TEORIA ELECTROMAGNETICA Y ONDAS

Unit 2: Step 3: Waves in open and enclosure mediums

Delivered by:

Eduar Marcelo Marin Agredo

CC. 1063815313
Rodrigo Nelson Vallejo
CC. 1085258381
Aldair Edilberto Meneses
CC. 1061783713
Wilmer Hernan Gutierrez

Presented to:
Wilmer Hernan Gutierrez
Tutor

Group: 203058_22

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OPEN AND DISTANCE - UNAD

BASIC SCIENCE SCHOOL TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

APRIL 2018
 INTRODUCTION

In the present collaborative work the development of the activity of the unit 2
Waves in Open and closed Media is presented, it is divided into two parts; Firstly,
a consolidation is achieved with the best answers given by each member to 6
questions that were proposed in the activity guide, which establishes the
conceptual bases necessary to understand the behavior of electromagnetic waves
in open and closed media, understanding their behavior when influencing different
surfaces. In the second part of this work is the development and solution given to
5 problems proposed in the guide of activities that have to do with fields and
waves, in these exercises each member will realize the elements that are part of
systems that work with waves in open and closed media.
Each student in the group has to answer the following questions using
academic references to support the research:

1. Explain how refraction and reflection phenomenon could be used in

transmission systems.

REFLECTION

Reflection is one of the most significant wave propagation mechanisms involved in

almost every type of fixed wireless system, even point-to-point (PTP) links with
high-gain antennas.

Three basic reflection types that will be considered here are

• specular reflection from smooth surfaces

• reflections (scattering) from rough surfaces
• physical optic reflections

 Specular reflection

When a transmitting signal intersects the ground, a wall or any other surface
(without edges or discontinuities), the magnitude and phase of the reflected and
transmitted fields can be represented by the standard Fresnel reflection and the
transmission coefficients multiplied by the incident field. The reflection occurs from
the ‘specular point’, that is, the point where the angle of incidence from the source
equals the angle of reflection to the point where the reflected field is being
computed. The general reflection coefficient R is

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑠 𝑔

Where Rs is the smooth surface reflection coefficient and g is the surface

roughness attenuation factor (a scalar quantity).

 Physical optics
By taking into account the phase of the EM field, the PO approach provides a more
realistic representation of the reflection field as shown in Figure 2.6. The incident
field induces currents over the entire reflecting surface, but the only areas of the
surface that significantly contribute to the reflection field at the field point are
those that are in the first few Fresnel zones around the specular reflection point.
Additional minor reflection energy lobes also exist in nonspecular directions as
shown. In the general case with γi < 90°, the Fresnel zone areas are elliptical
(Figure 2.6). As the angle of incidence gets smaller, the ellipse in which significant
surface currents contribute to the reflected field becomes more elongated to the
point where, for a finite surface (a real building wall, for example), some portion of
the ellipse may include the surface edge. At such oblique incidence, there

Figure 2.5 (a) Magnitude of reflection coefficient at 2 GHz for various material
types shown in Table 2.1; (b) Phase of reflection coefficient at 2 GHz for various
material types shown in Table 2.1.

Figure 2.6 Physical optics result for a specular reflection.

 Reflections from rough surfaces

A smooth reflecting surface is an idealized surface that is only occasionally
encountered in real propagation environments. Typically encountered surfaces
have random variations as in the earth’s surface or have systematic variations
such as in the walls and roofs of artificial structures. Depending on the wavelength
of the wireless signal, the height of these variations may or may not be significant
in terms of how reflection amplitude is calculated. In extreme cases, the surface
may appear to be a pure scatterer. The degree of roughness, or the criterion on
which roughness warrants considerations, is often given by [8] which is also
known as the Rayleigh criterion:
𝜆
ℎ𝑅 ≥
8 sin 𝛾0

Where hR is the difference in the maximum and minimum surface variations as

illustrated in Figure 2.7 For a frequency of 2 GHz and an incident angle of 20
degrees, hR = 5.5 cm. Terrain and the outside surfaces of buildings can easily
exhibit surface variations greater than this.

REFRACTION

The EM waves for wireless systems generally are propagating through the air or
the atmosphere, only occasionally encountering reflecting, diffracting, or
attenuating objects

The atmosphere, of course, is not a vacuum but a collection of gases, primarily

oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. The atmosphere also contains water vapor
resulting from evaporating bodies of water or wet ground. For terrestrial wireless
systems (those between two points on the earth’s surface) that are the subject of
this discussion, the EM waves are traveling through a layer of atmosphere called
the troposphere. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The troposphere
begins at the earth’s surface and ranges up to a height of about 10 to 17 km,
depending on the location on the earth and the prevailing meteorological
conditions. In general, the temperature of the air in the troposphere decreases
about 2◦C for every 300m increase in height above ground. Because the
temperature is decreasing as a function of height, the phase velocity of the wave
front is slightly higher at higher altitudes (lower at lower altitudes) resulting in the
EM wave from tilting versus altitude. The net effect is that the wave front
propagation direction bends as the wave travels through the atmosphere. This
bending process is known as refraction.

The refractivity of the atmosphere is described by a refractive index n. The value

of the refractive index differs from one by a small amount – about 315 parts per
million (n = 1.000315). The refractive index decreases approximately
exponentially with height above ground. To avoid dealing with the small decimal
fractions close to 1, a refractivity value in N-units has been defined

𝑁 = (𝑛 − 1) ∗ 106

The N refractivity can also be calculated using the temperature, the total pressure
and the vapor pressure water as follows
77.6 𝑒
𝑁= (𝑃 + 4810 )
𝑇 𝑇
Where:

P = total atmospheric pressure in millibars (mb)

e = water vapor pressure in millibars (mb)

T = temperature in degrees kelvin (K)

2. Explain the Snell law, the critical angle and practical applications
where it could be used.

Snell law

Snell's law, one of the two laws that describe refraction, was formulated in the
context of light waves, but is applicable to seismic waves, is a simple formula used
to calculate the refractive angle of light when crossing the separation surface
between two different refractive index media, this law says that the product of the
refractive index by the sin of the angle of incidence is constant for any ray of light
incident on the separating surface of two media. Although Snell's law was
formulated to explain the phenomena of refraction of light, it can be applied to all
types of waves crossing a separation surface between two media in which the
velocity of propagation of the wave varies. Consider two media characterized by
indexes of refraction n1 and n2 separated by a surface S and in which n2> n1. The
light rays passing through the two media will refract on the surface, varying their
direction of propagation depending on the difference between the refractive indices
n1 and n2.

For a light ray with an angle of incidence θ1 on the first medium, angle between
the normal to the surface and the direction of propagation of the ray, we will have
that the ray propagates in the second medium with a refraction angle θ2 whose
value is obtained by means of Snell's law.

Snell's law can be expressed as follows:

n1 sin i = n2 sen r,

where

n1 = refractive index of the first medium

n2 = refractive index of the second medium

sin i = sin of the angle of incidence

sin r = sine of the refractive angle

Critical angle

Since the rays move away from the normal when they enter a less dense medium,
and the deviation from the normal increases as the angle of incidence increases,
there is a certain angle of incidence, called the critical angle, for which the
refracted ray It forms an angle of 90º with the normal, so it moves just along the
separation surface between both media. If the angle of incidence becomes greater
than the critical angle, the light rays will be fully reflected. Total reflection can not
occur when light passes from a less dense medium to a denser one.

In itself the critical angle or limit angle is that angle of incidence that corresponds
to one of refraction of 90º. Applying the law of refraction (Snell's law):

𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝐶 = 𝑛2 sin 90 = 𝑛2

And clearing for

𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝐶 =
𝑛1

Where

θc = the critical angle

n1 = velocity of the second medium, which is higher than n2

n2 =. first half speed

 Some applications

Medicine. In this field, the advantages that the use of optical fiber can provide as
an aid to classical endoscopic techniques are evident and, in fact, traditional
systems are being replaced by modern fibroscopes. Various devices such as
laryngoscopes, rectoscopes, bronchoscopes, vaginoscopes, gastroscopes and
laparoscopes, already include this technology, which allows us with great precision
the exploration of internal cavities of the human body.

Archeology. In this field, fiber optic is commonly used in order to have visual
access to areas that are inaccessible by other systems. As in medicine, an
endoscope is also used.

Sensors. Conventional electrical systems are often inadequate in high voltage

environments and areas with interfering fields, industry premises with emanations,
fiber optic does not pose this problem.

Thanks to the accuracy provided by this medium, sensors are a very important
point in which fiber optic technology is applied.

3. Explain the physics behind lenses for optical diseases.

Myopia is a problem of refraction that manifests itself when the patient perceives
fuzzy distant objects because the image is formed in front of the retina, either
because the cornea, the crystalline lens or both are very powerful, or because the
eye is longer than usual.

Myopia is corrected with diverging lenses, either glasses or contact lenses.

Divergent lenses are so called because they separate the rays that pass through
them (they "diverge" the rays).
Then, all the refractive errors (myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, eyestrain) are
included in the term ametropic. But let's start at the beginning; we have to first
know what a lens is. A lens is a "refractive surface," that is, a surface that refracts
light. Refracting light consists in diverting the rectilinear trajectory of a ray of light
when passing through the lens (if the trajectory deviates without crossing the
body then it is not refraction but reflection, that is, what a mirror does).

A deviation that makes the parallel rays of light converge defines a converging
lens, also called positive. The easiest example are the magnifying glasses, the
objects are enlarged. In the drawing you see that the rays cross at a point, that
point is the focus, or focal point. The more powerful a positive lens is, the more it
deflects the rays, so the focal point is closer to the lens. We notice that the
converging lenses are convex.

Note: the optical density is the absorbance (or absorbency) of an optical element
for a given wavelength, the absorbance is the degree of absorption of an object
with respect to a radiation (in this case light), that is, when a radiation affects an
object that absorbs a part of the radiation and reflects the rest, the real objects do
not absorb 100% of the radiation or reflect 100%, the lowest absorbance values
are around 0.03 (3%) for specular surfaces, and the highest 0.97 (97%) for matt
black surfaces. As an interesting fact, the darker the color of the object, the
greater the absorbance.

4. What is the importance of the index of refraction?

Under controlled measurement conditions, it is a constant property for a medium

and allows determining the purity of a substance or quantifying a given compound
in binary mixtures of known constituents.

Refractometers are important instruments in the food industry, since they are
used in the analysis of liquid products and in the control of operations during the
processing of various foods: milk and its derivatives, it is a rapidly determinable
index and is very useful to follow a hydrogenation process. Its main applications
are based on.

The index of refraction of a medium is important because with it we know how

much the speed of light (or other waves such as acoustic waves) is reduced within
the medium.

What sounds so abstract is the refractive property of a material, which is the most
important property of any optical system that uses refraction. It is a reverse index
that indicates the thickness of the lenses according to a given power, and the
dispersive power of the prisms. It is also used in chemistry to determine the purity
of chemical reagents and for the rendering of refractive materials in 3D computer
graphics.

5. Is it possible that a single light beam be refracted into several

beans? Explain.

If it is possible that a single beam of light is refracted in several grains, an

example of this we see in the law of Brewster that corresponds to the angle of
incidence of light on a surface that annuls the component with polarization parallel
to the plane of incidence.

The result when a non-polarized light beam is applied on a surface under the
Brewster angle is the obtaining of a reflected beam of polarized light in one
direction (whose polarization vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence).

The law of Brewster says that when a beam of light strikes the surface separating
two non-conducting media characterized by different electrical permittivity ϵ and
magnetic permeability μ, part of it is it reflects to the source medium and part is
transmitted to the second medium

6. How is it possible to use the Brewster angle in practical

applications?

Brewster concluded that maximum polarization was found when the transmitted
beam and the reflected beam formed a 90 ° angle.

In general, the Brewster angle between two media depends on their

electromagnetic characteristics (electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability).
In the case where the magnetic permeabilities of both media do not vary (the
most frequent case), the Brewster angle can be calculated from the refractive
indices of both media:
𝑛2
tan 𝜃𝐵 =
𝑛1

The Ultrabam is the Brewster angle microscope. Designed for the air / liquid
interface, allows direct visualization of Langmuir monolayers or adsorbed films. It
also works on dielectric substrates such as glass, quartz and similar materials.

The nanofilm_ultrabam combines high resolution and global focus in real time in
the capture of images. Its advanced optical system allows to capture fully focused
images at 20-35 frames per second. A high-performance camera and specific
calibration algorithms allow quantitative measurements of reflectivity and,
therefore, processes such as adsorption kinetics or variations in thickness can be
monitored. It also includes a motorized analyzer to visualize the optical anisotropy
caused by the orderly long-range orientation of the monolayer molecules.

A Brewster microscope angle (BAM) allows Langmuir monolayers for film viewing
or adsorption at the air-water interface. Together with a Langmuir trough, it allows
the study of:

• Monolayer behavior / film behavior it is possible to observe phase changes,

phase separation, domain size, shape and packing.
• Monolayer homogeneity / Film Homogeneity When combined with a
Langmuir and Langmuir-Blodget tank, observation can be made during
compression / expansion known surface pressures.
• Influence of sub-phase conditions on film structures observe and study
monolayer / film behavior and formation in different sub-phase conditions,
including salt concentration, pH and temperature to name a few (for
example, the Gibbs layer adsorption).
• Reaction analysis surfaces, for example, photochemical reactions,
polymerization reactions, as well as enzyme kinetics can be tracked in real
time.
• Monitoring and detection of active surface materials for example the
adsorption of proteins and nanoparticles fluctuation.

Choose one of the following problems, taken from “Cutnell, J. D., &
Johnson, K. W. (2009). Physics. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., New York. doi,
10, S0142-9612” solve it and share the solution in the forum. Perform a
critical analysis on the group members’ contributions and reply this in the
forum.

WILMER HERNAN GUTIERREZ

1. When the vacuum red light strikes the Brewster angle on a glass slab, the
refractive angle is43 °. What are (a) the refractive index of the glass and (b)
the Brewster angle?

Since the angle of incidence is 43º then the refracted angle is

90º − 43º = 47º

This since for the Brewster angle 𝜃𝐵 + 𝜃𝑟 = 90

By Snell's theory and law we have to

1𝑠𝑒𝑛(47º) = 𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑛(43º)

Hence:
𝑠𝑒𝑛(47º)
𝑛= = 1.076
𝑠𝑒𝑛(43º)

Then 𝑛 = 1.076 refractive index of the glass

(b) Brewster's angle is equal to the reflected angle that in this case is 47º

Each student in the group has to answer the following questions using academic
references to

EDUAR MARCELO MARIN

3. In about A.D. 150, Claudius Ptolemy gave the following measured values for the
angle of incidence 𝜃1 and the angle of refraction 𝜃2 for a light beam passing from
air to water:

Assuming these data are consistent with the law of refraction, use

Them to find the index of refraction of water. These data are interesting as
perhaps the oldest recorded physical measurements.
By the law of snell we have

𝑛1 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑖̂ = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑟̂

Where the air incidence rate n1 is equal to 1, then we have

𝑛1 𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑖̂
𝑛2 =
𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑟̂

Replacing by the values in the table we obtain

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 10
𝑛2 = = 1,25
𝑠𝑒𝑛 8

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 20
𝑛2 = = 1,28
𝑠𝑒𝑛 15°30′

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 30
𝑛2 = = 1,31
𝑠𝑒𝑛 22°30′

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 40
𝑛2 = = 1,33
𝑠𝑒𝑛 29

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 50
𝑛2 = = 1,34
𝑠𝑒𝑛 35
 1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 60
𝑛2 = = 1,33
𝑠𝑒𝑛 40°30′

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 70
𝑛2 = = 1,32
𝑠𝑒𝑛 45°30′

1 ∗ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 80
𝑛2 = = 1,29
𝑠𝑒𝑛 50

RODRIGO NELSON VALLEJO

4. In the following figure a 2 m-long vertical pole extends from the bottom of a
swimming pool to a point 50.0 cm above the water. Sunlight is incident at
angle 𝜃=60𝑜. What is the length of the shadow of the pole on the level
bottom of the pool?
Of the problem we can deduce that:

Index of refraction of the médium:

𝑛1 = 1,00 𝑛2 = 1,33

𝑑1 = 0,50𝑚 𝑛2 = 1,50𝑚
For 𝜃1 we have that:

𝜃1 = 90° − 60°
𝜃1 = 30°
For 𝑋1we have that:

𝑥1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 =
𝑑1
𝑥1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 ∗ 𝑑1

𝑥1 = (tan(30°)) (0,50𝑚)

𝑥1 = 0,289m

For 𝜃2 we use the formula for Snell´s Law:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 ∗ 𝑛1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 ∗ 𝑛2

𝑛1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝑛2

1,00
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = sin(30°)
1,33

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 0,376

𝜃2 = 22,08°

Now we have that𝑥2 :

𝑥2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 =
𝑑2
𝑥2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 ∗ 𝑑2
 𝑥2 = (tan(22,08°)) (1,50𝑚)

𝑥2 = 0,609m

Now length of the shadow is𝑥1 + 𝑥2 :

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0,289 + 0,609 = 0,898𝑚

The length of the shadow of the pole on the level bottom of the pool is 0,898m.

ALDAIR EDILBERTO MENESES

5. In the following figure, light from ray A refracts from material 1 (𝑛1=1.6) into a
thin layer of material 2 (𝑛2=1.8), crosses that layer, and is then incident at the
critical angle on the interface between materials 2 and 3 (𝑛3=1.3). (a) What is the
value of incident angle 𝜃𝐴? (b) If 𝜃𝐴 is decreased, does part of the light refract into
material 3?

Light from ray B refracts from material 1 into the thin layer, crosses that layer,
and is then incident at the critical angle on the interface between materials 2 and
3. (c) What is the value of incident angle 𝜃𝐵? (d) If 𝜃𝐵 is decreased, does part of
the light refract into material 3?

SOLUTION

Data table
𝑛1 1,6
𝑛2 1,8
𝑛3 1,3
(a) What is the value of incident angle𝜽𝑨 ?

As a first step we have to find the critical angle that affects between materials 2
and 3.

We have to:
𝑛3
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1
𝑛2
1,3
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1
1,8
𝜃𝑐 = 46,23°

We find the critical angle that corresponds to the angle of the refracted light ray
from n1 to n2, for which we calculate the angle of incidence in 𝐴𝜃

We have to:

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐

1,6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 = 1,8 sin 46,23°

1,8 sin 46,23°
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 =
1,6
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴 = 0,8123

𝜃𝐴 = sin−1 0,8123

𝜃𝐴 = 54,32°

(b) If 𝜽𝑨 is decreased, does part of the light refract into material 3?

If 𝜃𝐴 decreases, then the angle 𝜃𝑐 also decreases; then, a part of the light is
refracted in 𝑛3 because there is no total internal reflection.

(c) What is the value of incident angle𝜽𝑩 ?

As a first step we have to find the critical angle that affects between materials 2
and 3.

We have to:
𝑛3
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1
𝑛2
1,3
𝜃𝑐 = sin−1
1,8
𝜃𝑐 = 46,23°

As the B ray incident perpendicularly, the orientation changes

We have to:

𝜃1 + 𝜃𝑐 + 90° = 180°

𝜃1 + 46,23° + 90° = 180°

𝜃1 = 180° − 46,23° − 90°

𝜃1 = 43,77°

We apply the Snell law and we have to:

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐵 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1

1,6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐵 = 1,8 sin 43,77°

1,8 sin 43,77°
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐵 =
1,6
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐵 = 0,7782

𝜃𝐵 = sin−1 0,7782
 𝜃𝐵 = 51,09°

(d) If 𝜽𝑩 is decreased, does part of the light refract into material 3?

If 𝜃𝐵 is decreased, none part of the light is refracted because the incidence of he

ray perpendicular causes the criticals angle to increase and consecuently the light
will have a total reflection in the 𝑛2
 CONCLUSIONS

 Full understanding of Snell's law is achieved and its application is reflected in

the correct solution given to each proposed problem.
 it is possible to understand in the best way how is the behavior of the
electromagnetic waves in open and closed media, also it is possible to
understand the behavior of these when they affect different surfaces.
 We learned to determine refractive indexes and therefore to define it
operationally, together with the analysis of the critical and refraction angles.
 each object, being composed of different materials, has its respective
refractive index, which depends on the intrinsic characteristics of the
material of which the object is constituted
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stanley, Marshall, Dubroff, Richard E. Skitek, Gabriel. Electromagnetismo–

Conceptos y aplicaciones. Cuarta edición. México: Prentice Hall
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Reitz J. R., Milford F. J., Christy R. W. Fundamentos de la teoría electromagnética.
Editorial Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana (1996).
Fowles G. R. Introduction to modern Optics. Editorial Holt, Rinehart and Wisnton
N. Y. (1975).
Sears T. W. Óptica. Editorial Aguilar (1970).Electromagnetic Wave Propagation.
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Chen, W. (2005). The Electrical Engineering Handbook. Boston: Academic Press,

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