Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Chinese Buddhism
Author(s): Liu Ming-Wood 廖明活
Source: T'oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 74, Livr. 1/3 (1988), pp. 47-80
Published by: Brill
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4528403
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T'oungPao LXXIV (1988)
BY
Foreword
It is well-known that the T'ien-t'ai RX and Hua-yen y schools
base their teachings on the LotusSitra (Sanskrit:Saddharmapundarika-
stra, Chinese: Fa-huaching tg) and the GarlandSitra (Sanskrit:
Avatamsaka-siutra or Gandavyuha-sutra, Chinese: Hua-yenchingCR)
respectively. It is not the intention of the present essay to try to go
into all aspects of the expositions given of the two works by the two
traditions, a vast undertaking which would be beyond the compass
of a book, not to say that of an article. Rather, we shall limit our-
selves to the more humble task of examining how Chih-i WO (538-
597) and Fa-tsang &#& (643-712), their respective founders, assess
each other's central scriptures. As we shall presently see, the two
masters are remarkably close in their general views regarding the
basic purport and nature of the Lotusand the Garland.Thus, their
disagreement on their relative value cannot be entirely a matter
of diverse reading, but is largely the outcome of the different evalua-
tive criteria they bring to their assessmentof the two texts, which
in turn reflect the distinctive doctrinal orientations of the schools
of thought they represent.And it is these distinctive doctrinal orienta-
tions which we aim to bring out with our comparative study.
* I would like to thank the Hsu Long-sing Research Fund administered by the
University of Hong Kong for the grant which made this study possible.
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48 LIU MING-WOOD
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 49
together various bodhisattvas and Aravakas,and preaches for them this [Lotus]
Siitra." (TakakusuJunjira i1i l3tM & Watanabe Kaikyoku A&St, ed., Taisho
ShinshiiDaizokyo ;!Efifgki9 85 vols. [Tokyo: 1924-1934] [henceforth ab-
breviated to T], vol. 9, p. 25c, 11.20-22)
Again, it is said:
"Mafijusri! This LotusSutra is the foremost teaching of the Tathagatas, and is the
most profound of all discourses. [The Tathaigatal bestowsit at the veryend,just as
that powerful king finally gave that brilliant jewel which he had guarded for
long." (Ibid., p. 39a, 11.15-17)
5 Refer to Sakamoto Yukio, "Chuigoku bukky6 to Hokkeshis6 no renkan",
op. cit., pp. 517-520, Tamura Yoshira Bt 3)y "Houn no 'HokkeGiki' no kenkyui
two9;;zc) " in Sakamoto Yukio, ed., Hokekyono Chugokuteki tenkai,
op.cit., pp. 183-184 and Inari Nitsusen, op.cit., p. 40 & p. 131.
6 We write here as if there are four distinct vehicles, viz., sravaka vehicle, pratye-
kabuddha vehicle, bodhisattva vehicle and buddha vehicle, largely because this
is the view of both Chih-i and Fa-tsang. However, there also exists the opinion
that the "bodhisattva vehicle" and "buddha vehicle" are actually different names
of the same vehicle, and so instead of four vehicles, there are only three. We shall
go into the problem of the relation of the "one vehicle" and "three vehicles" in
sec. 3.2 below.
7 The chapter "The Life-span of the Tathagata" (chap. 16 of Kumarajiva's
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50 LIU MING-WOOD
version) contains one of the most famous descriptions of the Buddha's longevity
in the Buddhist Canon, and is often quoted in support of the idea of the eternal
nature of the Buddha.
8 For synopses of the GarlandSatra, see G.P. Malalasekera, ed., Encyclopaedia of
Buddhismvol. 2 (Colombo: Government Press of Ceylon, 1966), pp. 438-441,
Thomas Cleary, Entryinto theInconceivable (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1983), pp. 171-205 and Kawada Kumatar6 )II &Rbt3 "Buddha Kegon-Kegon-
gyo no k6satsu 14 gt- c in Nakamura Hajime 4i*lt, ed., Kegon
shiso*,,tP, (Kyoto: 1960), pp. 21-62.
9 For details on the formation of the GarlandSatraand its various Chinese trans-
lations, see G.P. Malalasekera, ed., op. cit., pp. 435-438, F.H. Cook, Hua-yenBud-
dhism (University Park & London: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977),
pp. 21-22, Yutsugi Ryoei 7 Kegon Taikei ; (Tokyo: 1975), pt. 1,
chaps. 2 & 3, Ishii Kyodo ~4*I, Kegon Kyogakuseiritsu-shi;) RtL
Tokyo: 1964), pt. 2, chaps. 1 & 2, Kimura Kiyotaka tt4itf, Shoki Chiugoku
Kegonshiso no kenkyi , (Tokyo: 1977), pt. 1, chap. 1, Nan-
t'ing 14e "Hua-yen-tsung shih " in Chang Man-t'ao R ed., Hua-
yen-tsungchi p'an-chiaochi ch'i fa-chan I (Taipei: 1978), pp.
247-253, and Tz'u-pin , "Hua-yen-ching kai-shu ti FtL", in Chang Man-
ta'o, ed., Hua-yentien-chiyen-chiu 7 (Taipei: 1978), pp. 1-6.
10 Indeed, it appears to have commanded even higher respect among early
Chinese Buddhists than the Lotus. Refer to the concluding paragraph of next
section.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 51
11 On the early history of the study of the Garlandin China, refer to G.P. Mala-
lasekera, op. cit., pp. 442-443, Yutsugi Ryoei, op. cit., pp. 24-38, Ishii, Kyod6,
op. cit., pt. 3, chap. 2, secs. 2 & 3 and Kimura Kiyotaka, op, cit., pt. 1, chaps. 2
& 4.
12 See T, vol. 9, p. 395a, ff.
13 See n. 4 above.
14 See T, vol. 9, pp. 679b-680c.
15 See T, vol. 9, p. 1lb, p. 21c, p. 20b & p. 21b respectively.
16 Good examples are its descriptions of the World of Lotus-Womb and the
Tower of the Bodhisattva Maitreya. See T, vol. 9, pp. 412a-415a & pp. 780b-
782b. For an English account of Maitreya's Tower, refer to D.T. Suzuki, Essays
in Zen Buddhism3rd series (New York: Samuel Weiser, Inc., 1976), pp. 132-141.
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52 LIU MING-WOOD
Early reflections on the relation between the Lotus and the Garland
in China were closely connected with the question of p'an-chiao FUR9.
P'an-chiao, commonly acknowledged as a central feature of Chinese
Buddhism, is basically concerned with distinguishing and integrat-
ing various systems of Buddhist ideas, various forms of Buddhist
religious cultivation and various strata of Buddhist texts, with the
view of highlighting their distinctive characteristics as well as re-
conciling their apparent disparities. Its advent can be traced back
to the circle headed by Kumarajiva and his followers at the begin-
ning of the fifth century.20 And it is in the p'an-chiao teaching of
Hui-kuan 4, , a leading disciple of Kumarajiva, that we encounter
the first Chinese discussion on the positions of the Lotus and the
Garland.21
17 A large part of the Garlandis devoted to the delineation of the fifty-two bod-
hisattva stations leading to Buddhahood. See n. 8 above and discussion of the
Garland'scontent and structure in Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., pt. 2, chap. 3.
18 See remark in Sugura Shinjo JB0i, "Indo Bukky6 to Hokkeshis6 to no
renkan -f v lf;1 I,CD ^ O ", in Sakamoto Yukio, ed., Hokekyono shiso
to bunka,op. cit., p. 451.
19See the highly perceptive comment on the nature of the Lotusin Mou Tsung-
san 2;,, Fo-hsingyupan-jo{f±fiq (Taipei: 1977), pp. 576-579, and remark
in Ando Toshio, op. cit., pp. 494-495.
20 For information on the advent of the
practice of p'an-chiaoin China, consult
Och6 Enichi, "Ky6os hanjaku no genshi keitai SklJO~, ~,l,", in Och6
Enichi, ChugokuBukkyono kenkyu, lPSf{©POfR, vol. 2 (Kyoto: 1980), pp. 145-
161, and Araki Noritoshi M ,AtR, "Nanch6 zenpanki ni okeru ky6s6 hanjaku
no seiritsu ni tsuite i~c.J ~7l;
-o[,'C\", ~Jf) in Fukunaga
Mitsuji Jg*c3t, ed., ChugokuChuseino shukyo to bunka rPf~qt:~ ©<~k:
(Kyoto: 1982), pp. 239-413.
21 Biography of Hui-kuan in Hui-chao -K3, Kao-sengchuanrf{-(, T, vol. 50,
p. 368b-c.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 53
i) Sudden teaching: such as the GarlandSOthawhich was meant only for bo-
dhisattvas and which discloses the Truth completely.
ii) [Gradual teaching:] From his first [turning of the wheel of Dharma at] the
Deer Park to [his] final [nirvana at] the Crane Grove, [the Tathagata led
his audience step by step] from the easy to the profound, and this is known as
"gradual teaching".
Within the gradual teaching, there are five periods:
i) Distinct teaching of the three vehicles: [The Tathagata] lectured for the
sravakasthe four [noble] truths, preached for the pratyekabuddhas the twelve-
fold [chain of] dependent origination, and explained for the bodhisattvas the
six paramitas. [Since each vehicle] practised different deeds and reaped
different fruits, [this period of teaching] is called "distinct teaching of the
three vehicles".
ii) The Praj2pairamita-sutras instruct [all] three faculties (i.e., the three vehicles)
in common, and [so] is called "common teaching of the three vehicles".
iii) The Vimalakirtinirdeda-sOtra and V;isesacintabrahmapariprccha-istra extol the
bodhisattvas and reprove the stavakas, and [so;] is called "teaching which
reproves and extols".
iv) The Lotus Sutra unites the three vehicles and [demonstrations] their con-
vergence on the one ultimate goal [of Buddhahood], and [so] is called
"teaching of convergence".
v) [What] the MNS [propounds] is called "teaching of eternity".24
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54 LIU MING-WOOD
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 55
a fifth period helps to account for the singular silence of the Lotus,
with respect to the essence of the one Buddha-vehicle, which it
constantly alludes to, for to elaborate the eternal, blissful, personal
and tranquil character of Buddhahood is not its task, but is the
concern of the MNS, commonly acknowledged to have been ex-
pounded by Sakyamuni immediately before his nirvana.
Hui-kuan's view of the Garland and the Lotus, as evinced in his
theory of "two teachings and five periods", was echoed in nmany
of the p'an-chiao schemes which appeared in the following century.
In these early Chinese p'an-chiao schemes, the Garlandwas variously
labelled as "round teaching" (yiian-chiao [), "one vehicle teach-
ing" (i-ch'eng chiao -*R), "sudden teaching" (tun-chiao OR),
"teaching of characteristics" (yu-hsiang chiao ) "doctrine of
reality" (chen-shih tsung fIX), "doctrine of the eternal" (ch'ang
tsung ) "doctrine of the dharmadhaitu"(fa-chieh tsung ;
etc.,25 with the distinct connotation that it represented the Buddha
Dharma in its purest and most perfect form. As for the Lotus, it
figured less prominently than the Garland in early Chinese discus-
sions of p'an-chiao. When it did appear, it was often given the name
of "teaching of convergence" (t'ung-kueichiao rpi"R) or "teaching
of no-characteristic" (wu-hsiang chiao ) and was frequently
cited as a category of "gradual teaching", in which it was invariably
placed before the MNS,26 so giving the impression that it remained
one step away from the culmination of the Buddha's evangelical
career, and was still not the total expression of the final Truth. Such
classifications and characterizations of the two stitras strongly sug-
gest that the Garlandis a truer and fuller representation of the Bud-
dhist gospel and occupies a higher place in the Buddhist Canon
than the Lotus, an opinion which must have been quite widespread
in Chih-i's time, as it was constantly alluded to in the writings of
the Madhyamika master Chi-tsang i (549-623), one of Chih-i's
eminent contemporaries.27
2.1 The Lotus Sitra and Garland Suitrain Chih-i's Scheme of Five
Periods of Teaching:
Chih-i, as is well-known, claims as the scriptural basis of his
25 Consult the list in Kimura Kiyotaka, op. cit., pp. 75-78.
26 Refer to Chih-i's and Fa-tsang's accounts of the early Chinese p'an-chiaosys-
tems in Fa-hua hsi2an-i
z;-*X, T, vol. 33, p. 801a-b and Hua-yen wu-chiao chang
* i:T, T, vol. 45, pp. 480b-481a respectively.
27 For example, see Chi-tsang, Fa-hua hsuan-lun T, vol. 34, p. 366a,
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56 LIU MING-WOOD
T'ien-t'ai teaching the Lotus Sutra, which he places above all Bud-
dhist texts, including the Garland. His p'an-chiao scheme of "five
periods" can be considered as a reformation of the theory of "five
periods" of Hui-kuan with the aim of establishing the preeminence
of the Lotus.28
As first propounded in the Fa-hua hsiian-i 'gg2 ,29 Chih-i's
scheme of "five periods" is part of a larger p'an-chiao system, which
divides the Buddha's teachings into the three categories of"sudden",
"gradual" and "indeterminate" according as how they were taught
and received by their audiences.30 As an illustration of the sudden
teaching, Chih-i quotes the famous simile of the rising sun first
shining on the high mountains before letting its rays fall on the hills,
11.12-14 and Fa-huayu-i &,X , T, vol. 34, p. 635a, 11.5-6. Also refer to n. 51
below.
28Biography of Chih-i in Kuan-ting XIR. Sui T'ien-t'ai chih-cheta-shihpieh-
chuanFX-II· fiJ(g, T. vol. 50, pp. 191a-197c and Tao-hsian AM, Hsi
Kao-seng-chuan - f', T, vol. 50, pp. 564a-568a.
29 The following discussion of Chih-i's theory of five periods is based entirely
on the concluding section of the Fa-hua hsiian-i titled "Shih chiao-hsiangMRM",
which is devoted mainly to the subject of p'an-chiao.See T, vol. 33, p. 806a, if.
For orthodox accounts of Chih-i's scheme of five periods, consult Leon Hurvitz,
op. cit., pp. 230-244, Kenneth K.S. Ch'en, Buddhismin China(Princeton: Princeton
1
University Press, 1964) , pp. 306-307,
, and Ando Toshio. endai-gaku (Kyo-
to: 1968), pp. 60-81.
30 The division of
"sudden", "gradual" and "indeterminate" was not an in-
vention of Chih-i. As we have seen, Hui-kuan had already classified the Buddha's
teachings into "sudden" and "gradual". To these two, a third category of "in-
determinate" was later added to account for the peculiar character of the Sri-
malsimhan&da-sutra and Suvarnaprabhdsa-sutra; and this system of three teachings
enjoyed considerably popularity in Southern China in the late fifth and sixth
centuries. For more detail, consult Yoshida Kazuhiro [IBILA, "Henkata
fuj6 kyo ni tsuite {§-, X"C", Otani gakuho k@3* 56.1 (1976), pp.
27-39. With the introduction of a further category of "secret teaching", there
came into existence the so-called "four methods of conversion" (hua-i ssu-chiao
{LM{VI[), commonly considered as one of the key p'an-chiaoschemes of the T'ien-
t'ai School. It should be noted that even though the invention of the list "sudden",
"gradual", "indeterminate" and "secret" can be attributed to Chih-i, the im-
portance attached to it came largely from later T'ien-t'ai masters, and the designa-
tion "four methods of conversion" appears in none of Chih-i's extant writings.
For brief, orthodox description of the "four methods", see Leon Hurvitz, op. cit.,
pp. 244-248, Kenneth K.S. Ch'en, op. cit., pp. 308-309 and Ando Toshio, Tendai-
gaku, op. cit., pp. 81-92. For discussions on the place of the scheme of "four meth-
ods" in Chih-i's p'an-chiaoteaching, see Sekiguchi Sindai M nkt "Kegi shiky6
ron {LtRfei", in Sekiguchi Sindai, ed., TendaiKyogakuno KenkyuI-Jilk©
ft[ (Tokyo: 1978), pp. 37-54, Ikeda Rosan i9Af, "Goji hakky6 ron H:
A/Je", in ibid., pp. 173-178, and Mitomo Keny6 -E2;l, "Tendai ni okeru
en.ton.zen no teigi to ky6han -
4~t-5 fJdF ", in ibid., pp.
&
]- .' c ~r
271-282.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 57
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58 LIU MING-WOOD
al" teachings of the Tathagata that Chih-i puts forward his version
of the division of "five periods":
i) First Period
When the Buddha first attained the supreme enlightenment under
the Bodhi tree, he proclaimed the GarlandSitra, in which he related
directly his vision of ultimate Reality. This suddenmethod of in-
struction, however, proved unsuitable for the sravakasand pratyeka-
buddhas among the audience, who, due to their "dull roots" totally
failed to comprehend.
ii) Second Period:
Seeing that most of his listenerswere not yet ready for the immediate
communication of the entire Truth, the Buddha practised expedi-
ence and exchanged the sudden for the gradualmethod of tutelage.
So he left the Bodhi tree for the city of Varanasi, where he preached
the Hinayana Tripitakaand pronounced such doctrines as imper-
manence, four noble truths, twelvefold chain of dependent origi-
nation, etc., to render the mind of his lesser followers more recep-
tive to his guidance.
iii) Third Period:
Fearing that his audience would assume the Hmnayanateaching of
the second period as final, the Buddha proceeded to deliver in the
third period, such texts as the Vimalakirtinirdesa-suitra,
Visesacintabrah-
mapariprcchd-suitra and Aryiingulimaliyanamamahiivana-sutra, in which
he avowed that the Hinayana precepts previously prescribeddid not,
in fact, contain the real truth, and that there still existed higher
truths pertaining to the way of the Mahayana, and those were what
they should strive to realize. In this period, the Buddha chided the
inferior ideal of the Hinayana in order to instil in his listeners
aspiration for the superior goal of the Mahayana.
iv) Fourth Period:
After lauding the Mahayana at the expense of the Hinayana in the
third period, the Buddha went on to lecture the Prajnaiparamita-
s-tras, in the fourth period in which he expounded such major
Mahayana ideas as "emptiness" and the "neither birth nor ex-
tinction" of all dharmas mental and physical. He discoursed on
the "distinctive wisdom" (pu-kungpan-jo >F;KW), i.e., wisdom
distinctive of the bodhisattva-vehicle, as well as the "common
wisdom" (kungpan-jo ) i.e., wisdom common of the three
vehicles of Cravakas, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas, and
elaborated the long, tortuous path leading to the supreme goal
of Tathagatahood.
v) Fifth Period:
Having gone through the gradualtraining of the second, third and
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 59
fourth periods, the listeners were finally prepared for the reception
of the full message. Only then did the Buddha address them with
the Lotus Su-tra,in which he disclosed his "original intention" (pen-
huai *t ) and his true eternal nature. Chih-i equates the Lotus with
the concept of "emptiness of the Garland Ocean" (Hua-yen-hai
k'ung g.W8;), which appears after the "mahaprajnia"in the list of
Buddhist tenets enumerated in the Wu-liang-i ching k, 36
and sums up the course of instruction of the Tathagata as follow:
Again, it is understood that the "emptiness of the Garland Ocean" expounded
after the [mahd]praj8iis the "roundand sudden"(yuan-tun[1tf) teachingqf theLotus.
Why? [Because] on first attaining enlightenment, [the Buddha] preached purely
the roundand sudden[teachingof the Garland].For those who failed to comprehend
as their great capacity was not yet developed, he [went on to] rinse out [their
defilements] and to bring to maturity [their understanding] by instructing them
with the Hinayana] Tripitaka,vaipulya[sutras]and Prajfiaparamitii [-zutras].When
their roots were [finally] sharpened and their defilements were removed, and when
they could [at last] receive the "round and sudden [message, the Tathagata]
lectured forthwith the Lotus,disclosing to them the Buddha's [true] knowledge and
vision so that they could enter the dharmadhatu, in like manneras the Garland[did
to thewiseat thebeginning].37
Judging solely from the above passage, it appears that the Lotus is
concerned with the exposition of the same "round and sudden"
teaching and is conducive to the entrance into the same "realm of
Truth" (dharmadhatu)as the Garland, with the difference that being
the product of the closing period instead of the beginning period of
the Buddha's teaching career, it was comprehensible not only to
bodhisattvas but to all three vehicles alike. After the lecturing of the
Lotus, there were still people in the assembly who remained un-
converted, notably those five thousand monks, nuns and lay fol-
lowers who were recorded as having left the Tathagatha's presence
due to their arrogance and evil roots, in the second chapter of the
Lotus.38 In order to also gather these stubborn ones into his fold,
the Buddha expounded, right before his death, the MNS, in which
he went through once again the principal ideas he had set out in the
preceding periods. In this last work of his earthly life, the Buddha
laid special emphasis on the concept of the eternal, blissful, per-
sonal and pure nature of Buddhahood, for fear that on witnessing
his nirvana, his followers would be overwhelmed with the feeling
of impermanence and as a consequence, lose confidence in the
Buddhist way.
36 See T, vol. 9, p. 386b, 1.25. It is the common belief of Chinese Buddhists
that the Wu-liang-iching was lectured by the Buddha as a preface to the Lotus.
37 T, vol. 33, p. 808a, 11.11-16.
38 See T, vol. 9, p. 7a, 11.7-11.
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60 LIU MING-WOOD
39 For example, see Fa-huahsiuan-i,T, vol. 33, p. 709c, 1.20, p. 769a, 11.5-16
& p. 802c, 11.19-28.
40 See ibid., p. 746a, 11.7-25, p. 757b, 11.5-12 & p. 803a, 11.5-19.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 61
which stands for the apex of the Buddha's teaching. While Chih-i
cannot dispute the common consensus, well supported by textual
evidence, regarding the occasion of the delivery of the MNS, he
cannot endorse the notion that the MNS is superior to the Lotus.
He resolves the dilemma by placing the Lotuson a par with the MNS
as a work of the fifth period, and goes on to assign to the latter only
the secondary role of tidying-up loose ends and clarifying the
lesson of universal enlightenment already present in the former.
In doing so, Chih-i affirmsthe supreme position of the Lotuswithout
necessitating any revision of the popular belief regarding the origin
of the MNS.41
41 For Chih-i's view of the relation between the Lotusand the MiNS, refer to,
for instance, ibid., p. 726c, 11.5-10, p. 745c, 1.23-p. 746a, 1.26, p. 792b, 11.6-19,
p. 803a, 11.22-27 & p. 808c, 1.28-p. 809a, 1.9
42 For example, see ibid., p. 688c, 1.28-p. 689a, 1.5, p. 706c, 1.27-p. 707a, 1.3
& 754c, 11.23-24, and Ssu-chiaoI R9.^, T, vol. 46, p. 725a, 11.22-25, p. 727a,
11.20-25 & p. 765c, 1.27-p. 766a, 1.2.
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62 LIU MING-WOOD
Again, there is a truth [which like] sunlight shines on all objects high and low
equally, and [which like] the gnomon shadow template gauges [the sun's] shad-
ows long and short as they are.44[On hearing it,] people whether of bent heads,
or of subdued voice, or of confused [mind], or of little virtue, will all fulfil Bud-
dhahood. It would not suffer some to attain nirvana alone, but would deliver
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 63
Some may think that since the Garlandis meant only for beings
who "have planted deep their good roots", it must be more pro-
found and closer to the Buddha's original intention than the Lo-
tus, which appeals to the "high and low equally". Chih-i, on the
contrary, finds that it was precisely the same shortcoming as the
Garland,for in holding that "the small can not bear the great, and
the great is separate from the small", it demonstrates its firm ad-
herence to the division of the "small" (i.e., Hinayana) and the
"great" (i.e., Mahayana), and so is not yet totally free from the mis-
guided penchant of considering the perfect as existing apart from
the imperfect, characteristic of the "distinct teaching". The Lotus,
on the other hand, transcends even this last remnant of differentia-
tion in taking under its wings all sentient beings, be they "of bent
heads, or of subdued voice, or of confused mind, or of little virtue",
and thereby represents most perfectly the principle of non-duality,
typical of the "round teaching". Chih-i frequently disparages the
Garlandfor falling short of the ideal of universal Buddhahood in
barring sravakas and pratyekabuddhas from its gospel:
Now, we [would like to] ask teachers of the Garlandif the supreme [form of] sudden
teaching [of the Garland]affirmsthat all sentient beings possessthe Buddha-nature.
If [it does teach that all sentient beings] possess [the Buddha-nature], why did
it not predict that the two vehicles would attain Buddhahood when they heard
[this] Suitra,but rather [described them] as deaf and dumb? If it is said that the
two vehicles originally possessed the Buddha-nature, but [had lost it when they]
accepted in haste the small [fruit of arhatship], just as [a tree] having its main root
eradicated, [we would like to know if those whose] main root [of Buddha-nature]
has been destroyed are curable; or if they are incurable. If they are curable,
why no [attempt is made to] cure [them in the Garland]?If they are incurable,
how can it then be maintained that [the Garlandbelieves] that all sentient beings
likewise possess the Buddha-nature? So, we can see that [thenotionof theexistence
of] incurable[beings]of the Garlandis an expedientteaching,while [theideaof] thecura-
bility [of all] of theLotusis thetruedoctrine.47
We have also contrasted in sec. 1.2 above the Garland'sexhaustive
description of the experience of enlightenment and the process lead-
ing up to, it with the Lotus'brevity in these matters, and indeed, in
nearly all orthodox Buddhist matters. Some may again take this as
evidence of the superiority of the Garland.Chih-i remarks on the
Lotusapparent poverty of content after relating, in turn, the central
45 This is one of the most quoted statements of the Lotus.See T, vol. 9, p. 13c,
11.7-8.
46 Fa-huahsuan-i, T, vol. 33, p. 683b, 1.11-c, 1.4.
47 Ibid., p. 757a, 11.21-28.
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64 LIU MING-WOOD
The Lotus does not dwell on "the doctrines which make up the
Buddhist system of thought, Mahayana and Hinayana methods of
meditation, the ten powers and four forms of fearlessness of the
Buddha, and various rules and customs of the Buddhist religion",
etc., because these have already been treated in detail in scriptures
of the preceding four periods. As the representative text of the fifth
and final period, the Lotusis devoted rather to the exhibiting of
"the framework of the Buddhist gospel" and the demonstration of
"the expedient means which the Buddha employed to fulfill his
great mission", i.e., to the clarification of the real purposes behind
the doctrines and practices prescribed in the earlier suitras and to the
determination of their relative position in the Tathagata's entire
lifework. In Chih-i's opinion, all Buddhist scriptures other than the
Lotus,each with its unique thesis and emphasis, "are adapted to the
understanding" of sentient beings "with the view of bringing bene-
fits" to them. Their functions and validity are tied up with specific
needs and situations, which, however, they have not themselves
made explicit. It is only in the Lotus,when his time of nirvana is
becoming immanent, that the Buddha proclaims to his followers
the true intention of his sojourn in samsara, making public the
provisional role of all his previous instructions and laying open the
spirit of non-duality which constitutes his true understanding:
Again, there is the difference that the other teachings cater for the dispositions
[of their listeners] in order to bring them benefits, and do not relate the [real]
intention of the Tathagata's mission of salvation. This [Lotus]Sutra, [On the other
hand,] explains how the Buddha planted skilfully the seeds of the sudden, gradual,
indeterminate and secret [methods of instruction] for the sake of sentient beings
48 Ibid., p. 800b, 11.11-16.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 65
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66 LIU MING-WOOD
53 For information on Chi-tsang's view of the Lotusand its relation to the Gar-
land, read Hirai Shunei ' Chu-igokuHannyashiso-shikenkyu ,
OFt (Tokyo: 1976), pp. 488-490 and my article "Chi-tsang hstieh-shuo ch'u-
t'an- I wu-te wei chi-pen ching-shen ti Chi-tsang chiao-hstieh ARW&PR (=)
- l ffinXtGiWb99RR" %NeiMing MM 113 (1981) pp. 13-15.
54 Biographies of Fa-tsang in Choe Ch'i-won WRi, ku-
T'ang Ta-chien-fu-ssu
ssu-chufan-ching ta-te Fa-tsang ho-shangchuan.A;kA, 04f
T, vol. 50, pp. 280c-285c and Tsan-ning *Al, Sung Kao-seng-chuan *?%fR%,T,
vol. 50, p. 732a-b.
55 For instance, see Hua-yent'an-hsilanchi T, vol. 35, p. 127b,
1.24-c, 1.12, Hua-yen-chingwen-ta T, vol. 45, p. 602c, 11.6-9 and
Hua-yenkuan-moi-chi = T. vol. 45, p. 657c, 11.21-22.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 67
dharmas" (pen-fa A&). [For doing so] would make clear that it was with the
[fundamental dharmas] as basis that the "derivative [teachings]" subsequently
arose. So the Buddha lectured at the very beginning the [fundamental] dharmas
of this [Garland]Sutra, and later preached gradually at places such as the Deer
Park derivative dharmas such as those of the Hinayana.56
The Garlandwas proclaimed first, for it contains the "fundamental
dharmas" (i.e., the true essence of the Buddha Dharma), a proper
understanding of which is necessary for the correct comprehension
of the significance of the "derivative teachings" (i.e., teachings
adopting to the capacities of sentient beings) which were given
later.
Fa-tsang is less precise with the time of instruction of the Lotus,
but judging from the following passage in which he contrasts the
function of the Lotus and the MNS with that of the Garland, it ap-
pears that he is also of the view that the Lotus is a text pertaining to
the concluding period of the Buddha's life:
As for the two types of one-vehicle [teaching, they are]:
i) [That which] demonstrates [the truth of] the [vehicle] after criticizing the
contrary [teachings of the other vehicles]: such as the Loths Sutra, which
criticizes [the idea of] the actual extinction of the two [vehicles of sravakas
and pratyekabuddhas],57 and the MNS, which criticizes [the belief in the
existence of sentient beings] devoid of Buddha-nature. Both [scriptures]
preach the one-vehicle [teaching] only after confronting with the provisional
[teachings of the other vehicles] and reconciling and criticizing them.
ii) [That which] reveals [the truth of] the one [vehicle] directly as it is in itself:
such as the GarlandSutra,which does not deal with [the teachings of] the two
vehicles, because [its function] is not to criticize, and because [its aim] is to
disclose directly to the great bodhisattvas the Dharmadhatu and the practices
leading to Buddhahood.
So, when [the Buddha] first taught the Garland,there was no provisional [teaching]
to reconcile, and when he last instructed the MNS, he reconciled all provisional
[teachings] previously [delivered].58
In this quotation, Fa-tsang distinguishes two types of one-vehicle
teaching: "that which reveals the one vehicle directly as it is
in itself", and "that which demonstrates the truth of the one vehi-
cle after criticizing the contrary teachings of the other vehicles",
the former being represented by the Garland which inaugurated
the Buddha's lifework, whereas the latter, being represented by the
MNS and the Lotus. Fa-tsang does not mention exactly when the
Lotus was first taught, but since he couples it with the MNS and
56 Hua-yent'an-hsiianchi, T, vol. 35, p. 108b, 11.19-22.
57 That is, the idea that sravakas and pratyekabuddhas become extinct on at-
taining the nirvana without residue and can not return to the realm of samssara
to cultivate the way of Buddhahood.
58 Ibid., p. 114b, 11.20-25.
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68 LIU MING-WOOD
3.2 The Lotus Sutra, the Garland Stitra and the One VehicleTeaching
Quotation 53 speaks of the Garland as the embodiment of the
"fundamental dharmas", which reminds us of Chih-i's notion of
the Garlandas the revelation of the pure Truth. Quotation 55 refers
to both the Garland and the Lotus as the "one-vehicle teaching",
with the difference that the Garland discloses the truth of the one
vehicle directly at the beginning, whereas the Lotus demonstrates
it after "having confronted with the provisional teachings of the
other vehicles" at the end, which recalls Chih-i's depiction of the
Garland and the Lotus as the same "round and sudden teaching"
taught respectively at the commencement and the close of the
Buddha's teaching career. Fa-tsang's conception of the Garland
and the Lotus can also be discerned from his account of the one
vehicle of the "distinct" and of the "common" teachings and their
relation with the teachings of the three vehicles.
We have already alluded to the "one vehicle" and "three vehi-
cles" several times in our foregoing exposition. The terms "one
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 69
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70 LIU MING-WOOD
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72 LIU MING-WOOD
69 For discussion on the net of Indra and its symbolic significance in Hua-yen
thought, refer to F.H. Cook, op. cit., pp. 2-3, and my article, "The Harmonious
Universe of Fa-tsang and Leibniz-A Comparative Study", PhilosophyEast &
West32.1 (1982), p. 65.
70 For example, see Hua-yent'an-hsUanchi, T, vol. 35, p. 116a, 11.26-27 and
the next quotation.
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 73
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74 LIU MING-WOOD
when they are finally well prepared, that both the "instruction"and
"meaning" of the three vehicles are actually likewise "expedient
instructions", the primary objective of which is to pave the way for
the disclosure of the "real meaning" which is the truth of universal
harmony originally made known in the "one vehicle of the distinct
teaching". Here, we encounter once again the idea of the Garland
as the direct communication of the Truth and the Lotusas the return
to the Truth after a long process of mediation, an idea which is
central to Chih-i's division of five periods.73
3.3 Fa-tsang'sAssessment
of theLotus Siitra andGarland Stitra
Given the remarkableresemblancein Chih-i's and Fa-tsang'scon-
ceptions of the Lotusand the Garland,it is all the more interesting to
observe that they differ markedlyfrom each other in their evaluation
of the two texts. We find in Fa-tsang's writings no critical remarks
on the Lotuscomparable to those Chih-i makes about the Garland,
but judging from the fact that Fa-tsang takes the Garlandas the
principle canonical basis of his philosophy, it is not far-fetched to
conclude that he regards the Garlandto be, in general, superior to
the Lotus.Fa-tsang's writings abound with eulogies of the Garland,
in which the Suitrais extolled as the "magnificent discourse" and
the "supreme teaching", which "exhausts the dharmadhatu" and
''pervades worlds innumerable as dust":
With respect to the GarlandSutra, it is the magnificent discourse [addressed to]
ocean [-like] gatherings of saints, and the supreme teaching illuminating the
kings of mountains.74 Vast and deep in ideal and wisdom, it exhausts the dharma-
dhltu and penetrates the true source. Limitless in its profound sayings, it is [all-
encompassing] like space and pervades worlds [innumerable as] dust.75
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 75
times, including the three periods past, present and future, each with its past,
present and future.
chi, T, vol. 35, p. 117b, 1.11.
77 Hua-yent'an-hsiuan
78 Hua-yenwu-chiao chang,T, vol. 45, p. 484a, 11.10-13.
79 Hua-yen-chingchih-kuei,T, vol. 45, p. 592b, 11.21-24.
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76 LIU MING-WOOD
sambhogakaya and nirmanakaya. For various lists of "ten buddhas" in the Garland,
refer to the table in Ishii Kyodo, op. cit., p. 432.
84 The six supernatural powers, together with the three insights, four forms of
fearlessness and eighteen distinctive characteristics mentioned below, are among
the most well-known of the Buddha's excellent marks. See William E. Soothill
& Lewis Hodous, A Dictionaryof ChineseBuddhistTerms (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner & Co., 1937), p. 138, p. 66, p. 178 & p. 45 respectively.
85 Refer to n. 84 above for the three insights. As for the ten insights, see Gar-
land, T, vol. 9, p. 578a, 1.1 1-p. 580c, 1.3 & p. 662b, 11.16-25.
86 See Soothill, op. cit., pp. 39-40 for the eight forms of liberation. For the ten
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 77
v) They have four [forms of] fearlessness;we have ten [forms of] fearlessness.87
vi) They have five [forms of] vision; we have ten [forms of] vision.88
vii) They speak of three periods; we speak of ten periods.89
viii) They have four truths; we have ten truths.90
ix) They have four [powers of] reasoning; we have ten [powers of] reasoning.91
x) They have eighteen distinctive characteristics; we have ten distinctive char-
acteristics.92
The overall tenor of the above passage conveys unmistakably Fa-
tsang's admiration for the Garland,for its complete and accurate
treatments of such themes as liberation, truth, characteristicsof the
Buddha, etc. On discussing the significance of the Garland,Fa-tsang
sums up its content in the pairs of items :93
i. Innumerable "instructions" (chiao)and the "meaning" (i) they
convey.
ii. The "noumenon" (li 3) and the "phenomena" (shih%) arising
from it.
iii. "Wisdom" (chihW) and its objects (ching,).
iv. Religious "practices" (hsingfY) and "stages" (wei a:) of spiri-
tual development.
v. "Causes" (yin W) and "fruits" (kuo;) of enlightenment.
vi. "Secondary" (i fk) and "principal" (chengi) retribution.94
vii. "Essence" (t'i 1#) and its "functions" (yung JW).
viii. "Men" (jen A) and the "dharmas" (fa &) they teach.
ix. Manifestations "contrary to" (ni i) and "conforming with"
(shunJtR)the manifestant'snature.95
87 Refer to n. 84 above for the four forms of fearlessness. For the ten forms of
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78 LIU MING-WOOD
chang,where they are said "to illustrate the infinite". (T, vol. 45, p. 504c, 1.24)
97 For information on these early Chinese Yogacara schools, see D.S. Ruegg,
La Th6oriedu Tathagatagarbha et du Gotra(Paris: E~coleFranqaised'Extreme-Orient,
1969), pp. 439-442, Alfonso Verdu, DialecticalAspectsin BuddhistThought(Kansas:
Centre for East Asian Studies, University of Kansas, 1974), pp. 29-39, Paul
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THE LOTUS SUTRA AND GARLAND SUTRA 79
reality has been taken over by Fa-tsang, and forms the theoretical
background of his teaching of universal harmony.98 Having ac-
cepted an ontological reality, whose essence is enlightenment, Fa-
tsang is naturally especially interested in enquiring into its nature
and the practices conducive to its fulfilment. The Garland,with its
exhaustive accounts of the path and the experience of Buddhahood,
answers perfectly these concerns of his, and, therefore receives from
him the highest esteem.99
Conclusion
This comparative study, brief and tentative as it is, should suffice
to demonstrate the many similarities between Chih-i's and Fa-
tsang's conceptions of the Lotusand the Garland.Both maintain that
the Garlandwas the earliest and the Lotus among the latest texts
preached by the Tathagata. Both are of the opinion that the Garland
contains the "immediate" and the Lotusthe "mediated" expression
of the Truth. Furthermore,both contend that the Garlandwas direct-
ed only to those of the sharpestfaculties, while the Lotuswas intended
for beings of all levels of intelligence. The fact that they nevertheless
part ways in their assessment of the two scriptures, despite such
basic agreements, provides us with an excellent illustration of the
respective "dialectical" and "transcendental" approaches of their
thought, which we have, in turn, traced to the respective Madhya-
mika and Yogacara origins of their teachings. Thus, while Fa-tsang
sees the excellence of the Garlandin its being the direct revelation
of the Buddha's ultimate vision, and in its being "distinct" from the
inferior ways of the three vehicles, Chih-i finds precisely here its
weakness, as its doctrinal purity makes it totally unfit for the com-
mon run of mankind. To express Chih-i's view in Hegelian terms,
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80 LIU MING-WOOD
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