing through the resistors (1) and
record the corresponding total potential difference V.

10. Measure the separate potential differences 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 across the resistors𝑅1 ,
𝑅2 and 𝑅3 respectively. Compare the value of V with the sum (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 )
and write down your conclusion.

11. Choose a suitable value of the total current in the circuit (I). Measure the
currents𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 through resistors𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 respectively. Compare the
value of I with the sum (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 +𝐼2 ) and write down your conclusion.

33
12. On the same graph paper, plot the potential difference V as an ordinate versus
the current I as an abscissa for both series and parallel arrangements of the
resistors. Label one line by “SERIES” for series and the other line by
“PARALLEL” for parallel arrangements.

13. Calculate the slope of the line labeled “SERIES” to get the equivalent
resistance 𝑅3 (exp) . Calculate 𝑅𝑠 (𝑡𝑕) using equation (3). Compare the
experimental and theoretical values and estimate the percentage error.

14. Calculate the slope of the line labeled “PARALLEL” to get the equivalent
resistance𝑅3 (exp). Calculate 𝑅𝑃 (th) using equation (4). Estimate the percentage
error.

34
Name: Date:

Ohm’s Law

Data Table 1

Resistor 𝑹𝟏

V (volt)

I (A)

Resistor 𝑹𝟐

V (volt)

I (A)

35
Resistor 𝑹𝟑

V (volt)

I (A)

Data Table 2

Series arrangement of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3

V (volt)

I (A)

V =

V1 =

V2 =

V3 =

36
Parallel arrangement of 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑹𝟑

V (volt)

I (A)

I =

I1 =

I2 =

I3 =

37
 Calculations

R1 =

R2 =

R3 =

Series arrangement

𝑅𝑠 (exp) =

𝑅𝑠 (th) =

% error =

V =

V1 + V2 + V3 =

Conclusion:

Parallel arrangement

𝑅𝑃 (exp) =

𝑅𝑃 (th) =

% error =

I =

I1 + I2 + I3 =

Conclusion:

38
 Questions

1. Explain what is meant by a nonohmic resistor?

Give an example of a nonohmic resistor.

2. Give three resistances: 1Ω, 10 Ω and 1000 Ω

1. Draw an arrangement of these three resistances that gives an equivalent resistance

less than 1 Ω.

2. Draw an arrangement of the three resistances that gives an equivalent resistance

that lies between 1 Ω and 10 Ω.

Answers

39
 EXPERIMENT No. 5

Capacitors

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Determination of an unknown capacitance using a spot galvanometer.

2. Verification of the formula of connecting capacitors in series.
3. Verification of the formula of connecting capacitors in parallel.

Equipment List:

1. Battery 3.6 volts.

2. EDSPOT School mirror galvanometer.
3. Two unknown capacitors.
4. Two-way switch.
5. Rheostat 350 Ω.
6. Direct current voltmeter (1-3 volt).

Theory:

A capacitor is a device consisting of two conductors separated by vacuum or an insulating

material. Capacitors are used in a wide variety of electric circuits and are a vital part of
modern electronics. When charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign are placed on
the conductors of a capacitor, an electric field is established in the region between them,
with a corresponding potential difference between the conductors. The capacitance C of a
capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge Q on either conductor to
the magnitude of the potential difference V between the conductors. In equation form:

𝑄
𝐶= (1)
𝑉

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 (2)

40
If two capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are connected in series, it can be shown that the reciprocal of
the equivalent series capacitance 𝐶𝑠 is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitance of the capacitors, i.e. :
1 1 1
= + (3)
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2

If the two capacitors are connected in parallel, it can be shown that the equivalent
capacitance 𝐶𝑃 is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances, i.e.

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 (4)

Note: In this experiment the charge Q on a capacitor is measured using a spot

galvanometer of charge sensitivity s written on its back when the sensitivity dial is in the
DIRECT position. If a deflection d (cm) then:
𝑑 𝑑(𝑐𝑚)
𝑄= = (5)
𝑠 𝑠(𝑐𝑚)/𝜇𝐶

Experimental Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.
Spot galvanometer

1 2

a EDSPOT

+ C1
v
-

Figure 1

41
2. Close the two-way switch in position 1. Adjust the rheostat to get a small reading of
the voltammeter (say 0.2 volt). This is the potential difference V across the
capacitors𝐶1 . This capacitor is now charged with a certain charge Q.

3. Switch on the spot galvanometer and adjust its pointer to read zero at the left edge
of the screen so that a deflection up to 18 cm may be measured. Make sure that the
sensitivity dial is in the DIRECT position.
4. Close the two-way switch in position 2 and record the maximum deflection d (cm)
on the screen of the spot galvanometer.
5. Close the two way switch in position 1. Increase the potential difference V across
the capacitor gradually [if the pointer of the spot galvanometer is not stationary at
zero, use the sensitivity (x 0.1) to stop it at zero]. Remember to put the sensitivity
dial in the DIREXCT position before you close the two-way switch in position 2
and record any deflection.
6. Close the two-way switch in position 2 and record the maximum deflection d.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 until you record 5 different values of the potential difference V
with the corresponding maximum deflection d. Arrange your data in the Data Table
given.
8. Calculate the charge Q corresponding to each value of the potential difference V.
9. Plot Q as an ordinate versus V as an abscissa to obtain in a straight line passing
through the origin. The slope of this line is equal to the capacitance C1.
10. Repeat the experiment using capacitor C2 in the place of C1 between points a and b
in the circuit shown in Figure 1. Determine the capacitance C2.
11. Connect the two capacitors C1 and C2 in series between the points a 𝑎nd 𝑏. repeat
the experiment and determine the equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝

12. Calculate 𝐶𝑠 𝑡𝑕 using equation (3). Compare the experimental value 𝐶𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝 with
the theoretical value 𝐶𝑠 𝑡𝑕 and estimate the percentage error.

13. Connect the two capacitors C1 and C2 in parallel between the point 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the
circuit. Repeat the experiment and determine the equivalent capacitance𝐶𝑃 𝑒𝑥𝑝 .

14. Calculate the equivalent capacitance 𝐶𝑃 𝑡𝑕 using equation (4). Compare the
experimental value 𝐶𝑃 𝑒𝑥𝑝 with the theoretical value 𝐶𝑃 𝑡𝑕 and estimate the
percentage error.

42
Name: Date:

Capacitors

Data Table:

Capacitor C1

V d Q

(volt) (cm) (Coul)

43
Capacitor C2

V d Q

(volt) (cm) (Coul)

Capacitors C1 and C1 in series:

V d Q

(volt) (cm) (Coul)

44
Capacitors C1 and C1 in parallel:

V d Q

(volt) (cm) (Coul)

Calculations

45
 Questions

1. Derive equation (3) and equation (4) from the first principles.

2. Given three capacitors of capacitances: 1𝜇 𝐹, 10𝜇 𝐹 and 1000 𝜇 𝐹 respectively.

Draw a diagram showing how you would connect them to get a total capacitance:

i) Less than 1𝜇 𝐹

ii) Between 1𝜇 𝐹and 10𝜇 𝐹

iii) Greater than 1000𝜇 𝐹

Answers

46
 EXPERIMENT No. 6
Slide Wire Potentiometer
Objectives of the Experiment:
Determination of the emf and the internal resistance of a battery using the slide wire
potentiometer.
Equipment List:
1. Slide wire potentiometer.
2. Battery (3.6 V).
3. Dry cell (1.5 V).
4. Resistance box.
5. Galvanometer.
6. High impedance voltmeter (10 MΩ).

Theory:
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.
E1

L c
a b

r
G
Resistance Box
I R
Figure 1

47
If point c is disconnected from the slide wire 𝑎𝑏 and the potential difference across the
wire 𝑎𝑏 is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 (measured using a high impedance voltmeter) then the potential difference
per unit length (1 cm) along the potentiometer wire is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 /𝐿𝑜 where 𝐿𝑜 is the length of
the wire 𝑎𝑏. If point c is now connected to any point of the potentiometer wire 𝑎𝑏, a
potentiometer wire until a balance condition is obtained current potential difference
across 𝑎𝑐 = potential difference across the resistance R.

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑅 (1)

but

𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝑉𝑎𝑐 = x 𝐿 (2)
𝐿𝑜

and

𝐸
𝐼= (3)
𝑅+𝑟

Where 𝐸 is the emf of the unknown battery and r is its internal resistance. L is the length
of the portion ac of the potentiometer wire at which the balance condition is obtained for
a certain value of the resistance R. Substituting equations (2) and (3) in (1) we obtain:

𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐸𝑅
x𝐿= (4)
𝐿𝑜 𝑅+𝑟

Or

𝐿𝑜 𝑅+𝑟
x𝐿= (5)
𝑉𝑎𝑏 x 𝐿 𝑅𝐸

𝐿𝑜 . 𝐸 𝑟
=1+ (6)
𝑉𝑎𝑏 x 𝐿 𝑅

𝑟 𝐿𝑜 .𝐸 𝐼
= −𝐼 (7)
𝑅 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐿

𝐼 𝐿𝑜 .𝐸 𝐼 𝐼
= − (8)
𝑅 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .𝑟 𝐿 𝑟

48
Equation (8) shows that if (I/R) is plotted as an ordinate versus (I/L) as an abscissa a
straight line is obtained. The intercept of this straight line with the y-axis is (-1/r) from
which the internal resistance is evaluated. The slope of the straight line is (𝐿𝑜 𝐸)/
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑟) from which the emf of the battery E is evaluated.

Note: when the balance condition is obtained no current passes through the battery E and
thus the potential difference across its terminals is equal to its emf.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Connect the battery E1 across the potentiometer wire ab. Measure the potential
difference across the wire 𝑉𝑎𝑏 using a high impedance voltmeter. Record the value
of 𝑉𝑎𝑏 and the length of the wire 𝐿𝑜 in your Data Table.

2. Connect the unknown battery E: the resistance box and the galvanometer G as
shown in Figure 1.

3. Select a suitable value of resistance R from the resistance box (say R = 2 Ω) and
obtain the balance condition at a certain point 𝑐 along the potentiometer wire.
Record the resistance R and the length L of the portion ac of the potentiometer wire.

4. Repeat step 3 for different values of R. In each step record R and the corresponding
value of L when the balance condition is achieved.
Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

5. Calculate (I/R) and (I/L).

6. Plot (I/R) as an ordinate versus (I/L) as an abscissa. Calculate the slope of the
straight line you obtain and its intercept with the y-axis. Evaluate the internal
resistance r and the emf E of the unknown battery.

49
Name: Date:

The Slide wire Potentiometer

Data Table:

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = volt

𝐿𝑜 = m

R L (I/R) (I/L)

Ω m Ω-1 m-1

Calculations

Calculate the emf and the internal resistance of the used battery.

50
 Questions

1. Explain why you should use a high impedance voltmeter in measuring 𝑉𝑎𝑏 .

2. If you wish to measure the emf of a battery, could you do that by just connecting the
terminals of the battery to the voltmeter? Explain.

3. Discuss the sources of error in this experiment.

Answers

51
 EXPERIMENT No. 7

RC Circuits

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Experimental determination of the time constant 𝜏 of an RC circuit by charging a

capacitor C through a resistance R.

2. Experimental determination of the time constant 𝜏 of an RC circuit by discharging

a charged capacitor through a resistance R.

3. Comparison of the experimental value of the time constant with the theoretical
value 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 and estimating the percentage error.

Equipment List:

1. Battery (3.6 V or 6.6 V).

2. High impedance voltmeter.

3. Avometer which may be used as a milliammeter or microammeter.

4. Two-way switch

5. Known resistance R (10 k Ω or 20 Ω).

6. Known capacitor C (2000 …… 5000 𝜇𝐹).

7. Stop watch.

Theory:

When a direct source of emf is suddenly connected in series with a capacitor and resistor,
there is current in the circuit for whatever time period it takes to fully charge the capacitor
which has previously been charged. There is a characteristic time associated with either

52
of these processes called the τ time constant whose value depends upon the value of the
resistance R and the capacitance C and is given by:

𝜏=𝑅𝐶 (1)

PART I: Charging a capacitor through a resistance R

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.

C
V

Figure 1

The capacitor C is initially uncharged. If switch K is closed at time t = 0, charge begins

to flow in the series circuit and continues to flow until the capacitor is fully charged. The
charging current I start at an initial value of 𝑉𝑜 /𝑅 and decrease exponentially with time.
The charge Q on the capacitor, on the other hand, begins at zero and increases
exponentially with time until it becomes equal to 𝑉𝑜 𝐶. It can be shown that the charge Q
on the capacitor is given by:

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 𝐼 − 𝑒 −1/𝑅𝐶 (2)

and therefore, the potential difference across the capacitor V = Q/C is given by:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼 − 𝑒 −1/𝑅𝐶 (3)

53
The quantity 𝜏 = 𝑅 𝐶is the time constant of the circuit. Thus equation (3) can be written
as:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (4)

The variation of the potential difference V across the capacitor with time is shown in
Figure 2.
V

VO

0.63Vo

τ t
Figure 2

It is obvious from equation 4 that when 𝑡 = 𝜏

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼 − 𝑒 −1 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼 − 0.37 = 0.63 𝑉𝑜

Thus the time constant 𝜏 may be defined as the time after which the potential difference
across the capacitor reaches 0.63 of its ultimate value.

54
PART II: Charging a capacitor through a resistance R

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.

1 2 R

V0
mA
C

Figure 3

The two way switch S is closed in position 1, the capacitor C is charged its final charge
will be 𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 . If the two way switch S is now charged in position 2 the battery is
disconnected from the circuit and the charged capacitor will discharge through the resistor
R. therefore, the charge on the capacitor and current I in the circuit both decay potentially
while the capacitor is discharging. The equations which describe this discharging process
are:
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (5)

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (6)

Here 𝑄𝑜 = 𝐶𝑉𝑜 and 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜 /𝑅 and 𝜏 is the time constant. It is various from equation (6)
that when 𝑡 = 𝜏, 𝐼 = 0.37 𝐼𝑜 . Thus, the time constant may be defined as the time after
which the discharging current decreases to 0.37 of its initial value. If the natural
logarithm of both less of equation 6 is taken, one obtains:
𝐼
𝐼𝑛 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑛 𝐼𝑜 − 𝑡 (7)
𝜏

55
 If 𝐼𝑛 𝐼 is plotted as an ordinate versus t as an abscissa a straight line of slope (-1/ 𝜏) is
obtained. The time constant may be evaluated from the slope. Figure 4 shows a plot of I
vs. t and 𝐼𝑛 𝐼 vs. t.

I lnI

Io

0.37Io

t
τ t

Figure 4

Experimental Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.

2. When the switch K is open, measure the potential difference 𝑉0 across the battery
using a high impedence voltmeter. Record the values of the capacitance C and
the resistance R used in this experiment.

3. Close the switch K and simultaneously start the stop watch. Notice the increase of
the potential difference V across the capacitor with time. Record the values of V
with the corresponding values of t in Data Table 1. Continue taking data until V
is close to 𝑉𝑜 .

56
4. Plot V as an ordinate versus t as an abscissa. Calculate 0.63 𝑉𝑜 and determine the
time constant 𝜏 of the RC circuit used.

5. Discharge the capacitor by connecting a lead across its terminals.

6. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.

7. Close the two way switch S in position 1. The capacitor C is now charged. Close
the two way switch S in position 2 and notice the maximum value of the current
𝐼𝑜 measured at = t = 0 by the microammeter. Record this vale. The current I will
decrease with time. Record the values of the current I with the corresponding
values of time t. Arrange your data in Data Table 2. (Remember to start the stop
watch at the instant you close the two way switch S in position 2).

8. Plot the current I as an ordinate versus the time t as an abscissa. Determine the
time constant 𝜏 of the RC circuit from the curve you obtain.

9. Calculate 𝐼𝑛 𝐼 and plot 𝐼𝑛 𝐼 as an ordinate versus t as an abscissa. Calculate the

slope of the straight line you obtain and determine the time constant 𝜏.

10. Calculate the average value of the three value of the time constant you have
obtained and record it as 𝜏(exp).

11. Calculate the theoretical value of the time constant 𝜏 th = 𝑅𝐶.

12. Compare the experimental value of the time constant with the theoretical value
and estimate the percentage error.

57
Name: Date:

The RC Time Constant

Part I: Charging a capacitor C through a resistor R.

Vo =

R =

C =

Data Table 1:

V (volt) t (s)

Calculations

Calculate the time constant from the charging curve.

58
PART II: Discharging a capacitor C through a resistor R.

Data Table 2:

𝐼𝑜 =

I T (s) In I

59
 Calculations

1. Calculate the time constant from the discharging curve.

2. Calculate the time constant from In I vs. t plot.

3. Calculate the mean experimental time constant 𝜏(exp).

4. Compare the experimental and the theoretical values of 𝜏 and estimate the
percentage error.

60
 Questions

1. Show that the unit of the product RC is second.

2. In charging a capacitor through a resistance; can we measure the time

constant 𝜏 directly by taking only one measurement of time which is equal to the
time constant of the RC circuit? Explain your answer clearly.

3. In discharging a charged capacitor through a resistance; can we measure the time

constant 𝜏 directly by taking only one measurement of time which id equal to the
time constant of the RC circuit? Explain your answer clearly.

Answers

61
 EXPERIMENT No. 8

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Experimental verification of Kirchhoff’s rules.

2. Comparison of experimentally determined currents and theoretically calculated

values of the currents in a simple network.

Equipment List:

1. Battery 6.6 volts.

2. Battery 4 volts.

3. Three resistors: 5Ω, 10 Ω and 20 Ω.

4. Two keys.

5. Avometer to be used as a DC ammeter.

6. Avometer to be used as a DC voltmeter.

Theory:

Not all networks can be reduced to series-parallel combinations. A circuit like that shown
in Figure 1 is an example. No new principles are required to compute the currents in
these networks, but a number of techniques are available that help us handle such
problems symmetrically. We will describe one of these, first developed by Gustav Robert
Kirchoff (1924-1887). We first define two terms. A branch point in a net work is a point
where three or more conductors are joined. A loop is any closed conducting path. In
Figure 1, for example, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are branch points abed is a loop.

62
 E1 E2
c b e

r1 r2
1 2
I3 R3
I1 I2

d f
R1 a R2

Figure 1

Kirchoff’s rules consist of the following two statements:

Point Rule:

The algebraic sum of the currents toward any branch points is zero. Mathematically,

𝐼=0 (1)

Sign conversion:

Current entering he branch point are considered positive whereas currents leaving the
branch point are considered negative.

Loop Rule:

The algebraic sum of the potential differences in any loop, including those associated
with emf’s and those of resistive elements, must equal zero. Mathematically,

𝐸+ 𝐸𝐼𝑅 = 0 (2)

63
Sign Convention:

To apply the loop rule, choose any closed loop in the net work, and designate a direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise) to traverse the loop. Go around the loop in the
designated direction, adding potential differences as you cross them. An emf is counted
as positive when it is traversed from – to +, and negative when it is traversed from + to -.
An IR product is negative if your path passes through the resistor in the same direction as
the assumed current, positive if in the opposite direction. “Uphill” potential changes are
always positive. “Downhill” changes negative. Equate the total sum to zero.

The point rule is an application of the principle of conversion of electric charge. Since no
charge can accumulate at a branch point, the total current entering the point must equal
the total current leaving. The loop rule is an expression of conversion of energy; as a
charge goes around a loop and returns to its starting point, the algebraic sum of the
changes in potential must be zero. Rises in potential are associated with sources of emf,
and drops are associated with resistors and other circuit elements. The algebraic sum of
potential differences around every closed loop must be zero. These basic rules are all we
need to solve a wide variety of network problems. Usually some of the emf’s: currents
and resistance are known and others are unknown. We must always obtain from
Kirchoff’s rules a number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, so we can solve
the equation simultaneously. Often the hardest part of the solution is not in understanding
the basic principles but in keeping track of algebraic signs!. If we want to solve the net
work shown in Figure 1, we assume a current inn each branch like I1, I2 and I3. When we
solve for these currents, the current whose values comes out positive is in the assumed
sense of direction whereas the current whose value comes out negative is in opposite
sense of direction. To apply the loop rule, choose a branch point like, then

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 (3)

Let us apply the loop rule to loop (1) in Figure 1. Go around the loop abcda in the
counterclockwise direction.

+𝐸 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼1 𝑟1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 0 (4)
Applying the loop rule to loop (2) in Figure 1, go around the loop abefa in the clockwise
direction.

−𝐸2 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼2 𝑟2 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0 (5)
When you get a number of equations equal to the number of unknowns, solve these
equations simultaneously for the unknowns.

64
Experimental Procedure:

1. Connect the network shown in Figure 2

10Ω E1 K1
c D

1
I1
E2 5Ω I1
I2 I2
B

I3
I3
2
K2
20Ω
F G

Figure 2

2. Keep the keys K1 and K2 open and use a high impedance voltmeter (10 MΩ) and
measure the emf’s E1 and E2. Record these values in the Data Sheet given.

3. Close the keys K1 and K2. Measure the currents I1, I2 and I3 and record the
magnitude and the sign of each current in the Data Sheet given. To measure the
current in any branch, say I1 in the branch BCDA, disconnect the circuit at any
point in this branch (point C for instance), insert a direct current ammeter set on
its largest scale (10 A) to measure the current I1 in the assumed direction. If the
value of the current is positive then the assumed direction. If the value of the

65
 current is positive then the assumed direction is the true direction of the current I1.
If the value obtained is negative this implies that the true direction is opposite to
the assumed direction. Reverse the connection of the ammeter but you should
record the value as a negative value in your Data Sheet. If the value of the current
is small switch the ammeter to a smaller scale to get a precise measurement.
Repeat for currents I2 and I3 and record your experimental values in the Data
Sheet. Check whether or not your measured values verify the point rule I = 0
after you draw the true direction of the currents on the network.

4. Make sure that the keys K1 and K2 are closed and that you now know the true
direction of the current in each branch of your network. Traverse the loop
ABCDA in a counterclockwise direction and evaluate the sum 𝐸+ 𝐼 𝑅
restricting yourself to the sign convention explained in the theory (neglect the
internal resistance of each emf source). Does your result verify the loop rule?.
Explain any small difference from zero you get in the sum 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑅 . Use a
DC voltmeter to measure emf’s and IR products.

5. Repeat step 4 on loop (2) which is: AGFBA in a clockwise direction. Record your
data in the Data Sheet given.

6. Go back to the network shown in Figure 2. And apply Kirchoff’s rules and write
down three equations in the three unknowns I1, I2 and I3. (Use the measured
values of E1 and E2). Solve these equations simultaneously and record the results
in the Data Sheet given.

7. Compare the experimental values of I1, I2 and I3 with theoretically calculated

values and estimate the percentage error in each case.

66
Name: Date:
Kirchoff’s Rules

Data Sheet:

E1 =

E2 =

Measured Value Calculated Value

Current % error
(A) (A)

I1

I2

I3

Use a network with the true directions of the currents and evaluate the following:

I =

Loop (1): ABCDA

E+ EIR =

Loop (2): AGFBA

E+ EIR =

67
 Calculations

Calculation of I1, I2 and I3 applying Kirchoff’s Rules:

68
 Questions

1. Explain any small difference from zero you get from your measurements in the
sums:

I and E + EIR

2. To calculate the potential difference between any two points in a network you need
first to know the true directions of the currents in the different branches of the
network and then apply the formula:

V𝐴𝐵 = 𝐸 + IR

Traversing any branch from point B to point A and restricting yourself to the sign
convention explained in the theory. Draw the network shown in Figure 2 indicating
the magnitudes of E1 and E2 as measured. Indicates also the magnitudes and the true
sense of direction of the currents I1, I2 and I3. Calculate V𝐴𝐵 following three different
paths: BA; BCDA and BFGA and make sure that you get the same answer in the
three paths.

Answers

69
 EXPERIMENT No. 9

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform

Magnetic Field

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Studying the motion of abeam of electrons in a uniform magnetic field. In

particular, observing the circular path of the beam when the velocity of the
electrons is perpendicular to the field and the helical path when the velocity is not
perpendicular to the field.

2. Studying the variation of the radius of the circular path with the magnetic field
and determination of the charge to mass ratio (e/m) for the electron.

Equipment List:

1. Fine beam tube fixed between a pair of Helmholtz coils.

2. Direct current power supply (0….300 V0.
3. Direct current voltmeter (0…….300 V).
4. Two batteries (6.6 V).
5. Direct current ammeter (0…… 3 A).
6. Rheostat 11 Ω.
7. Plane mirror with a scale fixed on it.

Theory:
Figure 1 shows a particle of mass m and positive charge 𝑞 moving with a velocity 𝑣
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of magnetic flux density B. This particle will
acquire a magnetic force 𝐹 given by:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 x 𝐵 (1)

70
If 𝑣 is perpendicular to B, the magnitude of the force is 𝑞𝑣𝐵 and its direction is always
perpendicular to both 𝑣 and B as shown in Figure 1.

× × × × ×

× × × × ×
v
r
× × × ×
v
× × q × ×
B
× × × × ×

Figure 1

Since the force is always perpendicular to 𝑣, it cannot change the magnitude of the
velocity, but only its direction. Thus the magnitude of the both 𝐹 and 𝑣 are constant. The
particle therefore moves under the influence of a force whose magnitude is constant but
whose direction is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle. The orbit of the
particle is therefore a circle described with constant tangential speed 𝑣. since the
tangential sped 𝑣 is constant; the centripetal acceleration is given by:

𝑣2
𝑎𝑒 = (2)
𝑟

71
The magnetic force of magnitude 𝑞𝑣𝐵 acts as the centripetal force. Thus applying
Newton’s second law on the particle gives:

𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚 (3)
𝑟

If the particle is an electron, the charge q is replaced by the electron charge 𝑒 and
equation (3) is rewritten as:

𝑣
𝑒𝐵 = 𝑚 (4)
𝑟

If the electron gains its velocity by accelerating through a potential difference V, then:

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑣 (5)
2

Equations (4) and (5) may be combined to give:

1 𝑒/𝑚
= 𝐵2 (6)
𝑟2 2𝑉

Equation (6) shows that if (1/𝑟 2 ) is plotted as an ordinate versus (𝐵 2 ) as an abscissa, a

straight line passing through the origin is obtained. The slope of this straight line is
𝑒 𝑚 / 2𝑉 from which the charge to mass ratio 𝑒 𝑚 for the electron is determined.
The magnetic field in this experiment is produced by a pair of Helmholtz coils and the
magnitude of the magnetic flux density B is given by:

3/2 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 4 5 (7)
𝑎

Where 𝜇𝑜 is the magnetic permeability of free space; N is the number of turns of each
coil; 𝐼 is the current passing through the coil and 𝑎 is the radius of the coil.

72
Experimental Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2

2. Switch on the power supply and notice that the heater lights up.

3. Increase the accelerating potential difference V between the anode and the
cathode to a suitable value (say 200 volt) and observe the path of the beam of
electrons coming out from the plane mirror and the zero of the scale fixed on the
mirror.

4. Close the key and observe the circular path of the beam of the electrons. Adjust
the current through the coils until you obtain the largest circular path inside the
glass bulb. Record the current I in the coils and the diameter D of the circular
path.

73
5. Increase the current I gradually through the coils and observe the diameter of the
circular path. Record 6 different values of the current I with the corresponding
values of the diameter D of the circular path. Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

6. Fix the current in the coils on a suitable value. Rotate the glass bulb until the
beam makes as angle 𝜃 with the magnetic flux density B. Draw the shape of the
path you observe and explain why such a path is produced. Continue rotating the
glass bulb until the beam is parallel to the magnetic flux density B. Record your
observation and explain.

7. Calculate the radius 𝑟 of the circular path and then calculate ( 𝐼/𝑟 2 ) for each value
of the current 𝐼.

8. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic flux density B for each value of the
current 𝐼 and the calculate 𝐵 2 .

9. Plot ( 𝐼/𝑟 2 ) as an ordinate versus 𝐵 2 as an abscissa. Calculate the slope of the

straight line you obtain and determine the charge to mass ratio (𝑒/𝑚) for the
electro.

10. Calculate (𝑒/𝑚) for the electron from the known values: 𝑒 = 1.6 x 10−19 𝐶
and 𝑚 = 9.1 x 10−31 𝑘𝑔. Compare the experimental value with the theoretically
calculated value and estimate the percentage error.

11. Fix the current I through the Helmholtz coil at a suitable value and record the
value.

12. Change the accelerating potential difference V and observe the change in the
diameter of the circular path of the electron beam. Record five values of the
accelerating potential difference V with the corresponding values of the diameter
D of the circular path. Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

13. Plot ( 1 𝑟 2 ) as an ordinate versus (1 𝑉 ) as an abscissa and determine (𝑒/𝑚) for

the electron. Estimate the percentage error.

74
Name: Date:

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Data Table 1:

Accelerating Potential Difference V = ……..

Radius of each coil a = 15 cm
Number of turns of each coil N= 130 turns.

Permeability of free space 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 x 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2

𝑩𝟐
𝟐
Current Diameter Radius 𝟏/𝒓 𝑩
(𝐓𝐞𝐬𝐥𝐚)𝟐
−𝟐
I (A) D (m) R (m) 𝒎 Tesla

75
Data Table 2:
Current I = ……………….
Magnetic Flux Density B = ………………...

Accelerating Diameter Radius 𝟏/𝒓𝟐 𝟏/𝑽

Potential
Difference

V (Volt) D (m) r (m) 𝒎−𝟐 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕−𝟏

76
 Calculations

1
1. Calculate (e/m) for the electron using the (𝑟 2 vs. B2) graph. Use a computer graph
and obtain the standard deviation of the slope 𝜍𝑠 . Consider the smallest division
on the used voltmeter as the standard deviation of the potential difference V, i.e. 𝜍𝑣 .
Estimate the standard deviation (𝜍𝑒/𝑚 ) for the experimental value 𝑒/𝑚 . Write
down your final result as:
𝑒
= 𝜍𝑒/𝑚
𝑚

77
 1 1
2. Calculate (𝑒/𝑚) for the electron using the (𝑟 2 vs. ) graph. Use a computer graph
𝑉
and obtain the standard deviation of the slope (𝜍𝑠 ). Consider the smallest division
on the used ammeter as (𝜍𝐼 ) and estimate the standard deviation (𝜍𝑒/𝑚 ) for the
experimental value (𝑒/𝑚). Write down your final result as:

𝑒/𝑚 = 𝜍𝑒/𝑚

78
 Questions

1. Derive equation (6) from equation (4) and (5).

2. Explain the helical path obtained when the velocity v of the electron beam makes
an angle 𝜃 with the direction of the magnetic field B.

3. Explain why a battery is used to pass a current through the Helmholtz coils. What
will happen if an alternating current is passed through the coils?

Answers

79
 EXPERIMENT No. 10

Magnetic Flux Density

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Studying the magnetic flux density at the centre of a circular coil and its
dependence on the current through the coil.

2. Determination of the horizontal component of the magnetic flux density of

earth 𝐵𝑒 .

3. Determination of the magnetic flux density at different points along the axis of a
circular coil.

Equipment List:

1. Circular coil.
2. Wooden bench
3. Magnetometer.
4. Battery (6.6 V).
5. Rheostat 350 Ω.
6. Direct current ammeter.
7. Reverse key.
8. Measuring tape.

Theory:

In many practical devices where a current is used to establish a magnetic field, such as an
electromagnet, the wire carrying the current is wound into a coil, often consisting of many
circular loops.

80
 Figure 1

Figure 1 shows a circular conductor of radius a, carrying a current I. we can use the law
of Biot and Savart to find the magnetic flux density at a point P along a line through the
center of the loop perpendicular to its plane, at a distance x from the center.

It can be shown that the y-component of the magnetic flux density 𝐵𝑦 is zero due to
symmetry arguments whereas the x-component of the magnetic flux density 𝐵𝑥 is given
by:

𝜇 𝑜 𝑁𝑎 2 𝐼
𝐵𝑥 = (1)
2 𝑥 2 +𝑎 2 3/2

Where N is the number of turns and 𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space.

Equation (1) shows that 𝐵𝑥 has its maximum value at the centre of the coil when 𝑥 = 0
and it decreases as 𝑥 increases. At the center of the coil,

𝜇 𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵𝑐 = (2)
2𝑎

81
Equation (2) shows that 𝐵𝑐 is directly proportional to the current I through the coil. If a
small magnet aligned with the horizontal component of the magnetic field of the earth 𝐵𝑐
is placed at the centre of a circular coil through which a current is passing, such that the
small magnet is parallel to the plane of the coil, the small magnet will be rotated by an
angle 𝜙 before coming to equilibrium as shown in Figure 2.

BC

Be

Figure 2

It is obvious from Figure 2 that:

𝐵𝑐 = 𝐵𝑒 tan 𝜙 (3)

If the 𝐵𝑐 is known and 𝜙 is measured then 𝐵𝑒 may be evaluated.

Equation (3) is usually referred to as the tangent formula and it constitute the basis of the
use of the magnetometer in determining an unknown magnetic flux density.

82
Experimental Procedure:
1. Place the magnetometer on the middle of the wood bench. Arrange the
magnetometer such that the small magnet lies at the center of the circular coil and
lies in the plane of the coil as precisely as possible. The long pointer of the
magnetometer must read zero when the small magnet is only subjected to the
horizontal component of the magnetic field of the earth and no current is passing
through the coil.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 3.

Reverse key

-
A
+

Figure 3

83
3. Let the small current I pass the coil and observe the deflection of the small magnet
and the pointer of the magnetometer. Record the current I and the angles
𝜙1 and 𝜙2 by which the two ends of the pointer are deflected.

4. Reverse the current I passing through the coil using the reverse key and record 𝜙3
and 𝜙4 .

5. Increase the current I gradually using the rheostat and repeat steps 3 and 4 for 5
different values of the current I. For each value of I record 𝜙1 ; 𝜙2 ; 𝜙3 and 𝜙4 .

6. For each value of I calculate𝐵𝑐 , the magnetic flux density at the centre of the coil,
the mean angle of deflection 𝜙 and tan 𝜙.
Arrange your data and results in Data Table 1.

7. Plot 𝐵𝑐 as an ordinate versus tan 𝜙 as an abscissa and evaluate 𝐵𝑒 , the horizontal

component of the magnetic flux density of the earth, from the slope of the
straight line you obtain.

8. Move the magnetometer to a certain point along the axis of the coil. Make sure
that when there is no current in the coil; the small magnet lies parallel to the
plane of the coil and the pointer reads zero. Measure the distance x from this
point to the center of the coil.

9. Let a current I pass through the coil and observe the deflection on the
magnetometer. Adjust the current to obtain a large deflection for small 𝑥 .
Record 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 . Reverse the current and record 𝜙3 and 𝜙4 . Calculate the
mean angle𝜙 and tan 𝜙.
Calculate the magnetic flux density 𝐵𝑥 at this point using the tangent formula
𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵𝑒 tan 𝜙 where 𝐵𝑒 is determined in the first part of this experiment.
The value current I is maintained fixed throughout this part of the experiment.

10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 for different points along the axis of the coil, both to the left
and to the right of the center of the coil.
Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

11. Plot the magnetic flux density 𝐵𝑥 as an ordinate versus the distance x from the
center of the coil as an abscissa. Comment on the shape of the curve you get.

84
Name Date:

The Magnetic Flux Density of a circular Coil

Data Table 1:

Radius of the coil a = 20 cm

Number of turns N = 154 turns

Magnetic permeability of free space 𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 x 10−7 𝑁/𝐴2

Angle of deflection
I 𝑩𝒄
(degrees) Mean 𝝓 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓
(A) (Tesla)
𝝓𝟏 𝝓𝟐 𝝓𝟑 𝝓𝟒

85
 Calculations

Slope S =

The horizontal component of the magnetic field of earth

𝐵𝑒 =

86
Data Table 2:

I=

𝐵𝑒 =

Angle of deflection
𝒙 Mean 𝝓 𝑩𝒙
(degrees) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓
(cm) (deg.) (Tesla)
𝝓𝟏 𝝓𝟐 𝝓𝟑 𝝓𝟒

Comments on the shape of the curve:

87
 Questions

1. What is the unit of the magnetic flux density B in SI units?

2. Explain what is meant by Helmholtz coils which are usually used for practical
purposes to obtain a uniform magnetic field.

3. Mention the source of error in this experiment.

Answers

88
 EXPERIMENT No. 11

Self Inductance

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Experimental determination of the self inductance of a solenoid.

2. Theoretical calculation of the self inductance of the solenoid.

3. Comparison between the experimental value and the theoretical value and
estimating the percentage error.

Equipment List:

1. Basic solenoid set comprising a solenoid about 500 mm long x 600 m diameter
would with about 2500 turns per meter of insulated copper wire on a paxolin tube
and an external secondary coil of 1000 turns.

2. EDSPOT galvanometer.

3. Direct current ammeter.

4. Battery (6.6 volts).

5. Rheostat 350 Ω.

6. Resistance box.

7. Two-way switch.

8. A capacitor of known capacitance.

9. Direct current voltmeter.

89
Theory:

Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.

R
EDSPOT

N2
N1 EDSPOT

- +

A 350Ω

Figure 1

When the switch k is closed, a current I pass through the solenoid whose number of turns
is N1 and a magnetic field is established through the solenoid. If the magnetic flux that
passes through solenoid. If the magnetic flux that passes through each turn is 𝜙; the self
inductance L of the solenoid is defined as:

𝑁1 𝜙 𝜙1
𝐿= = (1)
𝐼 𝐼

Where 𝜙1 is the magnetic flux through the solenoid.

90
This means that the self inductance of the solenoid is numerically equal to the number of
flux-linkages (weber-turns) associated with the coil (solenoid) when a current of I A
passes through the coil.

From equation (1).

𝑁1 𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼

If I and 𝜙 changes with time then:

𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝐼
𝑁1 =𝐿 (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

[According to Faraday’s law, an induced emf appears in a coil if the current in that same
coil is changed. The emf produced is called a self-induced emf]. The self-induced emf
E1 is given by:

𝑑𝜙1 𝑡 𝑁1 𝜙
𝐸1 = − =− , the magnitude of 𝐸1 is given by:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝜙
𝐸1 = 𝑁1 (3)
𝑑𝑡

Using equation (2), equation (3) may be written as:

𝑑𝐼
𝐸1 = 𝐿 (4)
𝑑𝑡

The self-induced of a coil is therefore defined as the self-induced emf per unit rate of
change of current. The S.I unit of self-inductance is one henry. [1 henry = 1 volt.
Sec/amp].

When a current I pass through a solenoid; the magnitude of the magnet flux density B
produced inside the solenoid is given (using Ampere’s law) by:

𝑁1 𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (5)
𝐿1

Where 𝜇0 is the permeability of free space. 𝑁1 and 𝐿1 are the number of turns and the
length of the solenoid respectively.

91
The magnetic flux 𝜙1 through the solenoid is given by:

𝜙1 = 𝑁1 𝐵𝐴 (6)

Where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the solenoid.

Substituting equation (5) in equation (6) we get:

𝜇 0 𝑁12 𝐴
𝜙1 = 𝐼 (7)
𝐿1

Comparing equation (7) with equation (1) we deduce:

𝜇 0 𝑁12 𝐴
𝐿= (8)
𝐿1

Equation (8) shows that the self-inductance L of a solenoid depends on the number of
turns of the solenoid 𝑁1 ; the cross sectional area A and the length 𝐿1 of the solenoid.

Returning of the circuit shown in Figure 1; when a current passes through the solenoid a
magnetic flux 𝜙2 is established through the secondary coil that has 𝑁2 turns which is
given by:

𝜙2 = 𝑁2 𝜙 (9)

From equation (1):

𝐿𝐼
𝜙= (10)
𝑁1

Which is the magnetic flux through one turn of the solenoid. Therefore,

𝑁2 𝐿 𝐼
𝜙2 = (11)
𝑁1

If the current I changes with time, then an emf is induced in the secondary coil whose
magnitude is given by:

92
 𝑑𝜙2
𝐸2 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑁2 𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝐸2 = (12)
𝑁1 𝑑𝑡

An induced current I is established in the secondary circuit and is given by:

𝐸2
𝑖= (13)
𝑅𝑡

Where 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑔

Where 𝑅 is the resistance taken from the resistance box.

𝑅2 is the resistance of the secondary coil
𝑅𝑔 is the resistance of the galvanometer.

Since the current 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 where 𝑑𝑞 is the charge passing through the galvanometer in
a time interval 𝑑𝑡, equation (12) and (13) give:

𝑑𝑞 𝑁2 𝐿 𝑑𝐼
= (14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑁1 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

Integration of this equation gives:

𝑁2 𝐿
𝑞= 𝐼 (15)
𝑁1 𝑅1

When the charge 𝑞 passes through the galvanometer it produce a throw 𝑑 which is
proportional to the charge 𝑞, i.e.

𝑞 = 𝑠𝑑 (16)

Where 𝑠 is the galvanometer sensitivity measured in Coul/m or Coul/cm.

Substituting equation (16 in equation (15) gives:

93
 𝑁2 𝐿
𝑑= 𝐼 (17)
𝑁1 𝑠 𝑅1

Equation (17) shows that if the throw d is plotted as an ordinate versus the current I as
abscissa, a straight line passing through the origin is obtained. The slope of the line is
𝑁2 𝐿
From which the experimental value of the self inductance L (exp) is determined
𝑁1 𝑠 𝑅𝑡
provided that 𝑁1 ; 𝑁2 ; 𝑠 and 𝑅1 are known.

The galvanometer sensitivity 𝑠 (Coul/m) may by determined experimentally by applying

a known potential difference V across a known capacitor C. the charge on the capacitor
[𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉] is then passed through the galvanometer and the throw 𝑑 of the galvanometer
spot is measured. A plot of 𝑞 as an ordinate versus 𝑑 as an abscissa gives a staright line
passing through the origin. The slope of the line is 𝑠.

The circuit shown in Figure 2 is used for this purpose.

Figure 2

94
Experimental Procedure:

1. Record all the constant values in this experiment in your Data Sheet.

L1 : the length of the solenoid

N1 : the number of turns of the solenoid
D : the diameter of the solenoid
N2 : the number of turns of the secondary coil
R2 : the resistance of the secondary coil
Rg : the resistance of the galvanometer

2. Calculate the cross sectional area A of the solenoid where:

1 2
𝐴= 𝜋𝐷
4

3. Calculate the theoretical value L(th) of the self inductance of the solenoid using
equation (8).

4. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1. Fix the resistance taken from the resistance
box R on 50 Ω. Fix the sensitivity knob of the galvanometer on (x 0.1) position.
Adjust the position of the spot on zero in the middle of the screen.

5. Close the switch k and record the throw d and the current I. Open the switch k and
record the throw d for the same value of the current I.

6. Repeat step 5 for several different values of the current I.

Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

7. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2, keeping R = 50 Ω.

8. Close the two-way switch in position i. Apply a suitable potential difference V

across the known capacitor C and calculate the charge q.

9. Close two-way switch in position 2 and record the throw d of the galvanometer spot.

95
10. Repeat step 8 and 9 for five different values of the potential difference V.
Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

11. From Data Table 2, plot the charge q as an ordinate versus the throw as an abscissa.
Determine the sensitivity s of the galvanometer in the position used.

12. From Data Table 1, plot the mean throw d as an ordinate versus the current I as an
abscissa. Calculate the slope of the straight line you obtain. Determine from the
slope an experimental value L(exp) for the self inductance of the solenoid.

13. Compare the experimental value L(exp) with the theoretical value L(th) of the self
inductance of the solenoid and estimate the percentage error.

96
Name: Date:

Self Inductance

Data Sheet:

Length of solenoid L1 = 0.5 m

Number of turns N1 = 1297 turns
Mean diameter D = 0.058
Resistance of the secondary coil R2 = 50 Ω
Resistance from resistance box R = 50 Ω
Resistance of the galvanometer Rg = 13 Ω
Number of turns of secondary coil N2 = 1000 turns
Permeability of free space o = 4 x10-7 henry/m

Calculations

Calculate the cross-sectional area A of the solenoid and then calculate the theoretical
value of the self inductance L(th).

97
Data Table 1:

Throw Mean throw

Current I (A) d (m) d (m)

Closing K Opening K

98
Data Table 2:

Known Capacitor C =

V (volt) q = CV (Coul) d(m)

99
 Calculations

Calculate:

1. The galvanometer sensitivity s.

2. The experimental value L(exp) of the self inductance of the solenoid.

3. The percentage error in the experimental value L(exp).

100
 Questions

1. What factors determine the self inductance of a solenoid? State clearly to what
factors the self inductance is directly proportional and to what factors it is
inversely proportional.

2. Two solenoids have the same length and the same diameter but the number of
turns of solenoid I is twice the number of turns of solenoid 2. How do their self
inductance compare?

3. If the experiment is repeated with the resistance taken from the resistance box is
100 Ω. State clearly what effect will this have on:

1. The value of s.
2. The value of L(exp).

Answers

101
 EXPERIMENT No. 12
L-C-R Series Resonance

Objectives of the Experiment:

1. Studying the frequency dependence of the current and impedance of L-C-R series
circuit.

2. Determination of an experimental value of the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 (exp)

3. Comparison of the experimental value of the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 (exp) with

the theatrical value 𝑓𝑟 (th) and estimation of the percentage error.

4. Determination of the phase difference between the total potential difference and
the current at a certain frequency.

Equipment List:

1. Signal generator.
2. Frequency meter (if available).
3. Resistance box.
4. Inductor (coil of 2.7 mH).
5. Capacitor (2 𝜇𝐹)
6. AC ammeter.
7. AC voltmeter.

Theory:

Many electric circuit of practical importance, including most household and industrial
power distribution systems, use ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC), in which the voltage
and currents vary with time, often in a sinusoidal manner. Alternating currents are of at
most importance in technology and industry. A sinusoidal signal generator maintains
between its terminals a sinusoidal alternating potential difference given by:

102
 v = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 (1)

where V is the maximum potential difference, or the voltage amplitude; v is the

instantaneous potential difference; and 𝜔 is the angular frequency which is related to the
frequency f by:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (2)

The circuit diagram symbol for an AC source is ~

Analysis of ac circuit is facilitated by the use of rotating vector diagrams. In such
diagrams the instantaneous value of a quantity that varies s sinusoidally with time is
represented by the projection, onto a horizontal axis, of a vector whose length
corresponds to the amplitude of the quantity: the vector rotates counterclockwise with
constant angular velocity 𝜔. These rotating vectors are called PHASORS, and diagram
containing tem are called PHASOR DIAGRAMS. Phasors are convenient for adding
sinusoidal voltages and currents; with them we can apply the method of vector addition to
combine sinusoidal quantities with phase differences. When a sinusoidal potential
difference as given by equation (1) is applied across a resistance R, the current through
the resistance is given by:

v 𝑉
𝑖= = cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑅 𝑅

𝑖 = 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡 (3)

Where the current amplitude I is given by:

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

Thus the current and voltage amplitudes are related in the same way as in a DC circuit.

103
Figure 1 shows the ac circuit and the phasor diagram for a pure resistor.

Figure 1

Equation (1) and (3) show that the current I through the resistance and the potential
difference v are in phase.

If an alternating potential difference is applied across a capacitor C then the charge q on

the capacitor is given by:

𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 (4)

𝑑𝑞
but the curent 𝑖 = therefore,
𝑑𝑡

𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉 sin 𝜔𝑡 (5)

or: 𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉 cos(𝜔 𝑡 + 90o ) (6)

104
Equation (1) and (6) show that the current I and the potential difference v are not in
phase. The current I leads the potential difference v by a phase angle 90o or the voltage
lags the current by 90o.

From equation (6): 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 90o

Where 𝐼 = 𝜔𝐶 𝑉

𝑉 1
∴ = 𝑋𝑐 (7)
𝐼 𝜔𝐶

Where 𝑋𝑐 is the capacitive reactance. Its unit is ohm and it is inversely proportional to
the angular frequency 𝜔.

Figure 2 shows the ac circuit and the phasor diagram for 𝜔 pure capacitor.

Figure 2

If a pure inductor having a self-inductance L and zero resistance is connected to an

alternating potential difference v, the instantaneous value of the potential difference
across the inductor is given by:

𝑑𝑖
v=𝐿
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

105
 𝑉
𝑑𝑖 = cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

𝑉
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔𝐿

𝑉
𝑖 = 𝜔𝐿 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 90o ) (8)

Equation (1) and (8) show that in the case of a pure inductor, the current lags the potential
difference by a phase angle 90owhich means that the potential difference leads the current
by a phase angle 90o.

From equation (8):

𝑉
𝑖= cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 90o ) = I cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 90o )
𝜔𝐿

𝑉
𝐼=
𝜔𝐿

𝑉
∴ = 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿 (9)
𝐼

Where 𝑋𝐿 is the inductive reactance. Figure 3 shows the ac circuit and the phasor
diagram for a pure inductor. Its unit is ohm and it is directly proportional to the angular
frequency 𝜔.

Figure 3

106
Consider the L-C-R series circuit shown in figure 4.

Figure 4

The instantaneous current I has the same value at all points of the circuit. Thus a single
phasor 1, of length proportional to the current amplitude, represents the current in each
circuit element.

The potential difference across the resistance is in the same phase the circuit. The voltage
amplitude is given by:

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 (10)

The potential difference across the inductor leads the current by a phase angle 90 o. The
voltage amplitude is given by:

𝑉𝑐𝑑 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔𝐿 (11)

The potential difference across the capacitor lags behind the current by a phase angle 90o.
the voltage amplitude is given by:

𝐼
𝑉𝑑𝑏 = 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼 (12)
𝜔𝐶

107
The voltage phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Figure (5). Hence if the source
voltage is represented by v = 𝑉 cos 𝜔 𝑡 , the current lags the voltage by an angle 𝜙
between 0o and 90o, and is given by:

𝑖 = 𝐼 cos( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)

Figure 5

The magnitude of the phasor V is given by:

𝑉= 𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2

2
1
𝑉= 𝐼2 + 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶

2
𝐼
𝑉=𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶
𝑉
𝐼= (13)
𝐼 2
𝑅 2 + 𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶

For constant V; R; L; and C the current I is a function of angular frequency 𝜔. For a

certain 𝜔 the current I will be maximum. This is the resonance angular frequency 𝜔𝑟 .

The current will be maximum when:

108
 𝐼
𝜔𝐿 − =0
𝜔𝐶

𝐼
i. e. 𝜔𝑟2 =
𝐿𝐶

𝐼
𝜔𝑟 =
𝐿𝐶

𝜔𝑟
the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 = therefore,
2𝜋

𝐼 𝐼
𝑓𝑟 = (14)
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

Thus the frequency 𝑓𝑟 is determined by the value of L and C and is independent of R.

From equation (13):

2
𝑉 1
= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 − =𝑍
𝐼 𝜔𝐶

1 2
𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿 − (15)
𝜔𝐶

Where 𝑍 is called the impedance of the circuit, and is a function of frequency. It is

obvious that at a resonance the impedance Z has its minimum value where Z = R.

Figure 6 shows a plot of I versus f and Z where the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 is obvious.

109
 Figure 6

It is obvious from the phasor diagram shown in Figure 5 that the voltage phasor V leads
the current phasor I by a phase angle 𝜙.

Where:

𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
𝜙 = arctan
𝑉𝑅

1
𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶
𝜙 = arctan (16)
𝑅

Equation (16) shows that 𝜙 is a function of 𝜔

1
At resonance 𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝐶 and 𝜙 = 0

This means that at resonance the voltage phasor V and the current phasor I are in phase.

110
Experimental Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7

2. Use a suitable resistance R from the resistance box (R = 150 Ω).

3. Record the values of the capacitance C and the self-inductance L of the coil used.
Calculate the theoretical resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 (𝑡𝑕).

4. Switch on the signal generator. Make sure that the output voltage is sinusoidal.
Adjust the output voltage to a suitable value which is to be maintained constant
throughout the experiment.

5. Switch on the frequency meter and make sure it is in the frequency measuring
mode.

111
6. Adjust the frequency of the output voltage to 200 Hz. Adjust the output voltage to
the value selected in step 4. Measure the current I and the frequency f.

7. Repeat step 6 for different values of the frequency in the range 200 Hz….5000 Hz.
Make sure that the output voltage is maintained constant.
Arrange your data in Data Table 1.

8. Repeat the experiment or R = 200 Ω.

Arrange your data in Data Table 2.

9. Fix the frequency at a certain value. Record the value of the frequency. Measure
the total potential difference 𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 and measure: VR; VL; and VC separately.

10. In each data table, calculate the impedance Z of the circuit at each frequency
[Z = V/I].

11. Plot the current I as an ordinate versus the frequency f as an abscissa for R = 150 Ω
and 200 Ω on the same graph paper.
Determine the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 (exp) from your graph.

12. Plot the impedance Z of the circuit as an ordinate versus the frequency f for R = 150
Ω and 200 Ω on the same graph paper.

13. Calculate the mean value of 𝑓𝑟 (exp); compare with the calculated theoretical value
𝑓𝑟 (𝑡𝑕) using equation (14) and estimate the percentage error.

14. Draw a voltage phasor diagram for VR; VC; and VL. calculate the total potential
difference Vcal; and compare with the measured value Vmeas.

Calculate the phase angle 𝜙 and state clearly whether V leads I or lags I by this
phase angle.

112
Name Date:

L-C-R Series Resonance

Data Table 1: R = 150 Ω.

L= ; C = ; V =

Frequency f (Hz) Current I (A) Impedance Z = V/I (Ω)

113
Calculation of the resonance frequency using equation (14) 𝑓𝑟 (𝑡𝑕):
Data Table 2: R = 200 Ω.

L= ; C = ; V =

Frequency f (Hz) Current I (A) Impedance Z = V/I (Ω)

114
Voltage Phasor Diagram

f =

Vmeas =

VR =

VL =

VC =

VCal =

% error =

Phase angle 𝜙 =

115
 Questions

𝐼
1. Show that the unit 𝜔𝐶 is ohm 𝛺

Show that the unit of 𝜔𝐿 is ohm 𝛺 .

2. Mention two methods to increase the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 of the circuit you used.

3. State clearly the effect (if any) of increasing the resistance R on :

1. The resonance frequency𝑓𝑟 .

2. The current at resonance.

3. The impedance of the circuit at resonance.

Answers

116