Term Paper

On
HYDROGEN FUEL
A
NEW HOPE

Submitted to: - Submitted by: -

Dr. M. K. Jha Prashant Kumar

Professor and Head M-Tech (08201104)

Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar NIT Jalandhar Dr. B. R. Ambedkar NIT Jalandhar

Contents
 Introduction
 Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel
 Hydrogen Production Methods
 Uses of Hydrogen
 Hydrogen Storage
 Hydrogen transportation and refuelling
 Future Prospects
Introduction

Hydrogen is the simplest element. Each atom of hydrogen has only one
proton. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. Stars like the sun
are made primarily of hydrogen.

The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In the
sun's core, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms. This process
— called fusion — gives off radiant energy.

This radiant energy sustains life on Earth. It gives us light and makes
plants grow. It makes the wind blow and rain fall. It is stored as chemical
energy in fossil fuels. Most of the energy we use today originally came
from the sun's radiant energy.

Hydrogen gas is so much lighter than air that it rises fast and is quickly
ejected from the atmosphere. This is why hydrogen as a gas (H2) is not
found by itself on Earth. It is found only in compound form with other
elements. Hydrogen combined with oxygen, is water (H2O). Hydrogen
combined with carbon forms different compounds, including methane
(CH4), coal, and petroleum. Hydrogen is also found in all growing things
— for example, biomass. It is also an abundant element in the Earth's
crust.

Hydrogen has the highest energy content of any common fuel by weight
(about three times more than gasoline), but the lowest energy content by
volume (about four times less than gasoline).

Hydrogen is not an energy source, but an energy carrier because it takes

a great deal of energy to extract it from water. It is useful as a compact
energy source in fuel cells and batteries

Advantages of hydrogen fuel

The use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution. When hydrogen is

combined with oxygen in a fuel cell, energy in the form of electricity is
produced. This electricity can be used to power vehicles, as a heat source
and for many other uses. The advantage of using hydrogen as an energy
carrier is that when it combines with oxygen the only byproducts are
water and heat. No greenhouse gasses or other particulates are produced
by the use of hydrogen fuel cells.
Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous sources.
Hydrogen can be produced either centrally, and then distributed, or onsite
where it will be used. Hydrogen gas can be produced from methane,
gasoline, biomass, coal or water. Each of these sources brings with it
different amounts of pollution, technical challenges, and energy
requirements.
If hydrogen is produced from water we have a sustainable
production system . Electrolysis is the method of separating water into
hydrogen and oxygen. Renewable energy can be used to power
electrolyzers to produce the hydrogen from water. Using renewable
energy provides a sustainable system that is independent of petroleum
products and is nonpolluting. Some of the renewable sources used to
power electrolyzers are wind, hydro, solar and tidal energy. After the
hydrogen is produced in an electrolyzer it can be used in a fuel cell to
produce electricity. The by products of the fuel cell process are water and
heat. If fuel cells operate at high temperatures the system can be set up
as a co-generator, with the waste energy used for heating

Hydrogen Production Methods

Hydrogen doesn't exist on Earth as a gas; it must be separated from

other elements. Hydrogen atoms can be separated from water, biomass,
or natural gas molecules. The two most common methods for producing
hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis (water splitting).
Scientists have discovered that even some algae and bacteria give off
hydrogen.

1) Steam Reforming
Steam reforming is currently the least expensive method of producing
hydrogen, hence most widely used method for hydrogen production and
accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States.
This method is used in industries to separate hydrogen atoms from
carbon atoms in methane (CH4). But the steam reforming process results
in greenhouse gas emissions that are linked with global warming.

hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of methane or

natural gas At high temperatures (700–1100 °C), steam (H2O) reacts
with methane (CH4) to yield syngas.
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 + 191.7 kJ/mol

In a second stage, further hydrogen is generated through the lower-

temperature water gas shift reaction, performed at about 130 °C:
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 - 40.4 kJ/mol
Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water
(steam) to oxidize CO to CO2. This oxidation also provides energy to
maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to drive the process is
generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.

Steam reforming generates carbon dioxide (CO2). Since the production is

concentrated in one facility, it is possible to separate the CO 2 and dispose
of it properly, for example by injecting it in an oil or gas reservoir
(see carbon capture), although this is not currently done in most cases. A
carbon dioxide injection project has been started by
a Norwegian company StatoilHydro in the North Sea, at the Sleipner field.
However, even if the carbon dioxide is not sequestered, overall producing
hydrogen from natural gas and using it for a hydrogen vehicle only emits
half the carbon dioxide that a gasoline car would.

2) Electrolysis
Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water. It results in no
emissions, but it is currently an expensive process.

When the energy supply is in the form of heat (solar thermal, or

nuclear), the best path to hydrogen is through high-temperature
electrolysis (HTE). In contrast with low-temperature electrolysis, HTE of
water converts more of the initial heat energy into chemical energy
(hydrogen), potentially doubling efficiency to about 50%. Because some
of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy
must be converted twice (from heat to electricity, and then to chemical
form), and so less energy is lost.

HTE processes are generally only considered in combination with a

nuclear heat source, because the other non-chemical form of high-
temperature heat (concentrating solar thermal) is not consistent enough
to bring down the capital costs of the HTE equipment. Research into HTE
and high-temperature nuclear reactors may eventually lead to a hydrogen
supply that is cost-competitive with natural gas steam reforming. HTE has
been demonstrated in a laboratory, but not at a commercial scale.

3) High-Temperature Hydrogen Source from Algae

Electrohydrogenesis (electrolysis using microbes) is another possibility.

Using microbial fuel cells, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power.
Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with biological hydrogen
production, as the latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates
the hydrogen instantly, where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after
running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used.
These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, algae.

Uses of Hydrogen

1)Most Hydrogen Is Used in Refining, Treating Metals, and

Processing Foods
Nearly all of hydrogen consumed in the United States is used by industry
for refining, treating metals, and processing foods. The National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the primary user of
hydrogen as an energy fuel; it has used hydrogen for years in the space
program. Liquid hydrogen fuel lifts NASA's space shuttles into orbit.
Hydrogen batteries, called fuel cells, power the shuttle’s electrical
systems. The only by-product is pure water, which the crew uses as
drinking water.

2)Hydrogen Fuel Cells Produce Electricity

Hydrogen fuel cells (batteries) make electricity. They are very efficient,
but expensive to build. Small fuel cells can power electric cars. Large fuel
cells can provide electricity in remote places with no power lines.

Because of the high cost to build fuel cells, large hydrogen power plants
won't be built for a while. However, fuel cells are being used in some
places as a source of emergency power, from hospitals to wilderness
locations.

Portable fuel cells are being sold to provide longer power for laptop
computers, cell phones, and military applications.

3)Hydrogen Use in Vehicles

Today, there are an estimated 200 to 300 hydrogen-fueled vehicles in the

United States. Most of these vehicles are buses and automobiles powered
by electric motors. They store hydrogen gas or liquid on board and
convert the hydrogen into electricity for the motor using a fuel cell. Only a
few of these vehicles burn the hydrogen directly (producing almost no
pollution).

The present cost of fuel cell vehicles greatly exceeds that of conventional
vehicles in large part due to the expense of producing fuel cells

Hydrogen vehicles are starting to move from the laboratory to the road.
Hydrogen vehicles are in use by a few state agencies and a few private
entities.

Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen storage describes the methods for storing H2 for subsequent

use. The methods span many approaches, including high pressures and
cryogenics, but usually focus on chemical compounds that reversibly
release H2 upon heating. Hydrogen storage is a topical goal in the
development of a hydrogen economy. Most research into hydrogen
storage is focused on storing hydrogen as a lightweight, compact energy
carrier for mobile applications.

Liquid hydrogen or slush hydrogen with a higher volumetric energy

density may be used (as in the Space Shuttle). However liquid hydrogen
requires cryogenic storage and boils around 20.268 K (–252.882 °C or -
423.188 °F). Hence, its liquefaction imposes a large energy loss (as
energy is needed to cool it down to that temperature). The tanks must
also be well insulated to prevent boil off. Insulation by design for liquid
hydrogen tanks is adding costs for this method. Liquid hydrogen has less
energy density by volume than hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline by
approximately a factor of four. This highlights the density problem for
pure hydrogen: there is actually about 64% more hydrogen in a liter of
gasoline (116 grams hydrogen) than there is in a liter of pure liquid
hydrogen (71 grams hydrogen). The carbon in the gasoline also
contributes to the energy of combustion. Hydrocarbons are stored
extensively at the point of use, be it in the gasoline tanks of automobiles
or propane tanks hung on the side of barbecue grills.

Compressed hydrogen, in comparison, is quite different to store.

Hydrogen gas has good energy density by weight, but poor energy
density by volume versus hydrocarbons, hence it requires a larger tank to
store. A large hydrogen tank will be heavier than the small hydrocarbon
tank used to store the same amount of energy, all other factors remaining
equal. Increasing gas pressure would improve the energy density by
volume, making for smaller, but not lighter container tanks (see hydrogen
tank). Compressed hydrogen will require 2.1% of the energy content to
power the compressor. Higher compression without energy recovery will
mean more energy lost to the compression step. Compressed hydrogen
storage is worldwide accepted as a safe established technology

Hydrogen transportation and refuelling

A 40 ton truck carrying compressed hydrogen can deliver only 400 kilograms.
That is because of the weight of the tank capable of holding 200 atmospheres of
pressure. An empty truck will weigh almost as much as a full one. The
compressed hydrogen tank must be robust. The energy used to compress the
hydrogen to 200 atmospheres would be released instantly if a tank ruptured.
The fireball would cover a football field. Hydrogen is more energy dense than
gasoline (by weight) and hydrogen powered transportation is more energy
efficient. Yet the hydrogen filling station will require 15 deliveries every day,
everything else being equal. The energy cost of truck transport becomes
unacceptable unless the source of hydrogen is very close to the point of use. A
cryogenic truck could carry more hydrogen but recall that the energy cost to
liquefy hydrogen makes this infeasible in most cases.

Hydrogen can be transported by pipeline. According to B&E, it take about 4

times more energy to move hydrogen through a pipeline compared to natural
gas.

The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an

automobile powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which
weighed more than twice as much as a normal van, could travel up to
70 mph for 30 seconds.

The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It
produces hydrogen for the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydridefuel
with Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed were naturally occurring in
great quantity in the United States. The hydrogen produces electric power
in the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without
impinging on passenger space. Chrysler also developed vehicles which
separated hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose being to
reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure
and to avoid large storage tanks.

The first public hydrogen refuelling station was opened

in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This station serves three buses built
by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of
Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an
electrolyzing unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling:
all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell is also a partner
in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked
hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.

In 2003 President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative

(HFI), which was later implemented by legislation through the 2005
Energy Policy Act and the 2006 Advanced Energy Initiative. These aimed
at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and its infrastructure
technologies with the ultimate goal to produce commercial fuel cell
vehicles by 2020. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to
this project.

In May 2009, however, the Obama Administration announced that it will

"cut off funds" for the development of fuel cell hydrogen vehicles, since
other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker reduction in emissions in a
shorter time. The US Secretary of Energy explained that hydrogen
vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years", and also
mentioned the challenges involved in the development of the required
infrastructure to distribute hydrogen fuel. Nevertheless, the U.S.
government will continue to fund research related to stationary fuel
cells. The National Hydrogen Association and the U.S. Fuel Cell
Council criticized this decision arguing that "...the cuts proposed in the
DOE hydrogen and fuel cell program threaten to disrupt commercialization
of a family of technologies that are showing exceptional promise and
beginning to gain market traction."

In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working
hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The
motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 100
miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour. In
2004 Honda developed a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC
Stack.

The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells
to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface. Boeing
researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted
experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered
only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator
Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel
cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which
was coupled to a conventional propeller.

In 2007, the Revolve Eco-Rally (launched by HRH Prince of Wales)

demonstrated several fuel cell vehicles on British roads for the first time,
driven by celebrities and dignitaries from Brighton to London's Trafalgar
Square. Fuel cell powered race vehicles, designed and built by university
students from around the world, competed in the world's first hydrogen
race series called the 2008 Formula Zero Championship, which began on
August 22, 2008 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. More races are planned
for 2009 and 2010. After this first race, Greenchoice Forze from the
University of Delft (The Netherlands) became leader in the competition.
Other competing teams are Element One (Detroit), HerUCLAs (LA),
EUPLAtecH2 (Spain), Imperial Racing Green (London) and Zero Emission
Racing Team (Leuven).

The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW
net output.

In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely

by a fuel cell was flown (the first fuel cell powered aircraft was the Space
Shuttle). The fuel cell was a unique FlatStackTM stack design which
allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the
plane.

The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative by the California

Governor to implement a series of hydrogen refueling stations along that
state. These stations are used to refuel hydrogen vehicles such as fuel cell
vehicles and hydrogen combustion vehicles. As of July 2007 California had
179 fuel cell vehicles and twenty five stations were in operation, and ten
more stations have been planned for assembly in California. However,
there have already been three hydrogen fuelling stations
decommissioned.

Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel
cell project. Twelve hydrogen fuelling stations have been built in 11 cities
in Japan. Canada, Sweden and Norway also have hydrogen
highways implemented.

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel
cell technology being researched or manufactured by motor car
manufacturers. In 2008, Honda released a hydrogen vehicle, the FCX
Clarity. Meanwhile there exist also other examples of bikes and bicycles
with a hydrogen fuel cell engine.
A few companies are conducting hydrogen fuel cell research and
practical fuel cell bus trials. Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental units
powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completing a successful
three-year trial, in eleven cities, in January 2007. There are also fuel cell
powered buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor
buses with UTC Power fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit
Agency.The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel
cell buses.

The first Brazilin hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype will begin operation
in São Paulo during the first semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was
manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced
in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program,
called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus),
includes three additional buses.
Future Prospect

Researchers are helping to develop technologies to tap into this natural

resource and generate hydrogen in mass quantities at cheaper prices so
that it can compete with traditional energy sources.

There are two main systems that scientists are researching for
inexpensive hydrogen generation, which all separate hydrogen from a
'feedstock', such as fossil fuel or water - but by very different means:
Reformers: Hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels by a process known
as 'reforming'. This is extremely useful where stored hydrogen is not
available but has to provide the power, for example, on a fuel cell-
powered vehicle.
Enzymes: Cyanobacteria are an abundant single-celled organism which
produces hydrogen metabolically. Since it works by synthesising water
into hydrogen, the waste is emitted as water, which becomes food for the
next metabolism.
Reference

1) http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/kids/energy.cfm?page=hydrogen_home-basics-k.cfm
2) http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/tech/hydrogen
3) http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/hydrogen.html
4) http://www.commutercars.com/h2/
5) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell
6) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle
7) http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydrogen
8) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_storage
9) http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/nn/nn_rt/nn_rt_hy/article_1143_en.htm
10) http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/hydrogenfuelvehicles.html
11) http://www.hydrogenenergycenter.org/content.aspx?page_id=22&club_id=108367&
module_id=8616