The magnetic method a s used in geophysical exploration is possibly the niost

versatile of the methods discussed in this text: It can be applied to both deep and
shallow structures, and relative to other methods, measurements can be obtained
cheaply for both local and regional studies. On the other hand, quantitative inter-
pretation of magnetic information is much more difficult than interpretation of grav-
ity data even though these two methods share many similarities.
Much exploration of the shallow subsurface is directed toward characteristics
of the sediments above bedrock or a definition of the bedrock surface, and in the
majority of these cases magnetic information is not very useful. This arises in
part from the difficulty in obtaining useful quantitative information from mag-
netic data but also is due to the magnetic characteristics of rocks and sediments.
For the most part, magnetic signatures depend on magnetite content, which tends
to be low in most sediments and in many rocks constituting basement. In general,
therefore, magnetic fieldwork is not commonly employed for many shallow sub-
surface objectives. Nevertheless magnetic data can contribute to certain exploration
efforts when targets are not deep. Buried ore deposits constitute an obvious exam-
ple. Others include the mapping of rock units with sufficiently large magnetic sig-
natures to be traceable beneath glacial or other cover and the discovery and
delineation of a variety of features important t o archaeological investigations.
In this chapter our goal is to provide a basic, practical grounding in magnetic
surveys rather than to develop an in-depth theoretical basis. We cover fundamen-
tal relationships that control the nature of magnetic anomalies, govern field meth-
ods, and affect interpretation efforts. We dwell on a few relatively straightforward
examples in detail so you can appreciate the applications of magnetic surveying
and, we hope, understand what can and cannot be achieved. Although you are
more likely to engage in seismic exploration than magnetic work, the magnetic
method could be the most appropriate method t o apply during a particular assign-
ment, and we want to prepare you for that eventuality should it occur.
 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS
Virtually everyone is familiar with the simple bar magnet and its behavior when
placed near a second similar magnet. You likely also remember the great delight
of sprinkling iron filings on a glass plate above a strong bar magnet. The iron fil-
ings (which became very small magnets) aligned themselves in a pattern about
the magnet (Figure 7.1). This pattern outlines what we refer to as magnetic lines
of force, which follow curved trajectories and are most closely spaced at the ends
of the magnet. If you were lucky, you also were able to map these lines of force
by placing a small compass at various positions above the magnet and recording
the orientation of the compass needle. The pattern that results from such an
investigation confirms the pattern of iron filings and demonstrates that the lines
of force converge at the ends of the magnet. These points of convergence are
referred to a s magnetic poles. The lines of force record the orientation of the
magnetic field produced by the magnet. At any point the orientation of the field
is illustrated by a line drawn tangent to the lines of force. The spacing of the lines
of force indicates the magnetic force at that position. The force is greatest where
the lines of force are closest together.
Each bar magnet has two poles and is referred to as a dipole. In fact, a single
pole cannot exist-poles always come in pairs. If a bar magnet is broken in half,
each half still has two poles. Because the properties of magnets and their asso-
ciated magnetic fields are closely related to magnetic fields produced by electric
current, and by analogy with electric charges, the magnetic poles are referred
to as positive (+m 1 and negative (-ml. Poles of like sign repel and those of oppo-
site sign attract. The positive (north-seeking)pole of a compass needle points
toward the north magnetic pole of the Earth.

FIGURE 7.1 Magnetic lines of force produced by a simple bar magnet

430 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING THE MAGNETIC M E T H O D

 FIGURE 7.2 Representation of amagnet as an assemblage of small dipoles.

It is convenient in visualizing many magnetic effects to conceive of a magnet,

or any magnetized body, as composed of a very large number of small dipoles that
are similarly aligned and stacked closely together (Figure 7.2). Within the magnet
effects of the positive and negative poles cancel; but one end has an accumula-
tion of positive poles and the other end has an accumulation of negative poles,
which creates the dipolar nature of the large magnet. If we cut the magnet across
its length, we simply produce two new surfaces, and each has its own accumula-
tion of poles of like sign. We assume, of course, that the dipoles within the magnet
are too small t o be cut, or, if cut, are themselves composed of yet smaller dipoles.

Magnetic Force
We've mentioned attraction and repulsion, but what is the actual force exerted
between two magnetic poles? This force is stated in Coulomb's Law

where r is the distance between poles of strength ml and m2.The remaining

factor p, or magnetic permeability, is a property of the medium in which the
poles are located. Because the magnetic permeability is nearly equal to unity in
water and air, for simplicity we do not include the term in the remaining equa-
tions in this chapter. However, in some instances the permeability of the medium
is important, s o its effect cannot be neglected in all cases. Consider Figure 7.3,
which illustrates an iron bar placed within a wire coil. When current passes
through the wire, a magnetic field is generated that is greater than the field that
would have been generated had the iron bar not been present. Thus the strength
of the field generated depends on some property (magnetic permeability) of the
medium (iron bar) in which the field is generated.

7.1.2 Magnetic Field Strength

Although poles cannot exist individually and always occur in pairs, it is conven-
ient to utilize a unit magnetic pole m '. Such a pole repels a similar pole with a force

7.1 FU N O A M E N T A L R E L A T I O N S H I P S
 F I G U R E 7.3 Effect of magnetic
permeability on magnetic field
strength.

of 1 dyne when separated by a distance of 1 cm. You can visualize this situation
by considering two very long, slender bar magnets with their two positive (or
negative) ends close together. In this arrangement we effectively are dealing with
the interaction of two poles because the remaining poles are far removed from
the region of interaction.
The magneticfield strength H i s the force a unit magnetic pole would expe-
rience if placed at a point in a magnetic field that is the result of some pole strength
m and where r is the distance of the point of measurement from m:

His a vector quantity having a magnitude given by Equation 7.2 and with a direc-
tion determined by assuming our unit pole is positive. The SI unit of magnetic
field strength is the nanotesla or nl: whereas the cgs unit of magnetic field strength
is the oersted. The oersted is 1dyne/unit pole strength and is equal to l o 5
gammas. The gamma is numerically equivalent to the nanotesla. Until recently
the gamma was the common unit employed in geophysics, but current use favors
the nanotesla.

7.1.3 Magnetic Moment

If a bar magnet is placed in a uniform magnetic field H (Figure 7.4) it will expe-
rience a pair of equal forces acting parallel to each other but in opposite direc-
tions (a couple). The magnitude of the couple is
C = 2(ml)HsinO (7.3)

432 CHAPTER 7 E X P L O R A T I O N USING THE M A G N E T I C M E T H O D

 -
FIGURE 7.4 Diagram illustrating the role of magnetic moment in determining forces acting on
a bar magnet placed i n a magnetic field.

where 8 specifies the original orientation of the magnet in the field. The motion
produced by the couple depends on the magnitude of H as well as the value of 9
(no motion is produced if 8 = 0).The other quantity ( m l )that also affects the mag-
nitude of the couple is termed the magnetic moment with magnitude typically
represented by M s o that
M = ml. (7.4)

7.1.4 Intensity o f Magnetization

A bar magnet possesses a fundamental property per unit volume known as the
intensity of magnetization I. The magnitude of1is defined as the magnetic moment
M per unit volume or

and, therefore,
ml -- m
I=------
Volume Area'
To appreciate the relation of intensity of magnetization, consider once again the
bar magnet in Figure 7.2. If we cut the magnet into unequal pieces perpendicu-
lar to its length, the force at a distance is proportional to the length of each piece.

7.1 FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS 433

 We hilve not altered the fundamental magnetic properties of the material but
simply have changed the volume of each. Similarly, if we cut the magnet longi-
tudinally into two sectioris (as suggested by the shading in Figure 7.21, the force
at a distance is proportional to the cross-sectional area of each section. Of course,
the volumes are once again different; but because the lengths are the same, we
can visualize the effect in terms of the cross-sectional areas, which are not the
same. Recall Figure 7.2 and our visualization of the magnet as a concentration
of poles on its end surfaces. As Iincreases, the concentration of poles increases,
and the pole strength per unit area is greater.

7.1.5 Magnetic Susceptibility

If we place a material that can be magnetized in an external magnetic field H ,
the intensity of magnetization I will be proportional to the strength of the field.
For geologic materials, the direction of magnetization is parallel to the Earth's
magnetic field, which functions as the inducing field. We thus can consider the
result of this magnetization a s magnetic poles induced on surfaces perpendicu-
lar to the field direction, analogous to our representation of the bar magnet in
Figure 7.2. The magnitude of I is

where k is the constant of proportionality, generally referred to as magnetic sus-

ceptibility. We'll examine representative values of magnetic susceptibility when
we discuss the magnetic effects of various geologic bodies, but first let's take a
moment to examine the process of magnetization in a bit more detail.
Based on their magnetic susceptibilities, minerals are classified a s diamagnetic
or paramagnetic. Diamagnetic minerals have negative susceptibilities, but the values
are so low that these have no effect with regard to subsurface exploration. Quartz
and feldspar are common diamagnetic minerals. Paramagnetic minerals have pos-
itive susceptibilities, but in general the values are quite low. Examples include the
Fe-Mg silicates such a s pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. However, in a few para-
magnetic materials the magnetic moments imparted to atoms by orbital motion and
spin of electrons interact strongly. The result is the alignment of magnetic moments
in areas with dimensions on the order of 104 cm. These small areas are referred to
as magnetic domains. If these domains are parallel (as they are in iron, nickel, and
cobalt), the material is termed ferromagnetic (Figure 7.5(a)). Ferromagnetic mate-
rials have very high suscephbilities,but they do not occur naturally on Earth (although
they are present in meteorites) and so are not of interest within the realm of geophys-
ical exploration. If the domains are parallel and antiparallel in equal numbers (Figure
7.5@)), the net magnetic moment is zero, and the material is said to be antiferromag-
netic. A n example of a n antiferromagnetic mineral is hematite, which certainly is
common; but because susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are low, such
minerals need not be considered for exploration purposes.

434 CHAPTER 7 E X P L O R A T I O N U S I N G THE MAGNETIC M E T H O D

FIGURE 7.5 Schematic representation of magnetic domains i n (a) ferromagnetic,
(b) antiferromagnetic, and (c)ferrimagnetic materials.

Of primary importance to the exploration effort are ferrimagnetic minerals.

In these few minerals (magnetite, titanomagnetite, ilmenite, and pyrrhotite are
the common ones) the domains are oriented as in antiferrornagnetic materials,
but one direction of orientation is preferred (Figure 7.5(c)). This imparts a net

7.1 F U N D A M E N T A L RELATIONSHIPS 435

 magnetic moment to such materials and results in relatively high susceptibili-
ties. These susceptibilities depend on temperature and the strength of the induc-
ing field. It is these minerals, the most common of which by far is magnetite, that
impart induced magnetizations to rocks in the Earth's crust.
If a ferrimagnetic mineral is placed in an external magnetic field, an induced
magnetization is produced, and the external field causes some magnetic domain
walls to move. If the external field is weak, as is the Earth's magnetic field, only
a limited movement of domain walls occurs, and no permanent magnetization
occurs when the field is removed. This behavior is represented in Figure 7.6. As
the inducing field is increased to H I , an induced magnetization Ii is generated
and will return to zero if HI is removed. However, if the external field is raised to
much larger values, more domain walls move, favorably oriented domains
increase at the expense of unfavorably oriented domains, and reordering of unfa-
vorably oriented domains occurs. Eventually the induced magnetization will
increase to the saturation level (point S in Figure 7.6). Further increases in H
produce no further increase in I. If the external field now is reduced to zero, the
values of I follow the curve in Figure 7.6 from point S to point I,. Because a sub-
stantial portion of the domain changes are retained during the decrease in the
inducing field, the mineral now possesses a net permanent magnetization. This
generally is referred to as the remanent magnetization I,. To return the magne-
tization to zero, the inducing field first must be applied with a reversed polarity

FlGU RE 7.6 Hysteresis curve for a ferrirnagnetic material in the presence of a magnetizing field.

436 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING THE MAGNETIC METHOD

 and then returned to its normal polarity as indicated by the curve in Figure 7.6.
This path defined by the values of induced magnetization and external field values
is known as a hysteresis curue.
Because the Earth's field is weak, need we be concerned with remanent mag-
netizations? When we measure the magnetic effect of magnetizations induced
in geologic bodies, any remanent magnetizations with an order of magnitude
similar to the induced magnetization will either increase o r decrease the total
anomalous field depending on the respective orientations of the two magnetiza-
tions. Remanent magnetizations in rocks can be produced in a number of ways,
all of which are important in paleomagnetic studies. But one especially strong
remanent magnetization is thermoremanent magnetization, which typically is
produced when ferrimagnetic minerals crystallize and cool during the solidifi-
cation of igneous rocks. Because the ferrimagnetic minerals are initially at high
temperatures, even a weak field such as the Earth's can facilitate preferential
alignments of magnetic domains, thus creating a substantial I,. In general, rock
susceptibilities are controlled by magnetite content, and many rocks with suffi-
cient magnetite to produce magnetic anomalies have an igneous origin. In many
situations, therefore, thermoremanent magnetization may be present.
Field instruments used in magnetic surveying normally do not determine the
magnitude and orientation of remanent magnetizations. Such information more
commonly is determined in the laboratory. Typically, however, we interpret survey
results by assuming that the recorded anomalous field is due entirely to induced
magnetization, and possible effects of remanent magnetizations are ignored. Such
neglect is not as serious as it might at first appear because of the inherent difficulty
in obtaining quantitative results from magnetic surveys. In many situations the
qualitative information sought by a survey is not sufficiently affected by the pres-
ence of remanent magnetizations to warrant the extra time and expense of labo-
ratory analysis for determining rernanent magnetizations and to then correct field
data for their effect. When discussing magnetic anomalies due to geologc forms
of various shapes and compositions, we assume all magnetization is induced only.

6 Magnetic Potential
Magnetic, gravitational, and electrical fields all are potential fields. A character-
istic of such fields is that the work done by moving a pole (or mass o r charge)
from one point to another is path independent. If a complete circuit is made by
returning the pole to its original position, then the work done is zero. It is con-
venient to define the potential V as the negative of the work done on a unit pole
in a magnetic field as the pole is moved against the field from infinity to a point
in the field. Using Equation 7.2 and remembering that we assume ,u= 1, we have

7.1 FUNDAMENTAL R E L A T I O N S H I P S
1 I
437
 An especially useful feature of the potential is that we can find the magnetic field
in a given direction by taking the negative of the derivative of the potential in
that direction. We use this feature in the following section to derive equations
for a dipole.

7.2 T H E E A R T H ' S M A G N E T I C FIELD

The Earth's magnetic field at any point on the Earth's surface is a vector quan-
tity defined by its total intensity and direction. Intensity can be measured by any
number of instruments, some of which are described in a following section. We
can readily determine orientation by allowing a compass needle to rotate freely
in all directions. Just as in the case of a bar magnet, the needle will rotate into par-
allelism with the Earth's field.

7.2.1 Field Elements

The total-field vector is defined by its intensity F,, its inclination i, which is the
angle the vector makes with a horizontal plane, and its declination d, which is the
angle the vertical plane containing the total-field vector makes with geographic
north. These relationships are illustrated in Figure 7.7. FE can be resolved into
a vertical component Z E and a horizontal component HE. The vertical plane con-
taining FE,ZE, and HE is a magnetic meridian. HE also can be resolved into hor-
izontal components directed toward geographic north (XE)and geographic east
(YE).These seven geomagnetic elements are interrelated in several ways that are
readily apparent from Figure 7.7. Any three elements are sufficient to determine
the remaining four. A thorough grasp of these relationships is essential for later
derivations, so be sure you can reproduce each of the following:

X,=H,cosd and Y,=sh?d

The positions on the Earth's surface where i = 90" are known as the mag-
netic dip poles (see Figure 7-11),and the magnetic equator is defined by positions
of i = 0". At the dip poles Z, = FE , and the intensity is approximately 70,000 nT
(nanotesla). A t the magnetic equator HE= FB, and the intensity is approximately
30,000 nT (nanotesla). Note that the Earth's magnetic field varies in intensity by
more than 200 percent, whereas the gravity field varies only by approximately
0.5 percent.

438 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING T H E MAGNETIC METHOD

 Geographic north

Magnetic north
f

vertical down
FIGURE 7.7 The elements of the Earth's magnetic field: FE=total-field vector, HE= horizontal
component, ZE= vertical component, d = declination, and i = inclination.

7.2.2 Dipolar Nature of the Earth's Field

Magnetic data collected at many points on the Earth's surface can be displayed
on a map of the world as contours of FE,i, and d. Figures 7.8 through 7.10 illus-
trate such maps for a portion of the Western Hemisphere. If world maps are
examined carefully, the contour patterns appear somewhat similar to those that
would be produced by a dipole. In fact, the Earth's field can be quite well approx-
imated by placing a small dipole of large moment at the Earth's center and tilt-
ing the dipole at an angle of 11.5" to the Earth's axis of rotation (Figure 7.11).

7.2 THE EARTH'S MAGNETIC F I E L D

1 1439
 FIGURE 7.8 Values of total intensity for the geomagnetic field (FE)for a portion of the Western
Hemisphere. Geomagnetic epoch 1985.0. Contour interval = 2000 nT. (Based on information
in U.S. Geological Survey Total Intensity Chart GP-987-F.)

The points where an extension of the axis of this imaginary dipole intersects the
Earth's surface are referred to as the geomagnetic north and south poles. Note
that these do not coincide with the dip poles, which are referred to as the north
and south magnetic poles.
Although treating the Earth's field as dipolar in nature is useful in deriving a
number of relationships that we will investigate, the fact that the geomagnetic
and dip poles do not coincide plus the irregularities evident on maps of inclina-
tion, declination, and total-field intensity demonstrate that this field cannot be
accurately portrayed b y one dipole. Actually, about 10 percent of the field cannot

440 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING THE M A G N E T I C M E T H O D

 FIGURE 7.9 Values of inclination (4 of the geomagnetic field for a portion of the Western
Hemisphere. Geomagnetic epoch 1985.0. (Based on information in U.S. Geological Survey
Inclination Chart GP-987-1.)

be accounted for by a single dipole, and it is necessary to employ numerous other

dipoles of smaller magnetic moments at various other positions near the outer
boundary of the Earth's outer core to accurately model the existing field.

7.2.3 Variations of the Earth's Field

As we acquire magnetic data a t various points on the Earth's surface, intensity
and orientation of the total field vary. In this section we examine the reasons for
such variations with position and also consider variations with time.

7.2 THE E A R T H ' S MAGNETIC FIELD

 FI GU R E 7.10 Values of declination (4of tho geomagnetic field for a portion of the Westem
I-Iemisphere.Geomagnetic epoch 1985.0. (Based on information in U.S.Geological Survey
Declination Chart GP-987-D.)

By far the major portion of the geomagnetic field arises from currents within
the Earth's fluid core. A s discussed, this main magneticjeld consists of a primary
dipole portion and a secondary nondipole component that produce variations in
the total-field vector over the Earth's surface. In addition, this main field is not
Constant but changes slowly in both intensity and direction. This slow or secular
variation occurs over long periods and can be ignored when we conduct exploration
over intervals of days or weeks. However, we must adjust data for secular varia-
tion when compiling data &om different years or decades. To facilitate such adjust-
ments, geomagnetic reference maps are produced by various government agencies

442 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING THE MAGNETIC METHOD

 Geographic north pole
(axis of rotation)
Geomagnetic north pole

Geomagnetic south pole

Geographic south pole

FIGURE 7.1 1 Some important features of the Earth's magnetic field.

at five-year intervals. These maps are constructed from a network of magnetic

observatories from which repeat readings a r e obtained. Such readings used in
conjunction with very sophisticated models for the dipolar and nondipolar com-
ponents of the geomagnetic field result in the International Geomagnetic Reference
Field (IGRF), which is presented in the form of maps and data tables. The direc-
tion and intensity of the main field a t any position on the surface can be obtained
from this information. Figures 7.8 to 7.10 are based on information taken from a
1985 calculation of the IGRF. IGRF information also is critical for adjusting field
values from magnetic surveys that encompass more than a very limited area. Such
adjustments are discussed in the sections about field procedures.
Flow of charged particles in the Earth's ionosphere produces a n external mag-
neticfield. The external field is small in contrast to the main field (normally tens of
nanotesla compared with tens of thousands of nanotesla). This flow of particles
toward the magnetic poles is affected by the gravitational attraction of the Sun and
Moon a n d varies with time. Such diurnal variations must be determined and cor-
rected for during surveys because modern magnetometers are capable of preci-
sions of 1 nT, and we naturally want to maintain this level of precision. Occasionally,
and unpredictably, solar activity increases substantially, which causes an abrupt
increase in ionized particles arriving in the ionosphere. These magnetic storms
can produce variations of hundreds of nanotesla. Due to this large and erratic vari-
ation in magnetic intensities, fieldwork usually halts during such activity.

7.2 THE EARTH'S M A G N E T I C FIELD 443

 Of course, variations in magnetic susceptibilities of rocks leads to local vari-
ations in induced magnetization, which affect total-field values. This anomalous
field is the one we are interested in isolating-just as we strive to isolate gravity
anomalies by reducing gravity observations.

7.2.4 Dipole Equations

The magnetic potential is a convenient approach to describe the magnetic field
at a point P due to a dipole. Consider the system illustrated in Figure 7.12(a). We
assume that r is much larger than I. Using Equation 7.8, the potential at P is

Using our assumption of r >>I, we have the relations

ml cos e
V= , and, approximating,

For our purposes at this time, we wish to derive the radial and tangential com-
ponents of the field at P (see Figure 7.12(b)). Recalling that we can determine the
magnetic field in a given direction by taking the negative of the derivative of the
potential in that direction and noting that 8 is in radians, we see that

and

Because slightly more than 90 percent of the Earth's field can be represented by
a dipole at the Earth's center, these equations provide a good approximation of
some of the properties of this field. By consulting Figure 7.11 you should see that
the radial field is equivalent to the vertical field (H, = ZE)and that the tangential
field is equivalent to the horizontal field (He= HE). Given that we are using cgs
units, the magnetic moment (M) of the imaginary dipole responsible for the major

444 CHAPTER 7 EXPLORATION USING T H E MAGNETIC METHOD