sustainability

Article
Performance Evaluation of Asphalt Modified with
Municipal Wastes for Sustainable
Pavement Construction
Muhammad Nasir Amin *, Muhammad Imran Khan and Muhammad Umair Saleem
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, King Faisal University (KFU),
P.O. Box 380, Al-Hofuf, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia; mokhan@kfu.edu.sa (M.I.K.);
mmsaleem@kfu.edu.sa (M.U.S.)
* Correspondence: mgadir@kfu.edu.sa; Tel.: +966-13-589-5431; Fax: +966-13-581-7068

Academic Editor: Marc A. Rosen

Received: 30 June 2016; Accepted: 13 September 2016; Published: 27 September 2016

Abstract: The severe hot temperature and high traffic loadings in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA)
are causing distress in flexible pavements within a few years of service. Secondly, the conventional
bitumen extracted from Saudi oil refineries have a performance grade of 64-10 (PG 64-10), which
does not meet the SuperPave performance grade requirement for most of the KSA’s regions. In order
to improve the performance grade of bitumen, different percentages of municipal wastes (plastic and
crumb rubber) were used as bitumen additives. The performance of bitumen at low, intermediate,
and high temperatures was evaluated. This is important as the waste production is rising significantly
due to the fast urbanization and high population growth in the KSA. Particularly, when there are
very few ways of recycling these wastes (municipal, as well as industrial), which in fact have great
impact on the environment. High-density polyethylene (HDP), low-density polyethylene (LDP),
and crumb rubber (CR) with 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of bitumen, were mixed with the base
bitumen (PG 64-10). Rotational viscometer (RV), dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), and bending beam
rheometer (BBR) were used to evaluate the viscosity, rutting, fatigue, and low-temperature behavior
of base and modified binders. The test results indicated that the rutting (permanent deformation)
and fatigue resistance were significantly improved in modified binders due to the improvement in
the visco-elastic properties.

Keywords: flexible pavements; SuperPave; polyethylene; crumb rubber; rutting

1. Introduction
Owing to the rapid urbanization and population increase, the production of municipal waste
is rising significantly in the KSA. Currently, most of the municipal waste (such as glasses, low- and
high-density polyethylene, and crumb rubber, etc.) is just being disposed into open landfills. This act is
not only dangerous to human health but also to the living environment. Consequently, serious attention
is required in the use of these wastes. The simple solution to this problem is that this sheer waste should
be recycled. The most practical way of recycling is to use it in both road and building constructions.
There are many applications of bitumen/asphalt as a building material, especially used in the
construction of flexible pavements. The bitumen exhibits complex behavior due to its visco-elastic
characteristics. On one hand, it behaves like a viscous fluid when subjected to high temperature and
slow moving loads. On the other hand, it acts like solid elastic when subjected to fast moving traffic or
at low temperatures [1,2].

Sustainability 2016, 8, 949; doi:10.3390/su8100949 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 2 of 13

Furthermore, owing to the severe hot climate and rapid growth in traffic, the flexible pavements
in the KSA are failing prematurely during the initial period of service. Similarly, using base bitumen of
PG 64-10 (which is the only bitumen available in KSA), without modifying, leads to flexible pavement
distresses in terms of rutting, fatigue, and low-temperature cracks.
Different modifiers/additives are being used to improve the performance of bitumen under
different conditions. These modifiers/additives include polyethylene, rubbers, styrene butadiene
styrene (SBS), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), locolust, and EE-2,
etc. [3–7]. Since few of the asphalts are resistant to rutting (due to high temperature and heavy loading)
and low-temperature cracking without using proper modifiers, this motivated us to modify the base
asphalt with particles of nano-TiO2 , nano-ZnO, nano-CaCO3 , SBS, and SBR.
The previous studies revealed that physical and chemical reaction of polymers with asphalt were
significantly important in the modification process. Low- and high-temperature properties of modified
asphalt were improved considerably. Moreover, the nano-CaCO3 was available in abundance and was
less expensive as compared to other nano-polymers [8–12]. In addition to these modifiers, various
other polymers, such as SBS, EVA, and polypropylenes, have been used in asphalt modifications and
the temperature susceptibility was decreased significantly in modified binders [13–17].
Recently, KSA is facing a large challenge in terms of management of its solid waste. According to
the recent estimates of 2015, KSA is producing more than 15 million tons of municipal waste each year,
while this figure was 12.1 million tons per year back in 2007 [18]. Owing to the absence of recycling
techniques in the KSA, a major portion of these wastes are being dumped into open landfills [18,19].
Similarly, informal sectors extract papers, plastics, metals etc. from these wastes and recycle it at a very
slow rate that is only around 10%–15% of the total production in the KSA.
Moreover, a recent study, conducted on solid waste management for Jeddah city, found that
papers (21%), plastics (13%), metals (6%), glasses (4%), wood (1%), organics (48%), and others (7%)
were extracted from the municipal wastes alone [20]. Furthermore, a rapid increase in the usage of
vehicles was also one of the major causes in the production of such wastes. As a result, over 30 million
waste tires were found in the KSA (SIPA, 2013) [21].
The addition of different stages/forms of bleaching clay (which is used to clarify vegetable oil in
food industries) wastes in binder and hot mix asphalt considerably affect the rheological properties of
the binder, stiffness of the mix, and interaction with bitumen at intermediate and high temperatures [22].
Therefore, this study was performed to find possible alternatives that could improve the performance
of bitumen’s grades from PG 64-10 to higher grades and then optimizing the bitumen and modifying
with municipal wastes (LDP, HDP, and CR). As a result of that, modifying the base bitumen with
different percentages of LDP, HDP, and CR would enhance resistance of asphalt against rutting and
cracking. It would also help in recycling these municipal wastes to reduce environmental pollution.
The Ministry of Transportation (MOT) had recommended the use of different polymers in asphalt
modification in order to improve its performance against high temperatures and heavy loadings [23].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The base binder of Performance Grade PG 64-10 was used in this study, as obtained from a local
Saudi refinery. Crumb rubber (CR), high-density polyethylene (HDP), and low-density polyethylene
(LDP) with 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of bitumen were used as bitumen additives. The LDP, HDP,
and crumb rubber were procured from local recycling factories (size range from 1–4 mm). The crumb
rubber was obtained from the wastage of tires, and was grinded using a traditional mechanical grinder.
After grinding, sieving was performed to obtain fine material (pass through sieve #100). This process
was done to achieve the uniformity during the mixing of CR in bitumen. Then, the powdered crumb
rubber was blended in molten asphalt using a high-speed laboratory mixer.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 3 of 13

Similarly, both the polymers (LDP and HDP) were blended with molten asphalt at a temperature
of 20–30 ◦ C higher than the respective melting point of the polymers (the melting point of LDP is
110 ◦ C, and 126 ◦ C for HDP) with a high-speed laboratory mixer [24]. Then the binders were mixed
at a speed of 1000 rpm for 20 min (speed and time was obtained by optimizing the value of “G*/Sin
Phase angle”). It is worth mentioning that the tests were conducted on binders only, and, hence, the
wet process of polymer modification was used during the modification.
The physical properties of materials used in this study are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics of bitumen, LDP, and HDP.

Test/ Physical Property Bitumen LDP HDP

Specific Gravity 1.019 Density = 922 kg/m3 Density = 961 kg/m3
Penetration @ 25 ◦ C, 0.1 mm 60–70
Softening point (◦ C) 49.45
Flash point (◦ C) 310
Ductility (mm) 126.5
Viscosity @ 135 ◦ C (cP) 460.35
Super-Pave Performance Grade (PG) 64-10

2.2. Methods
The grade of bitumen was determined at King Faisal University Highway laboratory using
specified ASTM standards (D7175-08, D2872-04, D6521-08, and D6648-08) for SuperPave binder
testing [25–28].
A laboratory shear mixer was used to mix different percentages (5%, 10%, and 15%) of CR, HDP,
and LDP with base bitumen. The viscosities of controlled bitumen and modified bitumen (with CR,
HDP, and LDP) were determined using a rotational viscometer (RV) at 135 ◦ C and 165 ◦ C at a spindle
speed of 20 rpm. The rheological properties at high and intermediate temperatures were determined
using a dynamic shear rheometer (DSR). A bending beam rheometer (BBR) was used to evaluate the
properties of the binder at low temperatures. Tests were performed on controlled bitumen samples
and modified bitumen samples (with CR, HDP, and LDP replaced at 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight
of bitumen).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Viscosity
A rotational viscometer was used to determine the viscosity of binders used in this study. All of
the tests were conducted following the standard conditions of temperature (135 ◦ C) and spindle
rotation (20 rpm) as per ASTM D4402 [29]. According to the Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP) specifications, the viscosity shall not increase 3 Pa·s for proper handling and pumping under
the required temperature conditions [30].
It is clear from the Figure 1 that the viscosity of binders increased with increasing percentages of
LDP, HDP, and CR.
The viscosity of binders has a significant impact on the workability (handling and pumping
during mixing and placing) of asphalt mixes, as well as on the energy consumption during the mixing
process. The 15% CR-MB exceeded the maximum limit of viscosity and, therefore, required more
energy for its mixing. A significant increased viscosity of 15% CR resulted in a less workable modified
asphalt mix. To overcome such workability problems, SASOBIT® (Fischer-Tropsch wax) can be added
to CR-MB to reduce the viscosity of the modified asphalt. In addition, the mixing temperature of hot
mix asphalt can also be reduced up to 30 ◦ C with the addition of SASOBIT® [31].
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 4 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 4 of 13

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Viscosity of controlled
Viscosity of controlled and
and CR-,
CR-, HDP-,
HDP-, and
and LDP-modified
LDP-modified binders
binders at
at 135
135 ◦°C.
C.

3.2. Measurement of Elasticity of LDP-, HDP-, and CR-Modified Binders

3.2. Measurement of Elasticity of LDP-, HDP-, and CR-Modified Binders
The behavior of asphalt depends on the temperature as well as on the loading time due to its
The behavior of asphalt depends on the temperature as well as on the loading time due to its
visco-elastic nature. Dynamic shear rheometers (DSR) were used to evaluate the effect of both the
visco-elastic nature. Dynamic shear rheometers (DSR) were used to evaluate the effect of both the
temperature and the loading time on asphalt binders. The rheological properties (complex modulus
temperature and the loading time on asphalt binders. The rheological properties (complex modulus
and phase angle) at intermediate to high temperatures can also be measured using DSR.
and phase angle) at intermediate to high temperatures can also be measured using DSR.
In this study, the controlled asphalt and modified asphalt with LDP, HDP, and CR (5%, 10%,
In this study, the controlled asphalt and modified asphalt with LDP, HDP, and CR (5%, 10%, and
and 15%) by weight of bitumen were tested using DSR following the standard conditions of the
15%) by weight of bitumen were tested using DSR following the standard conditions of the SuperPave
SuperPave binder tests [30]. All of the tests were conducted at a frequency of 1.59 Hz and different
binder tests [30]. All of the tests were conducted at a frequency of 1.59 Hz and different temperatures,
temperatures, such as 46, 52, 58, 64, 70, 76, and 82 °C, which corresponded to the SuperPave
such as 46, 52, 58, 64, 70, 76, and 82 ◦ C, which corresponded to the SuperPave performance grade
performance grade testing specifications.
testing specifications.
The complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) are the basic parameters measured by DSR.
The complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) are the basic parameters measured by DSR.
Complex modulus was used to evaluate the binder resistance to deformation and the amounts of
Complex modulus was used to evaluate the binder resistance to deformation and the amounts of
recoverable and non-recoverable deformation were calculated using the measured values of the
recoverable and non-recoverable deformation were calculated using the measured values of the phase
phase angle [32].
angle [32].
Phase angle also inversely related to elasticity of binders; the greater the value of the phase angle
Phase angle also inversely related to elasticity of binders; the greater the value of the phase angle
means a less elastic binder and, thus, more susceptible to deformation. Similarly, the lesser the value
means a less elastic binder and, thus, more susceptible to deformation. Similarly, the lesser the value
of the phase angle indicates that the binder is more elastic and less susceptible to deformation. On
of the phase angle indicates that the binder is more elastic and less susceptible to deformation. On the
the other hand, a high value of complex modulus (G*) indicates that the binder shows more resistance
other hand, a high value of complex modulus (G*) indicates that the binder shows more resistance
against deformation when subjected to different loading and temperature conditions. Keeping in
against deformation when subjected to different loading and temperature conditions. Keeping in mind
mind the hot climate of the Kingdom during the summer, tests on DSR were conducted considering
the hot climate of the Kingdom during the summer, tests on DSR were conducted considering high
high temperatures reaching up to 82 °C.
temperatures reaching up to 82 ◦ C.

3.2.1. LDP
3.2.1. LDP Modified Binders
Modified Binders
Relationships between
Relationships between temperature
temperature vs. vs. complex
complex modulus
modulus (G*) (G*) and
and temperature
temperature vs. vs. phase
phase angle
angle
(δ) are presented in Figure 2A,B for LDP-modified bitumen. It can be seen from
(δ) are presented in Figure 2A,B for LDP-modified bitumen. It can be seen from the isochronal plot the isochronal plot
(Figure 2A)
(Figure 2A) that
that the
theincrease
increaseininpercentage
percentageofofLDP LDPresults
resultsininthe
the improved
improved value
value of of
G*G*
as as compared
compared to
to the controlled bitumen, even at the highest
the controlled bitumen, even at the highest temperature. temperature.
The binder
The binder modified
modified withwith 15%
15% LDPLDP byby weight
weight of
of bitumen
bitumen showed
showed maximum
maximum value value ofof complex
complex
modulus (G*),
modulus (G*), which
which is is 2–7
2–7 times
times ofof the
the controlled
controlled bitumen,
bitumen, when
when tested
tested at
at 46,
46, 52, 58, 64,
52, 58, 64, 70,
70, 76,
76, and
and
82 ◦°C temperatures and, hence, less susceptible to deformation. Similarly, LDP-modified
82 C temperatures and, hence, less susceptible to deformation. Similarly, LDP-modified binder showed binder
showed improved
improved performanceperformance attest
at all of the all temperatures
of the test temperatures
in terms of the in terms
declineofinthe
thedecline in the(δ)
phase angle phase
and,
hence, the elasticity of the LDP-modified binder increased as compared to the controlled bitumen.the
angle (δ) and, hence, the elasticity of the LDP-modified binder increased as compared to
controlled bitumen.
 Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 5 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 5 of 13

Figure 2. 2.
Figure Relationship between
Relationship temperature
between vs.vs.
temperature complex modulus
complex (A)(A)
modulus andand
phase angle
phase (B) (B)
angle for for
LDP-
modified bitumen.
LDP-modified bitumen.

3.2.2. HDP
3.2.2. Modified
HDP ModifiedBinders
Binders
Relationships
Relationshipsbetween
betweentemperature
temperature vs. complex modulus(G*)
complex modulus (G*)and
andtemperature
temperature vs.vs. phase
phase angle
angle
(δ)(δ)
are presented
are presentedininFigure
Figure3A,B
3A,Bfor
for HDP-modified bitumen.ItItcan
HDP-modified bitumen. canbebeseen
seenfrom
fromthe the isochronal
isochronal plotplot
(Figure
(Figure2A)
2A)that
thatthe
theHDP-modified
HDP-modifiedbinder
binder shows improved
improvedvalue valueofofG*
G*asascompared
compared totothethe controlled
controlled
bitumen
bitumen evenatatthe
even thehighest
highesttemperature.
temperature.
Thebinder
The binder modified
modified with
with15%15%HDPHDPby weight
by weightof bitumen showedshowed
of bitumen an increased value of complex
an increased value of
modulus (G*) from 4–11 times of the controlled bitumen when testedwhen
at 46,tested
52, 58,at
64,46,
70,52,
76,58,
and ◦
complex modulus (G*) from 4–11 times of the controlled bitumen 64,8270,C76,
andtemperatures and, hence,
82 °C temperatures lesshence,
and, susceptible to deformation.
less susceptible Moreover, bitumen
to deformation. modified
Moreover, with 5%
bitumen and
modified
10% HDP showed better results as compared to the controlled bitumen. Similarly,
with 5% and 10% HDP showed better results as compared to the controlled bitumen. Similarly, HDP- HDP-modified
binder showed
modified improved
binder showed performance
improved at all of the
performance test
at all of temperatures in terms in
the test temperatures of terms
the decline
of theindecline
the
phase angle (δ) and, hence, the elasticity of the HDP-modified binder increased
in the phase angle (δ) and, hence, the elasticity of the HDP-modified binder increased as compared as compared to the
controlled bitumen.
to the controlled bitumen.
 Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 6 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 6 of 13

Figure 3. 3.
Figure Relationship between
Relationship temperature
between vs.vs.
temperature complex modulus
complex (A) (A)
modulus andand
phase angle
phase (B) for
angle (B) HDP-
for
modified bitumen.
HDP-modified bitumen.

3.2.3. CRCR
3.2.3. Modified
ModifiedBinders
Binders
Relationships
Relationshipsbetween
betweentemperature
temperature vs. vs. complex modulus(G*)
complex modulus (G*)and
andtemperature
temperature vs.vs. phase
phase angle
angle
(δ)(δ)
arearepresented
presentedininFigure
Figure4A,B
4A,B for
for CR-modified bitumen. ItIt can
CR-modified bitumen. canbebeseen
seenfrom
fromthe theisochronal
isochronal plot
plot
(Figure
(Figure 2A)
2A)that
thatthetheCR-modified
CR-modified binder
binder shows improved
improved value
valueofofG* G*asascompared
comparedtoto controlled
controlled
bitumen
bitumen even
evenatatthe
thehighest
highesttemperature.
temperature.
The
Thebinder
bindermodified
modifiedwithwith15%
15%CRCR byby weight bitumenshowed
weight of bitumen showedan anincreased
increasedvaluevalue ofof complex
complex
modulus (G*) from4–12
4–12times
timesofofcontrolled
controlled bitumen when ◦C
modulus (G*) from when tested
testedatat46,
46,52,
52,58,
58,64,
64,70,70,
76,76,
and 82 82
and °C
temperaturesand,
temperatures and,hence,
hence,less
lesssusceptible
susceptible toto deformation.
deformation. Moreover,
Moreover,bitumen
bitumenmodified
modified with
with5%5%andand
10%10% CRCRshowed
showedbetter
betterresults
results as
as compared
compared to to controlled
controlledbitumen.
bitumen.Similarly,
Similarly,CR-modified
CR-modified binder
binder
showed
showed improvedperformance
improved performanceatatall all of
of the
the test
test temperatures
temperatures in interms
termsofofthethedecline
decline inin
thethe
phase
phase
angle (δ) and, hence, the elasticity of the CR-modified binder increased as compared
angle (δ) and, hence, the elasticity of the CR-modified binder increased as compared to the controlled to the controlled
bitumen
bitumen samples.
samples.
 Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 7 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 7 of 13

Figure 4. 4.
Figure Relationship between
Relationship temperature
between vs.vs.
temperature complex modulus
complex (A)(A)
modulus and phase
and angle
phase (B)(B)
angle forfor
CR-
modified bitumen.
CR-modified bitumen.

3.3.3.3.
Rutting Susceptibility
Rutting SusceptibilityofofModified
ModifiedBinders
Binders
The rutting
The ruttingparameter (G*/Sinδ) isisdetermined
parameter (G*/Sinδ) determined from
from twotwo basic
basic factors
factors (G*δ)and
(G* and δ) as obtained
as obtained from
from the DSR test results discussed in previous sections. According to the SuperPave specifications,
the DSR test results discussed in previous sections. According to the SuperPave specifications, the
therutting
rutting parameter
parameter (G*/Sinδ)
(G*/Sinδ) must
must be minimized
be minimized tokPa
to 1.00 1.00for
kPa
thefor the original
original binder inbinder in reduce
order to order to
reduce rutting
rutting (permanent
(permanent deformation)
deformation) in asphalt
in asphalt pavements.
pavements.

3.3.1.
3.3.1. LDP-MB
LDP-MB
Figure
Figure 5 shows
5 shows thethe relationship
relationship between
between temperature
temperature andand rutting
rutting parameter
parameter (G*/Sinδ)
(G*/Sinδ) for
for LDP-
LDP-modified
modified bitumenbitumen (LDP-MB).
(LDP-MB). It canItbe
can be concluded
concluded fromfrom
the the results
results that
that thethe increaseininpercentage
increase percentage of
of LDP causes the increase in binder resistance
LDP causes the increase in binder resistance to rutting (permanent deformation). Furthermore,
to rutting (permanent deformation). Furthermore, it was it
was observed that at a temperature of 64 ◦ C and below, the LDP-MB as well as the controlled binder
observed that at a temperature of 64 °C and below, the LDP-MB as well as the controlled binder meets
meets the SuperPave minimum requirement (G*/Sinδ > 1 kPa).
the SuperPave minimum requirement (G*/Sinδ > 1 kPa).
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 8 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 8 of 13

Figure5.5. Effect
Figure Effect of
of temperature
temperature and percentage of LDP on rutting
rutting parameter
parameter of
ofLDP-MB
LDP-MB

However, at
However, 70 ◦°C
at 70 the bitumen
C the bitumen modified
modified with
with 5%,
5%, 10%,
10%, and
and 15%
15% LDP
LDP meets
meets the
the minimum
minimum
requirements, while controlled bitumen does not meet the minimum requirements
requirements, while controlled bitumen does not meet the minimum requirements at temperatures at temperatures
above64
above 64◦°C. At aa temperature
C. At temperature of of 76
76 ◦°C the 5%
C the 5% LDP-MB
LDP-MB does
does not
not meet
meet the
the minimum
minimum SuperPave
SuperPave
requirementsfor
requirements forrutting
rutting resistance.
resistance. Moreover,
Moreover, the the
15%15% LDP-MB
LDP-MB exceeded
exceeded the limiting
the limiting value
value of of
rutting
rutting parameter at the highest temperature◦ of 82 °C, while the controlled as well as other
parameter at the highest temperature of 82 C, while the controlled as well as other modified bitumen modified
bitumen
has failed has failed
at this at this temperature.
temperature.

3.3.2.HDP-MB
3.3.2. HDP-MB
Figure66presents
Figure presentsthe
therelationship
relationship between
between thethe temperature
temperature and
and the
the rutting
rutting parameter
parameter (G*/Sinδ)
(G*/Sinδ)
forHDP-modified
for HDP-modifiedbitumen
bitumen (HDP-MB).
(HDP-MB). It It can
can be
be concluded
concluded from
from the
the results
results that
thatwith
withan anincreasing
increasing
percentage of
percentage of HDP,
HDP, the
the binder
binder resistance
resistancetotorutting
rutting(permanent deformation)
(permanent deformation) hashas
alsoalso
increased. At
increased.
temperatures 64 °C◦ and below, both HDP-MB and the controlled binder meet
At temperatures 64 C and below, both HDP-MB and the controlled binder meet the SuperPave the SuperPave
minimumrequirements
minimum requirements(G*/Sinδ
(G*/Sinδ >> 11 kPa).
kPa).

Figure6.6. Effect
Figure Effect of
of temperature
temperature and percentage of HDP on rutting
rutting parameter
parameter of
ofHDP-MB.
HDP-MB.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 9 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 9 of 13

However, at
However, at 70
70°C◦ Cand
and7676
°C◦ C
temperatures
temperaturesthethe
bitumen modified
bitumen withwith
modified 5%, 10%, and 15%
5%, 10%, andHDP
15%
meets the minimum requirements, while the controlled bitumen does not meet
HDP meets the minimum requirements, while the controlled bitumen does not meet the minimum the minimum
requirementsabove
requirements above6464 ◦ C.°C. Moreover,
Moreover, the HDP-MB
the 15% 15% HDP-MB
exceedsexceeds the limiting
the limiting value of
value of rutting rutting
parameter
parameter at the highest temperature
◦ of 82 °C, while the controlled, as well as other modified
at the highest temperature of 82 C, while the controlled, as well as other modified bitumen, failed at
bitumen,
this failed attothis
temperature meettemperature
the minimum to meet the minimum criteria.
criteria.

3.3.3. CR-MB
3.3.3. CR-MB
Figure 77presents
Figure presentsthe
therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweenthethe temperature
temperature and
and thethe rutting
rutting parameter
parameter (G*/Sinδ)
(G*/Sinδ) for
for CR-modified bitumen (CR-MB). It can be concluded from the results that with an
CR-modified bitumen (CR-MB). It can be concluded from the results that with an increasing percentage increasing
percentage
of of CR,resistance
CR, the binder the binder to resistance to ruttingdeformation)
rutting (permanent (permanent deformation) has also
has also increased. increased. At
At temperatures
temperatures
64 ◦ 64 °C
C and below, andCR-MB
both below,andboththe
CR-MB and the
controlled controlled
binder binder
meets the meets the
SuperPave SuperPave
minimum minimum
requirements
requirements (G*/Sinδ
(G*/Sinδ > 1 kPa). > 1 kPa).

7. Effect of temperature and percentage of CR on rutting parameter of CR-MB.

Figure 7.
Figure

However,atat70
However, 70◦ C
°Cand
and7676
◦ C°C temperatures
temperatures thethe bitumen
bitumen modified
modified withwith 5%, 10%,
5%, 10%, andCR
and 15% 15% CR
meets
meets
the the minimum
minimum requirements,
requirements, while thewhile the controlled
controlled bitumen does bitumen does
not meet thenot meet the
minimum minimum
requirements
above 64 C. Moreover, 10% and 15% CR-MB exceed the limiting value of the rutting parameterrutting
requirements
◦ above 64 °C. Moreover, 10% and 15% CR-MB exceed the limiting value of the at the
parameter
highest at the highest
temperature of 82 ◦temperature
C, while the of 82 °C, while
controlled bitumenthe and
controlled bitumenbitumen
other modified and other
hasmodified
failed at
bitumen
this has failed at this temperature.
temperature.

3.4. Creep Stiffness of Modified Binders

Bending beam
Bending beam rheometer
rheometer(BBR)
(BBR)was wasdeveloped
developedby bySHRP
SHRPtotoevaluate
evaluate the
the rheological
rheological properties
properties of
of binders
binders at lowat temperatures.
low temperatures. The binder
The binder behaved behaved as an
as an elastic elastic
solid at thesolid
lowestat pavement
the lowesttemperature
pavement
temperature
and, hence, BBR and,washence, BBR
used to was used
evaluate to evaluateofthe
the performance performance
modified binder atofa temperature
modified binder of −10at◦ Ca
temperature
(selected based of −10 °C temperature
on the (selected based on the
zoning fortemperature
Saudi Arabia) zoning
[33]. for Saudi Arabia) [33].
Furthermore, the tests were performed on the base binder and on the modified binders, which
were aged in a rolling thin film oven (RTFO) and pressure aging vessel (PAV) prior to
(PAV) prior to the
the test. From
Figure 8,8,ititcan
Figure canbe be concluded
concluded thatthat the stiffness
the stiffness of binders
of binders is decreasing
is decreasing with aninincrease
with an increase in the
the percentage
percentage
of modifiers.ofThis modifiers. This clearly
clearly reflects reflectsinimprovement
improvement binder resistancein against
binder lowresistance against
temperature low
cracks.
temperature
The stiffness cracks. The stiffness
of CR, HDP, and LDP ofmodified
CR, HDP,binder
and LDP modified
at 60 s (AASHTO binder at 60are
M320) s (AASHTO
within theM320)
rangeareof
within
the the range
SuperPave of the SuperPave specifications.
specifications.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 10 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 10 of 13
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 10 of 13

Figure
Figure 8. StiffnessofofCR,
8. Stiffness CR,HDP,
HDP,and
andLDP
LDP modified
modified binders
bindersatat−10
−10°C.◦ C.
Figure 8. Stiffness of CR, HDP, and LDP modified binders at −10 °C.
The rate of change in stiffness is measured by m-value, which is the slope of the stiffness curve.
TheThe
raterate
of change in in
stiffness
stiffnessisismeasured by m-value,whichwhichisisthethe slope of the stiffness curve.
According to of change
SuperPave specifications,measured by m-value,
the m-value will be greater or slope
equaloftothe stiffness
0.300 undercurve.
60 s
According
loading
totime.
According SuperPave
to As specifications,
SuperPave
shown inspecifications,
the the
m-value
Figure 9, the m-valuesm-valuewill be
will
of all
greater or equal
be greater
binders
to 0.300
or equal
lie within
under
to 0.300
the range.
60 s 60
under
Currently,
loading
thes
time.authors
As shown
loading time. in Figure 9, the m-values of all binders lie within the range. Currently,
have focused on conventional DSR tests in this study. However, further research will the
As shown in Figure 9, the m-values of all binders lie within the range. the
Currently, authors
be
authors
focusedhave
haveconducted on focused
in the futureon
conventional conventional
using DSR inDSR
tests stress
multiple tests
thiscreep in
study. this study.
However,
recovery However,
further
(MSCR) further
research
to study research
will
the rutting be will be in
conducted
phenomena
conducted
the future
of using
modified inbitumen
the future
multiple using
stress
with MSCRmultiple
creep stress creep
recovery
tests. recovery
(MSCR) (MSCR)
to study thetorutting
study the rutting phenomena
phenomena of modified
of modified bitumen
bitumen with MSCR tests. with MSCR tests.

Figure 9. Rate of change in creep stiffness (m-value) at −10 °C for CR, HDP, and LDP modified binders.
Figure
Figure 9. Rate
9. Rate of change
of change in in creep
creep stiffness(m-value)
stiffness (m-value) atat −
−10 ◦ Cfor
10°C CR,
for HDP,
CR, HDP,and LDP
and modified
LDP binders.
modified binders.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
The rheological properties of the base binder and the binder modified with municipal wastes
(CR, The rheological properties of the base binder and the BBR.
binder modified with(PG
municipal wastes
TheHDP, and LDP)
rheological were determined
properties of the baseusing RV, DSR,
binder andand the binder The base binder
modified 64-10) did
with municipal not
wastes
(CR, HDP,
satisfy the and LDP) were
SuperPave determined
specifications in using
most ofRV,
the DSR,regions,
KSA and BBR. The base
where binderaverage
maximum (PG 64-10) diddays
seven not
(CR, HDP, and LDP) were determined using RV, DSR, and BBR. The base binder (PG 64-10) did not
satisfy the SuperPave
pavement temperature specifications
reached upintomost 76 °Cof the KSA theregions, where maximum average seven days
satisfy the SuperPave
pavement wastes
temperature
specifications in most ofduring
the KSA summer
regions, season. In this
where maximum study, different
average seven
municipal (LDP, reached
HDP, andupCR) to were
76 °Cusedduring
to the summer
evaluate the season. Inproperties
rheological this study,
of different
modified
◦ C during the summer season. In this study, different
daysmunicipal
pavement temperature reached up to 76
bitumen atwastes (LDP, HDP,as
high temperature, and CR)
well aswere used tothe
to improve evaluate
grade the rheologicalbitumen.
of traditional properties of modified
Application of
municipal
bitumen wastes
at high(LDP, HDP, and
temperature, CR) as
as well were used tothe
to improve evaluate
grade of the rheological
traditional properties
bitumen. of modified
Application of
bitumen at high temperature, as well as to improve the grade of traditional bitumen. Application of
these municipal wastes in road construction would reduce environmental issues by avoiding dumping
them into open spaces. Based on the results of this study, the following main conclusions were drawn:
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 11 of 13

• Binder modified with CR, HDP, and LDP showed significant improvement of viscosity. However,
viscosity of 15% CR-MB exceeded the SuperPave specifications, which could affect the workability
of the asphalt mix during its mixing and placing. To overcome this problem, SASOBIT® could be
added to CR-MB to reduce this exceeded viscosity.
• Increased percentages of CR, HDP, and LDP had significant effects on the visco-elastic properties
of the modified binders. The modified binders showed improved elasticity as compared to base
bitumen due to increase in the complex modulus (G*) and the decline in phase angle (δ) values.
The increase in G* for LDE, HDP, and CR were 2–7, 4–11,and 4–12 times, respectively, as compared
to controlled bitumen for temperatures 46, 52, 58, 64, 70, 76, and 82 ◦ C.
• The base binder (PG 64-10) was found to be more susceptible to rutting at temperatures above 64 ◦ C.
• The SHRP rutting parameter (G*/Sinδ) was improved significantly in modified binders at higher
temperatures. Binders modified with 5%–15% of HDP and CR, and 10%–15% of LDP, satisfied the
minimum requirements of SuperPave rutting criteria, at temperatures of 70 and 76 ◦ C. Moreover,
the performance grade of base binder (PG 64-10) was improved to PG 76-10 for HDP and CR
modifications, and up to PG 70-10 for 10%–15% LDP.
• Binder modified with 15% LDP and HDP exceeded the minimum SuperPave rutting criteria at the
highest temperature (82 ◦ C) and, hence, the performance grade rose to PG 82-10. Consequently,
bitumen modified with 15% LDP, HDP, and CR could satisfactorily be used in road construction
throughout KSA.
• An inverse relationship was observed between creep stiffness and the binder resistance against
low temperature cracks. Increased dosage of modifiers results in a decrease of the stiffness value
and, hence, offered more resistance to low temperature cracks in asphalt pavements.

Acknowledgments: The Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Faisal University (KFU) through DSR
“sixteenth annual research project # 160172” supported this work. The authors wish to express their gratitude for
the financial support that has made this study possible.
Author Contributions: Muhammad Nasir Amin and Muhammad Imran Khan designed the research.
Muhammad Imran Khan performed the experiments. Muhammad Nasir Amin, and Muhammad Imran Khan analyzed
the experimental results. Muhammad Nasir Amin, Muhammad Imran Khan and Muhammad Umair Saleem
wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

PG Performance Grade
HDP High-Density Polyethylene
LDP Low-Density Polyethylene
CR Crumb Rubber
RV Rotational Viscometer
DSR Dynamic Shear Rheometer
BBR Bending Beam Rheometer
SBS Styrene Butadiene Styrene
SBR Styrene Butadiene Rubber
EVA Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
G* Complex Modulus
δ Phase angle
cP Centipoise
rpm Revolution per minute
SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program
CR-MB Crumb Rubber—Modified Bitumen
LDP-MB Low-Density Polyethylene—Modified Bitumen
HDP-MB High-Density Polyethylene—Modified Bitumen
kPa Kilo-Pascal
RTFO Rolling Thin Film Oven
PAV Pressure Aging Vessel
MSCR Multiple Stress Creep Recovery
Pa·s Pascal second
Sustainability 2016, 8, 949 12 of 13

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