The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the

Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition
Author(s): Jeffrey Samuels
Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Jul., 1997), pp. 399-415
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399912 .
Accessed: 18/12/2014 00:15

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Hawai'i Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy
East and West.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVADA Samuels
Jeffrey
BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE:
A REEVALUATION OF THE
BODHISATTVA-SRAVAKA OPPOSITION

In theacademicstudyof Buddhism theterms"Mahayana"and "Hina- Graduate inthe

student
yana" are often set in contradiction to each other, and the two vehicles of
Department Religious
are describedas havingdifferent aspirations, teachings, and practices. Studies
attheUniversity
ofVirginia
The distinctions made betweentheMahayanaand theHinayana,how-
ever,forcetheschoolsintoneat,isolated,and independent categories
thatoftenundermine thecomplexities thatexistconcerning theirbeliefs,
ideologies,and practices.
Whilesomeofthecategories usedtodifferentiate theMahayanaand
the Hinayanaare helpfulin thestudyand interpretation of Buddhism,
thesedistinctions mustcontinually be reviewed.Thisarticleattempts to
reviewone suchdistinction: thecommonly heldtheoretical modelthat
postulates thatthegoal ofMahayanapractitioners is to becomebuddhas
the
byfollowing path ofthe bodhisattva (bodhisattva-yana), whereasthe
goal of HTnayana practitioners is to becomearahantsby following the
path of the Hearer or the Buddha's disciples(riavaka-yina). In demon-
stratingthe oversimplifications inherent in thismodel,thisarticlewill
the
investigate presence scopeand ofthe bodhisattva idealinTheravada
Buddhist theory and practice.
By raisingissuessurrounding theMahdyana-Hinayana opposition,
however,I am not suggesting thatdistinctions cannotbe made be-
tweenthetwovehicles,noram I proposing to do awaywiththeterms
"Mahayana"and "Hinayana."Rather,in exploring theoversimplifica-
tionsinherent intheMahayana-HTnayana dichotomy, itis myintention
to replacethetheoretical modelthatidentifies (1) MahayanaBuddhism
withthebodhisattva-yana and (2) HTnayana Buddhism withthesravaka-
yina with a model that is more representative of the two vehicles.In
doingso, theimpliedpurposeofthisarticle, as isJohnHolt'sstudyofthe
place and relevanceofAvalokiteivara inSriLanka,isto "raisequestions
among studentsof Buddhismregarding the veryutility of the terms
Mahayana ... and Theravada as designatingwhollydistinctivereligio-
historical
constructs"'(emphasisadded).
Beforeturningto thepresenceand scope ofthebodhisattva
ideal in East& West
Philosophy
TheravadaBuddhism (theonlyextantschoolofHTnayana Buddhism), it Volume47, Number3
may be beneficial
to investigate the
briefly sourcesthat the
identify July1997
withMahayanaBuddhism and the?ravaka-yanawith 399-415
bodhisattva-yana
HTnayana Buddhism. Instead of looking at how this model is appro- ? 1997
priated by scholars of Buddhism,I will turnto the writingsof three byUniversity
of
Mahayana Buddhistsin which thisbifurcationis suggested. Hawai'iPress

399

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 One ofthefirst MahayanaBuddhists who identifies thebodhisattva-
yina with Mahayana Buddhism and the sravaka-yina withHTnayana
Buddhismis Nagarjuna.In his PreciousGarlandofAdvicefortheKing
(Rijaparikatha-ratnamilTh),Nagarjunarhetorically asks "Since all the
deeds
aspirations, and dedications of Bodhisattvas were notexplainedin
theHearers'vehicle,howthencouldone becomea Bodhisattva through
itspath?"2Inanotherinstance, Nagdrjuna writesthat"[IntheVehicleof
the Hearers]Buddhadid notexplainthebases fora Bodhisattva's en-
lightenment."3 While the
Nagarjunacompares sravaka-yina with the
bodhisattva-yana in these two
first passages, he later states that"the
subjectsbased on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentionedin
the [HTnayanal satras."4Nagarjuna'sthirdpassage,then,suggeststhat
subjectsconcerning bodhisattvasare foundonlyin Mahayanatextsand
areabsentfromall Hinayanatexts.
Another MahayanaBuddhist to upholda Mah5ydna-Hinaydna dis-
tinctionbasedon a bodhisattva-srivaka oppositionisAsaiga.As Richard
S. Cohen illustrates,5s
Asahigaposits, in his Mahjyinasotralamkinra, that
theGreatVehicleand theHearers'Vehiclearemutually opposed.6 Their
contradictory natureincludesintention, teaching,employment (i.e.,
means),support(whichis based entirely on meritand knowledge), and
the timethatit takesto reachthe goal.7 AfterAsahigadiscussesthe
opposingnatureof thesetwo vehicles,he thenidentifies the sravaka-
yina as thelesser vehicle(Hinayana), and remarks that the lesservehicle
(ydnam hTnam) is notable to be thegreatvehicle(Mahayana).8
CandrakTrtiis yetanotherMahayanathinker who viewstheMaha-
yana and the as
HTnayana beingmutually opposed.LikeAsariga,Can-
drakirtiuses the bodhisattva-gravaka distinctionto separateMahayana
and HinayanaBuddhism as well as to promote theMahayanatradition
over and againstHTnayanaBuddhism.In his Madhyamakivatira, for
instance,he remarksthatthe lesservehicle (HTnayana)is the path
reservedsolelyfordisciplesand solitary buddhas,and thatthegreater
vehicle(Mahayana)is the path reservedsolelyforbodhisattvas. Not
only does CandrakTrti associatethe bodhisattva-yina withMahayana
Buddhism, he also clingsto thebeliefthattheHinayanaschoolsknow
nothing of the "stagesof the careerof thefuture Buddha,the perfect
virtues(paramiti),the resolutions or vows to save all creatures, the
applicationofmerit totheacquisition ofthequalityofBuddha,[and]the
greatcompassion."'In otherwords,forCandrakTrti (as forNagarjuna),
theHinayanatradition does notpresent a bodhisattva doctrine.
The pointsraisedbytheseMahayanaBuddhists are problematic for
threereasons. First,the dichotomypresentedby both Asanga and Can-
drakirtisets up an oppositionbetween an ideologyand an institutional
affiliation.
Ratherthan comparingan ideologywithan ideology(bodhi-
East
Philosophy &.West sattva and drivaka)or a Buddhistschool withanotherBuddhistschool,

400

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
thisopposition contrasts one ideology(arahantship through following the
sravaka-ydna) with an institutionalaffiliation(MahayanaBuddhism). In
orderfora moreaccuratedistinction to be constructed, then,we must
eithercomparethebodhisattva-yana withthesravaka-yina, or compare
a MahayanaBuddhist schoolwitha HTnayana Buddhist school.
Anotherproblemwiththe ideas putforthby Nagarjuna,Asanhga,
and CandrakTrti concernstheirstatements thatMahayanaand HTnayana
Buddhismare mutuallycontradictory and exclusive.These assertions
undermine thefactthattheterms"HTnayana" and "Mahayana"refer to
numerousschoolsand thatthecategoryof "Hinayana"includeseven
a numberof "proto-Mahayana" schools (e.g., the Mahasafrghikas).10
Byusingtheterms"Mahayana"and "HTnayana"monolithically, these
thinkers the
ignore plurality of doctrines, goals, and pathsthat are pres-
entintheschools.
The thirdprobleminherent in thestatements of thesewriters, and
whichwillbe thefocusof thisarticle,is thattheyassumethatall fol-
lowersofthe Hinayanaare sravakasstriving to becomearahantswhile
all followers oftheMahayanaare bodhisattvas on thepathto buddha-
hood.As we shallsee through theexampleoftheonlyextantHTnayana
school,theTheravadin thisis clearlynotthecase.
tradition,
Beforereevaluating thebodhisattva-sravaka oppositionas it is pre-
sentedby Nagarjuna,Asafiga,and CandrakTrti, it is firstnecessaryto
ascertainthepresenceand scope ofthebodhisattva ideal inTheravada
Buddhism. This will be accomplishedby lookingat thepresenceofthe
ideal intheTheravadaBuddhist Palicanon(theory) as wellas byinves-
tigating how the same ideal permeates the livesof Theravada Buddhists
(practice).
Thepresenceofthebodhisattva idealintheTheravadaBuddhist Pali
canon is primarily restrictedto GotamaBuddha.The use of the term
"bodhisattva" occursina numberofthesottas(Skt:satra)intheMajjhi-
ma, Anguttara, and Samyutta NikJyas wherethe Buddhais purported
to havesaid:"Monks,beforemyAwakening, andwhileI was yetmerely
theBodhisatta [Skt:bodhisattva], notfully-awakened....""In addition
to referringto thepresentlifeofGotama,theterm"bodhisattva" is also
used in relation to thepenultimate lifeofGotamainTusita(Pali:Tusita)
heaven,as wellas hisconceptionand birth.12
In latercanonicaltexts,the bodhisattva ideal is further developed
and associatedwithnumerousconcepts.These developments (which
includetheconceptofa bodhisattva vow)maybe saidto introduce "into
TheravadaBuddhismwhatin Mahayanastudieshas been called 'the
Bodhisattvaideal.' "13 In the SuttaNip~ta,forexample, theterm"bodhi-
sattva" refersto the historicalBuddha priorto his enlightenment and
a
signifies being set on Buddhahood.14 In addition,the bodhisattva
ideal
Samuels
in this text is also associated with the quality of compassion. This is Jeffrey

401

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 exemplified bythesage Asita'sremark to Gotama'sfather(Suddhodana)
thattheyoungbodhisattva-prince "willcometothefulfillment ofperfect
Enlightenment ... [and]willstartturningthewheelofTruth outofcom-
passion forthe of
well-being many."15
In yetanothercanonicaltext,the Buddhavamsa, the bodhisattva
ideal is developedto the greatest extent.Here,the bodhisattva ideal
refersto an ideal personagewho makesa vow to becomea fullyand
completely enlightened buddha(sammisambuddha) outofcompassion
forall sentient who
beings,16 performs variousacts of and who
merit,17
receivesa prophecy ofhisfuture In the
buddhahood.18 addition, bodhi-
sattvadepictedin the Buddhavamsa makesa vow to becomea bodhi-
sattvaonlyafterthe attainment of arahantshipis withinreach.Thisis
portrayed in the chronicle of Sumedha. While Sumedhawas lyingin
the mudand offering his bodyto the BuddhaDTpankara to walk on,
Sumedha thought:"lf I so wished I could burnup mydefilements
today.
Whatis the use whileI (remain)unknownof realizingdhammahere?
Havingreachedomniscience, I willbecomea Buddhaintheworldwith
thedevas."19
Another idea thatarisesinconjunction withthebodhisattva ideal is
theneedtocompletea number ofbodhisattvaperfections this
(piramitj);
can be foundmostclearlyin theBuddhavamsa and theCariydpitaka.20
In thesetwo texts,ten perfections are delineated,as opposed to six
perfectionsdescribed in certain Mahayanatexts(e.g.,theAstasJhasriki-
Prajiap-ramitisOtraandtheRatnagunasamcayagathd). TheBuddhavamsa
and the Cariyapitaka also discusshow each ofthetenperfections may
be practicedat threedifferent levels:a regular a
degree, higherdegree,
and an ultimatedegreeofcompletion.
Thoughtheconceptof threedegreesof perfection is suggestedin
the Buddhavamsa,21 the Cariyapitaka exploresthe idea in moredetail,
especiallywith the example of the first
paramitd-giving (dana). To
exemplify how the of
perfection giving(dana) was completedin the
lowestdegree,we findstoriesofhowthebodhisattva gave peoplefood;
his own sandalsand shade; an elephant;giftsto mendicants; wealth;
clothing,beds,food, and drink; and
offerings; even his own familymem-
bers.22To illustrate
howthesame perfection was fulfilled inthemiddle
degree,we readhowthebodhisattva gaveawayhisbodilypartssuchas
hiseye.23Andfinally, to demonstrate howtheperfection ofgivingwas
in the highestdegree,we finda storyof how thebodhisattva
fulfilled
gave awayhisown lifewhenhe was a hare.24
InthePalicanon,theterm"bodhisattva" is also used inreference to
otherpreviousbuddhas.Forinstance,in the Mahipadinasuttaof the
DTghaNikcya,the notionof past buddhas (and hence past bodhisattvas)
is elucidated. In the beginningof this sutta,the six buddhas who pre-
East& West ceded Gotama are mentionedas well as theirnames,theeons when they
Philosophy

402

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
became buddhas(i.e., whentheyattainedenlightenment and taught),
theircaste,theirclan,theirlifespan,thetreeswheretheyattaineden-
lightenment, thenumber oftheirdisciples,theirpersonalattendants, and
theirparents.25 Afterbriefly outliningthe livesof thesesix buddhas,
Gotamabeginsan in-depth recollectionofthefirstbuddha,VipassT, from
hislifeinTusitaheavenuntilhe dispersedhismonksforthepurposeof
spreading theteachings.In thisnarration, theBuddhanotonlyrefers to
VipassTup to hisenlightenment as a bodhisattva,26
butalso takesthelife
eventsofVipassias theexampleforall future bodhisattvasand buddhas,
including(retroactively)Gotama himself.27
Anothersectionof the sutta-pitaka wherethe term"bodhisattva"
pertainsto each ofthesixpreviousbuddhasis theSamyutta Nikiya.For
instance,in thefourth sectionofthesecondbook,we findthephrase
"To Vipassi,brethren, ExaltedOne, Arahant, BuddhaSupreme,before
his enlightenment, while he was yet unenlightened and Bodhisat[ta],
therecame thisthought...."Thissame phrase,then,is used in con-
junctionwiththeotherfivepreviousbuddhasin thefollowing verses:
Sikhi,Vessabhu,Kakusandha, and
Kondgamana, Kassapa.28
Whilemostoftheuses oftheterm"bodhisattva" concernGotama
Buddhaand the numerous buddhaswho precededhim,thereare also
references in the Pali canon to the possibilityof futurebuddhas(and
hence bodhisattvas). For example,in the Cakkavatisrhanddasutta of
the DTghaNikiya,the Buddhaforetells ofthefuture when"an Exalted
One namedMetteyya[Skt:Maitreya], Arahant,FullyAwakened[i.e.,
sammdsambuddha], aboundingin wisdomand goodness,happy,with
knowledge oftheworlds,unsurpassed as a guideto mortalswillingto be
led,a teacher forgods and men, and Exalted a
One, Buddha,evenas I
am now,"willarise.29
ThoughMaitreyais theonlyfuture buddhamentioned specifically,
thepossibilityofattaining buddhahoodis notrestricted solelyto him.In
the SampasidanTyasutta of the DTghaNikiya,forinstance,Sariputta is
professedto have said: "In the presence of theExaltedOne have I heard
him say and fromhim have received, that ... in times gone by and
in futuretimestherehave been, and will be otherSupremeBuddhas
equal to himself
[i.e.,Gotama]inthematter of Enlightenment."30
Thus,
no longeris the term"bodhisattva"used solelyin conjunctionwith
Gotama,withotherpastbuddhas,and withMaitreya; thebodhisattva-
ydnais regardedas a possible,albeitdifficult,
pathopen to anyonewho
desiresbuddhahood.
This moreexpandeduse of the term"bodhisattva"is explicitly
expressed in the Khuddakapitha.In the eighthchapterof thiscanonical
text(theNidhikandasutta),
thegoal of buddhahood is presentedas a goal
thatshould be pursuedby certainexceptional beings.Afterdemonstrat-
Samuels
ing the impermanenceand uselessness of accumulating and storing Jeffrey

403

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 materialpossessionsor treasures, the suttamentionsanothertypeof
treasurethatis morepermanent and whichfollowsbeingsfrombirth to
birth.Thistreasure results
fromgiving(ddna),morality (sTla),abstinence
(samryama),and restraint
(dama). This treasurefulfills
all desires,leadsto
a rebirthin a beautifulbody, enables one to become sovereignof a
country and a lovingspouse,and leads to rebirthin the humanrealm
(fromwhichliberation is possible).Moreover, the qualitiesof charity,
virtue,abstinence, lead to thewisdomwhichproducesthe
and restraint
"blissof Extinguishment" ofeitherarahants, pratyekabuddhas, or com-
pletelyenlightened buddhas.We read:

Discriminatingknowledge,releaseofmind, theperfections
ofa NobleDis-
ciple(ofa Buddha) theEnlightenment
[i.e.,sJvaka-paramr], ofa SilentBuddha
andtherequisites
[i.e.,paccekabodhi] for(Supreme)
Buddhahood [i.e.,bud-
dhabhomi], allthese(qualities)
canbe obtained There-
bythis(treasure)....
forewiseandeducated menpraise ofmeritorious
theacquisition actions.31
Thissuttaillustrates thatthe goal of buddhahoodand the pathto the
goal (i.e., bodhisattva-ydna) are no longersimplyassociatedwithspe-
cificbuddhasof the past and future;rather,buddhahoodis one of
threepossiblegoals thatmay be pursuedby "wise and educated"
people.32
Thoughthe idea thatanyonemaybecome a buddhathrough fol-
the is
lowing bodhisattva-yanaonlypresent in theTheravada Buddhist
Pali canon in seed form,it appears,nonetheless, to have been taken
seriouslyby Theravadins. This is illustratedin the livesof numerous
Theravadinkings,monks,and textualcopyistswho have takenthe
bodhisattva vow and arefollowing thebodhisattva-yina to theeventual
attainment ofbuddhahood.
Therelationship betweenkingsand bodhisattvas has itssourceinthe
bodhisattva careerofGotamaas depictednotonlyin his lifeas Prince
Siddhartha (Pali: Siddhattha), but also in his penultimate earthlylife
whenhe was KingVessantara. As KingVessantara, thebodhisattva ex-
hibitedhiscompassionbyfulfilling theperfection ofgiving.Forinstance,
we findthatthe bodhisattva gave away his elephantto alleviatea
drought nearbyKaliniga, wealth,his kingdom,
in his and his wifeand
children, and was even willingto giveaway hisown lifeout of com-
passionforotherbeings.
Thoughtheparadigm fortheclose associationbetweentheinstitu-
tionof kingship and buddhahoodcame fromGotamawhenhe was a
bodhisattva, itwas quicklyadoptedbyTheravadin kingsbythesecond
century B.C.E. and fullyincorporated aftertheeighthcentury C.E.In the
early examples, we find the relationshipdrawn between kings and
bodhisattvasin numerous,albeit tempered,ways. For instance, King
East
Philosophy & West DuttagamanTexhibitedthe qualityof compassion by refusingto enter

404

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
theheavenlyrealmafter hispreviouslifeas an ascetic(simanera)so that
he couldbe rebornas a princeand unitetheregionalrulers ofSriLanka
as wellas helpdevelopthesanghaandtheBuddha'steaching.33 Though
DuttagamanT is notreferred
to as a bodhisattvain the Mahavamsa, he
appears to demonstrate certain bodhisattvic Just
qualities. as a bodhi-
sattvarenouncestheenlightenment of an arahantso thathe could be
reborncountlesstimesinthisworldof impermanence and suffering out
ofcompassionforall beings,so,too,did KingDuttagamanT renouncethe
worldofthedevasinorderto return tothisworldofsuffering forthesake
oftheBuddhist and outofcompassionforall inhabitants
doctrine on the
islandofSriLanka.
Similarexamplesof bodhisattva-like compassionare exhibitedby
KingSirisamnghabodhi, who is said to have riskedhis lifeto save the
inhabitantsof Sri Lankafroma devastating drought34 and who even
offeredhisown head in orderto diverta potential war;35by KingBud-
dhadasa,who created"happinessby everymeansforthe inhabitants
of the island ... [and who was] giftedwith wisdom [i.e., panf-ld]and
virtue[i.e.,sTla],... endowedwiththetenqualitiesofkings[i.e.,theten
rajadhammas],... [and] lived openly before the people the life that
bodhisattas lead and had pityfor(all) beingsas a father(has pityfor)
his children";36and especiallyby KingUpatissa,who fulfilled theten
bodhisattva his
during reign.37
perfections
Bytheeighthcentury C.E.,theamalgamation betweentheinstitution
ofkingship and bodhisattvasbecameevenstronger. Atthistime,we find
evidenceofcertainTheravadin kingsinSriLanka,Burma,and Thailand
who openlydeclaredthemselves to be bodhisattvas.Forexample,King
NiSSanka Malla (1187-1196 C.E.)of Polonnaruva, Ceylon,statesthat"I
willshowmyselfin my[true]bodywhichis endowedwithbenevolent
regardforand attachment tothevirtuous qualitiesofa bodhisattva king,
who likea parent,protects theworldand thereligion."38 In otherepi-
graphicalmarkings, thereis a referenceto KingParakramabahu VI as
"Bodhisatva[sic] ParakramaBahu."39Finally,the conflation of kings
and bodhisattvas on theislandofSriLankais established moststrongly
by King Mahinda IV,who not only referredto himself
as a bodhisattva as
a resultof his bodhisattva-like
resolutedetermination,40 butwho even
wentso faras to proclaimthat"nonebutthebodhisattas wouldbecome
kingsofprosperous Lanikd."41
In Burma,therelationship betweenkingsand bodhisattvas is exem-
plifiedwithKingKyanzittha, who claimed himselfto be "the bodhisatva
[sic],who shall verilybecome a Buddhathatsaves (and) redeemsall
beings,who is greatin love (and) compassionforall beingsat all times...
[and] who was foretoldby the Lord Buddha, who is to become a true
Buddha."42 In anotherinstance,KingAlaungsithuwrotethathe would
Samuels
liketo build a causeway to help all beings reach "The Blessed City[i.e., Jeffrey

405

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 nirvana]."43 Finally,kingsSriTribhuvanaditya, ThiluiriMarh,CafisOI,
and Natonfmyd all referredtothemselves as bodhisattvas.44
In Thailand,a similarconnectionis drawn.One exampleofa Thai
bodhisattva-king is Lu T'ai of Sukhothaiwho "wishedto become a
Buddhato helpall beings... leavebehindthesufferings oftransmigra-
tion."45The relationbetweenKingLu T'ai and bodhisattvahood is
also manifested bytheeventsoccurring at hisordinationceremony that
weresimilarto "theordinary courseof happeningsin the careerof a
Bodhisattva.''46
Whileitmaybyarguedthatthesebodhisattva kingswereinfluenced
by certainMahayanadoctrines whentheyappropriated certainbodhi-
sattvicqualitiesortookthebodhisattva vow,thisdoes notinvalidate the
relationshipbetween kingshipand bodhisattvas inTheravada Buddhism.
Thougha linkmaybe established betweenthesebodhisattva kingsand
MahayanaBuddhism, thisdoes notdismissthefactthatthebodhisattva
ideal was takenseriouslyby Theravadinkingsor thatthe bodhisattva
idealhas a place inTheravadaBuddhist theoryand practice.Moreover,
while it maybe possibleto positthatthesekingswere influenced by
Mahayanaconcepts,it is impossibleto demonstrate thatthese kings
wereonlyinfluenced byMahayanaBuddhism; justbecausea kingmay
have been influenced by Mahayana ideas does notmeanthatcertain
Theravadaideas,including the ideas of a bodhisattva as foundin the
Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka, werenotequallyinfluential.
The presenceofa bodhisattva ideal inTheravadaBuddhism is also
represented by the numerous examples of otherTheravadins who have
eitherreferred to themselvesor have been referred to by othersas
bodhisattvas.The celebratedcommentator Buddhaghosa, forexample,
was viewedby the monksof the Anuradhapura monastery as being,
withoutdoubt,an incarnation of Metteyya.47 Thereare even some
instancesof Theravadinmonkswho expressedtheirdesireto become
fullyenlightened buddhas.Forinstance, thetwentieth-century bhikkhu,
Doratiydveye of Sri Lanka(ca. 1900), afterbeingdeemed worthyof
receivingcertainsecretteachingsby his meditation teacher,refused
to practicesuchtechniquesbecause he feltthatitwouldcause himto
enteron thePathand attainthelevelofarahantinthislifetime orwithin
sevenlives(i.e., by becominga sottipanna). Thiswas unacceptableto
Doratiy~veye because he saw himself as a bodhisattvawho had already
madea vowto attainbuddhahoodinthefuture.48
Thevowto becomea buddhawas also takenbycertainTheravadin
textualcopyistsandauthors. Theauthorofthecommentary on theIJtaka
(the1Jtakattakath3), forexample,concludeshis workwiththevow to
complete the ten bodhisattvaperfectionsin the futureso that he will
become a buddha and liberate"the whole worldwithitsgods fromthe
East
Philosophy & West bondage of repeated births... [and] guide themto the most excellent

406

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
and tranquilNibbdna."49Another exampleofa Theravadinauthorwho
wishedto become a buddhaby following is the
the bodhisattva-ydna
SriLanrkanmonkMaha-Tipitaka COlabhaya.In histwelfth-century
sub-
commentary on the Questionsof KingMilinda,he "wrotein thecolo-
phon at the end of the workthathe wishedto become a buddha:
BuddhoBhaveyyam 'May I becomea Buddha.'"50

A Reevaluation oftheBodhisattva-Srjvaka Opposition

While manycanonical uses of the term"bodhisattva"referto
Gotamapriorto hisattainment ofbuddhahood,inothercanonicaltexts
(such as the Buddhavamsa), termdesignatesa beingwho, out of
the
compassionforotherbeings,vows to become a fullyand completely
enlightened buddha performs variousactsofmerit,
(sammrsambuddha),
renouncesthe enlightenment of arahants,receivesa prophecyof his
future buddhahood,and fulfills orcompletesthetenbodhisattva perfec-
In
tions. addition,thebodhisattva idealwas also developedinterms ofits
application.Notonlydoestheword"bodhisattva" pertain toGotamaand
all previousbuddhasbeforetheirenlightenment, italso appliesto any
being who wishes to the to
pursue path perfect buddhahood. Thisnew
development resultedina more general adherence totheidealbynumer-
ous Theravadin kings,monks, textualscholars,and even laypeople.51
The presenceand scope ofthebodhisattva ideal inTheravadaBud-
dhisttheoryand practice,then,appearsto belie Nagarjuna's, Asafiga's,
and CandrakTrti's
claimsnotonlythatthe"subjectsbased on thedeeds
of Bodhisattvaswerenotmentioned inthe [HTnaydnal satras,"butalso
thatthe lesservehicle(HTnayana) knowsnothing of the "stagesof the
careerof the futureBuddha,52 the perfect virtues(piramiti),the reso-
lutionsor vows to save all creatures, the applicationof meritto the
acquisitionof the qualityof Buddha,[and] the greatcompassion."In
addition,thepresenceofa developedbodhisattva doctrinein the Bud-
dhavamrsa and the Cariyapitaka also calls intoquestionthecommonly
held beliefthatthebodhisattva ideal underwent majordoctrinal devel-
opmentsin earlyMahayanaBuddhism; thereare numerous similarities
betweenthe bodhisattva ideal as foundin the Buddhavamsaand as
foundin certainearlyMahayanaBuddhist textssuchas the Ratnaguna-
samcayagithi.53 Both of these for
texts, instance,expressthe need for
the completionof certainbodhisattva perfections, the importance of
makinga vow to become a buddha,the notionof accumulating and
applyingmeritfortheattainment of buddhahood,the roleof compas-
sion,and theimplicit presence of certain bodhisattva stages.
Even thoughthe bodhisattvaideal did not undergosubstantialdoc-
trinaldevelopmentsbetween the latercanonical textsand certainearly
Mahayanatexts,itwas developedin termsof itsapplication.Whereas
Samuels
the goal of becoming a buddha becomes the focus of the Mahayana Jeffrey

407

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 thisgoal remainsde-emphasized
tradition, in theTheravadin tradition.
In otherwords,althoughthebodhisattva ideal in MahayanaBuddhism
becomesa goal thatis appliedtoeveryone, thesameidealinTheravada
Buddhism is reservedfortheexceptionalperson.Thisdistinction is de-
scribedbyWalpolaRahula:
Though theTheravadinsbelievethatanyonecanbecomea bodhisattva, they
do notstipulate
orinsist
thateveryone mustbecome isnot
a bodhisattva-this
consideredtobe reasonable.
Itisuptotheindividualtodecidewhichpathto
take,thatof the that
Sravaka, of thePratyekabuddha,orthatoftheSamyak-
sambuddha[i.e.,sammisambuddha].54
The stateof buddhahoodis highlypraisedin bothtraditions. In
MahayanaBuddhism, thispraiseforand focuson theidealofbuddha-
hood has resultedin a vastamountof literature centeredon thebodhi-
sattvaideal. In the Theravadin tradition,on the otherhand,the high
regard forbuddhahood has never led to a universalapplicationofthe
goal, nor has it resultedin a vast amountof literature in whichthe
bodhisattva concept is delineated.As K. R. Norman posits:"The Bud-
dhavarmsa is therefore a developed Bodhisattva butitwas not
doctrine,
developedfurther, even in theAbhidharma."55
Theseabove-mentioned differencesbetweenthetwotraditions are
essentialand are a usefulmeansto distinguish TheravadafromMaha-
yana Buddhism.Ratherthansimplyidentifying the bodhisattva-yana
withthe variousMahayanaschools and the sravaka-yfna withthe
numerous HTnaydna schools(as does theold model,whichillustrates the
ideas put forthby Nagarjuna,Asanrga, and CandrakTrti),the revised
theoretical
modelmaymoreaccurately portraythedifferences thatexist
betweenthetwoydnasbyreferring to MahayanaBuddhism as a vehicle
inwhichthebodhisattva idealis moreuniversallyapplied,andtoThera-
vida Buddhism as a vehiclein whichthebodhisattva ideal is reserved
forand appropriated by certainexceptionalpeople. Put somewhat
while
differently, the bodhisattva-ydna and the goal of buddhahood
continuesto be acceptedas one of threepossiblegoals by followers
of TheravadaBuddhism, thissame goal becomesviewedas the only
acceptablegoal by followers ofMahayanaBuddhism. Hence,itshould
be stressedthatthechangeintroduced the
by Mahayanatraditions is not
so muchan invention ofa newtypeofsaintora newideology, butrather
a takingofan exceptionalidealand bringing itintoprominence.56

NOTES

An earlierversionof thisarticlewas presented

at theAmericanAcad-
East
Philosophy & West of
emy Religion,Rocky Mountains-Great PlainsRegion,in April1995.

408

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Numerous peoplehavebeen instrumental in itscompletion. I wouldlike
to thankJoseCabez6n, RobertLester,and ReginaldRay forreading
the roughdrafts and makingvaluablesuggestions on how it mightbe
improved.I also wish to thankthe two anonymousreadersfortheir
commentsand suggestions. Finally,I would like to thankmy wife,
BenedicteF. Bossut,forherdirectinvolvement in all stagesofthepro-
ductionofthisarticle,especiallyforhereditorialsuggestions. Anyerrors,
oversights, thatremain,
and inaccuracies however, aresolelytherespon-
oftheauthor.
sibility
1 - JohnC. Holt,Buddhain theCrown:Avalokitesvara in theBuddhist
TraditionsofSriLanka(New York:OxfordUniversity Press,1991),
pp. viii-ix.
2 - Nagdrjuna, PreciousGarlandofAdvicefortheKingand theSongof
theFourMindfulnesses, trans.Jeffrey
Hopkinsand LatiRimpoche,
The Wisdomof TibetSeries,no. 2 (London:GeorgeAllenand
Unwin,1975),v. 390.
3 -Ibid., v. 391.
4 - Ibid.,v. 393.
5 - RichardS. Cohen, "DiscontentedCategories:HTnayanaand
Mahayanain IndianBuddhistHistory," Journalof theAmerican
of
Academy Religion 63 (1) (1995): pp. 2-3.
6 - Asanrga,MahjyanasCitralamrnkra, trans.SurekhaVijayLimaye,Bib-
liothecaIndo-Buddhica Series,no. 94 (Delhi: Sri SatguruPub-
1992),1 :9.
lications,
7 - Ibid., 1 : 10.
8 - YanamhTnamhTnameva tatna tanMahjydnambhavitum arhati
(ibid.).Theidentification
oftheHTnayana schoolsofBuddhism with
the?ravaka-yina madebyAsarigahasbeenadoptedbycertainlater
scholars.Forinstance,HarDayal makesthissame identification as
follows:"Corresponding to thesethreekindsof bodhi,thereare
threeyanasor "Ways,"whichlead an aspirantto the goal. The
thirdydna was at firstcalled the bodhisattva-yana, but it was
subsequently re-namedmahd-yina. The other two yanas(i.e.,the
sravaka-yina and thepratyekabuddha-yjna) werespokenofas the
hTna-yana" (The BodhisattvaDoctrinein BuddhistSanskrit Liter-
ature[Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass, 1975], p. 11). The identification
of HTnayanaBuddhismwiththe sravaka-yana is also made by
in
scholarslikeLeonHurvitz, Scripture oftheLotusBlossomofthe
Fine Dharma (New York:Columbia University
Press,1976), p. 116,
and M. Monier-Williams,A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass,1990), p. 1097. Samuels
Jeffrey

409

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 9 - Louis de La Vallie Poussin,"Bodhisattva,"
in Encyclopaediaof
Religionand Ethics(New York: CharlesScribner's
Sons, 1913),
8:334.
10 - AndreBareau,Les Sectes Bouddhiquesdu PetitV6hicule(Paris:
Ecole Franpaise 1955).
D'Extreme-Orient,
11 - "Pubbeva me,bhikkhave, sambodhi,anabhisambuddhassa bodhi-
sattassasato,edad ahosi." The suttasin whichtheword"bodhi-
sattva"followsthispreludeare: MajjhimaNikdya1:17, 92, 114,
163, 240; 2:93, 211; 3:157; Anguttara Nikiya3:240; 4:302,
438; and Samyutta Nikdya2:4; 3:27; 4:233; 5:281, 316. Unless
otherwiseindicated,all referencesto theP5licanon are fromthe
English of
translation the PaliText Society.
12 - MajjhimaNikdya3:119-120, and DighaNikiya2:108.
13 - RichardGombrich, of FormerBuddhasin the
"The Significance
TheravadinTradition,"BuddhistStudiesin Honourof Walpola
Rahula,ed. SomaratnaBalasooriyaet al. (London:GordonFraser
Gallery,1980),p. 68.
14 - H. Saddhatissa,trans.,The Sutta-Nipata
(London:CurzonPress,
1985),v. 683.
15 - Ibid.,v. 693.
16 - Thevowto becomea buddhaincludesboththequalitiesofmental
determination (i.e., manopanidhi)and aspiration(abhinfharaka-
rana)toattainbuddhahood: toengageinthelongand arduouspath
to completeand perfect enlightenment(i.e.,
sammrsambuddha).
Whereasthe mentaldetermination to becomea buddhais made
silentlyto oneselfand is analogousto the Mahayanaconceptof
bodhicitta or "thought of Enlightenment,"theaspiration is usually
made in the presenceof an existingbuddha.Thoughthe mental
determination to becomea buddhaoccursonlyonce, theaspira-
tionto attainbuddhahoodmustbe repeatedin the presenceof
all subsequentbuddhas(I. B. Horner,introduction to theBuddha-
vamsa[Chronicles oftheBuddha],SacredBooksoftheBuddhists,
vol. 31 [London:PaliTextSociety,1975],pp. xiv-xv).Theclearest
exampleofa bodhisattva vow is foundin Buddhavamsa 2A: 56 ff.,
wherethebodhisattva Sumedhathought:
overalone,beinga manawareofmy
Whatis theuse ofmycrossing
Havingreachedomniscience,
strength? I willcausetheworldtogether
with
thedevasto crossover.Cutting
through the streamof shattering
sarmsara,
thethreebecomings,embarking in theshipof Dhamma,I willcause the
East& West
Philosophy worldwiththedevasto crossover.

410

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
17 - A listofthevariousmeritorious actsperformed byGotamato each
ofthetwenty-four previous buddhas is delineatedby I. B. Horner,
in herintroduction to theBuddhavamsa, pp. xlixff.One example
of a meritorious act performed fora Buddhacan be foundin
the chronicleof Sumedha.When Sumedhaheardthatthe then
buddha-DTpahkara-wasto pass along a road,he, as an act of
merit,offeredto cleara sectionofthepath:
WhenI heard"Buddha," zestaroseimmediately.Saying "Buddha, Bud-
dha" I expressed
myhappiness. Standingthereelated,stirred
in mind,I
reasoned,"HerewillI sowseeds[ofmerit]; indeed,letnotthemoment
pass!Ifyouareclearing fora Buddha,givemeonesection. I myself
will
alsoclearthedirectway,thepathandroad"(Buddhavamsa 2A:42 ff.).
BeforeSumedhawas able to finish thesectionoftheroadallotted
to him,DTpahkara arrivedaccompaniedbyfourhundred thousand
arahants.As a resultofnothavingfinished histaskofpreparing the
road,Sumedhaprostrated himselfinthemudand offered hisbody
to DTpahkara forwalkingon (2A: 52-53).
18 - See, forinstance,Buddhavamsa2A: 61 ff.These developments
havea greataffect on thewaysinwhichtheterm"bodhisattva" is
used.As Gombrich posits,"Anyfuture Buddhais a Bodhisattva (by
but withthe appearanceof thistheoryone formally
definition),
becomesa Bodhisattva bytakinga vow inthepresenceofa Bud-
dha and receivinghis prediction"("The Significance of Former
Buddhas,"p. 68).
19 - Buddhavamsa2A: 54-55.
20 - The tenperfectionsare mentioned numerous timesintheBuddha-
vamsa.See, for example, Buddhavamsa 2A: 117 ff.,4:14, 5:20,
and 6:14.
-
21 In Buddhavamsa1: 76-77, Sdriputta asks the Buddhaabout his
of
process Awakening and how he thetenperfections.
fulfilled He
thenasks:"Of whatkind,wiseone, leaderoftheworld,wereyour
tenperfections?How werethehigherperfections howthe
fulfilled,
ultimateperfections?"
22 - Cariyapitaka
1 :1-1 :8 and 1 :9.
23 - Ibid., 1:8:2-3.
24 - Ibid.,1 :10:9, 1 :10:22-23.
25 - DTghaNikiya 2:1-7.
26 - For instance,we find:"Now VipassT,brethren,when as a Bodhi-
sat[ta],he ceased to belong to the hostsof the heaven of Delight,
descended into his mother'swomb mindfuland self-possessed"
(DrghaNik;ya 2 :12). Samuels
Jeffrey

411

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 27 - In manyof the followingparagraphs, forinstance,we findthe
phrase "It is the that...." (Ayametthadhammati)
rule,brethren,
usedto refer totheparadigm setbyVipassT.
28 - Samyutta Nikiya2:4 ff.Thesixprevious buddhasmentioned inthe
Digha and Samyutta Nikjyas are increased to twenty-four even
and
in
to twenty-sevenlatercanonicaltextssuchas theBuddhavamsa.
Inyeta latercanonicaltext,theApadjnaoftheKhuddaka-Nikiya,
thenumber ofpreviousbuddhasincreasesto morethanthirty-five.
29 - DighaNikjya3:76.
30 - Ibid.,3 :114. Thoughthepossibility
fortheexistenceofotherfuture
buddhasbeside Metteyyais mentionedonly briefly in the Pali
canon, inother Theravadin
post-canonical there
texts, aremorespe-
cificreferencestofuturebodhisattvas
and buddhas.Forinstance, in
the Dasabodhisattuppattikathd,the Dasabodhisattaddesa, and in
one recensionoftheAnigatavamrsa Desand,theninebodhisattvas
who willfollowMaitreya are mentioned. Moreover, inone recen-
sion ofthe Dasabodhisattuppattikathi,we even findtheplaces of
residence ofsevenofthetenbodhisattvas:Metteyya,Rama,Pasena,
and Vibhbtiare presently residingin Tusitaheaven and Subhoti,
N5lgiri, and are
Parileyya now in Tdvatimsa heaven. Thus, it
appearsthattheTheravadin tradition
acknowledges certain"celes-
tial" bodhisattvaswho are currentlyresidingin variousheavenly
realmsand notthattheonlyrecognizedbodhisattva inTheravada
Buddhismis Maitreya(EdwardConze, Thirty Yearsof Buddhist
Studies:SelectedEssaysbyEdwardConze [Oxford: BrunoCassirer,
1967],p. 38).
31 - Khuddakapitha8:15-16.
32 - Thoughtheaccessibilityofthesethreegoals to all beingsis only
brieflymentionedin the Khuddakapitha,in the Upjsakajanjlain-
kara(a twelfth-century
Palitext
dealingwithlayBuddhist all
ethics),
threewaysof liberationare clearlyadmitted(HajimeNakamura,
IndianBuddhism:A SurveywithBibliographicalNotes[Osaka:Kufs
1980],p. 119).
Publication,
33 - Mahjvamsa 22:25-41.
34 - Ibid.,36: 76. Thereis a remarkable parallelbetweenKingSirisam-
ghabodhi, who risked his lifeto avert a devastating and
drought,
who
KingVessantara, gave away his to
preciouselephant avert
a
in
drought Kalifga.
35 - Mahavamsa 36:91 ff.The willingnessto offerhis own lifeto avert
the potentialsuffering
of hissubjectsappears to have some originin
East
Philosophy & West the lifeof KingVessantara,who was willingto offerhis lifeto fulfill

412

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 theperfection
ofgiving.Aftercommenting on thebodhisattva-like
natureofKingSirisamghabodhi,John Holt argues:"By hisactions,
Sirisanghabodhiveryclearlycuts the figureof an earthly,royal
and almosta Mahayanabodhisattva
bodhisattva, at that"(Buddha
in theCrown,p. 59).
36 - Cilavamrsa,
37:106 ff.
37 - Ibid.,37:180.
38 - EpigraphiaZeylanica, 2 : 76.
39 - Ibid.,3:67. Thispassageis translated
on pages68-69 ofthesame
volume.
40 - Ibid., 1 :227.
41 - Ibid., 1 : 240.
42 - EpigraphiaBurmanica,1 :146.
43 - P. M. Tin, "The ShwegugyiPagoda Inscriptions,
Pagan 1141 A.D.,"
TheJournal
oftheBurmaResearchSociety10 (2) (1920): 72.
44 - T. Tun, "Religion in Burma,A.D. 100-1300," The Journalof the
BurmaResearchSociety42 (1959): 53.
45 - E. Sarkisyanz,
BuddhistBackgroundsof the BurmeseRevolution
(TheHague:Martinus 1965),
Nijhoff, p. 47.
46 - B. W. Andaya,"Statecraft
intheReignofLuT'ai ofSukhodaya,"in
Religionand of Powerin Thailand,Laos, Burma,ed.
Legitimation
BarwellL.Smith(Chambersburg:ConocosheagueAssociates,1978),
p. 13.
47 - CIlavamsa 37:242. In commenting
on this story,Holt posits:
"What this... seem[s] to suggestis thatnotonlydid Maitreyacome
to be associatedwithvisionsof perfected but he also
kingship,
seemsto have been continuouslyassociatedwiththe ideal ofthe
perfectedmonk"(Buddhain theCrown,p. 8). EventhoughBud-
dhaghosawas depictedas beingan incarnationofMetteyya, he is
neverdescribedas takinga bodhisattva vow and as practicing
certainbodhisattva
perfections.
48 - F. L. Woodward,trans.,A Manual of a Mystic:Beinga Transla-
tionfromthePaliand SinhaleseWorkEntitled "The Yogavachara's
Manual"(London:OxfordUniversity Press,1916),pp. xvii-xviii.
49 - H. Saddhatissa, The Birth-Storiesof the Ten Bodhisattasand the
Dasabodhisattuppattikatha,Sacred Books of the Buddhists,vol. 29
(London: Pali TextSociety,1975), pp. 38-39. Samuels
Jeffrey

413

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 50 - MilindaTfTk (PaliTextSociety),p. 73; quotedinWalpolaRahula,
"L'ideal du bodhisattvadans le Theravadaet le Mahayana,"Jour-
nalAsiatique,1971,p. 69.
51 - Thereis evidencethatsuggests thatcertainlaypeople livingin Sri
Lankatookbodhisattva vows to attainbuddhahood.Forexample,
we findthattwoSriLankans, afterfreeingtheirchildrenand wives
fromslavery, dedicatedthemeritderivedfromtheseactions"for
thebenefit ofall beings"(Epigraphia Zeylanica,4:133, nos. 1-4)
as well as to theirown attainment of "Buddhahoodas desired"
(ibid.,4:133, nos. 2-3). We also finda similarwishmade by a
"lay" personwho livedbetweenthefifth and eighthcenturiesand
who sculptedorcommissioned thesculptingofa rockintheshape
of a stopa.The personthendedicatedthemeritaccruedfromhis
undertaking forthebenefit of all beingsand forhis attainmentof
buddhahood.He writes:
Bythismerit,mayI be able,inevery torelive
rebirth,
succeeding all the
oftheworldandtobestowcomplete
suffering happiness[onhumanity].
[MayI alsoalways]
befullofforbearance
andcompassion.
By thismerit,may I vanquishthe foes,Mara ... and sin; and having
attainedtothat supreme stateofBuddhahood, mayI,withmyhandofgreat
compassion, deliver suffering
humanity fromtheextensive quagmire of
samsira (ibid.,3:161; neitherthebrackets northeellipses aremine).
One cautionary note concerning theseexamplesmustbe made.
Whilethereis evidencethatcertainSriLankanstooka bodhisattva
vow,thereis notsufficient evidenceto suggestthatthesepeople
were,infact,Theravidins.
-
52 While the conceptof the bodhisattva stages is not overtlyde-
lineatedin the Buddhavamsa, it is implicitin thetext.The stages
foundin the Buddhavamsa, though,closely resemblethe four
bhQmi outlined inone section oftheMahivastu,and notthetradi-
ten
tional stagesfound inthe DasabhQmika Sitra.Thesefourstages
outlinedintheMahivastu(1 : 1 and46 ff.)are:(a) thenatural career
(prakrti-caryi), in which a bodhisattva acquires merit by livinga
righteous life,givingalms to the and the
sangha, honoring buddhas;
(b) the resolving stage(pranidhana-caryi), in whicha bodhisattva
makes a vow to attainbuddhahood;(c) the conforming stage
(anuloma-caryd), in whicha bodhisattva advancesto his goal by
fulfillingtheperfections (piramitd); and finally,(d) the preserving
stage(anivartana-caryi), whereby a bodhisattva is destinedto be-
comea buddhaandcannotturnbackfrom thepathtobuddhahood.
In the Buddhavamsa, these four stages are implicitin the
chronicleof Sumedha. For example, Sumedha firstperformedan
East& West
Philosophy act of meritto the Buddha Diparnkaraby lyingin the mud (natural

414

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 career);he thenmadea mentalresolution to becomea buddhain
the future(resolvingstage);he thenexamined(and workedon
completing) thetenperfections (conformingstage);and finally,
he
became assuredof the attainment of buddhahoodby receiving
a prediction fromDTpanrkara and by the occurrencesof certain
supernatural eventsthat caused himto resolveto attainbuddha-
hood (preservingstage).ContrarytotheMahdvastu, however, all of
thefourstagesimplicitin the Buddhavamsa are reachedin each
lifetime
of Gotama'sbodhisattva careerand notovera numberof
lifetimes.
53 - This pointis morefullydevelopedin chapterfourof my M.A.
thesis,"Bodhisattva Ideal in TheravadaBuddhism:WithSpecial
Reference to the Stitra-Pitaka" (Universityof Colorado,1995). It
maybe argued,however, thatwhiletheBuddhavamsa containsthe
centraldoctrinesassociatedwiththe bodhisattva ideal, thistext
was heavilyinfluenced by certainMahayanaBuddhist schoolsof
thought. While thisidea is sometimes asserted(E. J.Thomas,The
History of BuddhistThought [London:Routledgeand KeganPaul,
1953],pp. 147-148), ithas notbeen confirmed. Infact,theoppo-
site assertionmayalso be made. This maybe supportedby the
datingof texts.Forexample,thoughthe Buddhavamsais a rela-
tivelylateadditionto thePalicanon,accordingto certainscholars
(e.g.,Gombrich, "TheSignificance ofFormer Buddhas,"p. 68, and
A. K. Warder,IndianBuddhism [Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass, 19911,
p. 298), thistextmay be dated from thethird
to the second century
B.C.E.Thisapproximate date is also supportedbythefactthatthere
is a parallelversionofthistextin theMahivastu,whichhas been
datedto thefirst century B.C.E.(EtienneLamotte, Historyof Indian
Buddhism: FromtheOriginstotheSaka Era,trans.SaraWebb-Boin
[Paris:L'InstituteOrientaliste de Louvain,1988], p. 158). Hence,
theBuddhavamsa mayactuallyprecedetheearliestMahayanatext,
the Ratnagunasamcayagithi (whichhas been datedby Conze to
the firstcenturyB.C.E.),by at least one hundredyears.
54 - Walpola Rahula,"L'ideal du bodhisattva dans le Theravadaet le
Mahayana,"Journal Asiatique,1971,p. 69.
55 - K. R. Norman,PaliLiterature: Including theCanonicalLiterature in
Prakritand Sanskrit of All the Hinayana Schools of Buddhism,A
History of IndianLiterature,vol. 7, fasc.2 (Wiesbaden:OttoHar-
rassowitz,1983), p. 94.
56 - ReginaldRay, BuddhistSaints in India: A Studyof BuddhistValues
and Orientations(London: OxfordUniversity Press,1994), p. 251.
Samuels
Jeffrey

415

This content downloaded from 129.174.21.5 on Thu, 18 Dec 2014 00:15:26 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions