ABSTRACT

A new precision finishing process called magnetorheological abrasive flow finishing

(MRAFF), which is basically a combination of abrasive flow machining (AFM) and
magnetorheological finishing (MRF), has been developed for nano-finishing of parts
even with complicated geometry for a wide range of industrial applications. In this
paper microstructure of the mixture of magnetic and abrasive particles in
magnetorheological polishing fluid (MRPF) has been proposed, and normal force on
the abrasive particles is calculated from the applied magnetic field. A model for the
prediction of material removal and surface roughness achieved has also been
presented. And, finally theoretical results are compared with the experimental data
available in the literature, and they are found to agree well.

Keywords: CIPs MRAFF MRF MRPF

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODOCTION

Surfaces play a significant role in the service life of engineering components.

The present technological world demands surface roughness of many products on
the order of a nanometer (10−9 m). It is also desirable to automate the process,
whereby the desired surface finish on the components can be obtained easily in the
shortest possible time. It is well established that the fatigue life of a component is
strongly influenced by surface integrity, including its surface finish. Therefore,
surface conditions become important factors influencing fatigue strength because
irregular and rough surfaces generally exhibit inferior fatigue properties. As surface
roughness increases, many problems such as flow resistance, wear, and optical loss
increase, resulting in a decreased efficiency. Hence, low surface roughness value (or
better surface finish) of engineering components is necessary to improve the
following product features, among many others:

• Wear resistance
• Mechanical properties of the material such as enhanced fatigue life and
toughness
• Electrical properties
• Corrosion and oxidation resistance Aesthetic appearance

Many components/products require surface roughness value in the nanometer

range. In such cases, some surface polishing is required during or after fabrication.
Recently, the need for fine finishing of materials such as semiconductors and
ceramics has become important in the fields of electronics and precision machinery.
A variety of polishing methods have been developed to fulfill these requirements.
Abrasive-based traditional finishing processes such as grinding, honing, etc. are not
capable of producing ultrafine surfaces because the abrasives are in bonded form
and a high specific cutting energy is required. Traditional finishing processes alone
are therefore incapable of producing the required surface finish. In some cases, these
processes can be used, but they require expensive equipment and long processing
times, making them economically incompetent. Hence, advanced finishing
processes are of prime importance for high- precision components.

Some advanced finishing processes such as lapping, abrasive flow finishing (AFF),
and Chemo mechanical polishing (CMP), and some magnetic-field-assisted
finishing processes such as magnetic float polishing (MFP), magnetic abrasive
finishing (MAF), and magneto rheological finishing (MRF), magneto rheological
abrasive flow finishing (MRAFF), and rotational-magneto rheological abrasive flow
finishing (R-MRAFF) have evolved in the past few decades.

The above-mentioned finishing processes have their distinct merits and demerits.
Lapping and CMP use loose abrasives in a fluid carrier, but they can finish only flat
surfaces.

AFF is capable of finishing any complicated geometry by extruding an abrasive-

laden polymeric medium through the passage formed by the work piece and fixture
assembly. However, the rheological properties of the polymeric medium, which are
responsible for transforming abrading forces to the abrasives, cannot be controlled
by external means. MRF is used for external finishing of optical lenses to nanometer
levels. It manipulates the magneto rheological (MR) fluid properties during the
finishing process by external means (i.e., magnetic field) to control machined
surface characteristics. However, it cannot finish cylindrical surfaces (external or
internal). Therefore, MRAFF and R-MRAFF have been developed for finishing
internal and external cylindrical surfaces. This chapter mainly focuses on the
magneto rheological (MR) fluid based finishing processes such as MRF, MRAFF,
and R-MRAFF.
 CHAPTER 2

MAGNETO RHEOLOGICAL (MR) FLUID

The magneto rheological (MR) fluid, invented by Rabinow in the late 1940s,
belongs to a class of smart controllable materials whose rheological behavior can be
manipulating externally by the application of a magnetic field. MR fluids are known
as controllable smart materials, since their flow properties, such as viscosity and
stiffness (yield stress), can be easily manipulated using externally applied magnetic
field. Under the influence of the magnetic field, an MR fluid can be transformed
from a fluid like state to a semi-solid-like state within milliseconds by the formation
of chain clusters of magnetic particles along the lines of the magnetic field. This
phenomenon is called the MR effect. The main component of all MR-fluid-based
finishing processes is an MR fluid, which consists of magnetic particles, abrasive
particles, carrier fluid, and additives. Initially, MR fluids were developed /used for
clutches, shock absorbers, and vibration isolators without addition of any abrasive
particle. However, in the 1980s, a few researchers demonstrated MR fluids as
polishing media for glass and other materials. Nowadays, MR- fluid-based finishing
processes have become an inevitable part of precision manufacturing.

2.1 MR Fluid Compositions

The final finished surface of a work piece is significantly affected by the

composition of the MR fluid. Stable MR fluid properties such as apparent viscosity,
temperature, and homogeneity are critical for controlling material removal. A
typical MR fluid consists of micron-sized magnetic carbonyl iron particles (CIPs),
nonmagnetic polishing abrasives suspended in a carrier liquid, and some stabilizers.
CIPs are responsible for creating high stiffness of the MR fluid in the presence of a
magnetic field. The polishing abrasive particles are necessary for high material
removal rate (MRR). The carrier liquid is responsible for establishing the correct
polishing chemistry; the stabilizers reduce sedimentation of solid particles and
increase fluid stability. Table shows the constituents of MR fluids that are used for
finishing of various materials.

Some essential features of an MR polishing fluid are as follows:

• Optimum concentration of magnetic particles and abrasive particles

• High yield stress under magnetic field
• Low off-state viscosity
• Less agglomeration and good redispersibility
• Resistance to corrosion
• Stability against static sedimentation (the resistance of a fluid to form a hard
sediment that is difficult to redispose)

• High polishing efficiency (high finishing rate without surface damage

1 Magnetic Particle

Magnetic field and magnetic particles are the most significant parameters for MR
effect in MR-fluid-based finishing processes. High magnetic saturation and low
magnetic corecivity are necessary to obtain good rheological properties in MR
fluids. The important properties of the magnetic particles are their size and hardness.
If the magnetic particles are too large, they will rapidly settle in the suspension. If
they are too small, the MR effect begins to diminish. The main functions of
magnetic particles are to form a dense chain structure under a magnetic field and to
hold abrasive particles during finishing. Without a magnetic field, magnetic
particles are dispersed randomly in the MR fluid as shown in Figure.1a. Under the
influence of a magnetic field, magnetic particles are aligned along the magnetic flux
lines (from N-pole to S-pole) as shown in Figure. Many types of magnetic particles
are available for MR fluid preparation, namely, CIPs, electrolyte iron powder, and
iron–cobalt alloy powder (Table 7.1). CIPs are made by chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) by the decomposition of iron penta carbonyl, while electrolytic iron powder
is prepared using the electrolytic or spray atomization process. However, CIPs are
preferable to other magnetic particles because they are magnetically soft and
chemically pure, and have a high saturation magnetization (2.1 T at room
temperature). The low level of chemical impurity (< 1%) means less domain-
pinning defects, and the spherical shape helps minimizes magnetic shape anisotropy.

2 Abrasive Particles

Abrasives are nonmagnetic particles in MR fluid responsible for material removal.

The quality of the finished surface is affected significantly by the granularity and
hardness of the abrasive particles. Abrasives such as Al2O3, SiC, cerium oxide, and
diamond powder are commonly used. Polishing abrasives such as alumina and
diamond powder have been used for finishing optical materials other than glasses.
Diamond powder has high finishing efficiency, but it is too expensive, while the
hardness of Al2O3 is low. However, a commonly used polishing abrasive and
carrier liquid combination for MR-fluid-based finishing of optical glasses including
many crystals is that of cerium oxide and water.

3 Carrier Liquid

The function of a carrier liquid is primarily to provide a medium in which the solid
particles (CIPs and abrasive particles) are suspended. A carrier liquid should be
noncorrosive in nature, and it should have a high boiling temperature and low
freezing point . The off-state viscosity of the MR fluid should be as low as possible
so that it can be circulated easily in the device. The carrier liquid should not show
significant variation in viscosity at a given temperature.
FIGURE 2.1
Distribution of magnetic particles (a) without a magnetic field and (b) with a
magnetic field.

Oil or water is generally used as a carrier liquid. Non aqueous carrier fluids have
also been used for the finishing of water-soluble crystals. Oil-based carrier liquids
have high viscosity, so MR fluids show good performance in stability and
sedimentation. From the rheological property point of view, water-based MR fluids
have high yield stress. Moreover, water hydr xylates the surface of glass to improve
finishing efficiency. In addition, water imparts a cooling effect during finishing, and
solid particles disperse uniformly in the presence of water. Water has been proved to
be the most suitable carrier liquid for finishing silicon or silicon-based materials,
whereas oil-based MR fluids significantly reduce the finishing efficiency.

4 Stabilizers/Additives

MR fluids also contain a stabilizer such as glycerol, grease, oleic acid, or xanthan
gum. The stabilizer is used to disperse the magnetic particles and abrasive particles
uniformly in suspension. Stabilizers create a coating on the particles so that the MR
fluid can easily re disperse. Solid particles in the MR fluid settle down at the bottom
if it is kept in storage. A stabilizer helps prevent the dense magnetic particles from
settling too fast and reduces the formation of hard sediment, which is difficult to
remix. Moreover, stabilizing agents are also used to impart durability and corrosion
resistance. Some stabilizers are necessary in waterbased MR fluids to retard
oxidation of the magnetic particles (CIPs) and prevent agglomeration. The stability
of a water-based MR fluid can be improved by addition of glycerol because it works
as a corrosion inhibitor and also provides some steric stabilization. Use of acid-free
cerium oxide compounds has been shown to be as important as that of the stabilizers
in improving the stability of the MR fluid. Hence, some additive agents are
necessary to formulate a stable MR fluid.

Three MR-fluid-based finishing processes are discussed in the following sections,

namely, MRF, MRAFF, and R-MRAFF.

2.2 Advantages of MR fluid

• Have higher magnitude of yield stress.

• Compared to ER fluids the simple construction of devices, low power
requirements for control, fast response.

• The squeeze mode of a MR damper has significant advantages such as

simple structure, clear effectiveness and quick response.

• The fluids also have the advantages of using low voltage power supplies in
the range of 2 to 25 V, with current range between 1 to 2 Amps and power
ratings between 2-50 watts.

2.3 Disadvantages of MR fluid

• High density, due to presence of iron, makes them heavy. However,

operating volumes are small, so while this is a problem, it is not
insurmountable.

• High-quality fluids are expensive.

• Fluids are subject to thickening after prolonged use and need

replacing.
 • Settling of Ferro-particles can be a problem for some applications.

2.4 Applications of MR fluid

1. Mechanical engineering

Magneto rheological dampers these dampers are mainly used in heavy industry with
applications such as heavy motor damping, operator seat/cab damping in
construction vehicles, and more

2. Military and defense

The U.S. Army Research Office is currently funding research into using MR fluid
to enhance body armor.

3. Aerospace
Magneto rheological dampers are under development for use in military and
commercial helicopter cockpit seats, as safety devices in the event of a crash.
 CHAPTER 3

MODES OF OPERATION

An MR fluid is used in one of three main modes of operation, these being

flow mode, shear mode and squeeze-flow mode.

1 FLOW MODE
Flow mode, is one of the operating modes in the MR devices where the flow of the
MR fluid between motionless plates or an orifice is created by a pressure drop.

2 SHEAR MODES

An MR fluid is situated between two surfaces, whereby only one surface slides or
rotates in relation to the other, with a magnetic field applied perpendicularly to the
direction of motion of these shear surfaces

3 SQUEESE FLOW MODES

Squeeze mode operates when a force is applied to the plates in the same direction of
a magnetic field to reduce or expand the distance between the parallel plates causing
a squeeze flow.
 CHAPTER 4

MAGNETO RHEOLOGICAL FINISHING (MRF)

The MRF process is based on MR fluids that finish high-precision optical

components effectively, replacing the manual technology that previously took hours
or weeks. An MR fluid temporarily hardens when exposed to a magnetic field and
conforms to the surface of the work piece to be polished, making it ideal to polish
many types of components. It offers various ways to overcome many of the
limitations of conventional polishing.

MRF was developed for polishing optics by a team of scientists led by

William Kordonski at the Luikov Institute of Heat and Mass Transfer in Minsk,
Belarus in 1988. However, the concept of using MRF as an automated process to
polish high-precision optics was first introduced by the Center for Optics
Manufacturing (COM) at the University of Rochester in 1993 in collaboration with
William Kordonski. Later in 1996, the MRF technology was commercialized by
QED Technologies. MRF is a deterministic finishing process based on an MR fluid
consisting of nonmagnetic polishing abrasives and magnetic CIPs in water or some
other carrier. The MR fluid forms a polishing tool that is perfectly conformal and
therefore can polish a variety of shapes, including flats, spheres, aspheres, and
prisms, with a variety of aperture shapes. With the appropriate combination of MR
fluid and other finishing parameters, MRF has been successfully used to polish a
variety of materials to sub nanometer surface roughness values.

In the MRF process, as schematically shown in Figure 7.2a, a convex, flat, or

concave Work piece is positioned below a rotating carrier wheel. An MR fluid
ribbon is deposited on the carrier wheel. Two MR fluid pumps (peristaltic or
centrifugal) are used for delivery and suction of the MR fluid from the carrier
wheel. By applying a magnetic field using an electromagnet or a permanent magnet,
the stiffened region forms a transient work zone or finishing spot. Surface finishing,
removal of subsurface damage, and figure corrections are accomplished by
providing feed in the X–Y direction to the work piece. A fluid storage system is
used to control the MR fluid temperature to prevent sedimentation of solids through
mixing and to monitor/add water lost by evaporation. Peristaltic pumps deliver the
fluid through a delivery nozzle onto the surface of the carrier wheel just ahead of the
polishing zone, as shown in Figure 7.2a. The fluid is recovered by a collector using
a suction pump and returned to the fluid storage system. Material removal takes
place through the interaction of the MR fluid and the work piece when the MR fluid
ribbon is dragged into the converging gap (finishing zone) by rotation of the carrier
wheel. The zone of contact is restricted to a spot that conforms to the local
topography of the part. Figure 7.2b shows a magnified view of the finishing zone
where an abrasive particle interacts with the work piece surface under the influence
of the magnetic field. Material is removed from the Work piece by normal and
tangential forces applied by magnetic particles through abrasive particles and by
rotation of the carrier wheel.

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the MR-fluid-based finishing process

 Figure 4.2 magnified view of the finishing zone

Figure 4.1 shows the random distribution of CIPs and abrasive particles in the
absence of the magnetic field. When the magnetic field is applied, the CIPs get
magnetized and move toward the rotating wheel, where magnetic field strength is
higher, and most of the abrasive particles move away from the carrier wheel, that is,
toward the work piece surface because of the magnetic levitation force as shown in
Figure4.2. Figure 7.3c shows that the abrasive particles are in contact with the work
piece surface but intact with the fluid (ribbon) and that the CIPs are closer to the
rotating wheel. The normal magnetic force (or penetrating force) is transferred to
the work surface through the abrasive particles, and results in abrasive penetration
into the work surface. Material removal is caused by the relative motion between the
abrasive particles and the work piece surface.

Figure 4.3 a and b shows a schematic of the normal force acting on the work piece
by an abrasive in conventional polishing and in the MRF process, respectively. In
the conventional polishing process, the normal load on the work piece is transmitted
from the

Carrier wheel rotation Magnet

CIPs Abrasives Magnetic field work

piece (a) (b)

(c)

Figure 4.3 Schematic diagram of the material removal mechanism in MRF

polishing pad (typically made from polyurethane or pitch) through the abrasive
particle (Figure4.3 a). In this configuration, the normal load on the abrasive during
polishing has been proximate to be on the order of milli newton.

Unlike conventional polishing in which the particle’s normal load can result in
scratching, MRF creates a relatively low normal load on the abrasive particles.
Figure 7.4b shows a schematic representation of the normal loads applied to the
work piece by an abrasive particle in the MRF process. The normal load on an
abrasive particle is generated by the flow of the MR fluid over the work piece. This
normal force can be estimated by the sum of the magnetic levitation force and the
squeezing force normal to the work piece surface. This force has been approximated
to be several orders of magnitude lower than that of conventional polishing; hence,
the MRF process results in a smooth, damage-free surface finish.

4.1 Effect of magnetic particle concentration

At low volume concentration, magnetic particles align as thin and weak chains that
are not capable of supporting abrasive particles effectively during finishing.
However, as the concentration of the magnetic particles increases, the chains grow
in length as well as in width, and eventually aggregate in the form of a thick and
strong MR fluid ribbon. Abrasives that are firmly gripped by magnetic particle
chains remove material efficiently. However, concentration of magnetic particles
beyond a certain limit results in lower finishing efficiency. It is also observed that
total solid-particle (magnetic particles and abrasive particles) concentration should
not exceed 45%–50% by volume in the MR fluid. There are a few problems
associated with a high concentration of solid particles such as the following:
• Low fluidity of the MR fluid (high off-state viscosity)
• Difficulty in circulation of the MR fluid through the pipes
and pumps • Difficulty in remixing the MR fluid (low re
dispersibility)

The magnetic interaction force (F) is the attracting force between two magnetic
particles as given by Equation. This force increases with the increasing size of
magnetic particles. It means the larder the magnetic particle, the higher the
attracting force between them, as shown in Figure the thickness of the arrow
indicates the magnitude of the force, and circle diameter indicates particle size. This
results in greater stiffness of the MR fluid and subsequently higher MRR

4.2 Effect of abrasive particle concentration

Variation in concentration of abrasive particles significantly changes the

finishing mechanism in an MR-fluid-based finishing process. For clear visibility and
understanding of the chain structure of CIPs mixed with abrasive particles, bigger
abrasive particles and magnetic particles are chosen, as shown in Figure 4.4.
Electrolytic iron powder is selected as the magnetic particle in place of CIPs, and
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is selected as the abrasive because of its white appearance.
Figure 4.4a and b shows the CIP chain structure at low and high concentration of the
abrasive particles, respectively. Figure 7.7 shows that the

abrasive particles are distributed non uniformly. At low concentration of abrasive particles,

Figure 4.4
CIP chain structure at (a) low and (b) high abrasive concentrations.
a few abrasives are trapped in the CIPs chains structure, so fewer discontinuous
chains of CIPs are observed under the magnetic field (Figure 7.7a). Hence CIP
chains are capable of gripping abrasive particles more firmly during the finishing
action. At higher abrasive particle concentration, the amount of abrasives entangled
in CIP chains is increased (Figure

7.7b), and this reduces the strength of the fluid under shear flow.
As given by Equation 7.1, the magnetic interaction force (F) reduces with
increasing distance between magnetic particles (S). This means that if any abrasive
particle is trapped between two CIPs (Figure 4.4), the distance between the CIPs
increases depending on the size of the abrasive particle and, as a result, F
decreases. The reduction in F is higher if the abrasive particle size is larger (Figure
4.4b) as compared to a small abrasive particle (Figure 4.4a). Owing to low F, the
bonding strength between CIPs reduces, and subsequently they are not able to grip
the abrasives properly. F also decreases if any larger abrasive is trapped within the
CIP chain as shown in Figure 7.8. Furthermore, a higher abrasive concentration
also results in more discontinuous chains, which further reduces the magnetic
interaction force (F). Therefore, beyond an optimum concentration of abrasive
particles, MRR and finishing rate decrease and the difference in surface finish
(ΔRa = initial Ra value − final Ra value) obtained within the prescribed time
becomes lower.
 CHAPTER 5
FORCE ANALYSIS IN MRF PROCESS

Knowledge of the forces acting during any finishing process is important to

understand the mechanism of material removal. These forces have direct impact on
the quality of the finished surface and its accuracy. Study of these forces is also
necessary to predict the MRR as well as the final achievable surface roughness
value. In this section, the forces acting on the work piece in the MRF process are
discussed.

In the MRF process, mainly two types of forces act on an abrasive particle,
namely, the normal force (Fn) responsible for abrasive particle penetration inside
the work piece and the tangential force (Ft) responsible for removal of material in
the form of micro/ Nano chips as shown in Figure 7.9. The resultant force (Fr)
removes material from the work piece. The normal force is a combination of the
magnetic levitation force applied by the magnetic particles and the squeezing force
applied by the hydrodynamic drag force due to flow of the MR fluid in the
converging gap.

The magnetic field gradient causes CIPs to be attracted toward the magnet
(toward the carrier wheel surface) while the abrasives move toward the work piece
surface owing to the magnetic levitation force as shown in Figure 7.10. Magnetic
levitation is defined as the force exerted on nonmagnetic bodies by a magnetic
 fluid. The magnetic levitation force helps in indenting the abrasive particle into the
work piece surface, which results in material removal. A few abrasive particles are
trapped in the CIP chains and stay there, as shown in Figure 7.10. The magnitude
of the magnetic levitation force on an abrasive particle is determined by the
magnetic field strength and the magnetic properties of the MR fluid. The levitation
force (Fm) [23] is given by

Fm =2Vm0M=H
where V is the volume of the nonmagnetic body, M is the intensity of magnetization
of the magnetic fluid, m0 is the permeability of free space, and =H is the gradient of
a magnetic field.

Holding of abrasive particles in the CIP chain structure depends on the rheological
properties (yield stress and viscosity) of the MR fluid under a magnetic field.
Stiffness of the MR fluid under a magnetic field is measured by yield stress. When
the yield stress

Figure 5.1 Side views of CIP chains with abrasive particles (white in color)
of the MR fluid is high, CIPs chains can hold abrasive particles for a long time
under shear force, which is necessary for efficient material removal.

A tangential force is exerted on the work piece by the shear flow of the MR fluid,
pushing the abrasive forward. Before the MR fluid yields under shear, the CIPs
chains structure is intact (bonds between CIPs are strong enough to withstand shear
flow). This means the abrasives, which are gripped by the bonded structure of the
CIPs as shown in Figure 7.11, would apply force on the work piece without
loosening their own orientation.

CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS MRF PROCESS

Calcium fluoride and fused silica lenses are specifically used for lithographic
steppers and scanners. In these applications, shape and accuracy requirements are
stringent. Therefore, MRF is an appropriate process for finishing of these lenses.
Free-form optical surfaces are difficult to finish by conventional polishing
techniques owing to constantly changing curvature and lack of symmetry. In this
case, MRF is a suitable process because the MR fluid adapts to the local surface
curvature in such a way that it does not have problems with tool/part shape
mismatch.

Silicon-on-insulator (SIO) wafer technology needs stringent tolerances. Global

flatness and thickness uniformity are the most important parameters for SIO wafers.
The MRF process is able to improve both the parameters after finishing without
affecting other features. Single-point diamond turning (SPDT) is commonly used
for fabrication of optics for infrared (IR) applications. However, SPDT leaves
turning marks or grooves on the optics that reduce optical functionality. MRF can be
very effective at both improving surface figure and removing the diamond turning
marks in materials such as silicon and calcium fluoride. The MRF process can
significantly reduce the surface roughness (initially from 960 to 12 nm) of single
crystal silicon.

Polymer optics is generally manufactured by injection molding, compression

molding, or diamond turning. Polymer optics are soft and have a high linear
expansion coefficient and poor thermal conductivity. Therefore, cold working or
similar processes are not preferable to improve surface finish or figure.
Furthermore, conventional grinding and polishing processes usually result in
scratching, embedding of abrasive particles, and degradation of surface figure. In
this case, MRF is a suitable finishing process to improve surface finish and figure
correction of polymer optics.

MRF can also improve surface integrity by removing micro cracks and subsurface
damage, removing residual stresses, and improving glass resistance to laser damage.

From the above discussion and the literature, it is found that MRF is an important
and efficient process for finishing concave, convex, and flat components. However,
it is not suitable for finishing of internal or external surfaces of cylindrical
components. Hence, there is need for a suitable process similar to MRF for
cylindrical components. Other processes such as MRAFF and R-MRAFF have been
developed and are discussed in the following sections.

6.1 Advantages of MR finishing

• It is precise finishing process

• Smooth and accurate
• Noiseless operation
• Easy to operate

6.2 Disadvantages of MR finishing

• Initial cost is high
• Operating time is more
• It can finishes small work pieces

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

An overview of magneto rheological and allied finishing processes is given in this.

These processes are used effectively for finishing complex surfaces where
traditional finishing processes are uneconomical and incompetent. These processes
are deterministic, and the forces can be controlled externally by changing magnetic
field strength. Using a proper combination of MR fluid constituents, the desired
surface finish on different types of materials can be achieved. MR-fluid-based
finishing processes have large potential for finishing free form or sculptured
surfaces.
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