AGBT02-18 Guide To Bridge Technology Part 2 Materials

Guide to Bridge Technology Part 2:
Materials
Sydney 2018
Guide to Bridge Technology Part 2: Materials
Publisher
Second edition prepared by: Hanson Ngo
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
Second edition project manager: Phil Molloy and Henry Luczak Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology provides bridge owners and www.austroads.com.au
agencies with advice on bridge ownership, design procurement,
vehicle and pedestrian accessibility, and bridge maintenance and About Austroads
management practices. The Guide has eight parts.
Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian road
Part 2 covers all aspects of the common building materials available to transport and traffic agencies.
the engineer including concrete, masonry, metallic and non-metallic
materials and timber. This Part discusses material characteristics, their Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
properties, durability, construction issues, and protection and organisations to deliver an improved Australasian road
preservation treatments. A detailed section on concrete reinforcing transport network. To succeed in this task, we undertake
materials is also included. leading-edge road and transport research which underpins
our input to policy development and published guidance
on the design, construction and management of the road
Keywords network and its associated infrastructure.
Bridge Materials, Concrete Materials, Concrete Characteristics, Austroads provides a collective approach that delivers
Concrete Durability, Concrete Steel Materials, Masonry, Metallic value for money, encourages shared knowledge and
Materials, Non-metallic Materials, Connections, Fibre Reinforced drives consistency for road users.
Polymers, Timber, Distress Mechanisms, Material Defects
Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of senior
executive representatives from each of its eleven member
organisations:
Second edition published February 2018 • Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
First edition published September 2009 • Roads Corporation Victoria
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads
• Main Roads Western Australia
• Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure
South Australia
ISBN 978-1-925451-91-7
• Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Project No. BT1830 Pages 181 • Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Logistics
Austroads Publication No. AGBT02-18 Northern Territory
• Transport Canberra and City Services Directorate,
Australian Capital Territory
• Australian Government Department of Infrastructure and
© Austroads Ltd 2018 Regional Development
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the • Australian Local Government Association
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process • New Zealand Transport Agency.
without the prior written permission of Austroads.
Acknowledgements
The project team would like to acknowledge the thorough review and comments by Andrew Walker of VicRoads for Section 3, 6, 7
and 8. First edition prepared by Don Carter and Ray Wedgwood and project managed by Geoff Boully.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
The latest edition provides updated details and information on various sections, and removing overlapping information. Major
changes include:
• Section 2 Concrete Characteristics and Materials

– Combined original Section 2 and Section 4 and changed the section title.
– Added Section 2.1 Properties of Concrete, Section 2.2 Specification, Section 2.7 Concrete Mixes, Section 2.11.4 Mass Concrete
Placement, Section 2.13.3 Ultra-high Performance Concrete, Section 2.13.5 Geopolymer Concrete.
– Moved selected texts from the Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology (AGBT) Part 7 and incorporated into Section 2.9.1
Cracking.
– Moved ‘Grout and mortar’ to a separate section (Section 5).
• Section 3 Concrete Reinforcing Materials
– Updated information on material certification in Section 3.1 Manufacture and Supply.
– Added Section 3.2.7 Welding Procedure Testing, Section 3.3.2 Material Characteristics, and Section 3.6 FRP Reinforcing
Material.
– Added information on ‘failure at couplers’ in Section 3.4.9 Construction Issues.
• Section 4 Concrete Durability
– Renamed from the original Section 5.
– Revised Section 4.1 Concrete Distress Mechanisms with supplemented information taken from the AGBT Part 7.
– Added Section 4.2.1 Environmental Exposure Classifications, and Section 4.2.2 Minimum Requirements for Concrete Materials
in Adverse Environments.
– Added brief descriptions of additional techniques for concrete durability assessment such as ultrasonic pulse velocity, half-cell
method, delamination detection machinery, and infrared thermography.
– Added information on the statistical method for determining concrete compressive strength in Section 4.3.13.
• Section 8 Steel Distress Mechanisms and Defects
– Swapped Section 7 and Section 8.
– Added Section 8.5 Unusual Deterioration Mechanisms and Section 8.6 Steel Bridge Defects incorporating information taken from
the AGBT Part 7.
• Added Section 10 Masonry.
• Revised Section 11 Non-metallic Materials to address recent updates on FRP materials.
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Guide Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 1
2. Concrete Characteristics and Materials ............................................................................................... 3

2.1 Properties of Concrete ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.1.1 Strength ...................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.3 Density ........................................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.4 Stress-strain Curves ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.6 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion .............................................................................................. 5
2.2 Specification ............................................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Cement ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Source ........................................................................................................................................ 6
2.3.2 Cement Reactivity – Setting Process ......................................................................................... 6
2.3.3 Cement and Durability ................................................................................................................ 7
2.4 Aggregates ............................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.1 Coarse Aggregate ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.2 Fine Aggregates ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.3 Lightweight Aggregates .............................................................................................................. 9
2.4.4 Aggregates and Durability ........................................................................................................ 10
2.5 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) .................................................................................... 10
2.6 Admixtures .............................................................................................................................................. 11
2.7 Concrete Mixes ....................................................................................................................................... 12
2.7.1 Water-cement Ratio .................................................................................................................. 13
2.7.2 Workability ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.7.3 Sampling and Testing ............................................................................................................... 13
2.8 Creep and Shrinkage ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.8.1 Creep ........................................................................................................................................ 14
2.8.2 Shrinkage.................................................................................................................................. 14
2.8.3 Shrinkage Classification ........................................................................................................... 14
2.8.4 Determination of Shrinkage Strain ........................................................................................... 15
2.9 Cracking and Crack Control ................................................................................................................... 16
2.9.1 Cracking.................................................................................................................................... 16
2.9.2 Crack Control ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.10 Design Issues ......................................................................................................................................... 21
2.10.1 Cover ........................................................................................................................................ 21
2.10.2 Congested Reinforcement ........................................................................................................ 22
2.10.3 Construction Joints – New Concrete Placed Against Old ........................................................ 22
2.10.4 Match Cast Joints ..................................................................................................................... 23
2.10.5 Re-entrant Corners ................................................................................................................... 23
2.10.6 Over-specifying Concrete Strength .......................................................................................... 23
2.10.7 Restricted Areas ....................................................................................................................... 24
2.10.8 Thin Elements ........................................................................................................................... 24
2.11 Construction Issues ................................................................................................................................ 24
2.11.1 Monitoring of Test Results ........................................................................................................ 24
2.11.2 Placement ................................................................................................................................. 25
2.11.3 Compaction............................................................................................................................... 26
2.11.4 Mass Concrete Placement ....................................................................................................... 28
2.11.5 Finishing ................................................................................................................................... 28
2.11.6 Bridge Decks ............................................................................................................................ 29
2.11.7 Deck Sealing............................................................................................................................. 30
2.11.8 Cold Weather Concreting ......................................................................................................... 30
2.11.9 Hot Weather Concreting ........................................................................................................... 31
2.11.10 Curing ....................................................................................................................................... 31
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2.12 Investigation of Concrete Construction Quality ...................................................................................... 34

2.12.1 Concrete Repair Techniques for Construction Defects ............................................................ 34
2.13 Special Concretes .................................................................................................................................. 35
2.13.1 Self-compacting Concrete ........................................................................................................ 35
2.13.2 Fibre Reinforced Concrete ....................................................................................................... 35
2.13.3 Ultra-high Performance Concrete ............................................................................................. 36
2.13.4 Reactive Powder Concrete ....................................................................................................... 36
2.13.5 Geopolymer Concrete .............................................................................................................. 37
3. Concrete Reinforcing Materials .......................................................................................................... 39

3.1 Manufacture and Supply ........................................................................................................................ 39
3.1.1 Country of Origin ...................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.2 Material Certification ................................................................................................................. 40
3.1.3 Product Identification ................................................................................................................ 40
3.2 Carbon Steel Reinforcement .................................................................................................................. 41
3.2.1 Material Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 41
3.2.2 Method of Manufacture ............................................................................................................. 41
3.2.3 Old Reinforcing Steels .............................................................................................................. 42
3.2.4 Packaging and Handling........................................................................................................... 43
3.2.5 Ductility ..................................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.6 Weldability ................................................................................................................................ 44
3.2.7 Welding Procedure Testing ...................................................................................................... 44
3.2.8 Macro Test ................................................................................................................................ 45
3.2.9 Tack Welding ............................................................................................................................ 45
3.2.10 Welded Splices ......................................................................................................................... 46
3.2.11 Mechanical Splices and Mechanical Couplers ......................................................................... 48
3.2.12 Rebending ................................................................................................................................ 48
3.2.13 Protective Treatments .............................................................................................................. 48
3.2.14 Fire Damage to Steel ................................................................................................................ 49
3.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcement ............................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1 Construction Issues .................................................................................................................. 50
3.3.3 Supply ....................................................................................................................................... 51
3.4 Prestressing Steel .................................................................................................................................. 51
3.4.1 General ..................................................................................................................................... 51
3.4.4 Material Properties ................................................................................................................... 52
3.4.5 Modulus of Elasticity ................................................................................................................. 52
3.4.6 Relaxation ................................................................................................................................. 53
3.4.7 Creep ........................................................................................................................................ 53
3.4.8 Anchorages............................................................................................................................... 53
3.4.9 Construction Issues .................................................................................................................. 54
3.5 Steel and Polymer Fibres ....................................................................................................................... 55
3.6 FRP Reinforcing Material ....................................................................................................................... 55
4. Concrete Durability .............................................................................................................................. 57

4.1 Concrete Distress Mechanisms.............................................................................................................. 57
4.1.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Materials ........................................................................................... 57
4.1.2 Carbonation .............................................................................................................................. 59
4.1.3 Chloride Attack ......................................................................................................................... 59
4.1.4 Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) ............................................................................................. 61
4.1.5 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) ......................................................................................... 65
4.1.6 Chloroaluminate Formation ...................................................................................................... 65
4.1.7 Sulphate Attack ........................................................................................................................ 65
4.1.8 Acid Attack ................................................................................................................................ 66
4.1.9 Physical Damage ...................................................................................................................... 68
4.1.10 Freeze/Thaw ............................................................................................................................. 71
4.1.11 Fire Damage ............................................................................................................................. 71
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4.2 Protection of Concrete in Adverse Environments .................................................................................. 72

4.2.1 Environmental Exposure Classifications .................................................................................. 72
4.2.2 Minimum Requirements for Concrete Materials in Adverse Environments .............................. 72
4.2.3 Concrete Cover Thickness ....................................................................................................... 73
4.2.4 Curing ....................................................................................................................................... 73
4.2.5 SCMs ........................................................................................................................................ 73
4.2.6 Waterproofing Membranes ....................................................................................................... 74
4.2.7 Protective Coatings .................................................................................................................. 74
4.2.8 Hydrophobic Impregnating Materials ........................................................................................ 75
4.2.9 Corrosion Inhibitors .................................................................................................................. 75
4.2.10 Cathodic Protection .................................................................................................................. 75
4.3 Durability Assessment Techniques ........................................................................................................ 76
4.3.1 Desktop Investigation ............................................................................................................... 76
4.3.2 Visual Inspection ...................................................................................................................... 77
4.3.3 Defect Mapping ........................................................................................................................ 77
4.3.4 Measurement of Crack Development ....................................................................................... 77
4.3.5 Cover Surveys .......................................................................................................................... 77
4.3.6 In Situ Compression Testing .................................................................................................... 77
4.3.7 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity .......................................................................................................... 78
4.3.8 Ground Penetrating Radar ....................................................................................................... 78
4.3.9 Permeability and Water Absorption .......................................................................................... 78
4.3.10 Half-cell Method ........................................................................................................................ 78
4.3.11 Delamination Detection Machinery ........................................................................................... 78
4.3.12 Infrared Thermography ............................................................................................................. 78
4.3.13 Concrete Sampling ................................................................................................................... 78
5. Grouts and Mortars .............................................................................................................................. 80

5.1 Grouts ..................................................................................................................................................... 80
5.2 Mortars ................................................................................................................................................... 81
5.2.1 Mortar Types............................................................................................................................. 81
5.2.2 Mortar Pad Set Up .................................................................................................................... 82
5.2.3 Mortar Pad Problems ................................................................................................................ 82
6. Metallic Materials – Material Characteristics ..................................................................................... 83

6.1 Historic Development ............................................................................................................................. 83
6.2 Cast Iron ................................................................................................................................................. 85
6.2.2 Deterioration Mechanisms ........................................................................................................ 86
6.2.3 Cast Iron Applications ............................................................................................................... 87
6.3 Wrought Iron ........................................................................................................................................... 89
6.3.2 Manufacturing Process ............................................................................................................. 90
6.3.3 Recommendations for Assessment of Existing Wrought Iron Bridges ..................................... 91
6.4 Structural Steel ....................................................................................................................................... 92
6.4.1 Modern Steel Properties ........................................................................................................... 92
6.4.2 Hardness .................................................................................................................................. 93
6.4.3 Ductility ..................................................................................................................................... 94
6.4.4 High Strength Steel .................................................................................................................. 95
6.5 Aluminium ............................................................................................................................................... 96
6.5.2 Non-heat Treatable Alloys ........................................................................................................ 96
6.5.3 Heat Treatable Alloys ............................................................................................................... 96
6.5.5 Welding ..................................................................................................................................... 97
6.5.6 Fatigue ...................................................................................................................................... 97
7. Metallic Materials – Connections and Coatings ................................................................................ 98

7.1 Rivets ...................................................................................................................................................... 98
7.2 Bolts ........................................................................................................................................................ 99
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7.3 Proprietary Mechanical Fasteners ........................................................................................................ 101

7.4 Proprietary Chemical Fasteners ........................................................................................................... 102
7.5 Welding ................................................................................................................................................. 102
7.5.1 Welding Standards and Methods ........................................................................................... 103
7.5.2 Type of Welds ......................................................................................................................... 104
7.5.3 Effects of Welding ................................................................................................................... 105
7.5.4 Construction Issues ................................................................................................................ 106
7.5.5 Weld Categories ..................................................................................................................... 106
7.5.6 Weld Procedure Qualification ................................................................................................. 106
7.5.7 Welders................................................................................................................................... 108
7.5.8 Welding of High Strength Steels............................................................................................. 108
7.5.9 Weld Defects .......................................................................................................................... 108
7.5.10 Stud Welding .......................................................................................................................... 108
7.5.11 Welding Education .................................................................................................................. 109
7.6 Protective Coatings – Paints ................................................................................................................ 109
7.7 Protective Coatings – Hot Dipped Zinc (Galvanising) .......................................................................... 109
8. Steel Distress Mechanisms and defects .......................................................................................... 110

8.1 Corrosion .............................................................................................................................................. 110
8.2 Fatigue .................................................................................................................................................. 117
8.2.1 Fatigue and Fatigue Fracture ................................................................................................. 117
8.2.2 Fatigue in Secondary Members.............................................................................................. 118
8.3 Brittle Fracture ...................................................................................................................................... 118
8.4 Protective Coatings .............................................................................................................................. 119
8.4.1 History of Protective Coatings ................................................................................................ 119
8.4.2 Present Protective Coatings ................................................................................................... 120
8.5 Unusual Deterioration Mechanisms ..................................................................................................... 123
8.5.1 Graphitisation of Cast Iron ...................................................................................................... 123
8.5.2 Microbially-induced Corrosion (MIC) ...................................................................................... 124
8.6 Steel Bridge Defects ............................................................................................................................. 125
8.6.1 Protective Coating Failure ...................................................................................................... 125
8.6.2 Loss of Section ....................................................................................................................... 129
8.6.3 Cracking.................................................................................................................................. 130
8.6.4 Impact Damage ...................................................................................................................... 131
8.6.5 Deformation and Distortion ..................................................................................................... 133
8.6.6 Loose Connectors .................................................................................................................. 134
8.6.7 Manufacturing Defects ............................................................................................................ 134
8.6.8 Faults in Detailing ................................................................................................................... 135
8.6.9 Fire Issues for Steel Trusses .................................................................................................. 135
8.7 Interior of Steel Members ..................................................................................................................... 136
8.7.1 Hermetically Sealed ................................................................................................................ 136
8.7.2 Hot Dip Galvanising ................................................................................................................ 136
8.7.3 Steel Box Girders ................................................................................................................... 137
8.7.4 Steel Trough Girders .............................................................................................................. 137
9. Timber .................................................................................................................................................. 138

9.1 Botanical Classification ........................................................................................................................ 138
9.1.1 Softwood ................................................................................................................................. 138
9.1.2 Hardwood ............................................................................................................................... 138
9.2 Moisture Content of Timber .................................................................................................................. 139
9.3 Shrinkage ............................................................................................................................................. 139
9.4 Engineering Classification .................................................................................................................... 140
9.4.1 Hardwood ............................................................................................................................... 140
9.4.2 Softwood ................................................................................................................................. 140
9.4.3 Strength Properties ................................................................................................................. 140
9.5 Structural Grading – Australia .............................................................................................................. 141
9.5.1 Visual Grading ........................................................................................................................ 141
9.5.2 Mechanical Grading ................................................................................................................ 141
9.5.3 Australian Standards .............................................................................................................. 141
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9.6 Structural Grading – New Zealand ....................................................................................................... 143

9.6.1 Visual Grading ........................................................................................................................ 143
9.6.2 Machine Stress Graded Timber.............................................................................................. 143
9.6.3 New Zealand Standards ......................................................................................................... 143
9.7 Timber Deterioration Mechanisms ....................................................................................................... 144
9.7.1 Splits, Shakes and Checks ..................................................................................................... 144
9.7.2 Pipe ......................................................................................................................................... 145
9.7.3 Knots ....................................................................................................................................... 146
9.7.4 Sloping Grain .......................................................................................................................... 146
9.7.5 Fungal Decay.......................................................................................................................... 146
9.7.6 Marine Organisms .................................................................................................................. 148
9.7.7 Shrinkage and Splitting ........................................................................................................... 149
9.7.8 Fire .......................................................................................................................................... 149
9.7.9 Other Defects.......................................................................................................................... 151
9.8 Durability............................................................................................................................................... 153
9.8.1 Termites .................................................................................................................................. 153
9.9 Preservative Treatments ...................................................................................................................... 155
9.9.1 Treatment of Timber Bridge Components .............................................................................. 155
9.9.2 Replacement of Timber Components ..................................................................................... 156
10. Masonry ............................................................................................................................................... 157

10.1 Types of Masonry ................................................................................................................................. 157
10.2 Masonry Distress Mechanisms and Defects ........................................................................................ 157
10.2.1 Fretting of Blocks and Mortar Joints ....................................................................................... 157
10.2.2 Cracking or Movement ........................................................................................................... 158
10.2.3 Abrasion.................................................................................................................................. 158
10.2.4 Biological Attack ..................................................................................................................... 158
11. Non-metallic Materials ....................................................................................................................... 159

11.1 Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) ........................................................................................................ 159
11.1.1 History..................................................................................................................................... 159
11.1.2 Types of Materials .................................................................................................................. 159
11.1.3 Material Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 160
11.1.4 Glass Transition Temperature of Polymers ............................................................................ 161
11.1.5 Resins and Moisture ............................................................................................................... 161
11.1.6 FRP Bridge Applications ......................................................................................................... 161
11.1.7 Design Issues – Strengthening............................................................................................... 166
11.1.8 Strengthening Materials .......................................................................................................... 166
11.1.9 Construction Issues ................................................................................................................ 167
11.1.10 Monitoring ............................................................................................................................... 167
11.2 Bridge Bearing Materials ...................................................................................................................... 167
11.2.1 Elastomers .............................................................................................................................. 167
11.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) .............................................................................................. 169
11.3 Polystyrene ........................................................................................................................................... 170
References .................................................................................................................................................... 171

Glossary ........................................................................................................................................................ 177
Tables
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology .................................................................................... 1
Table 2.1: UHPC material properties .......................................................................................................... 36
Table 2.2: A comparison of performance properties between geopolymer and OPC concrete .................38
Table 3.1: Strength and ductility of reinforcement ...................................................................................... 44
Table 3.2: Effects of temperature on properties of reinforcing steel ..........................................................49
Table 6.1: Typical properties of cast iron.................................................................................................... 86
Table 6.2: Typical bridge material properties ............................................................................................. 93
Table 6.3: Typical properties of aluminium used in bridge applications .....................................................97
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Table 7.1: Bolting classification ................................................................................................................ 100

Table 8.1: Common paint defects and their causes ................................................................................. 125
Table 9.1: Strength properties of green timber ......................................................................................... 140
Table 9.2: Strength properties of seasoned timber .................................................................................. 140
Table 9.3: Minimum target values for visually graded timber ................................................................... 143
Table 9.4: Minimum target values for machine stress-graded timber ......................................................143
Table 9.5: Durability class and in-service life ........................................................................................... 153
Table 9.6: Preservative treatment and classification ................................................................................ 156
Table 11.1: Comparison of material properties of FRP to steel, concrete and timber ...............................160
Figures
Figure 2.1: Typical concrete stress-strain curve ............................................................................................ 4
Figure 2.2: Plastic shrinkage cracking in deck .............................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.3: Pier headstock cracking caused by AAR .................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.4: The typical relationship between water-cement ratio and the compressive
strength of concrete ................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.5: Characteristic crack patterns in a hypothetical structure ...........................................................17
Figure 2.6: Block cracking in bridge deck .................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.7: Influence of density on concrete strength .................................................................................. 19
Figure 2.8: Influence of density ratio on fatigue life ..................................................................................... 20
Figure 2.9: Effect of excess cover on cantilever .......................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.10: Air void as a result of pouring concrete both sides of void former ............................................25
Figure 2.11: Vertical core through deck showing plastic cracking and voids – poor compaction .................27
Figure 2.12: Top surface of the cored deck showing severe plastic shrinkage cracking ..............................27
Figure 3.1: Increase in yield point by repetitive straining............................................................................. 43
Figure 3.2: Macros of welded lap splice to check the penetration of weld ..................................................45
Figure 3.3: Damage to reinforcement due to poor quality tack welding ......................................................46
Figure 3.4: Butt splice .................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 3.5: Welded butt splices in column ................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3.6: Welded lap splice ...................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3.7: Barrel and wedges and seven wire strand ................................................................................ 54
Figure 3.8: FRP bars in a bridge deck ......................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.1: Spalling due to extensive reinforcement corrosion on a deck soffit ..........................................58
Figure 4.2: Corrosion reaction in steel (idealised) ....................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.3: Corrosion in precast culvert due to the use of calcium chloride ................................................60
Figure 4.4: Chloride attack in tidal channel.................................................................................................. 61
Figure 4.5: Cross-section of concrete core showing expansive gel around aggregate ...............................62
Figure 4.6: Vertical cracks below water in octagonal prestressed concrete pile .........................................62
Figure 4.7: Severe pile deterioration caused initially by AAR then DEF (Section 4.1.5) .............................64
Figure 4.8: Acid attack ................................................................................................................................. 66
Figure 4.9: Spall caused by seismic movement .......................................................................................... 69
Figure 4.10: Surface mortar can be removed by frost ................................................................................... 70
Figure 4.11: Staining on the pier headstock indicating failure of deck joint...................................................70
Figure 4.12: Fire damage to Yowaka River Bridge ........................................................................................ 72
Figure 6.1: Coalbrookdale cast iron bridge .................................................................................................. 84
Figure 6.2: Graphitisation of cast iron .......................................................................................................... 86
Figure 6.3: Wrought iron caissons above ground – cast iron caissons below ground ................................87
Figure 6.4: Cast iron columns on timber bridge pier .................................................................................... 88
Figure 6.5: Cast iron shoe at lower end of timber truss member ................................................................ 89
Figure 6.6: Wrought iron lattice truss ........................................................................................................... 90
Figure 6.7: Wrought iron plate showing laminar structure ........................................................................... 90
Figure 6.8: Effect of hardening and tempering ............................................................................................ 94
Figure 6.9: Tensile test of a steel specimen – ductile failure ....................................................................... 95
Figure 6.10: Fracture in aluminium weld........................................................................................................ 97
Figure 7.1: Power riveting ............................................................................................................................ 99
Figure 7.2: Markings for high strength bolts .............................................................................................. 100
Figure 7.3: Stud shear connectors used for composite action girder/slab ................................................101
Figure 7.4: Stud shear connectors on top flange of a steel girder ............................................................. 102
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Figure 7.5: Shielded manual metal-arc welding, submerged-arc welding, metal inert gas arc
welding and flux-cored arc welding ......................................................................................... 103
Figure 7.6: Fillet weld terminology and dimensions ................................................................................... 104
Figure 7.7: Butt weld terminology and dimensions .................................................................................... 105
Figure 7.8: Partial penetration butt welds .................................................................................................. 105
Figure 7.9: Macro – full penetration fillet weld flange to web..................................................................... 107
Figure 7.10: Macro – butt weld (double sided) ............................................................................................ 107
Figure 8.1: Distress due to corrosion in a crevice ..................................................................................... 110
Figure 8.2: Corrosion due to accumulation of dirt in member.................................................................... 111
Figure 8.3: Crevice corrosion at steel/timber interface-1 ........................................................................... 111
Figure 8.4: Crevice corrosion at steel/steel interface-2 ............................................................................. 112
Figure 8.5: Severe corrosion of a U-shaped truss bottom chord ............................................................... 113
Figure 8.6: Crevice corrosion in steel truss at the intersection of a diagonal with the gusset
plate ......................................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 8.7: Example of crevice corrosion at steel/steel riveted connection...............................................114
Figure 8.8: Crevice corrosion between steel member and timber decking ...............................................114
Figure 8.9: Severe breakdown of protective coating requiring full removal by grit blasting ......................115
Figure 8.10: Deterioration of protective coating in a moist marine environment leading to
corrosion of the steel ............................................................................................................... 116
Figure 8.11: Corrosion of cross girders and rivet heads .............................................................................. 116
Figure 8.12: Schematic drawing of a standard impact testing apparatus ....................................................118
Figure 8.13: Brittle failure of King Street Bridge girder ................................................................................ 119
Figure 8.14: Graphitisation of cast iron resulting in leaching of iron and loss of strength ...........................123
Figure 8.15 Effect of rainwashing ............................................................................................................... 127
Figure 8.16: Damp patch caused by accumulated rust and debris ............................................................. 127
Figure 8.17: Loss of adhesion (inadequate surface preparation) ................................................................ 128
Figure 8.18 Incompatible coatings (alkyd paint over zinc-rich surfacing) ...................................................128
Figure 8.19: Loss of section – severe pitting due to condensation and concentration of salts on
bottom flange (and lack of maintenance) ................................................................................ 129
Figure 8.20: Impact damage to a steel truss diagonal member ................................................................. 131
Figure 8.22: Impact damage to a steel truss vertical member with temporary stabilising
member in place ...................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 8.21: Impact damage to a steel truss vertical member..................................................................... 132
Figure 8.23: Continuous rails installed to prevent vehicles pocketing between vertical and
diagonal members ................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 8.24: Supplementary lateral bracing installed at the top of the truss to be clear of
possible vehicle impact............................................................................................................ 133
Figure 8.25: Fire damage to steel truss ....................................................................................................... 135
Figure 8.26: Fire damage to steel truss – damage to joint .......................................................................... 135
Figure 8.27: Fire damage to steel truss – warped and distorted members .................................................136
Figure 8.28: Welding of hollow steel to base plate – full penetration weld compared to fillet
weld ......................................................................................................................................... 137
Figure 8.29: Base plate showing corrosion of fillet weld .............................................................................. 137
Figure 9.1: Softwood cell structure ............................................................................................................ 138
Figure 9.2: Hardwood cell structure ........................................................................................................... 139
Figure 9.3: Common timber faults ............................................................................................................. 145
Figure 9.4: Accumulation of gravel, splits and advancement of decay at bearing area of
timber beam ............................................................................................................................. 145
Figure 9.5: Decay is the most serious timber defect ................................................................................. 146
Figure 9.6: Decay in laminated macrocarpa deck after 10 years .............................................................. 147
Figure 9.7: Effect of temperature on structural properties of timber ..........................................................150
Figure 9.8: Splits in painted macrocarpa rail and moss growth after 10 years..........................................151
Figure 9.9: Drill hole, accumulation of road gravel, vegetation growth, and decay in deck
planks ...................................................................................................................................... 151
Figure 9.10: Multiple joint defects ................................................................................................................ 152
Figure 11.1: FRP span – bridge over Orara River at Coutts Crossing ........................................................162
Figure 11.2: Proof loading of FRP span for Coutts Crossing ...................................................................... 162
Figure 11.3: Trial FRP cross girder for timber truss bridge ......................................................................... 163
Figure 11.4: Shear strengthening of a reinforced concrete T-beam bridge with CFRP strips .....................165
Austroads 2018 | page vii

1. Introduction
1.1 Scope
The purpose of the Guide to Bridge Technology is to provide guidance to bridge owners and authorities on
technology related issues relevant to bridge ownership, design procurement, vehicle and pedestrian
accessibility and bridge maintenance and management practices, including the use and application of
Australian and New Zealand bridge design standards. Bridge owners are a diverse group including state
road agencies, toll road concessionaires, local governments, private landowners and businesses such as
shopping centre owners. The guide has also been written with the young engineer in mind particularly those
recently graduated, and looking at specialising in the design and construction of bridges.
The Guide to Bridge Technology Part 2: Materials covers all aspects of the common building materials
available to the engineer including concrete, metallic and non-metallic materials and timber, as well as
emerging materials such as fibre reinforced concrete and geopolymer concrete. Part 2 of this guide discusses
material characteristics, their properties, durability, construction issues when using such materials, and
protection and preservation treatments. A detailed section on concrete reinforcing materials is also included.
1.2 Guide Structure
The Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology is published in eight parts and addresses a range of bridge
technology issues, each of which is summarised below in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology
Part Title Content

Part 1 Introduction and • Scope of the Guide to Bridge Technology and its relationship to the bridge design
Bridge standards.
Performance • Factors affecting bridge performance and technical and non-technical design
influences.
• Evolution of bridges, bridge construction methods and equipment and bridge
loadings.
• Specifications and quality assurance in bridge construction.
Part 2 Materials • The full range of bridge building materials including concrete, steel, timber and non-
metallic components.
• Material characteristics including individual stress mechanisms.
Part 3 Typical Bridge • Superstructure and substructure components – namely timber, steel, wrought iron,
Superstructures, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete.
Substructures • Typical bridge types such as suspension, cable stayed and arched types.
and
• Bridge foundations.
Components
Part 4 Design • Bridge design process procurement models, specification requirements, design and
Procurement delivery management processes, design checking and review concepts, the use of
and Concept standardised components, aesthetics/architectural requirements, standard
Design presentation of drawings and reports, designing for constructability and
maintenance.
• Service life of the structure and components, mining and subsidence, flood plains,
bridge loadings, and geotechnical and environmental considerations.
Part 5 Structural • Detailed drawing aspects required to clearly convey to the consultant/construction
Drafting contractor the specifics of the project.
• Standards including details required for cost estimating and material quantities.
• Reinforcement identification details.
Austroads 2018 | page 1

Part Title Content

Part 6 Bridge • Guidance to the bridge owner's representative on site.
Construction • Focuses on bridge technology, high-risk construction processes e.g. piling,
pre-stressing, and the relevant technical surveillance requirements during the
construction phase.
• Bridge geometry, the management of existing road traffic and temporary works.
Part 7 Maintenance • Maintenance issues for timber, reinforced and pre-stressed concrete, steel, wrought
and and cast iron bridges.
Management of • Maintenance of bridge components including bridge bearings and deck joints.
Existing Bridges
• Monitoring, inspection and management of bridge conditions.
Part 8 Hydraulic • Waterway design of bridge structures
Design of • Design flood standards and estimation methods, general considerations in waterway
Waterway design and design considerations of waterway structures.
Structures
• Design of new bridges for scour, as well as monitoring and evaluation of scour at
existing bridge sites.

2. Concrete Characteristics and Materials
Generally concrete is produced by combining a mixture of aggregate (e.g. gravels), binding materials
(e.g. cement and water), supplementary cementitious materials (to enhance the properties and workability of
concrete), and admixture (to enhance the characteristics of concrete). The components of concrete are
discussed in the following sections. Reinforcement and prestressing steels are discussed in Section 3.
2.1 Properties of Concrete
It has been said that good concrete consists of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, additives and
water. It has also been said that bad concrete consists of cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates,
additives and water. The process control will determine the result.
The difference between the two materials is a consequence of the degree of control exercised over the
whole concreting process from the mix design, testing, batching, mixing, transporting, placing, and
compacting to the curing. Deficiencies in one or more parts of the process will compromise the quality of the
concrete, which will impact on its service life.
The degree of control exercised over each step in the process will determine if a batch of concrete results in
good or bad concrete.
The trial mix and testing carried out gives an indication of the potential of a concrete to comply with the
specification. Whether the in situ concrete achieves that potential is determined by process control. For more
information please refer to Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand (CCANZ) website (CCANZ no
date (n.d.)) and Cement and Concrete Association of Australia (CCAA) website (CCAA n.d.).
The following properties of concrete are taken into consideration in bridge design and construction:
• strength
• modulus of elasticity
• density
• stress-strain curves
• Poisson’s ratio
• coefficient of thermal expansion
• creep and shrinkage.
2.1.1 Strength
Concrete’s strength is derived from the hydration of cement (for hydraulic cements) by water. The cement
constituents progressively crystallise to form a gel or paste which surrounds the aggregate particles and
binds them together to produce a conglomerate (Mays 2002).
Strength of concrete includes characteristic compressive strength, mean in situ compressive strength and
tensile strength.
The characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ , is used to dictate the required strength
grade of concrete. This value is determined based on the specified strength grade or statistically from
compressive strength tests carried out in accordance with AS 1012.9.
The characteristic compressive strengths of the standard strength grades include 20 MPa, 25 MPa, 32 MPa,
40 MPa, 50 MPa, 65 MPa, 80 MPa and 100 MPa (AS 5100.5). For most structural applications for bridges, a
minimum strength of 32 MPa is applied in order to satisfy the durability provisions.

The mean value of the in situ compressive strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , i.e. the average strength of the concrete in the
structure on site, is slightly higher than the characteristic compressive strength for most strength grades,
except for the 100 MPa grade where it is 99 MPa, as presented in AS 5100.5.
The uniaxial tensile strength of concrete, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , is the maximum stress that concrete can withstand when
subjected to uniaxial tension. This value can be determined from either the measured flexural tensile
strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑓𝑓 , or from the measured splitting tensile strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 , where 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑓𝑓 and 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 are determined
statistically from flexural strength tests carried out in accordance with AS 1012.11, and from indirect tensile
strength tests carried out in accordance with AS 1012.10, respectively.
Refer to AS 5100.7 for information about historical standards for concrete.
2.1.2 Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity of concrete is related to the stiffness of concrete members. It can be determined based
on the density and the mean in situ compressive strength of concrete, or by tests in accordance with AS
1012.17 or by the values corresponding to the standard strength grades at 28 days as specified in AS
5100.5.
2.1.3 Density
The density of concrete is taken as not less than 2400 kg/m3 for normal weight concrete, or determined by
test in accordance with AS 1012.12.1 or AS 1012.12.2.
2.1.4 Stress-strain Curves
A typical stress-strain curve of concrete is shown in Figure 2.1. This curve is usually derived by suitable
tests. For design purpose, the shape of the in situ uniaxial compressive stress-strain curve is modified so
that the maximum stress is 0.85 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ .
Figure 2.1: Typical concrete stress-strain curve
2.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio for concrete is taken as equal to 0.2 or determined by test in accordance with AS 1012.17.

2.1.6 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is taken as equal to 10 x 10−6/°C or determined from
suitable test data.
2.2 Specification
AS 1379 is the Australian standard for specification and supply of concrete. This standard sets out the
minimum requirements for:
• the materials, plant and equipment used in the supply of concrete
• the production and, if applicable, the delivery of concrete in plastic state
• specifying, sampling, testing and compliance with specified properties of plastic and hardened concrete
• the uniformity of mixing.
Two classes of concrete are specified in AS 1379 including ‘Normal’ and ‘Special’. Normal-class refers to a
range of standardised concrete mixes as defined by AS 1379, primarily by a standard compressive strength
grade up to 50 MPa and with the following performance requirements:
• a mass per unit volume between 2100 kg/m3 and 2800 kg/m3
• acid-soluble chloride and sulphate contents within the specified limits (chloride content not more than 0.8
kg/m3 and sulphate content not more than 50 g/kg of cement)
• shrinkage strain not exceeding 1000 microstrain
• a mean compressive strength at 7 days of approximately half the specified 28 day strength
• a cement complying with Australian standards AS 3972 or AS 3582 (set)
• no lightweight aggregate
• grade designations include N20, N25, N32, N40 and N50.
Special-class concrete is the concrete that is specified to have certain properties or characteristics different
from, or additional to, those of normal-class concrete, and with either of the following special requirements:
• performance based, with a property being verified through testing – such as strength grade
• prescription based, with the mix design dictating the requirements for exposure classifications.
Where concrete is specified as special-class and a strength-grade is applicable, the following are used as
prefixes to the strength grade:
• S, where compressive strength testing is required
• SF, where flexural strength testing is required
• ST, where indirect-tensile strength is required.
Where concrete is specified a special class and one of the exposure classifications B1, B2, C1, C2 or U
specified in AS 3600 is applicable, the following shall be used as prefixes to the strength grade:
• SB, for concrete in exposure classification B2
• SC, for concrete in exposure classification C1 or C2
• SU, for concrete in exposure classification U.
Refer to Section 2.7.3 for concrete sample and testing specification.

2.3 Cement
2.3.1 Source
To meet today’s demands for concrete supply, Portland cement is currently manufactured locally and
imported into Australia and New Zealand from many sources. Major concrete suppliers usually purchase
cement from the same suppliers to ensure they produce concrete with consistent properties. Some
producers, however, may vary their cement source, and cement suppliers themselves may source their
cement or raw materials from different sources. This situation means that the consistency of cement, and
therefore concrete, cannot be guaranteed.
The issue is one of having confidence in the quality of cement being used to construct bridges. Once bulk
cement is placed in silos the traceability of the origin of the cement becomes problematic.
For complex bridges the consistency of the cement properties and concrete mix characteristics becomes
more critical.
In Australia, Cementitious Materials Registration Scheme (CMRS) is a scheme to manage cement

registration. This scheme is used by at least the eastern states but is available to all. Registered products are
required to be certified by the Australian Technical Infrastructure Committee (ATIC).
In New Zealand, cement and concrete quality is managed though the New Zealand Ready Mixed Concrete
Association (NZRMCA) plant certification scheme. The concrete purchaser manages quality by specifying
concrete supply in accordance with NZS 3104 and concrete construction in accordance with NZS 3109.
These standards provide a minimum level of quality assurance. Extra quality control processes can be
specified to address particular concerns for individual structures, such as durability requirements in
aggressive environments.
2.3.2 Cement Reactivity – Setting Process
The reactivity of cement is related to the fineness. The finer the cement, the more rapid the rate of hydration
and the rate of strength gain.
Cements produced pre the 1960s were of a coarser grind compared to current materials. The changes in the
cement manufacturing process, which began in the 1960s, resulted in increasing fineness. As a result,
comparatively higher concrete strengths were achieved in shorter periods of time. However, the increase in
the heat of hydration of the finer cement causes comparatively higher thermal shrinkage as the concrete
cools.
In addition, the high early strength results in high early elastic modulus, lower creep and higher drying
shrinkage compared with lower strength concrete unless water-reducing admixtures are used. As a
consequence researchers contend that the high strength concrete could be more crack prone unless the mix
is carefully designed and the concrete properly compacted and cured. The prevalence of premature bridge
deck cracking supports the need for careful control.
The criticality of process control from batching to curing cannot be over-emphasised as modern high strength
concretes may be more crack sensitive. Protecting new concrete from adverse atmospheric conditions and
the early application of curing regimes are of particular importance to control early cracking.
Numerous papers and articles exist in the literature on concrete cracking and durability and provide an
historic perspective on the issue. Some examples include Mehta and Burrow (2001) and Purvis et al. (1995).
For an exhaustive list of references search the Internet under ‘concrete bridge deck cracking’.
The scale of the problem of bridge deck crack is indicated by the number of research projects carried out, or
currently in progress, into the problem worldwide.

2.3.3 Cement and Durability
The issue of concrete durability arose in the late 1970s when it was noted that bridges constructed in marine
environments in the 1960s and 1970s were exhibiting premature deterioration because the cement content
had been reduced due to the use of finer and therefore more reactive cements. The strength requirements
could still be met even though less cement was used. Investigations carried out by researchers showed that
chloride ions had passed through the cover concrete at a comparatively fast rate in the newer bridges,
resulting in the loss of alkalinity of the concrete surrounding the reinforcement, thereby leading to its
corrosion. The resulting corrosion product being of greater volume than the steel caused the spalling of
concrete.
Bridges in marine environments constructed prior to the 1960s were in many cases performing satisfactorily.
Investigations carried out showed that in many of these bridges the probability of corrosion of the
reinforcement was low due to the higher durability of the concrete, because the mixes were designed by
proportions of cement, sand and coarse aggregate. In addition, extra cement was added in bridge concretes,
which enhanced the durability. As discussed above, the change in cement properties to achieve high early
strengths is considered a major contributor to the durability issue.
Numerous papers and articles in concrete journals give a background to the concrete durability issue and
these can be found listed separately at the end of the References section of this Part.
Blended cements
As an outcome of the durability issue blended cements consisting of Ordinary Portland Cements (OPC) from
different sources and fly ash were developed to enhance the resistance to chloride and sulphate attack in
marine environments. Products referred to as ‘marine blends’ emerged to address the durability deficiencies
of the existing cements. More flexibility can be gained if cement suppliers can store cement etc. in separate
silos so that blends can be varied to suit particular requirements.
Durability measures
Numerous research projects were implemented worldwide to address concrete durability. Outcomes of the
research pointed to a number of contributing factors including the following:
• Specifications that had previously specified a minimum cement content for various concrete grades had
been amended to only require that the required 28-day strength be met.
• The introduction of fine grind cements had resulted in the situation where the specified 28-day strength
could be achieved with reduced cement content compared to the past because of the higher reactivity of
the cement. As a result, the water cement ratios had increased for the same strength resulting in less
durable concrete (Hawkins 1987).
• Poor construction practices in terms of compaction and curing.
As an outcome of the research, either minimum cement contents or significantly higher concrete strengths
were specified e.g. basic concrete 20–40 MPa, prestressed concrete 45–55 MPa. In addition, supplementary
siliceous materials such as fly ash and silica fume were used.
2.4 Aggregates
Aggregates account for 60 to 75 per cent of the total volume of concrete. Generally, aggregates are divided
into two distinct categories – coarse and fine. The requirements for aggregates for concrete are set out in
AS 2758.1 and NZS 3121.

2.4.1 Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregates used in concrete generally consist of natural gravels (majority) or crushed stone with
particles greater than 5 mm, but typically range between 10 mm and 40 mm in diameter. Coarse aggregates
of nominal sizes greater than 40 mm may be appropriate for use in specific work such as dam construction
and other mass concrete sections.
The supply of coarse aggregates should satisfy the general requirements on:
• source
• shape
• strength.
Source
The need for ongoing testing of aggregates from quarries needs to be highlighted. Within any quarry the
possibility exists for changes in the petrology of the rock as different areas are mined as a result of
encountering dykes, intrusions, etc. The fact that aggregate from a particular quarry was tested and found to
be acceptable does not mean that all material in the future will be of the same quality. Requirements for
sampling and testing of coarse aggregates should be in accordance with AS 1141 (set) and AS 1012 (set).
Strength and shape
Requirements for strength and shape are set out in standard specifications. The shape of the aggregate is
important, as concrete with flaky aggregate is more difficult to compact than concrete with cubic shaped
aggregate.
Large aggregate provides better interlock with resulting higher shear strength. Aggregates larger than 20 mm
may be used in special circumstances with wider spaces.
Smaller aggregates of 10–14 mm may be used in congested areas such as prestressing anchorages.
However, the concrete will have a comparatively lower shear strength compared to concrete with larger
aggregate.
2.4.2 Fine Aggregates
The requirements for fine aggregates for concrete are also set out in AS 2758.1 and NZS 3121.
The type of fine aggregates used in concrete has traditionally been river sand and crushed sandstone of a
nominal size less than 5 mm. However, there is an increasing use of manufactured sand as the availability of
natural sands diminishes.
The use of manufactured sand (quarrying by-product – crusher dust) introduces a number of potential
problems for the placement, compaction and finishing of concrete particularly in bridge decks with a large
surface area per volume compared to other members.
Manufactured sands have a comparatively high surface porosity and surface absorption and as a result have
a high and sometimes variable water demand. Therefore the control of the moisture content of the
manufactured sand in the batching process is critical. The workability of the concrete is extremely sensitive
to variations in the moisture content of the fine aggregate.
Instances have occurred where concrete placed at 150 mm slump has become unworkable before it has
been fully compacted and finished.

In one bridge project the plastic cracking that occurred due to poor compaction as a result of loss of
workability, required the complete removal of the deck. The cracks were the full depth of the slab and 1 mm
wide. An investigation revealed that in that instance half of the free water was assumed to be in the fine
aggregate when in fact that was not the case. The moisture content of the manufactured sand was an
assumed figure rather than that determined by testing (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Plastic shrinkage cracking in deck
Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) NSW (n.d.).
2.4.3 Lightweight Aggregates
Where lightweight concrete is required lightweight aggregates are used. Applications may include drop-in
spans where craneage requirements may limit the mass of members. The current type of lightweight
aggregate available is a volcanic material called scoria. In New Zealand pumice is also used. In the past
coke breeze was used as a lightweight aggregate. Man-made lightweight aggregates are also available.
It should be noted that excess vibration during placement may cause lightweight aggregates to ‘float’.
Lightweight aggregates should be used with caution, as they are susceptible to excessive creep and
shrinkage. Additional testing is required to determine the concrete characteristics.

2.4.4 Aggregates and Durability
Aggregates may react with alkali hydroxides present in the cement, admixtures or the mixing water in the
Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR). This reaction can lead to concrete cracking (Figure 2.3). Refer to
Section 4.1.4 for details.
Figure 2.3: Pier headstock cracking caused by AAR
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).
2.5 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)
SCMs are often incorporated into modern concretes to make concrete mixtures more economical, reduce
permeability, increase strength, or influence other concrete properties. The SCMs currently used include fly
ash, granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume which are industrial by-products. They can be used
individually with Portland or blended cement or in different combinations. In New Zealand a proprietary
natural geothermal silica is currently used instead of silica fume. Most SCMs need to be imported and
therefore come at a premium as materials used to improve concrete quality. In Australia fly ash and blast-
furnace slag are readily available from the power generation industry.
The blending of OPC with fly ashes with specific properties results in concrete with increased durability by
enhancing its chemical resistance in terms of chloride ion ingress and AAR. An additional advantage of fly
ash is that it reduces the heat of hydration, strength and elastic modulus at an early age resulting in a
reduction of concrete prone to cracking.
In marine environments the increase in chemical resistance from the use of fly ash results from the fact that
the concrete is able to chemically bind free chloride ions that have the potential to cause corrosion of the
reinforcement in time.
The use of SCMs in the appropriate quantities enhances the resistance to AAR by reducing the alkalis in the
concrete and preventing the reaction with the aggregates.

2.6 Admixtures
The CCANZ and CCAA websites provide information on concrete admixtures and their applications.
Concrete admixtures provide a means to enhance the characteristics of concrete in the fluid, plastic and solid
states. The admixtures available for use include:
• water reducing agents to produce high slump, flowable concrete, while lowering the water/cement ratio to
increase strength and improve durability
Available as high range (superplasticers) for high slumps – 150 to 200 mm and normal water reducers to
produce the specified slump with 10–15% less water. Superplasticers are usually used together with
normal water reducers for maximum efficiency. The superplasticers work by coating the cement particles,
which reduces friction, increases the slump, and retards the hydration. Hence when the superplasticer
evaporates rapid stiffening (reversion) occurs.
• air entraining agents must be used in concrete subject to freeze-thaw to reduce the risk of damage as a
result of the freezing
The air entraining agent produces micro air bubbles in the concrete matrix, which results in discontinuous
pores. They are also used in warm climates to enhance durability. Air entrainment is also used to improve
workability by making the concrete flow due to the presence of the air bubbles. The presence of the
discrete air bubbles reduces the ingress of moisture that under freezing conditions will expand and
damage the concrete. The addition of air entraining agents to a mix results in some loss of compressive
strength. Consequently, excessive use of air entraining agents by incorrect dosing may be detrimental to
the concrete.
• accelerators used to promote early setting, particularly in cold weather conditions
The use of accelerators needs to be treated with caution as a number of the products contain calcium
chloride that are a source of harmful chloride ions that can lead to corrosion of reinforcing steel and metal
fitments. Only chloride free accelerators should be used in reinforced concrete.
• retarders to delay initial set of the concrete to allow time for placement, compaction and finishing
particularly in hot weather
• shrinkage reducers to reduce the drying shrinkage and consequential cracking
• corrosion inhibitors for use in concrete in marine environments to maintain the passive environment of
reinforcing steel and thereby prevent corrosion. These materials require specialised knowledge and
should be thoroughly tested and used with great care.
There are three classes of corrosion inhibitors – anodic, cathodic and mixed (see Section 4.2.9).
In simple terms, by suppressing the anodic reaction the onset of corrosion will be delayed, but the rate of
corrosion will be unaffected or, under certain circumstances, increased. Suppressing the cathodic reaction,
the onset of corrosion will not change, but as the reaction rate is governed by the cathode and the availability
of oxygen, the reaction rate will be reduced. Mixed inhibitors will both delay the onset of corrosion and
reduce the reaction rate.
Where inhibitors are used in a concrete element then the inhibitor must be used in all concrete elements
electrochemically connected to that element. Failure to do so may result in increased corrosion. The dosage
should not be varied within the concrete or unusual and unsafe corrosion conditions may occur. Inhibitors are
quite expensive, costing up to $100/cubic metre of concrete (2009 rate) and may cause changes in the
plastic properties of the concrete.
Cautionary Note: It should be noted that while the use of admixtures can improve the characteristics of
concrete there are a number of issues to consider in their use:
• There is potential for the use of admixtures to mask clues to problems with the mix design.
• Admixtures are not designed to correct deficiencies in the mix design.

• As more admixtures are used the interaction between them may produce adverse effects. Multiple
admixtures should not be combined in one concrete mix without the approval of the admixture
manufacturer and after thorough testing.
• As more admixtures are added the level of control in the batching process becomes more critical as the
mix may become more sensitive to minor changes in the constituents.
• Mix designs that are highly refined in terms of cement content and maximum packing density may also be
very sensitive to changes in the constituents including admixtures.
• The possibility exists for concrete with superplasticers to undergo premature ‘reversion’ or ‘slump loss’ i.e.
revert from 150 mm to 75 mm slump before the time expected. Placement and compaction of the
concrete in the event of this occurring becomes problematic. Some superplasticers are more prone to
reversion than others. During the construction process planning, there needs to be a nominated site
person who will be responsible to determine if reversion has occurred. The available working time needs
to be known for specific site conditions for the actual mix.
• Incorrect dosages of admixtures may be detrimental to the performance of the concrete. Dosage rate
should be determined by trial mix in consultation with the admixture manufacturer.
• The lack of adequate mixing will result in uneven distribution of admixtures resulting in differential
characteristics of the concrete. This will offset any potential benefits of using the admixtures and may
make the situation worse. In the case of corrosion inhibitors, non-uniform distribution may lead to
developing differential electrical potentials and as a result accelerate, not inhibit corrosion.
• The order in which constituents, including admixtures, are added to the mixer will have a significant effect
on the efficiency and therefore the amount of admixture needed and its effectiveness. Admixture
manufacturers will be able to advise on the appropriate order for particular combinations of admixtures.
For example, it may be necessary to add water reducer before superplasticer to ensure the superplasticer
is uniformly distributed through the concrete.
• Admixtures can add significant amounts of alkali to the concrete. Where AAR is managed by controlling
concrete alkali content the alkalis contributed by admixtures must be included in calculations of concrete
alkali content.
2.7 Concrete Mixes
Depending on the application and design requirements of a specific project, an appropriate concrete mix is
designed which specifies the required quantity (in volume) of each components of the concrete materials
(cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water and admixtures) to produce a cubic metre of concrete.
Requirements for concrete mix design include:

• required concrete grade – with associated characteristic compressive strength (Section 2.1.1)
• type of cement – dependant on the rate of compressive strength development of concrete (Section 2.3)
• maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete (Section 2.4)
• the cement content – based on shrinkage, cracking and creep requirements
• the workability of concrete for placing and compaction – dependant on the size and shape of section,
quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for transportation, placing and compaction.
Other design considerations include water-cement ratio and workability.
Refer to Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 6: Bridge Construction, for further information on the
construction and operational requirements of concrete mixes.

2.7.1 Water-cement Ratio
Water-cement (w/c) ratio is the ratio of the mass of total free water in a batch to the mass of cement in the
batch. This ratio significantly influences the strength of concrete. An increase in w/c ratio results in air voids
in concrete which causes a reduction in concrete strength. In hardened concrete, strength is inversely
proportional to the w/c ratio. A low w/c ratio, however, may also lead to serious problems in hardened
concrete as less water is available for the hydration of cement that needs to occur to provide the bond with
aggregate to form strength. In addition, a low water amount may reduce the workability of concrete.
Figure 2.4 show a sketch of a typical relationship between water-cement ratio and the compressive strength
of concrete.
Figure 2.4: The typical relationship between water-cement ratio and the compressive strength of concrete
The quantity of water in the concrete can be controlled by either controlling the w/c ratio or slump. Refer to
AS 1379 for the detailed provisions.
2.7.2 Workability
The workability of the concrete mix dictates the ease of placement and compaction. Traditionally, the
workability of concrete was achieved by increasing water portion in the mix design, however, as discussed in
Section 2.7.1, the water-cement ratio influences the strength of concrete. Appropriate admixtures
(Section 2.6) have been used instead in the current practice to increase the workability of concrete while not
significantly impacting its mechanical properties.
High workability concrete has been used to meet high flow or high pumpability requirements, or where limited
vibration is possible.
2.7.3 Sampling and Testing
Concrete is sampled in the plastic state and tested for compliance with the required frequency and particular
parameters in accordance with AS 1379. The method of sampling is in accordance with AS 1012.1.
Generally, the following particular quality parameters are required to be determined by testing:
• slump
• strength
• air content
• chloride and sulphate content
• drying shrinkage
• seven-day strength of normal-class concrete.

2.8 Creep and Shrinkage
2.8.1 Creep
When concrete is loaded two types of deformations occur, elastic strains and creep strains. Creep strains are
time-dependent and begin immediately, diminishing over time.
The amount of creep is a function of:

• magnitude of the stress
• concrete age and strength
• duration of loading
• type, size and quantity of coarse aggregate
• type and quantity of cement
• size and shape of element
• volume to surface ratio
• amount of reinforcing steel
• distribution of prestress across the section
• curing regime
• temperature and humidity
• amount and rate of drying shrinkage and associated shrinkage.
In prestressed bridge members creep results in loss of prestress with resulting creep deflections of either
hog or sag. In prestressed members, excessive creep deflections are associated with triangular stress blocks
that result in non-uniform creep across the section.
Prediction and monitoring of creep deflections on major prestressed concrete bridges form a large part of the
construction engineering. Software packages are available to model creep to predict the effects on the
bridge behaviour.
2.8.2 Shrinkage
As discussed above the reactivity, heat of hydration and shrinkage of cement are linked. The shrinkage test
in AS 2350 (set) consists of a mortar bar test with limits placed on the maximum allowable shrinkage at 21
days. This is a measure of the shrinkage of the cement under laboratory conditions. However, the in situ
shrinkage performance of the concrete is controlled by a number of factors that are discussed in the
following sections.
A research project was undertaken by the Roads and Maritime Service (Roads and Maritime) to investigate
the premature cracking of bridge decks following numerous instances of the phenomena. Details of the
outcomes of the investigation are set out in Section 2.9.2.
2.8.3 Shrinkage Classification
Shrinkage is usually classified into early and late age shrinkage. Early shrinkage occurs in the first seven
days under normal ambient conditions. Early shrinkage can be further subdivided into autogenous shrinkage,
drying shrinkage and plastic shrinkage. Late age shrinkage is largely due to drying of the concrete after the
cessation of curing.

Autogenous shrinkage
Autogenous shrinkage is caused by reduction of pore moisture due to curing without any change in the total
water within the concrete. Autogenous shrinkage is most likely with concretes where the water/binder ratio is
low. Concretes with water/binder ratios below 0.36 are susceptible to autogenous shrinkage except where
water curing is practised. Concretes with water/binder ratios below 0.30 are susceptible to autogenous
shrinkage even where water curing is practised.
Early drying shrinkage
Early drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from the concrete as it cures and can result from
one of the following:
• where the temperature of the concrete is high (heat of hydration and solar heating)
• where the membrane or other sealing method is not sufficiently effective
• where the curing is stopped prior to seven days and the concrete dries out
• where the curing is not applied soon enough.
Concrete exposed to early drying undergoes shrinkage due to capillary suction. This can result in cracking
and poor service performance, particularly of exposed slabs. The amount of shrinkage from suction depends
on the ambient conditions and the concrete mix, and can exceed the combined shrinkage from other causes.
Therefore, it is important to prevent excessive drying of concrete between the commencement of casting and
the application of curing at the completion of finishing (AS 5100.5).
Plastic shrinkage
Plastic shrinkage, as its name implies, occurs before the concrete has taken initial set. As concrete sets, the
hydrated cement occupies less volume than the mixture of cement and water, shrinking the concrete.
Plastic shrinkage also occurs due to loss of water from the surface of the concrete during placement,
compaction and finishing. This loss of water from the concrete will cause a reduction in the concrete volume.
Poor compaction and poor protection of the concrete will increase the loss of water during the plastic and
early setting phases. Where the available water at the concrete surface is less than the water lost, the plastic
shrinkage strains at the surface will be greater than the strains in the mass of the concrete.
Most concrete specifications include charts to determine the loss of water from the free surface of plastic
concrete under given environmental conditions of temperature, humidity and wind speed. However, the
amount of available water is determined by the mix proportions. The use of very fine materials, such as
amorphous silica and fine fly ash will decrease the available water for a given water/binder ratio. Similarly,
the use of coarse ground granulated iron blast furnace slag will increase the available water for a given
water/binder ratio.
2.8.4 Determination of Shrinkage Strain
The design shrinkage strain is determined as the sum of the autogenous shrinkage strain and the drying
shrinkage strain. The former is calculated based on the time amount after setting and the concrete
characteristic strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ , while the latter is determined based on a number of factors such as the concrete
characteristic strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ , environment (arid, interior, temperate inland or tropical/near coastal), and the
quality of the local aggregates (AS 5100.5).

2.9 Cracking and Crack Control
2.9.1 Cracking
Cracking in concrete structures can be the result of one or a combination of factors that occur in various
stages of the structure’s life from design, construction and operation. Cracking in concrete cannot be
prevented but it can be significantly reduced or controlled when the root causes are identified and
appropriate crack control measures are taken.
Fine cracks often become visible as a wet concrete surface dries, but generally they are not significant
unless visible on the dry surface. Cracks visible to the naked eye, i.e. about 0.1 mm or wider and which are
continuous or form a pattern should be mapped, and their size, distribution, and penetration recorded. This
allows their cause to be identified.
Cracks do not always jeopardise the performance of a structure. Concrete will crack in tension zones before
the steel can take up the tension, and design limits for crack width are given in NZS 3101. For cracks wider
than these limits it is assumed that the cover concrete will no longer provide adequate protection to the
reinforcing steel.
Spalling, staining, efflorescence, or water leakage through cracks may be associated with reinforcement
corrosion and should be investigated.
Excessive movement under traffic loads may pump water through the crack and/or widen the crack by
abrading the sides.
Characteristic concrete crack patterns are shown in Figure 2.5. In practice, several forces may contribute,
simultaneously or successively, to the development of a crack and may include loading (bending, tension,
shear, torsion, bond failure or concentrated load), overloading, settlement, fire, impact, or incorrect stressing.
The following is a summary of the most common causes of cracking and the characteristics of the cracks
resulting from each:
• Plastic settlement cracks may be of any orientation and width, ranging from fine cracks above
reinforcement and at changes in profile on a vertical surface (which result from the settlement of the fresh
concrete), to wide cracks in supporting members due to foundation settlement during setting of concrete.
• Plastic shrinkage cracks form in parallel lines or a grid and result from rapid drying of the concrete in its
plastic state (see Section 2.8). Such cracks can be wide but are usually shallow. They develop on the top
surface of the deck and can often be observed in deck soffits.
• Drying shrinkage cracks result from drying of the concrete after it has hardened. They are usually finer
and deeper than plastic shrinkage cracks and have a random orientation.
• Early thermal cracking results from cooling and contraction of concrete after initial heat rise due to cement
hydration. Cracking will only occur if the element is restrained.
• Crazing is fine cracking in the surface layers of concrete caused by shrinkage of the surface relative to
the concrete mass due to differential moisture movement. Crazing is only a few millimetres deep and is
unlikely to affect the integrity of the concrete.
• Reinforcement corrosion – see Section 4.1.1.
• Structural cracks usually result from the differences between assumed and actual stress distribution,
except for those controlled by the provision of reinforcement. Width will vary, although orientation will
often be well defined. Examples include diagonal cracks in the acute corners of severely skewed decks,
wide longitudinal cracks opposite the voids in some post-tensioned structures and the classical bending
and shear cracks.
• AAR cracking is usually depicted as map cracking (a closely spaced network of cracks), although it may
be controlled by the presence of reinforcing steel (see Section 4.1.4). The cause is an expansive effect
due to reaction between the aggregate and the alkalis in the cement.

Figure 2.5: Characteristic crack patterns in a hypothetical structure
A: Plastic settlement (after compaction, before initial set).

B: Plastic shrinkage (before initial set, before curing starts).
C: Early thermal contraction (forms 1 day to 2–3 weeks after casting).
D: Drying shrinkage (forms weeks or months after casting).
E: Crazing.
F: Reinforcement corrosion.
G: Alkali-aggregate reaction (cracks often discoloured, may follow reinforcement).
H: Tension bending cracks.
I: Shear cracks.
Source: Transit New Zealand (2001).
Shrinkage cracking will occur whenever the tensile strain of the concrete exceeds the capacity of the
concrete to accept that strain. In the plastic state, the concrete may be able to accept the strain by flowing.
As the concrete stiffens due to setting and/or loss of moisture, the concrete’s capacity to accept tensile strain
is reduced. The stiffness of the concrete increases at a faster rate than the tensile strength of the concrete;
so a situation may develop where the concrete is unable to accept the strain and also is unable to resist the
strain.
Reported instances by a number of state road authorities of early cracking of bridge decks have been on the
increase in the last five to ten years (Figure 2.6). This increased frequency of cracking has occurred
notwithstanding the fact that the results of shrinkage tests carried out have been under the specification
limits.

Figure 2.6: Block cracking in bridge deck
2.9.2 Crack Control
The cracking in concrete as discussed above points to deficiencies in the structural design, the mix design
and the construction process. The problem of premature cracking, particularly in bridge decks, is a
multifactorial problem. The potential exists for a number of factors in the construction process to cause the
problem including:
• mix design
– use of high cementitious/low water content in concretes leading to high autogenous shrinkage
(Altoubat & Lange 2001)
– the tendency to use lower than required water contents rather than properly control the water in the
mix
– moisture sensitive fine aggregates e.g. manufactured sands
• batching and mixing
– the increasing use of manufactured sands, without increased controls to ensure that the moisture
demand of the sand is properly controlled
– lack of control of moisture in the aggregates resulting in poor workability and increased risk of high
shrinkage
– errors in batching
• construction
– reliance on minimum steel to control cracking
– poorly designed formwork that deflects excessively under the head of concrete

– long haul distance reducing the workability time available

– lack of compaction resulting in reduced density and propensity to crack both in the plastic and solid
phases
The Roads and Maritime specifications now include a requirement for the in situ density of concrete to
be within specific limits of the density of the trial mix cylinders. Provisions to remove cores from decks
to demonstrate compliance with density are also included in the specifications.
– lack of compaction resulting in reduced compressive and early tensile strength
The long-term fatigue strength is also reduced. This influence of compaction on the propensity for
concrete to crack is set out in the following references.
– reversion of superplasticers resulting in low slump concrete that becomes unworkable before
placement or completion of compaction
– lack of compaction resulting in high plastic cracking evidenced by cracking coinciding with the
reinforcing steel pattern
– shrinkage and thermal cracking caused by the restraint of the member that does not allow shrinkage
and/or thermal strains to take place
For example, a bridge deck cast on planks or girders will be restrained by the bonding that occurs at
the interface.
– excessive cover to the reinforcing steel
– inadequate pre-wetting of the concrete surface on which the deck is poured which results in the dry
surface wicking moisture out of the wet concrete
– early removal of formwork.
Figure 2.7 to Figure 2.8 illustrate the critical importance of compaction and its effect on the properties of the
concrete.
Figure 2.7: Influence of density on concrete strength
Source: Ayton (2001).

Figure 2.8: Influence of density ratio on fatigue life
Note: These curves are provided merely to show indicative relationships between compaction and fatigue life. The x-axis
values have been derived by applying the typical density-strength relationships. The curves have been derived by
inputting the flexural strength values into the appropriate design model.
Source: Ayton (2001).
• Atmospheric conditions
– pouring in adverse weather conditions that results in excessive evaporation rates causing premature
surface drying and plastic cracking
– delays in application of curing regime
– use of sealed curing with very low water/high cementitious concretes
– thermal cracking caused by variations in temperature between the upper and lower parts of a slab
The variations can be caused by thermal shock where the concrete is suddenly exposed to ambient
temperature that is well below the temperature of the concrete.
– freezing of free water at an early age by frost or extreme cold weather conditions
– freeze/thaw effects
This situation is exacerbated if the deck is already cracked allowing water to penetrate into the deck
that freezes and expands causing more cracking. The process continues each cycle with the result
that the cracking in the deck gets progressively worse.
The severity of cracking in some bridges has required the replacement of the decks after only an eight-year
service life. Cores removed from the decks revealed high void content.
Roads and Maritime Services (Roads and Maritime) research project
The frequency of deck cracking led the Roads and Maritime Services (formerly RTA) to initiate a research
project (Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) 2006) to instrument one deck in a new bridge to monitor the early
strains and the temperatures in the upper and lower areas of the deck.
The results of the monitoring showed that:

• Tensile strains were low in the first six hours after completion of the pour as the temperature of the
concrete increased due to the heat of hydration.

• Tensile strains increased as the ambient temperature dropped the first night and the top surface of the
deck cooled. The maximum tensile strains were sufficient to crack the concrete.
• The temperature differential of the top surface of the deck over a 24-hour period was 29 °C.
• As the deck cooled with the diurnal temperature change, the deck was subjected to tensile strains,
sufficient to cause cracking of the concrete.
• The results of the research highlighted the potential benefit in terms of crack control of maintaining the
deck at a constant elevated temperature for at least seven days. This would ensure that the deck would
be subjected to compressive strains until such time as the tensile strength of the concrete was developed
sufficiently to resist subsequent tensile strains.
Field trial
The outcomes of the research were subsequently applied to the construction of a new deck. Specific
requirements in regard to the deck construction were included in the tender documents, including:
• the contractor’s staff involved in the deck pour to undergo training on the requirements for adequate
compaction
• the contractor to complete a trial slab to demonstrate the capability of staff to pour the deck
Cores to be removed from the trial slab to determine if the required density has been achieved.
• close attention to be given to compacting equipment and methodology
• moist curing of the deck using wet hessian
• insulation of the deck for seven days using mineral wool between two layers of plastic.
The outcome of the trial was that after four months under traffic there were no cracks in the deck. The only
cracks in the deck were in the continuity slab over the pier, poured subsequently to provide a link between
the adjacent decks for ride quality. These cracks were 0.15 mm wide.
A further trial in which a portion of the deck was water cured without the insulation and another portion was
sealed cured, again without insulation, showed that for a relatively benign thermal variation (about 12 °C)
water curing alone prevented the cracking, but that sealed curing was not effective.
The research indicates that close attention to compaction, curing, and maintaining the deck concrete at a
constant temperature for seven days, can offset the effects of drying shrinkage and differential thermal
effects. However, in cases where water curing is not practical, the concrete needs to contain enough free
water at the start of curing to reduce autogenous shrinkage to a level that the concrete can accept.
Therefore, designers and specifiers must consider using lower strengths for deck concrete, and even placing
upper strength limits on deck concretes.
The strategies developed by the Roads and Maritime research project to address the cracking of bridge
decks were found to be similar to those developed by the Ontario Ministry of Transport as set out by Schell
and Konecny (2003).
2.10 Design Issues
Bridge designers need to be aware of the constraints and limitations of particular materials. In addition,
design can have a significant impact on serviceability of particular materials.
2.10.1 Cover
The minimum cover specified must take into account construction tolerances acknowledging that variations
in cover will inevitably occur. The quality and thickness of the cover concrete has the highest potential to
adversely affect the service life of the concrete. The thinner the cover concrete is, the less time for chloride
ions to reach the reinforcement.

In general, the life of a bridge in adverse conditions is proportional to the thickness and quality of the cover
concrete.
Thick members especially columns and pilecaps should be designed with as much cover as possible,
especially in aggressive environments. It should be noted that in thinner flexural members such as deck
cantilevers and headstocks exceeding the specified cover, results in a reduction in the effective depth of the
reinforcement. This reduces the flexural capacity of the section and may lead to cracking (Figure 2.9).
The required cover thickness is usually dependant on the manufacture process. Components manufactured
by spun method (such as precast concrete pipes) provide better quality than cast-in situ ones, therefore,
require a thinner cover.
Figure 2.9: Effect of excess cover on cantilever
Source: D Carter (c2009).
2.10.2 Congested Reinforcement
Designers need to be aware of the effects of congestion of reinforcement, particularly in splices in columns,
in anchorage zones in prestressed concrete members and where reinforcement in different planes intersects.
Drawings do not always reveal a congestion problem. Particular areas need to be drawn-up in detail at a
large scale to ensure intersecting reinforcement does not clash or cause congestion in terms of being able to
place and compact the concrete. The reinforcing layout should include access spaces 100 mm x 100 mm for
installation of 50 mm vibrators at regular intervals.
In columns with large diameter bars the use of mechanical splices is recommended rather than using lap
splices. Varying the length of starter bars to ensure splices occur at two locations is also recommended
(Section 3.2.11).
The use of concrete with 10-14 mm coarse aggregate size should be considered in areas with the potential
for congestion problems. Use of finer aggregates destroys aggregate interlock and reduces shear capacity.
2.10.3 Construction Joints – New Concrete Placed Against Old
Construction joints are a potential risk in terms of concrete deterioration.
Preparation of the surface of the set concrete by water or grit blasting, the use of set retarders or by formed
indents is imperative. The aggregate in the set concrete must be exposed to ensure adequate bonding. The
surface of the old concrete must be in a saturated state to prevent free water in the new concrete being lost
by absorption that would result in a loss of strength and durability.
In marine environments, or where other aggressive agents are present, construction joints should be located
above permanent water levels.

2.10.4 Match Cast Joints
Match casting joints pose a different problem. It is important to seal the joint at deck level against moisture.
This requires the application of a proven sealing material at each joint plus the application of a secondary
sealing compound that is used over the entire deck area.
2.10.5 Re-entrant Corners
The intersection of two members other than in the same line has the potential to cause cracking as a result
of the stress raiser that occurs at the change in angle. To minimise the potential for cracking it is important to
provide a transition across this angle change. In addition, extra reinforcement should be provided along the
transition and right angles to it to resist the tensile stresses and to provide anchorage to the main
reinforcement.
See CCAA and CCANZ websites for handbooks on detailing reinforcing steel. Refer also to Austroads Guide
to Bridge Technology Part 5: Structural Drafting for a guideline on drafting requirements.
2.10.6 Over-specifying Concrete Strength
Many designers consider that the higher the strength of the concrete, the better the performance. This is only
partially true for concretes above 50 MPa.
Higher strength concrete can carry higher loads (in extreme events) and should be more durable, if it is
placed, compacted and cured properly.
Sometimes very high 28 day strengths (up to 80 MPa) are achieved because of high transfer strengths
(40 MPa) in prestressed concrete. Designers should carefully consider the effects of specifying high transfer
strengths.
The adverse factors are:

• increased material cost
• increased labour costs to place and compact
• possible increase in shrinkage if the mix has a higher cement paste content
• possibility of placement and compaction problems with high cementitious, low W/C concretes, particularly
in hot weather
• higher alkali content from the cement with an increased risk of alkali – silica reactivity (this can be solved
by adding (low alkali) fly ash, etc.)
• unless these ‘sticky’ mixes are properly vibrated, liquefied and compacted, plastic shrinkage and high
early drying shrinkage is likely
• high range water reducers and superplasticisers are useful in improving workability especially in
congested anchorage zones in beams but result in increased costs
Notwithstanding their use the concrete still requires effective vibration for thorough compaction.
• in thicker members, heat of hydration can raise concrete sections to 80 °C in the first 12 hours, with
problems of thermal shrinkage cracking if there is sufficient restraint of movement as elements cool.
Work by Altoubat and Lange (2001) and Aitcin (2001) shows that for mixes with high cementitious and low
water content and where the concrete is restrained, it is difficult to prevent early shrinkage related cracking
with other than water curing.
In many situations it is not practical to use water curing and it is impossible to prevent restraint. Therefore,
designers must consider the practical construction limitations when specifying concrete strength and, in
some cases, limit the strength and the minimum water/cementitious ratio.

2.10.7 Restricted Areas
In restricted areas where access is limited to pour concrete from the top of a member e.g. for the roof of a
tunnel, consideration should be given to the use of self-compacting concrete (Section 2.13.1).
2.10.8 Thin Elements
In the pursuit of economy, there is always a tendency to reduce member thickness. For concrete decks
thicknesses below 180 mm can cause difficulties in placing to layers of reinforcement and maintaining
adequate cover and separation between the bars. For girder webs with one layer of reinforcement a
thickness of 100 mm requires great control of reinforcement bending tolerances, straightness etc.
Reinforcing bars are never perfectly straight. A thickness of 120 mm eliminates most tolerance conflicts, and
leads to more durable and robust girders.
2.11 Construction Issues
Several forms of defects in concrete structures may arise in the construction process. It is important that
possible defects be identified and their root causes understood in order to mitigate the adverse effects on the
quality of concrete. These defects include:
• poor placing and compaction techniques and/or inappropriate mix designs, causing honeycombing, voids
and plastic settlement
• inappropriate mix design, resulting in segregation or highly permeable concrete
• incorrect placement of steel, resulting in shallow cover depths.
It should be pointed out that trial mix test results will have no relation to the in situ concrete unless the whole
construction process is carried out to meet all requirements of the specification. The trial mix results indicate
the potential material properties that may or may not be realised depending on the field control. If trial mix
test results are above specified requirements many suppliers/contractors will attempt to change the mix to be
more economical. Any significant changes in the mix will invalidate the trial mix results.
2.11.1 Monitoring of Test Results
It is important that concrete test results from a batch plant for a particular mix be monitored by the contractor
and project engineer over time, for three reasons:
• to pick up trends in the compressive strength results that may not be apparent when individual results are
assessed in isolation
Individual tests may result in satisfactory results. However, statistical analysis of all tests should be
ongoing.
• to determine if the standard deviation used to determine the target for the plant is being achieved
• to detect any changes in cement properties. In large jobs where a significant number of test results are
produced or for critical operations or members such as pile caps there is great advantage in doing early
strength testing, e.g. at 3, 7 and 14 days to ensure trends in concrete strength are picked up as early as
possible.
In the event of particular strength trends being observed action can be taken to ensure the issue is
addressed before it becomes a problem.
Other issues to be considered in the event of a problem with the concrete test results from a batch plant
include:
• audit of the batching process (calibration of scales, operation of bin gates)
• control of water demand, especially in manufactured sands

• tolerances of batching
• records and how they are generated
• mixing time – how long, how verified, uniformity, when last tested
• consideration should be given to have an inspector present at the batching plant to observe the process
and record relevant data to confirm compliance with the specification requirements for the supply of
concrete.
2.11.2 Placement
The method and procedure used for the placement of concrete has the potential to affect the quality of the
in-place material.
The extensive use of pumps to place concrete, while improving the efficiency of the construction process,
results in a large volume of concrete being placed in a short time compared to conventional methods such as
the use of a kibble (large bucket) and a crane. This situation can lead to the loss of control of the systematic
compaction of the concrete. The resources provided to compact the concrete should reflect the rate of
placement, e.g. not less than one vibrator for each 10 cubic metres placed per hour with a minimum of two.
Standby vibrators should be not less than one quarter of the number in use with a minimum of one.
In formed members, the concrete should be placed so as to form a distinct toe (in the form of a thin wedge
typically at a 1 in 14 slope, as opposed to a more vertical front) to prevent the possibility of concrete already
compacted from collapsing over under-compacted concrete and entrapping pockets of air that may go
undetected.
When void formers are used, the concrete should be placed from one side of the void former to ensure the
concrete flows fully around it. If this procedure is not followed and the concrete is poured on both sides of the
void former, there is a high risk that air voids will occur under the void former that may not be readily
detectable (Figure 2.10). This requires that the void be firmly fixed to prevent lateral movement as well as
vertical movement due to buoyancy.
Figure 2.10: Air void as a result of pouring concrete both sides of void former

2.11.3 Compaction
The importance of achieving optimum density of in situ concrete cannot be overemphasised. The failure to
obtain the required density influences a number of properties of concrete which in turn affect its long-term
serviceability. These include:
• propensity for early and delayed cracking
• strength – 1% air voids theoretically cause a 6% reduction in compressive strength and a 4% reduction in
flexural strength
• fatigue life – a 1% reduction in density ratio (field density/trial mix density) theoretically cause a 10 year
loss of fatigue life
• structural strength – lower bond strength to reinforcement
• durability – the higher sorptivity of inadequately compacted concrete will result in a reduction in durability
of the concrete as a result of the increased susceptibility to chemical attack and physical abrasion.
Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12 show some examples of concrete defects due to poor compaction.
Roads and Maritime and VicRoads specifications have methods for measuring concrete sorptivity to assess
concrete quality. The reliability of chloride diffusion models to predict the time for chloride induced corrosion
to occur is dependent on the adequacy of the in situ compaction as well as the effect on the mass of the
concrete as a result of voids exposing reinforcement to aggressive agents.
Compaction is the most important part of the construction process in concrete construction. However, it is not
always given the close attention it deserves. It is important that the concrete placing crew be organised to
ensure a systematic approach to the process. This requires clear demarcations and responsibilities for the
different facets, including designated compaction/vibrator controllers, finishers and curing applications rather
than an ad hoc approach.
The most efficient way to ensure the process is systematic is to have a supervisor observing and controlling
the overall process.
There is a need to ensure the compaction of concrete is carried out in a systematic manner by staff trained in
the importance of compaction. The compaction of concrete should not be left to the least experienced
construction staff. The number of vibrators being used must match the rate of placement as detailed in the
specification. Instances have occurred when only one vibrator has been used when the placement rates
required more.
The lack of adequate compaction affects a wide range of concrete properties and will have a major influence
on the long-term serviceability. While the short-term structural integrity of a bridge may not be compromised
the long-term durability will be.
In his paper Ayton (2001) includes references to relevant statements made by Adam Neville, a
world-renowned concrete expert. Neville states ‘…full compaction is more important than a low w/c ratio
coupled with poorly compacted concrete’ (Neville 2000).
Neville states again, ‘In engineering practice the strength of concrete ... is assumed to depend primarily on
two factors only; water cement ratio and the degree of compaction’ (Neville 2011).
Removal of cores from a constructed bridge deck to determine in situ densities provides a method of
determining the adequacy of the construction process in terms of compaction. However, the best time to
address the issue is before and during the construction phase.
The construction industry needs to provide training in the placement and compaction of concrete to address
the issue. In complex pours or to assess the capability of a construction crew a trial pour is a sound
investment.

Figure 2.11: Vertical core through deck showing plastic cracking and voids – poor compaction
Figure 2.12: Top surface of the cored deck showing severe plastic shrinkage cracking

2.11.4 Mass Concrete Placement
Mass concrete is a term to be defined by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) as ‘any volume of concrete
with dimensions large enough to require that measures be taken to cope with generation of heat from
hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to minimize cracking’ (Portland Cement Association
2016). This definition can be interpreted as any placement of structural concrete with a minimum dimension
equal to or greater than 1.0 m, or any structural concrete placement that contains ASTM C150 Type III or
ASTM C1157 HE cement, accelerating admixtures, or cementitious materials in excess of 360 kg/m 3 of
concrete, should be considered mass concrete.
During the setting process, heat is generated due to the hydration reactions which form the concrete strength
and durability. In a mass concrete placement, the heat generated is escaped slowly and may result in
excessive temperature in the concrete. At elevated temperature (about 70 °C or 80 °C), delayed ettringite
formation (DEF) may occurs which will affect the long-term durability of concrete (see Section 4.1.5).
The adverse effects of mass concrete placement can be mitigated by having appropriate mix design with
appropriate type and quantities of cementitious materials. Fly ash or slag cement can be used to replace a
portion of cement to reduce the heat of hydration.
2.11.5 Finishing
The finishing of concrete is subject to differing opinions on the most appropriate method. The aim of the
finishing process is to provide a dense surface layer of concrete to the surface profile requirements in the
specification.
The finishing of concrete includes both level control and surface compaction and surface finish.
One of the issues in bridge deck construction is the lack of adequate compaction of the top 50 mm of the
deck. The initial compaction of the top layer of concrete is often lost when it is walked on during the finishing
process because of the flexing of the reinforcement.
Protection from drying out needs to be included, with special consideration to the rates of moisture loss and
bleed, and the total water loss and total available bleed water. One potential problem is completing final
finishing before bleeding has ceased.
Other finishing issues include surface deposits, failure of applied finishes and distortion of shape.
Surface deposits
The most common type of surface deposit is efflorescence where water is passing through cracks, joints or
poorly compacted concrete.
Efflorescence is a deposit of salts, usually white, which results from the flow of a solution from within the
concrete to the surface where the water evaporates. It is commonly observed in deck slab soffits due to
water leakage through the deck.
Failure of applied finishes
An applied plaster repair material may crack or detach from the substrate, effectively reducing the depth of
concrete cover.
Distortion of shape
Beams and decks may sag, piers and walls may bow or lean, and joints may open, close or fault due to
settlement, overloading, deterioration or failure of the concrete or reinforcement or prestressing.

2.11.6 Bridge Decks
Level control
Methods of level control include:

• formwork she-bolts fixed to reinforcement on a grid pattern with the cone screwed and fixed at the
required level
This requires the reinforcement to be well supported.
• temporary water pipe screed rails supported by the reinforcement at 2–3 m centres across the deck
provided the reinforcement is fixed at the correct level
• screed rails at the edge of the deck to support a vibrating screed set to the required crossfall
• other spot height control methods.
Finishing
The consistency of the slump of the concrete is important to the finishing process to ensure that the finishing
is carried out on a steady front. Concrete with high slump will delay the process in one area, which may
adversely affect the finishing in other areas.
Methods of finishing include:

• Hand screeding
This relies on the skill of the worker to obtain the required profile. There are numerous examples of poor
deck finish in terms of ride quality and abrasion resistance caused by poor finishing.
The finishing quality tends to deteriorate as the deck area increases. Skilled tradesmen are necessary for
a good result.
• Vibrating screeds
Some road authorities in response to the inconsistent results from hand screeding methods have
mandated the use of vibrating screeds for deck finishing. Starting and stopping vibrating screeds can
cause ridges across the deck. Again, skilled operators are required. A trial pour to assess the capability of
the vibrating screed operator would be a sound investment.
• Bridge paving machines
In some overseas countries hand screeding methods on bridge decks are not permitted. Some road
authorities have specified the use of bridge paving machines, which compact, screed and float the deck.
No bridge paving machines exist in Australia at the date of publication.
Float decks
The most common methods to float decks include:

• Bull float
A bull float consists of a wide aluminium float mounted on a long handle to enable a wide area of the deck
to be floated off. The disadvantage of this method of floating off the surface is the lack of downward force
that can be applied to both finish the surface and compact the top layer to provide a durable surface
layer. Bull floating is a finishing operation not a primary method of compacting and finishing.
• Power float
Opinions vary on the use of a power float known as a ‘helicopter’. The critical issue with its use is the
timing as to when to begin the process. Too early and the machine causes depressions in the surface.
Too late and the effectiveness of the machine is questionable because initial set has already occurred.

There is wide opinion that if used properly the power float results in a dense surface layer of concrete.
The process has the added benefit of closing up plastic shrinkage cracks.
Surface texture
The surface of concrete decks requires texturing for two reasons:

• to provide skid resistance where the concrete is the final running surface
• to provide a key for the application of sealing compounds and subsequent bonded aggregate seals or
asphaltic concrete.
Surface texturing is usually achieved using a broom with a stiffness that produces the texturing depth
specified.
Cautionary Note: The use of an excessively stiff broom may damage the surface profile and may disturb the
aggregate near the finished surface.
2.11.7 Deck Sealing
The long-term durability of a bridge deck can be considerably enhanced by the application of waterproof
sealing compounds at the time of construction prior to the application of a bonded aggregate bitumen seal or
asphaltic concrete. The durability of existing bridge decks will also be enhanced by the application of sealing
compounds.
The application of a sealing compound will protect the deck from the ingress of water and other deleterious
agents such as chlorides, carbon dioxide, chemicals and atmospheric pollutants. In cold weather climates
the application of a waterproof seal will reduce the effects of the freeze/thaw cycle.
The types of sealants include:

• polymer modified bitumen
• rubberised bitumen with 20% crumbed rubber
• polyurethane elastomer.
2.11.8 Cold Weather Concreting
It is considered that the amount of damage to concrete caused by low temperatures is underestimated in that
the extent of frost-affected areas is not generally appreciated. The cold conditions can cause damage to both
immature and hardened concrete.
It should be noted that frost damage can occur in what generally would not be classified as cold weather.
One of the main issues to appreciate is that water begins to expand at 5 °C and therefore the damage to
immature concrete with free water begins before freezing occurs.
The Roads and Maritime has produced a guideline for cold-weather concreting. The guideline contains
information from the Bureau of Meteorology on the number of frost days in various regions in NSW. Similar
information can be obtained for other states and New Zealand.
In mature concrete the presence of cracking can lead to ingress of water into the concrete that under
freezing conditions expands, exacerbating the cracking problem. In such cases sealing of the bridge deck
with a waterproof membrane is imperative.

2.11.9 Hot Weather Concreting
The risks of concreting in hot weather are high and include:

• loss of workability due to reduced time to initial set, caused by accelerated hydration at elevated concrete
temperatures
• inadequate compaction
• unforeseen transport delays become more critical
• high evaporation rates in circumstances of low relative humidity and high wind speeds
• changes in atmospheric conditions over the duration of the pour
• lack of resources to compete the finishing in the time available.
Standard specifications include specific constraints on concreting in hot weather including:

• maximum ambient temperature
• maximum concrete temperature
• maximum evaporation rates.
The use of chilled water in the batching process, pre-cooling forms, providing shade and spray cooling of the
forms prior to pouring concrete and continuing for a 24 hour period should be considered as contingencies to
reduce the potential risks of pouring in hot weather. The application of aliphatic alcohol sprayed on the
surface of the concrete after compaction and prior to final finishing is essential to prevent excessive water
loss and subsequent plastic shrinkage cracking. Moist curing or curing compound as specified is to be
applied after floating.
2.11.10 Curing
Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of control
of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete.
The objective of curing is to keep concrete saturated, until the originally water-filled space in the fresh
cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement and hence
enhancing its durability.
The process of curing concrete is a critical issue that requires close attention to ensure the required strength
is attained in situ. The long-term serviceability of the concrete is also dependent on the curing.
Curing methods that are based on moisture control include wet curing and sealed curing (e.g. curing
compounds). Curing methods that are based on elevated temperature to promote hydration are referred to
as accelerated curing (e.g. steam curing).
The choice of a curing method depends on a number of factors including the type of structure, the orientation
of the surface to be cured, and the type of cementitious materials in the concrete mix.
It should be noted that the curing times for concrete containing SCMs will need to be extended to account for
the slower hydration, and therefore strength gain, compared to concrete with only OPC. This issue should be
addressed as part of the trial mix evaluation.
Curing ensures that the water required for full hydration of the cement is available. If premature drying occurs
the hydration processes cease prematurely with the result that drying shrinkage occurs. Curing is essential to
ensure the discontinuity of the capillaries by the growth of hydration crystals to ensure optimum durability. In
addition the strength, durability and abrasion resistance are all reduced.

The likelihood of drying shrinkage occurs in the first seven days. However, the susceptibility to plastic
cracking occurs in the first hours after placing. In conditions of high temperature and low humidity the risk of
cracking becomes higher. Special measures, such as fog curing or the application of aliphatic alcohol, need
to be considered at the early stages of the pour. Most specifications include provisions to prevent pouring of
concrete in extreme atmospheric conditions of temperature, humidity and wind speed where excessive
moisture loss would occur.
Different concrete elements are cured by different means depending on the shape, size and method of
construction. For more information see CCANZ, CCAA and VicRoads websites for documents relating to
concrete curing.
Moist curing
Moist curing is curing by the use of additional water, such that the relative humidity of the air at the concrete
surface is never below 98%. Moist curing is the optimum method of curing concrete and it is recommended it
be used unless site circumstances such as problems with collection of run-off prevent it being used. The
moist curing of bridge decks is recommended because of the large surface area with the potential for drying
shrinkage.
On horizontal surfaces the concrete is covered by wet hessian or wet sand. However, the hessian or sand
must to be kept damp to be effective. This is not always achieved.
On vertical surfaces, hessian is often used. However, the effectiveness of the method is reduced unless the
hessian is not in direct contact with the concrete surface.
The most effective methods to moist cure vertical surfaces are by completely jacketing the concrete and
filling the jacket with water or by the use of a series of pipes fitted with micro water sprays. The pipes are
bent to follow the shape of the member and spaced to ensure the spray covers the entire surface.
A very effective method of moist curing of a bridge deck is to cover the area with 40–50 mm of sand, saturate
and then cover the sand with plastic. This method is particularly useful in situations where running water is
not permitted or is in short supply. It is also useful in situations where there are no people on site after the
pour to ensure the moisture is applied to the material covering the concrete. The disadvantage is that the
sand has to be subsequently removed.
Sealed curing
Sealed curing provides an alternative method of curing concrete. However, there are some issues to be
considered when using it, including:
• where self-desiccation occurs, the concrete will dry out and the concrete may crack
• even where self-desiccation does not occur, curing is only about 80% as effective as proper moist curing.
Sealed curing may be achieved by initially moistening the surface and the sealing by plastic, by the use of
curing compounds or by the use of ‘self-curing’ additives.
Curing compounds
There are a number of issues with the use of curing compounds that have the potential to limit their
suitability, including:
• their effectiveness is governed by the application rate
Variations in application rate are likely to occur.
• the timing of their application is critical
In some situations a method of preventing cracking prior to the curing compound being applied must be
considered. The damage to the concrete may have already occurred before the curing compound is
applied.

• testing to ensure the effectiveness of the proposed curing compound needs to be carried out on each
project
Instances have occurred where the formulation of a product has been changed but the product name
remained the same.
• their use on bridge decks may result in adhesion problems with sealing materials
• the fugitive dyes may not lose colour if not exposed to UV light
• if the compound is contaminated by dust before the compound is set, the resulting surface may be
stained.
Plastic sheeting
Plastic sheeting if used properly is very effective. However, there are a number of practical issues that need
to be addressed to prevent loss of moisture due to:
• incomplete sealing
• excessive air space beneath the sheeting
• damaged sheeting
• poor choice of colour – e.g. black plastic will increase the temperature variation within the concrete.
Self-curing additives
The use of self-curing additives raises two issues that need to be addressed:
• they may react oddly with other additives – especially in coloured concretes
• they are not tested with the full range of binders available in Australia.
Steam curing
Steam curing is mainly used in the precast industry where the production process is based on a daily
production cycle.
The steam curing accelerates the hydration process with the result that eight hours steaming produces the
equivalent of seven days moist curing.
The specification requirements must be strictly complied with to prevent short and long-term damage to the
concrete.
The requirements for steam curing include:

• a minimum pre-set time before steam is introduced to prevent plastic cracking
• a maximum rate of rise of the concrete temperature to minimise the temperature differential between the
outer and inner concrete
The limit on rate of rise of temperature also enables the tensile strength of the concrete to be developed
to resist thermal strains induced by the increase in temperature.
• a maximum temperature to ensure the rate of hydration allows ettringite to precipitate
The consequences of curing at too high a temperature may not be realised for many years.
• the minimum moisture content of the steam to ensure that the concrete is in a moist environment and will
not be dried by dry steam
• covering of the member to ensure no loss of steam and ensure the steam curing is effective

• covers to remain in place until the concrete temperature falls to within the specified temperature above
ambient
Failure to comply with this requirement will result in cracking caused thermal shock when the hot concrete
comes in contact with cold air.
• compliance of the steam cycle with the specification needs to be verified by examination of the
thermograph record.
Heat curing
Heat curing of concrete has had limited use. It is regarded as heat accelerated curing using dry heat. The
main issue relates to the potential for drying shrinkage to occur. The top surface of the concrete has to be
covered with a sufficient depth of water to prevent the top surface drying out. This is not a generally
recommended method of curing because of the risk of desiccating the surface concrete which can
permanently stop the crystal growth.
2.12 Investigation of Concrete Construction Quality
In the instance of poor concrete construction quality, a decision will have to be made as to what action is
required. Options include:
• keep as is
• repair
• replace
• develop a repair method if required.
Immediate repair may be the most cost-effective.
Cautionary Note: The limitations of investigation and inspection techniques used for the assessment of
existing bridges are highlighted in Middleton and Lea (2004).
2.12.1 Concrete Repair Techniques for Construction Defects
Certain repair techniques are very effective if applied soon after construction and may be nominated as a
cost-effective alternative to removal and replacement of non-conforming concrete components.
The repair method must address the fundamental causes of the defect, or isolate the component from future
adverse environmental exposures. For example options may include:
• sealing – silane treatments, paint systems, waterproof membranes, encasement in additional concrete;
extensive testing should be carried out to verify the effectiveness of proprietary materials and systems
(Sections 4.1 to 4.3)
• cathodic protection (Section 4.2.10)
• patch repairs – the patch repair method may include the use of the same concrete mix used in the
member or the use of a proprietary repair material. The efficacy of a proprietary product needs to be
established. The application of a hydrophobic impregnating material is recommended on completion of
the patch repair.

2.13 Special Concretes
2.13.1 Self-compacting Concrete
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is achieved by the addition of a superplasticer and a stabiliser to the mix to
significantly increase the ease and rate of flow such that no vibration is required to achieve compaction.
However, self-compacting concrete does have a higher void content than a well-compacted concrete. SCC is
also known as ‘self-consolidating concrete’ and ‘super-workable concrete’.
The pouring of concrete under water in cast-in piles using a tremie pipe, without the need for vibration, has
been used successfully in bridge construction for many years.
The modern application of self-compacting concrete has focused on improving the performance of concrete
in regard to consistency, high strength, durability and speed of construction. Self-compacting concrete was
developed in Japan in the late 1980s and has been used widely in bridges, tunnels and buildings. It has also
been used in bridge construction in Europe and the USA.
The use of self-compacting concrete is particularly beneficial in areas of highly congested reinforcement and
in members with no top access e.g. tunnel roofs. However, the use of self-compacting concrete without
internal vibration can still result in large voids in congested areas e.g. ends of large precast beams.
The use of self-compacting concrete requires thorough testing of the mix design. In addition, other issues
must be addressed, including:
• training of concrete plant and construction staff on the nuances of the material
• transport
• formwork designed for full hydrostatic pressure
• carrying out trial pours
• the limiting effects of the bridge gradient and crossfall in regard to the stability of wet concrete.
Several road jurisdictions have allowed self-compacting concrete for use for precast concrete bridge
members manufactured under controlled conditions in off-site precasting yards. Project-specific approval is
generally required for cast-in-place applications, which may include deep foundations, members with
congested reinforcement, or where access for mechanical compaction is difficult.
Refer to AS 1012.3.5 for the method for determining the slump flow of SCC.
2.13.2 Fibre Reinforced Concrete
The addition of fibres to concrete has the benefit of increasing its toughness, tensile strength, abrasion
resistance, and post-cracking behaviour. The fibres also have the benefit of controlling thermal and plastic
shrinkage in the immature concrete (refer to Section 3.5 for the information on the fibres).
Fibres commercially available include steel, glass, polyester, and polypropylene.
Fibre reinforced concrete and shotcrete have been used extensively in tunnels and road pavements for
nosings and slabs in roundabouts for their abrasion resistance. Steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) has
been used for suspended slab on piles and structural rafts, however, its application in bridges has been
limited because of the additional cost compared with conventional reinforcement. In terms of durability,
however, SFRC cannot be used in exposure classification C1 or C2 or may not be suitable in some exposure
classification U environments.
Refer to AS 5100.5 for the requirements for SFRC.

2.13.3 Ultra-high Performance Concrete
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) refers to a relatively new class of advanced cementitious
composite materials whose mechanical and durability properties far surpass those of conventional concrete.
These materials are defined as cementitious-based composite materials with discontinuous fibre
reinforcement that exhibit compressive strength above 150 MPa, pre- and post-cracking tensile strength
above 5 MPa, and enhanced durability via a discontinuous pore structure (Russell & Graybeal 2013). Refer
to Table 2.1 for ranges of UHPC properties.
Table 2.1: UHPC material properties
Properties Range
Compressive strength 140–200 MPa
Tensile cracking strength 6–10
Modulus of elasticity 40–70
Poisson’s ratio 0.2
Coefficient of thermal expansion 0.2–0.8
Creep coefficient (10–15 ) x10-6/ oC
Total shrinkage Up to 900 x 10-6
Note: Russell and Graybeal (2013).
UHPC mix often comprises a combination of Portland cement, fine sand, silica fume, water-reducing agent,
fibres (usually steel) and water. Fine aggregates are sometimes used, as well as a variety of chemical
admixtures.
UHPC has been used for main structural components of small and medium span bridges throughout the US,
Canada, Europe and Japan in various forms such as arch bridge, U-shape, Pi-shape, I-beam and box
girders. In Australia, it has been used for precast, pretensioned I-beams in Shepherds Creek road bridge in
NSW in 2005.
2.13.4 Reactive Powder Concrete
Normal concrete is limited in its maximum strength and minimum penetrability by the presence of the coarse
aggregate. Between about 80 MPa and 140 MPa the strength of the concrete undergoes a transition from
being controlled by the strength of the paste, to being controlled by the strength of the coarse aggregate.
Similarly, the restraints imposed by the coarse aggregate limit the minimum permeability of the concrete
paste fraction due to micro-cracking of the transition zone around the coarse aggregate particles.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, some researchers began to postulate that extremely high strength
concretes were possible if the coarse aggregate fraction was omitted from the concrete. The strength would
be further enhanced if the remaining fines were somewhat reactive. Theoretical strengths of up to 800 MPa
were postulated (Richard & Cheyrezy 1994).
In Europe, some construction companies saw that such a concrete might have practical advantages,
especially in precast work. Studies into the likely durability of such concretes by Andrade and others showed
that these concretes possessed superior durability characteristics (Andrade, Sanjuan & Roux 1997) and
(Roux, Andrade & Sanjuan 1996).
Bouygues, Lafarge and Rhodia originally developed reactive powder concrete to the point of being a
commercial product. They have registered and patented their version of fibre reinforced reactive powder
concrete as ‘Ductal®’. VSL Australia is the exclusive licensee in Australia and New Zealand for the product,
and, in conjunction with the University of New South Wales, has produced a structural design manual for the
material (Gowripalan & Gilbert 2000).

The current material produces a steel fibre reinforced concrete with a compressive strength of about
140 MPa to 160 MPa, and a flexural strength (modulus of rupture) of about 40 MPa. The material is highly
impenetrable, thus having high durability. It is extremely tough under impact and blast. It also has very high
bond strength to prestressing strand and to deformed reinforcing bars.
It is flowable and highly cohesive, cannot be compacted by immersion vibrators and is difficult to finish due to
the high volume of fibres. These features make it best suited to precast work.
2.13.5 Geopolymer Concrete
Geopolymer concrete is a relatively new construction product used as an alternative for OPC in a number of
applications. Geopolymer concrete uses geopolymer cement as the binder, which is manufactured from
materials high in aluminosilicates that are either natural (pozzolans) or industrial waste by-products (such as
fly-ash or blast furnace slag).
The benefits of geopolymer concrete are predominantly environmental such as reductions in CO2 emissions,
lower energy requirements and water usage, and the use of readily available natural or industrial waste
products. There are also potential economic and performance benefits, with the latter based on strength,
workability and durability properties when compared to OPC concrete.
Geopolymer concretes have been used in various transportation infrastructure applications in Australia,
however, the majority of applications are non-structural (e.g. footpaths, stormwater and sewer pipes, kerbs)
and are located in non-aggressive environments. Various other applications have been identified as having
potential for use of geopolymer concretes, including:
• binder for toxic or radioactive waste immobilisation/capture/storage
• ground water barrier system
• repair material or protective coating for OPC concrete
• high-temperature applications (industry, fire resistant components)
• soil stabilisation (cement product only).
Research to date indicates that the performance of geopolymer concrete is comparable or exceeds that of
OPC concrete in terms of strength development, density, shrinkage and creep, with the exception of modulus
of elasticity results (Table 2.2). Longer term studies in a laboratory environment have shown favourable
results in terms of durability (such as permeability, corrosion resistance, acid resistance, and chloride
diffusion). Some results, however, are conflicting and clear recommendations remain unknown. To date,
there are several areas that require further investigation and research relating to geopolymer concrete.
These include:
• long-term durability and strength performance (particularly in aggressive environments)
• specification and performance assessment requirements
• material and production quality control
• mix design requirements
• curing requirements
• future availability of precursor materials.

Table 2.2: A comparison of performance properties between geopolymer and OPC concrete
Property Geopolymer vs. OPC

Compressive strength Similar, higher rate of early strength gain
Tensile strength Indirect tensile strength typically higher for similar compressive strength
Similar to higher depending on alkali activator, higher rate of early strength
Flexural strength
gain
Modulus of elasticity Typically lower
Density Similar to lower
Poisson’s ratio Typically lower or similar
Shrinkage Lower to similar
Creep coefficient Lower
Similar for similar compressive strengths; higher for higher compressive
Bond strength to reinforcement
strengths
Carbonation coefficient Higher
Chloride diffusion coefficient Lower (migration test); lower (core test)
Rapid chloride permeability Lower to similar depending on mix proportions
Corrosion rate of embedded steel Limited research, particularly field exposure, prevents conclusive comparison
Sorptivity Higher
Sulphate resistance Somewhat higher, depending on cation
Acid resistance More resistant to organic and inorganic acid attack
Alkali-Silika reaction susceptibility Varies based on limited research
Fire resistance More resistant
Freeze-thaw durability More durable
Volume of permeable voids Varies depending on mix proportions; higher
Water absorption Similar
Source: Adopted from Berndt et al. (2013).

3. Concrete Reinforcing Materials
Reinforcing materials comprise steel – as the most common and traditional material, and emerging materials
including fibre reinforced polymer (FRP), steel fibre and polymer fibre. While concrete is a cost-effective
material in providing excellent compressive strength, its tensile strength is low. Reinforcing materials, which
have a high tensile strength, are used in concrete structures to improve the tensile strength of the
‘composite’ structure.
The material characteristics of the steels (reinforcing, prestressing and structural) depend on a number of
variables, including:
• standard to which the material (steel) was produced
• material type (reinforcing, prestressing or structural)
• strength grade
• chemical composition
• manufacturer
• country of origin
• method of manufacture
• year of manufacture (of particular importance for assessment of existing bridges).
3.1 Manufacture and Supply
3.1.1 Country of Origin
The global economy has resulted in large quantities of reinforcing, prestressing and structural steel being
traded all over the world. For example, overseas produced reinforcing steel is being imported in large
quantities into Australia and New Zealand. In Australia it is estimated that up to 50% of the reinforcing steel
sold in Australia comes from overseas.
The overseas product is imported by steel merchants and also by local steel producers to supplement
supplies during periods of high demand.
One of the issues with imported reinforcing, prestressing and structural steel is the traceability once it is put
into storage.
The standards under which steels are produced overseas do not necessarily comply with ANZ standards.
For example, USA and EU requirements for elongation for reinforcing steel do not comply with ANZ
standards.
All steel supplied to works should be manufactured to the standard(s) specified for those works. Australian
and overseas steel can be and is manufactured to the relevant Australian and New Zealand standards. Test
certificates should be available for each manufacturing lot (usually heat of steel). Test certificates shall be in
the English language and shall:
1. indicate the standard to which the steel was manufactured, and shall include specific content required by
a particular materials standard or test method
2. provide complying test results for chemical composition, mechanical properties, and when applicable,
relaxation properties

3. contain endorsement that the testing was performed by laboratories with third party accreditation to AS
ISO/IEC 17025 by a signatory to the International Laboratories Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) through
their Mutual Recognition Agreement (MRA) in the field and class of testing, on behalf of the manufacturer
for the purpose of establishing compliance with the requirements of the specification or materials
standard. The appropriate logo or further details of the ILAC (MRA) signatory shall be noted on the
document or test report. Note that in Australia, ILAC (MRA) accredited bodies include National
Association of Testing Authorities, Australia (NATA).
For further information refer to the Pacific Steel New Zealand website (Pacific Steel New Zealand n.d.),
particularly the paper by Allington and Bull (2002).
Reinforcing steel supplied to AS/NZS 4671 is required to have surface features that enable identification of
standard grades. In addition, deformed reinforcing steel have unique markings that identify the steel
producer or manufacturer. However, caution should be exercised with overseas products as there have been
instances of fraudulent identification marks being used.
In Australia, a non-profit organisation Australian Certification Authority for Reinforcing Steels Ltd (ACRS) has
been set up to administer a third party product certification scheme for steel reinforcement and prestressing
strand. The organisation is supported by key construction industry bodies, including Austroads. The
reinforcing standards AS/NZS 4671 and the prestressing standard AS/NZS 4672 allow for voluntary third
party product certification as one of the methods to prove compliance. Refer to the ACRS website
(ACRS 2015).
3.1.2 Material Certification
Test certificates can be obtained from the supplier/contractor that identifies the material and certifies the
mechanical properties for reinforcing, prestressing and structural steel.
Random testing of samples of imported steel may be required to verify the veracity of the certification
provided. Instances have occurred where test results did not correlate with the information provided by the
certification.
For prestressing and structural steel, it is important that the heat and batch number can be traced to the
material delivered to site. The test certificates are required for prestressing and structural steel to prove grade
of material and for calculation of extensions under stressing. The use of a third party certification scheme in
these instances verifies only capability to supply material, not the actual properties of individual items.
The certification requirements for steel reinforcement can be validated by using manufacturers and suppliers
of steel reinforcement materials who possess a current certificate of approval, issued by the ACRS, for the
reinforcement grades required. This has been an acceptable route for reinforcing steel due to the loss of
traceabilty once individual batches or bundles of steel enter the reinforcement processing works or the
construction site.
3.1.3 Product Identification
A heat of steel is the product of a ladle of steel melted in one vessel and processed under the same conditions.
The heat number of a piece of steel is the identifier that relates the product to a particular ladle of steel
melted in one vessel and processed under the same conditions during the steel making operation. The
manufacturer of the steel carries out metallurgical testing from each batch of steel to determine its chemical
composition and mechanical properties to ensure compliance with the required standard.
If the heat number of the steel is known it can be related back to the manufacturer’s records at any time.
A batch of steel is a group of rolled bars, open sections, hollow sections or parent plates consisting of
finished steel of the same yield stress gradation and product form, treated in the same manner and from the
same steel heat.

3.2 Carbon Steel Reinforcement
3.2.1 Material Characteristics
Reinforcing steel used in road projects in Australia is supplied to AS/NZS 4671. This Standard requires that
the individual bars have both standard marks on the bar surface identifying the grade of reinforcing steels,
using the grade identifiers in AS/NZS 4671, and unique marks enabling the steel producer to be identified.
The steel producer marks are available through the ACRS website.
Information on the characteristics and issues of reinforcing steel is available on the websites of steel
manufacturers in Australia and New Zealand.
The OneSteel (OneSteel n.d.) under Technical Resources/Technical Data provides information on material
issues including:
• technical data on steel reinforcement
• reinforcing steel and mesh designations
• history of reinforcing steels
• Australian standards update for reinforced concrete
• application of 500 plus reinforcing bars – advice on bending, re-bending, welding and machine threading
• technical references on steel reinforcement.
The Pacific Steel website (Pacific Steel New Zealand n.d.) www.pacificsteel.co.nz under Products also
provides information on material issues, including:
• reinforcing bar and coil
• seismic QT and MA bars.
3.2.2 Method of Manufacture
Australian and New Zealand steel reinforcing manufacturers produce a range of reinforcing bars. Steel and
bar production methods are at the discretion of the steel producer.
Australia
OneSteel produces three types of reinforcing steel at the 500 MPa grade, namely:
• 500PLUS Tempcore – as straight bar 12–40 mm diameter (also 10, 12, and 16 mm off coil)
• 500PLUS Microalloy – as straight bar 12–40 mm diameter (also 10, 12, and 16 mm off coil)
• 500PLUS Reidbar – continuously coarse-threaded Tempcore bar and coupler system.
New Zealand
Pacific Steel produces a range of reinforcing steel products, including:

• Seismic 500E grade QT (Quench and Temper)
• Seismic 500E grade MA (Micro-alloyed)
• Reidbar 500E grade QT.

The Tempcore and QT bars are rolled red hot, part-quenched in a water cooling box, and self-tempered
during cooling. The resulting bar has a hard strong casing and a softer more ductile inner core. Microalloying
is the more expensive process as it involves the addition of alloys, such as vanadium, at the steel making
stage, therefore there is no quenching required. The MA bar has the same hardness and strength and
ductility across the full cross-section of the bar. Both the Tempcore (QT) and Microalloy bars are
manufactured to the same chemical composition requirements, but the microalloy bar has small amounts of
alloy element additions such as vanadium to achieve mechanical properties which maintaining the carbon
equivalent value within the limit permitted.
It is important that the Tempcore and QT bars are not heated above the tempering temperature as this will
cause normalising of the outer casing to the properties of the core of the bar resulting in a loss of strength.
The construction process that causes normalising is hot bending. Welding also can cause normalising,
particularly is welding is carried out inappropriately. Note that welding of these bars is permitted under
specific conditions and restrictions (see Section 3.3).
Specific requirements/issues apply to the bending, rebending, welding, and temperature effects of these
materials. Refer to specifications, standards and manufacturer’s recommendations.
3.2.3 Old Reinforcing Steels
Over time various types of reinforcing steel have been used in bridge construction. The material properties,
anchorage development lengths and weldability have changed. When assessing the load capacity or
rehabilitating an existing bridge it is important to know details of the material used in the bridge. A history of
development of reinforcing steels in Australia since 1958 is available on the OneSteel website (OneSteel
n.d.), under Technical Resources – Technical Data – Rebar Standards History.
The older types of reinforcing steel include:

• plain bar – round and square
• square twist
• deformed bar
• cold worked bar – CW60, a twisted, round deformed bar.
The square twist and CW60 bars are heavily cold worked, and do not tolerate bending or welding.
The assessment of the load capacity of an existing bridge will require confirmation of the material properties
of the reinforcing steel. This may necessitate the removal of samples of the reinforcing steel for metallurgical
investigation.
The hardness of steel can be used as an indicator of the tensile strength. The testing of hardness is
generally determined by testing its resistance to deformation. A number of test methods are available
including Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell, and hardness testing can be done in-situ using protable hardness
testers.
Hardness testing can be used in a number of bridge applications including:

• assessment of the variation in strength of older wrought iron and steel where it is not possible to obtain
samples for destructive testing
A statistically significant number of tests are required to enable the testing to identify variations in
strength. It should also be noted that in the case of wrought iron the inherently highly variable
microstructure may give widely scattered results, which must be treated with caution.
• assessing the properties of the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds
This is best done in the laboratory on prepared polished sections using the Vickers harness test where
the hardness impression is much smaller than the width of the HAZ.
• to determine variations in strength properties (UTS) of steels.

Significant variations in hardness are an indicator of either poor quality control in the original material, or
possibly that different types of steel were used in different parts of the bridge – perhaps to suit required
strength. Also, hardness of steel can be changed by straining it beyond its yield point (work-hardening).
Figure 3.1 shows how repeated extensions actually increase the yield point of the metal. This was used to
increase the yield point of reinforcing steel for many years with the designation CW16, standing for a 16 mm
bar that had been cold worked by twisting. In the case of older reinforcing bars this was done by twisting the
bars, with the result that the outside of the bar was harder than the centre – which had been strained less.
Figure 3.1: Increase in yield point by repetitive straining
Source: Davis, Troxell and Wiskocil (1964).
AS 5100.7 provides information about historical material standards for reinforcing steel.
3.2.4 Packaging and Handling
The microalloyed reinforcing steel with diameters of 12 mm and 16 mm is produced in coils. An issue arises
when the ends of the coils are straightened. This straightening results in cold working of the bars which
results in decreased ductility. The straightened material should be discarded.
3.2.5 Ductility
The ductility of reinforcing steel has come under focus following the introduction of low and normal ductility
classes in AS/NZS 4671.
Ductility class
Ductility classes comprise:

• low ductility, Class L, applies to cold drawn wire used in reinforcing mesh. Elongation < 5%
• normal ductility, Class N, applies to reinforcing steel. Elongation > 5%
• earthquake ductility, Class E, applies to reinforcing steel. Elongation > 10%.
In New Zealand a specific ductility Class E was developed to use in seismic design.

The introduction of ductility classes raises issues in terms of the need for awareness of construction staff and
of the identification of the different types of material. It is important that construction staff be trained in the
identification of the grades of steel used on a specific site. For bar supplied from a manufacturer certified by
ACRS, bar identification markings are included in the on-line certification documents, refer to certificates for
particular suppliers on the ACRS website (ACRS 2015), under Certificate holders.
It is recommended that the use of different grades of reinforcing steel on any one site be avoided to mitigate
the risk of the incorrect grade of reinforcing steel being placed in a member (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Strength and ductility of reinforcement
Reinforcement Characteristic
Uniform Ductility
Designation yield strength (fsy)
Type strain (εsu) class
grade MPa
Bar plain to AS/NZS 4671 R250N 250 0.05 N

Bar deformed to AS/NZS 4671 D500L 500 0.015 L
D500N 500 0.05 N
Welded wire mesh, plain, deformed D500L 500 0.015 L
or indented to AS/NZS 4671 D500N 500 0.05 N
Stainless steel plain bar to BS 6744(1) 200 200 0.05 N
Stainless steel ribbed bar to BS 6744(1) 500 650 0.05 N
1 Stainless stain bars to BS 6744 are deemed to satisfy the requirements for Class N reinforcement as in AS/NZS
4671.
Note: Reference should be made to AS/NZS 4671 for explanation to designations applying to 500 MPa steels and BS
6744 for stainless steels.
Source: Adapted from AS 5100.5.
3.2.6 Weldability
The weldability of reinforcing steel cannot be determined without knowing the material properties and
chemical composition. The steels conforming to AS/NZS 4671 are deemed to be weldable under the
conditions specified for each class in AS 1554.3. Sourcing reinforcing steel manufactured to AS/NZS 4671
from an ACRS certified supplier should ensure that steel of suitable weldability will be supplied.
If the source of the material is unknown then welding should not be carried out without material testing. The
properties and chemical composition of the weld metal used needs to be compatible with the parent material.
Weldability is determined by carbon equivalent value and the dimensions of the steel to be welded.
3.2.7 Welding Procedure Testing
The welding procedure (i.e. the joint preparation, the welding consumables and the welding parameters) for
reinforcing steel shall be qualified and approved before welding commences.
The fabricator shall establish and qualify a welding procedure in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.3 for weld
joint type and material combination. This includes listing the applicable parameters in a document known as
the ‘welding procedure qualification record’ (also known as a PQR or WPQR), and when required, welding a
test plate to the proposed procedure and having the appropriate testing carried out. A welding procedure
specification (WPS) shall be developed from the PQR, and be made available to the welder during
fabrication. The welding procedure records (PQR, WPS, supporting test reports, test certificates for steel
grades welded for the procedure test) shall be held by the fabricator and be available for examination.

An example of a typical welding procedure sheet is included in AS/NZS 1554.3, as Appendix D. This can be
used to describe the welding procedure, which includes joint preparation geometry, consumables (grade and
size of stick electrode or continuous wire), preheat requirements, temperature limits, weld runs and weld
machine settings for current, voltage and travel speed.
Standard welding procedures for reinforcing steel manufactured in Australia are published by the respective
companies.
Refer to AS 1554.3 for the requirements on the weldability of reinforcing steels.
3.2.8 Macro Test
This is a basic test in the assessment of welding procedure. A macro test involves setting up the proposed
weld on sample material and carrying out the weld to the approved weld procedure. The welded sample is
then cut into sections, polished, etched and visually checked to assess the quality of the weld, following the
method of AS 2205.5.1. A photograph or image of the weld section should be included in the report. Figure
3.2 illustrates some test pieces prepared for welded lap splices to check the penetration of the weld.
This process can be carried out at any time in the process of the work to assess the quality of the work,
noting that the test is destructive on the weld so tested. It should also be used when a new welder is
proposed to check competency of the person to carry out the weld to the approved procedure.
Figure 3.2: Macros of welded lap splice to check the penetration of weld
3.2.9 Tack Welding
Tack welding of reinforcing steel is widely used to enable the prefabrication of cages or to fix reinforcing steel
placed in situ to hold the cage or steel in alignment until concrete is cast. In this context, tack welds are
regarded as non-loadbearing welded joints for which the strength is not taken into account during the design
of the reinforced concrete structure.
The higher strength steels (Grade 500) currently being used, however, require a greater degree of control
and expertise to ensure a satisfactory result compared to materials previously used (Grade 250 and the
superseded Grade 400). There is greater propensity for tack welding to reduce the strength of the steel or to
create cracking.

Tack welding must be viewed as a welding process and therefore needs to be done in a controlled manner.
The heat input has the potential to adversely affect the properties of the steel in terms of strength and
fatigue. In addition, inappropriate weld settings or technique or operator competency can result in loss of
section, resulting in a loss of strength (Figure 3.3). Tack welding is generally a hand-held process and should
be carried out by qualified welders.
AS/NZS 1554.3 includes procedures to be adopted for the tack welding of reinforcing steel. The standard
also includes a procedure to have a non-standard weld procedure tested for compliance.
Figure 3.3: Damage to reinforcement due to poor quality tack welding
Most road jurisdictions have their own technical specifications for supply, handling, detailing and usage of
reinforcing materials. Refer to the relevant jurisdictional specification for specific requirements.
3.2.10 Welded Splices
Welded splices may be made by butt splices, indirect butt splices, lap splices, or transverse end plate
splices. Detail on these splices is included in AS/NZS 1554.3. The simpler splices are discussed below.
Butt splice
A butt splice involves welding two pieces of reinforcing steel end-to-end, with complete penetration and
fusion of weld metal and base metal throughout the depth of the splice. The process requires an approved
weld procedure (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Butt splice

For bar diameters of greater than 20 mm the weld procedure becomes more restrictive as the heat input has
to be controlled to keep heat input low enough to ensure the properties of the steel are not reduced. The
weld procedure may require partially or staged welding a series of bars to reduce the heat input to avoid
normalising the steel.
Butt welds can be created using the conventional hand held processes (a) Manual metal-arc
welding (MMAW), (b) Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) and (c) Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).
Flash butt welding may also be used to create a butt splice in reinforcing steel. It is an electrical
resistance-based butt welding process used for joining components end-to-end across the full joint area,
using an automatic or semi-automatic welding machine. The parts to be joined are clamped and brought
together slowly while a flashing voltage is applied. This flashing progressively introduces heating and creates
a softened zone at the component ends. After a suitable heating period, a forge or upset force is applied to
the parts to consolidate the joint.
The butt welding of all bars in a column on the one plane is considered poor practice and should be avoided.
Welding of half or a third of the bars at two or more levels is required (Figure 3.5). This also applies to other
splice types.
Figure 3.5: Welded butt splices in column
Alternate column bars spliced at

different levels
Welded lap splice
A welded lap splice is a joint consisting of one or two welds, deposited in the groove(s) formed between two
overlapping parallel reinforcing steel bars in contact (see Figure 3.6).
The main problem with this type of splice is the difficulty in obtaining good fusion of the weld at the point of
contact of the two bars, however the design should take this into account.
Figure 3.6: Welded lap splice

3.2.11 Mechanical Splices and Mechanical Couplers
Mechanical splices are an alternative method to welding to join lengths of reinforcing steel. There are a
number of proprietary splicing systems available in the Australian market, using either threading systems or
locking shear bolts. Suppliers must be required to provide documentary evidence of testing carried out to
demonstrate that the coupler has a tensile capacity equal to or greater than the type of reinforcing steel it is
being used with.
Some threading systems are rolled onto the bar as threaded deformations, other thread systems are
machined into the bar. Locking shear bolts systems are not dependant on deformation or thread pattern.
In all cases, the installation process must be controlled and verified to ensure that the required engagement
length into both sides of a threaded or bolted coupler is achieved and to provide confidence that the splice
will provide the design load carrying capability. Random testing to verify the consistency of the strength of
mechanical spices is recommended. This should be part of the quality procedures.
In congested areas, particularly in splices in columns, the use of mechanical splices is a more practical
alternative and avoids potential problems of congested reinforcement.
3.2.12 Rebending
It is not permissible to re-bend 500 grade bars that are manufactured by tempering and quenching as the
ductility of the bar is reduced by cold working and cracking is likely to occur.
3.2.13 Protective Treatments
The first level of protective treatment to steel reinforcement is the concrete itself. Cover depth and
permeability of the concrete will have the most influence on allowing corrosive agents to reach the steel.
Road agencies generally require that minimum cover appropriate to the exposure conditions is achieved and
that dense, compacted concrete of specific cement content and strength with low permeability, as measured
by the volume of permeable voids test, is used to prevent or restrict ingress of corrosive agents.
In an attempt to improve concrete durability, particularly in aggressive exposure conditions, two protective
treatments have been used on reinforcing steel. Note that these treatments supplement the protection
provided by the concrete and are not to be used to reduce cover or concrete grade.
Galvanising
Hot dip galvanising of reinforcing steel has been used in a number of bridges in aggressive environments to
extend their service life. Opinions vary on the cost/benefit of galvanising reinforcing steel. It is considered by
some authorities that the thickness of zinc achievable on a bar does not give long-term protection in the
situation where chloride ions diffuse through the concrete to the reinforcement.
Galvanised reinforcing steel is not used by all Australian state road authorities or in New Zealand. It has
been more popular in precast concrete building panels.
Epoxy coated bar (ECB)
Epoxy coated reinforcing steel has been adopted by a number jurisdictions in the USA, particularly in bridge
decks, to attempt to mitigate the effects of chloride ion diffusion from de-icing salts.
There are a number of issues that arise in using ECB:

• the risk of damage to the coating during construction
• the risk of pin holes (holidays) in the surface of the coating which would allow moisture penetration and
result in possible loss of adhesion

• the presence of pinholes may also be the location of potential corrosion cells when chloride ions reached
the bar
• epoxies are not waterproof and moisture may permeate through the coating
• cost.
A report by the US Department of Transport (Lee & Krauss 2004) generally concluded that there was benefit
in using ECB. The testing program was carried out on a simulated deck section.
However, Pyc et al. (2000) gives a less favourable report of the effectiveness of ECB. The report states that
loss of adhesion of the coating occurred before the chloride ions reached the bars. The report does not
recommend the use of ECB.
The recommendations of the latter report were based on field trials and are considered more indicative of in-
service performance. ECBs are not used by Australian and New Zealand road authorities. They are not
recommended by Austroads for use in bridges.
3.2.14 Fire Damage to Steel
The strength and modulus of steel decrease with increasing temperature. In fire situations, the loss of
strength at elevated temperatures may be significant and design requirements for fire are covered in
Section 5 of AS 3600. For design purposes, assumed characteristic values for yield stress at temperature
may be taken as 400 MPa at 300 °C, and 250 MPa at 500 °C.
After heating at fire temperatures and subsequent cooling, the resulting properties of reinforcing steels
returned to ambient temperature may be significantly altered, usually reduced. Prolonged exposure to
elevated temperatures will significantly degrade reinforcing steel strength properties. Estimates of retained
yield stress as a proportion of normal bar properties for exposure times of one hour are presented in
Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Effects of temperature on properties of reinforcing steel
One hour exposure at 400 °C 500 °C 600 °C 700 °C 800 °C

Fraction of normal bar properties 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.6
Based on Australian and European tests for steels corresponding to Class N
Longer exposure times cause a further reduction in fraction of normal bar properties
Note – these are estimates only and lower values should be assumed for longer exposure times. The elastic modulus, E,
is not affected by prior exposure to elevated temperatures and can still be taken as 200 000 MPa.
Refer to Section 4.1.11 for a discussion on fire damages.
3.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcement
The selected use of stainless steel reinforcing in substructures of bridges in marine environments offers a
means of ensuring that the 100-year design service life of a bridge can be achieved without expensive
concrete repairs after 30–50 years. It also obviates the need for other measures to protect the reinforcing
steel, such as the use of corrosion inhibitors in the concrete, surface treatments or cathodic protection.
A number of Australian state road authorities have recently constructed bridges with stainless steel
reinforcing used selectively in the substructures. The stainless steel reinforcing has been used in the outer
reinforcement of piles, pile caps and in columns. In columns it is recommended that the stainless steel
reinforcing be used at least within the splash zone. However, in relatively short columns and high exposure
sites consideration should be given to using stainless steel reinforcing over the full height of the columns.

Based on current costs, the selective use of stainless reinforcing steel in the substructure of a bridge
increases the cost by approximately 8% compared to using 100% carbon steel reinforcing (at the time of
writing). Net present worth calculations indicate the economic benefits of its use taking into account projected
maintenance costs over 50 years.
Economic considerations indicate that the use of stainless steel reinforcement will be limited to selected use
in bridge piers in marine conditions with a maximum bar diameter of approximately 30 mm and small
tonnages. For major bridges with high piers the use of cathodic prevention (CP) is considered more
economical.
The suitable grades of stainless steel reinforcing are ribbed (deformed) bars or coil, deformed wire or welded
mesh complying with the requirements of BS 6744 Grade 500, as follows:
• austenitic grades 304/304LN and 316/316LN
• duplex grade 2205.
For additional information on material properties see the websites provided in Section 3.3.1.
Some producers are attempting to reduce the cost of stainless steel reinforcement by the use of cladding.
Whilst the cladding is very tough, the method of producing a clad bar introduces some potential weaknesses
into the system. Specific areas of concern are:
• cracking under bending – especially for stirrup bends
• the need to cap the ends of the bar in the factory – so no field cutting is permissible
• welding will damage the cladding, so no welding is permissible
• there is no satisfactory repair for a damaged bar
• corrosion is anoxic, so there will be no expansive rust and the bar may be lost with no visible deterioration
of the member.
Therefore, Austroads does not support the use of stainless steel clad bars in bridges.
3.3.1 Construction Issues
A number of construction issues need to be addressed for the successful use of the material, for example:
Storage
Stainless steel reinforcing must be separated from carbon steel reinforcing.
Bending and cutting
Dedicated equipment must be used for the material. Equipment used to process carbon steel will result in
pitting of the stainless steel.
Handling
To avoid pitting stainless steel reinforcing must not be dragged over carbon steel reinforcing.
Re-bending
Re-bending of stainless steel reinforcing is not permitted. The passive layer on the bars is only
1–2 mm thick. Re-bending may result in cracking of the passive layer.

Welding
Welding of stainless steel reinforcing is possible but is not recommended, as there is a risk of affecting the
mechanical material properties of the material and potential cracking at welds.
Splicing
Splicing of bars is to be achieved by laps or mechanical couplers.
Splicing with carbon steel
The splicing of stainless steel reinforcing with carbon steel reinforcing has been investigated by a number of
researchers. Research has shown that there is no issue in terms of galvanic corrosion.
Highways Agency UK (2002) provides detailed information on the use of stainless steel reinforcement in
bridges.
Ontario Ministry of Transport (2001) provides useful information for site staff.
The Australian Stainless Steel Development Association (ASSDA) at its website (Australian Stainless Steel
Development Association n.d.), and Arminox Stainless website (Arminox Stainless n.d.), and Specialty Steel
Industry of North America (SSINA) website (Specialty Steel Industry of North America n.d.), also provide
information on stainless steel reinforcement.
Refer to the above ASSDA and other stainless-steel supplier websites for detailed information on the
material characteristics of stainless steel reinforcement. The revised AS 5100.5 also specified required
physical and mechanical properties of two grades of stainless steel reinforcement (200 and 500 to BS 6744).
3.3.3 Supply
The stainless steel bar should originate from a UK Certification Authority for Reinforcing Steels (CARES)
registered manufacturer. CARES is the British equivalent of Australian ACRS. A special audit of the supplier
should be carried out prior to commencing supply and the manufacturer should be required to guarantee the
supply of the reinforcement for the project.
3.4 Prestressing Steel
3.4.1 General
Prestressing steel is used in prestressed concrete members, stay cables and ground anchors.
Prestressing steel is available in the following forms:

• strand – made up of seven separate wires. Sizes 9.3 mm, 12.7 mm and 15.2 mm diameter. The material
is supplied in 3 t coils
• wire – individual 7 mm diameter wires assembled to produce the required tendon force
• bar – threaded bar available in a range of diameters.

Prestressing steel used in road projects in Australia is supplied to AS/NZS 4672.1.
The OneSteel website (OneSteel n.d.) provides information on the characteristics of prestressing strand.
Information on prestressing systems using strand, wire or bars can be found on manufacturers websites and
include:
• VSL – www.vsl.com
• BBRV – www.bbr.com
• Dywidag – www.dywidag-systems.com.
Refer to Section 3.1 for discussion of this subject. Test certificates, including stress relaxation certificates,
are required for prestressing steel to prove grade of material and for calculation of extensions under
stressing. The use of a third party certification scheme in this instance verifies only capability to supply
material, not the actual properties of individual items.
3.4.4 Material Properties
There are a number of material properties of prestressing steel that affect the design, construction and
long-term performance of prestressed concrete, including nominal area, nominal weight, minimum breaking
strength, maximum tensile strength, and minimum yield strength at 1% extension.
Material properties of common prestressing steel used in bridge construction for strands and bars is provided
in AS/NZS 4672.1.
Refer to AS 5100.7 for detailed information on historical Australian standards for prestressing steels
including stressing strands and 7-wire stress relieved strands.
3.4.5 Modulus of Elasticity
Unlike mild steel, prestressing steels do not have a linear stress/strain curve and a well-defined yield point.
The initial response to strain increment is linear up to around 80% of breaking load, followed by non-linear
work-hardening of the material, to a maximum value when failure occurs.
Modulus of elasticity used in AS/NZS 4672.1
The modulus of elasticity determined for AS/NZS 4672.1 is the slope of the stress/strain curve for the chord
between 20% and 70% of the force corresponding to the specified characteristic minimum breaking force,
and its calculation shall be based on the nominal cross-sectional area of the test piece.
The modulus of elasticity is used to calculate the extension of a prestressing strand or tendon at the stress
produced by the maximum jacking load required by the structural design. The stress at the maximum jacking
load is not to exceed 85% of the minimum ultimate tensile stress.
Note that for a draped tendon (usually in a post-tensioned cast-in situ structure), the variation in jacking
force, and therefore in secant modulus (see below), along its length must be taken into account when
calculating the expected extension of the tendon at the prestressing jack. The calculated elongation for a
tendon shown on bridge drawings should state the values for secant modulus used in the calculation. The
elongation calculations will need to be adjusted using the actual secant modulus for the stressing steel coil(s)
used in the member.

Other modulus values
The tangent modulus is defined as the slope of a line tangent to the stress/strain curve at a point of interest.
The secant modulus is defined as the slope of a line drawn from the origin to the point of interest on the
curved section of the stress/strain diagram. Both the tangent modulus can have different values depending
on the point of interest at which they are determined. For example, both the tangent modulus and the secant
modulus are equal to elastic modulus when the point of tangency or secant falls within the linear range of the
stress/strain curve. Outside the linear elastic region, both the tangent modulus and the secant modulus are
always less than the elastic modulus and describe the (lower) stiffness of the material in the plastic range.
3.4.6 Relaxation
Relaxation is a time dependent decrease in stress when the strand, wire or bar is maintained at a constant
strain. Relaxation is stated as a percentage of the initial force applied to the steel.
Note – Relaxation should not be confused with creep (Section 3.4.7), which is the change in strain at
constant load.
The capability for relaxation that occurs in prestressing strand can be reduced during strand manufacture by
using a stress-relieving heat-treatment. Heat-treatment while the strand is maintained under conditions of
high longitudinal strain results in lower relaxation than if the strand is heat-treated while being maintained
under minimal tension.
Prestressing strand that undergoes the heat-treatment under conditions of high longitudinal strain is
classified as ‘low relaxation strand’, or ‘relax 2 strand’.
Current specifications require low relaxation strand be used in bridge members to minimise the prestress
losses. Bridge designers take the relaxation losses into account when determining the required prestress in a
member.
Test certificates provided by suppliers should include relaxation test results.
3.4.7 Creep
Prestress losses also occur in members as a result of concrete creep. The loss of prestress in this instance
is a result of strains in the concrete at constant stress.
Refer to Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3: Typical Bridge Superstructures, Substructures and
Components for more information on prestress losses due to creep and to AS 5100.5 for the detailed
methods to determine the creep effects in concrete structures.
3.4.8 Anchorages
Suppliers of proprietary prestressing systems have developed their own anchorages consisting of the
anchorages, anchorage reinforcing steel, anchorage head and anchor plate. Each proprietary anchorage
system and the range of tendons available must undergo anchorage efficiency testing to AS/NZS 4672
before being approved for use in bridgeworks. The test piece comprises a pair of concrete blocks with the
anchorage system and tendon size being assessed. The test piece is subjected to 95% of ultimate load for a
specified period. The conducting of these anchorage efficiency tests requires extreme caution as the forces
are high, the consequence of unexpected failure is high and the health and safety risks must be addressed.
The design of the reinforcement to resist the bursting stresses at the end of members behind the anchorages
is the responsibility of the designer. The designer must ensure that the reinforcing cage in these areas will
allow concrete to be properly placed and compacted.
For strands the anchorages consist of barrel and wedges (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7: Barrel and wedges and seven wire strand
For bars the anchorage is achieved via machined or rolled threads and nuts. For wire systems the
anchorage is achieved via cold-formed button heads.
Specifications set out the requirements for storage and handling of prestressing steel.
The four high-risk issues are:
Weld spatter
It is imperative that no welding activities take place near bare prestressing steel. Minor weld spatters may
cause imperfections in the surface and the metallurgy of the material, causing high stress concentrations at
changes in surface profile. In such situations the weld spatters may go unnoticed until a premature failure
occurs.
Pitting corrosion
If prestressing steel is left exposed to the atmosphere pitting corrosion may occur causing stress raisers
leading to premature failure under load.
Failure at couplers
In some precasting operations, where the length of beam is significantly shorter than the length of the mould,
it is efficient to re-use bridging lengths of strand joined by couplers to the strand actually in the precast
member. During stressing, if there is a failure at any location in the stressed component, then the whipping
action of the rapidly de-stressed strand may be very dangerous. All persons must be kept away from the
likely reach of a failed strand.

Handling damage
When handling strand it is very important to avoid abrasion damage, kinks and nicks all of which may lead to
premature failure under stressing loads.
The OneSteel website (OneSteel n.d.) has a data sheet ‘Low Relaxation Strand’ which provides material
properties and handling recommendations.
3.5 Steel and Polymer Fibres
Steel and polymer fibres are added to concrete and shotcrete to increase the ductility, control cracking and
durability. The steel fibres are made from high tensile steel. The polymer fibres are generally made from
polypropylene.
The dispersion of the fibres promotes the formation of a large number of micro cracks throughout the
concrete as opposed to a smaller number of larger cracks. The shape of the fibres provides anchorage for
them to bridge cracks and enable the shrinkage strains to be resisted. As a result the ductility of the concrete
is enhanced. The promotion of micro cracks enhances the durability of the concrete by reducing the potential
for penetration of aggressive agents.
SFRC is used in reactive powder concrete to produce compressive strengths of 140 to 160 MPa and tensile
strengths of about 40 MPa (Section 2.13.4).
Several types of steel fibres have been used in the manufacture of SFRC, including round fibres which are
the most common type with a diameter of 0.25 mm to 0.75 mm range, rectangular fibres usually of 0.25 mm
thickness, and deformed fibres in the form of a bundle.
The dosage of steel fibres used to produce SFRC depends on the requirements for the design and
construction of the structural component, such as strength and workability. The fibre content may be in the
range of 1% – 2% in volume. In general SFRC uses a higher cement content and a higher ratio of fine to
coarse aggregate than the ordinary concrete. SCMs such as fly ash, and admixtures such as water reducing
agents, superplasticisers and air entraining agents may be used in SFRC.
When being used in structural applications, SFRC should only be used as a supplementary material in
reinforced and prestressed components to inhibit cracking, improve the resistance to impact or dynamic
loading, and improve material integration.
AS 5100.5 requires that steel fibres be comply with BS EN 14889-1 CE Marking System 1 (fibres for
structural use).
3.6 FRP Reinforcing Material
FRP reinforcement bars became commercially available in the late 1980s for use as internal reinforcement
for concrete structures where electromagnetic-resistance was required. FRP bars comprises fibres and resin
materials, in which the fibres provide the strength and stiffness, while the resin material provides the bond
and protection to the fibres, as well as transfers stresses from fibre to fibre through shear stresses. Common
fibres are glass, carbon and aramid. Epoxy, polyesters and vinyl esters are the most common types of resin
materials.
Advantages of FRP reinforcing include:

• highly resistant to chloride ion and chemical attack
• high tensile strength-weight ratio
• resistant to magnetic fields and radar frequencies
• glass-fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) has low electrical and thermal conductivity.

FRP composites are characterised by anisotropic, linear elastic behaviour until failure. As a result, the failure
of a flexural concrete component reinforced with FRP bars is generally sudden and explosive. Allowable
stress capacity, therefore, must be significantly reduced when designing with FRP reinforcing.
FRP reinforcement may provide a practical and economic alternative to conventional steel reinforcement in
concrete structures where corrosion resistance and electromagnetic resistance are required, such as in
bridges within a marine environment. Typical applications of FRP reinforcing bars in bridge construction
include:
• approach slabs
• bridge decks and bridge deck overlays (see Figure 3.8)
• cast-in-place flat slab superstructures
• pile bent caps not in direct contact with water
• pier columns and caps not in direct contact with water
• retaining walls, noise walls, perimeter walls
• pedestrian/bicycle railings.
Figure 3.8: FRP bars in a bridge deck
Source: Florida Department of Transportation (2016).
Refer to the International Institute for FRP in Construction (IIFC) website (International Institute for FRP in
Construction n.d.) for further guidance on the analysis and design method of concrete beams reinforced by
internal FRP bars.

4. Concrete Durability
4.1 Concrete Distress Mechanisms
The deterioration processes that may occur represent complex interactions between the structure and its
surrounding environment and sometimes between the components within the concrete matrix.
In general, reinforced concrete structures may suffer a reduction in durability performance by any of the
following primary mechanisms:
• corrosion of reinforcement and prestressing tendons with subsequent cracking and spalling
• carbonation, leading to corrosion of reinforcement
• chloride penetration, leading to corrosion of reinforcement
• alkali aggregate reaction
• delayed ettringite formation
• chloroaluminate formation
• sulphate attack
• acid attack
• physical damage
• freeze/thaw
• fire damage.
4.1.1 Corrosion of Reinforcing Materials
The majority of concrete failures in bridges have been caused by corrosion of either the reinforcement or
prestressing tendons. In general, steel within concrete is held at a pH between 11 and 13 (pH of saturated
calcium hydroxide in the pore water). Within this range a tightly bound oxide layer forms to prevent corrosion
of the steel. When this protective layer is disrupted, corrosion may commence by forming the corrosion
product. This product has a volume much larger than the parent steel. This volume increase generates high
internal pressures that cause de-bonding, cracking and eventually spalling of the concrete.
The oxide layer may be disrupted when the alkaline environment in concrete is reduced by carbonation of
the concrete cover (Section 4.1.2) or chloride iron contamination (Section 4.1.3) and when sufficient
quantities of oxygen and moisture are available.
The first signs of corrosion activity are usually cracks on the surface of the concrete. Rust stains may or may
not be evident. The concrete may sound ‘drummy’ when struck, indicating that it has delaminated from the
reinforcement. Spalling follows delamination.
The key to prevention or inhibition of corrosion is to provide high-quality concrete having low permeability as
cover to the steel. Generally, a concrete with high cement content and a low water/cement ratio is more
durable. For example, increasing the cement content up to a range of 400 to 450 kg/m 3 provides a significant
improvement in durability, and water cement ratios below 0.4 are achievable with these higher cement
contents and especially with water-reducing additives included to give good workability. High-quality concrete
is generally taken to be synonymous with high strength, but the engineer should ensure that the strength
does indeed imply the other required qualities. Durable concrete has two distinguishing characteristics:
• It resists penetration by oxygen, water, chlorides, carbon dioxide, and other corrosion enhancing
substances. It does this simply by having a very dense matrix with a limited volume of pores having
minimal continuity.
• It has a very high resistivity to the flow of the ionic current.

Cover concrete is the layer of concrete outside the reinforcing steel and is important in controlling corrosion
because it is only the cover concrete that protects the steel. Thicker cover will mean a much longer period
before the carbonation reaction, oxygen or chlorides diffuse through to the steel.
Dense concrete is achieved by effective compacting of the concrete at the time of placement whilst avoiding
segregation of the aggregate. The attainment of good compaction around embedded steel is aided by the
provision of a thick cover. Apart from being well compacted the concrete must also be carefully cured to
ensure a dense, impenetrable cover.
Cracking in concrete has little, if any, influence on corrosion. Provided the concrete between the cracks is
impenetrable to corrosion-enhancing substances, and has a high resistivity to the ionic current flow thus
preventing formation of electrolytic cells, corrosion cannot occur despite cracking. This will be less true if a
crack runs directly along a reinforcing bar, although in sound reinforced concrete this would be rare.
Corrosion of prestressing tendons occurs in similar circumstances and by similar mechanisms to corrosion in
normal reinforcement.
The better quality of concrete normally used for prestressed concrete and the higher standard of
workmanship normally available in a prestressing yard both reduce the probability of corrosion. However, the
faster rate at which it progresses due to the high stress in the tendons and the more sudden mode of failure
of prestressed concrete members with tendon corrosion both make the consequences of tendon corrosion
much more serious. Furthermore, because prestressing tendons often have a thicker cover than reinforcing
steel or are located inside metal ducts, evidence of corrosion may not be visible.
Poor-quality grout or bad grouting techniques may result in voids being present in the duct and lead to
corrosion of the tendon. This is more likely in early prestressed concrete bridges, when good grouting
techniques were still being developed, and in vertical prestressing ducts.
Figure 4.1 shows an example of concrete spalling due to extensive reinforcement corrosion on a deck soffit.
Figure 4.1: Spalling due to extensive reinforcement corrosion on a deck soffit

4.1.2 Carbonation
Carbonation of the cover concrete occurs when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reacts with calcium
hydroxide produced from the cement hydration reactions. As a result the pH of the pore water reduces to the
level represented by a saturated calcium carbonate solution of pH 8.3. As the carbonated front approaches
the reinforcing, the protective passive film on the steel surface may break down and the corrosion process, in
the presence of water and oxygen, may take place.
Carbonation is more intense in an environment where the relative humidity is between 60% and 80%
compared to drier or more humid environments. In this range of humidity there is sufficient moisture available
to form carbonic acid but not so much as to prevent the diffusion of the carbon dioxide into the concrete.
Most bridges over permanent water provide the conditions for carbonation to occur. Carbonation is also very
common in culverts as the cool environment increases the relative humidity within the culvert for the same
absolute moisture content in the air.
There is evidence that carbonation ‘pushes’ any chlorides deeper into the concrete, creating a synergistic
effect on corrosion of steel.
4.1.3 Chloride Attack
Chloride ions act to disrupt the passive layer of oxides on the surface of the steel. As a result, steel corrosion
may start when sufficient quantities of oxygen and moisture are available. Chloride ions may be present in
three forms within hardened concrete:
• chemically bound
• physically adsorbed
• free chlorides.
Only the free chloride ions are available for transport to an anode for the corrosion process to begin.
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in chloride contaminated concrete is an electro-chemical process and
requires oxygen and moisture for the reaction to continue. In the cell positive current flows from the anode to
the cathode via the concrete electrolyte, while electron flow is from the anode to the cathode through the
steel. The reaction is shown schematically in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Corrosion reaction in steel (idealised)

Some locations on the steel become anodes giving off Fe-H-ions, which in turn combine with the OH-ions
formed on the steel at a cathode at some finite separation from the anode. There is a current flow of
electrons from the Fe++ ions through the steel from the anode to the cathode where the OH-ions are formed.
There is also an ionic current flow of OH-ions through the concrete. This latter point is very important in
understanding how to prevent corrosion and repair corrosion damage. Finally, the complex series of
hydrated iron oxides and hydroxides (more commonly known as rust) form.
Chloride ions may enter a concrete structure by the process of diffusion for structures in saltwater or by
capillary absorption for structures above water. Chlorides may also enter through cracks and other defects in
the concrete. Chlorides may also be present either from contamination of the concrete materials or as a
component of concrete additives.
Standard specifications place limits on the amount of chlorides that may be present in fresh concrete.
Despite the fact that specifications preclude the use of calcium chloride in concrete for bridge works, there
are still instances where it has been used to achieve a rapid set to speed up production. Calcium chloride in
reinforced concrete will cause disintegration of reinforcement in 10 to 30 years. Calcium chloride must be
banned from all precast factories (Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4).
Figure 4.3: Corrosion in precast culvert due to the use of calcium chloride

Figure 4.4: Chloride attack in tidal channel
AS 5100.5 specifies a limit for the chloride-ion content of 0.6-2.0 kg/m3 of concrete.
There is a greater risk of chloride contamination in coastal areas where the concrete is in contact with sea
water, salt-laden winds or spray. Chlorides may also have been added to the original mix as a set
accelerating admixture or in salt-contaminated aggregate.
In chloride-contaminated concrete, reinforcement corrosion may produce discrete pits rather than uniform
section loss. This type of corrosion is of concern as the volume of corrosion product is relatively small and
cracking and spalling may not develop until the reinforcement has suffered significant section loss.
4.1.4 Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR)
AAR is a chemical reaction that occurs between the aggregates and the alkali hydroxides in the pore solution
of concrete forming an expansive gel. The gel expands on absorbing water and this can lead to extensive
cracking of the concrete with potentially significant effects on the serviceability and capacity of a structure
(Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.5: Cross-section of concrete core showing expansive gel around aggregate
Figure 4.6: Vertical cracks below water in octagonal prestressed concrete pile
The alkali hydroxides most commonly associated with AAR are sodium hydroxides and potassium
hydroxides. These may be present initially in the cement, admixtures or the mixing water.

For deleterious AAR to occur in a structure the concrete must contain sufficient amounts of reactive
aggregates, alkali and moisture. The absence of one or more of these will inhibit the reaction. Using low-
alkali cements that limit sodium and potassium content is one approach to reducing the incidence of AAR
damage that may result with some potentially reactive aggregates. On the other hand, additional moisture
entering the concrete via cracks caused by AAR can accelerate the process.
The period for significant AAR damage to occur can be as short as five years and as long as 30 years or
more.
Three types of AAR have been identified:

• alkali-silica reaction
• alkali-silicate reaction
• alkali-carbonate reaction.
Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) occurs between the alkali hydroxides and various forms of silica with a more
disordered crystalline structure including chalcedony, flint, chert, opal, strained quartz and quartz cement.
Alkali-silicate reaction has not been well defined and is considered to occur with aggregates of complex
mineralogy such as greywacke, phyllite and argillite. Silicate minerals such as micas and clays have also
been reported as AAR susceptible.
It appears that alkali-silicate reaction is basically similar to alkali-silica reaction as far as the reaction
products are concerned, but the rate of reaction is lower. In general, no distinction is made between these
two types of reaction. In both, an expansive gel is formed which produces large swelling pressures on
absorbing water, and this may crack the affected concrete. After cracking, the gel penetrates some of the
cracks and some of the pressure is relieved.
Alkali-carbonate reaction occurs between the alkali hydroxides of the pore solution of concrete and certain
dolomitic carbonate rocks, but this is far less common than ASR, and has not been reported in Australia.
The reactivity of both coarse and fine aggregates in the concrete matrix has become an increasingly critical
issue in concrete bridge construction. Specifications for the supply of concrete for bridge works now include
requirements for all proposed aggregates to be assessed for AAR reactivity.
Typically, a petrographic examination is carried out according to ASTM C295/C295M-2012. Aggregates

containing opaline material, unstable silica materials or sheared rock containing moderate amounts of
strained quartz and microcrystalline quartz may be eliminated without further testing.
Aggregates not eliminated by petrographic assessment are then assessed for potential AAR using an
accelerated mortar bar or a concrete prism test method.
Aggregates classified reactive using the accelerated mortar bar test may be deemed satisfactory for use up
to a specified limit of reactivity, subject to:
• the use of a blended cement in the concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials (SCM)
such as fly ash, slags and silica fume
• retesting using a concrete prism test.
Aggregates classified as reactive according to a concrete prism test must not be used.
Fine aggregate can also cause AAR (Section 2.4.2). Rock for which the coarse aggregate has low AAR
reactivity may be more highly reactive in the manufactured sand state. This fact needs to be taken into
account when determining the percentage of fly ash to be used in a mix.

The gel formed by AAR is expansive and results in cracking of the concrete. For high strength concrete the
problem is exacerbated by higher cement contents with potentially greater total alkali content. High strength
concrete, being denser, also has less internal voids for the expansive material to move into. Lower strength
concretes are protected against cracking by the high void volume that allows the expansive material to
disperse.
The cracking of the concrete results in penetration of other aggressive agents, including:
• oxygen to sustain corrosion
• water
• carbon dioxide that reacts with calcium hydroxide reducing the alkalinity
• sulphates
• chlorides.
The process requires water to sustain the reaction.
Measures taken to inhibit or slow down the penetration of water will be beneficial in stopping or reducing the
rate of deterioration (Figure 4.7).
The measures available include:

• sealing of cracks
It is important to seal cracks to ensure water is kept out – not kept in. Partial sealing of the base and sides
of a member can make the situation worse.
• application of coatings or membranes
• encasement of the affected areas using concrete, stainless steel or carbon fibre composite material. It is
important that testing be carried out prior to encasing the member to determine if the expansion is nearing
completion otherwise the encasement itself may also fracture.
Instances have occurred where cathodic protection (CP) has been used to protect bridges with AAR.
However, the CP system must be properly designed and controlled in service to ensure it does not
exacerbate the problem.
Figure 4.7: Severe pile deterioration caused initially by AAR then DEF (Section 4.1.5)

4.1.5 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
DEF refers to delayed formation of ettringite in concrete, usually as a result of heat curing of concrete at
elevated temperatures (e.g. steam curing at 70 °C or 80 °C). Ettringite is a normal hydration product of
Portland cement that forms early in the cement hydration process and is responsible for early strength gain
of concrete. In this form it is harmless.
However, ettringite is unstable at high temperatures, and its early formation in concrete is inhibited when
excessive heat curing temperatures above 70–75 °C are used. Consequently, the ingredients that form
ettringite, i.e. calcium, sulphate and aluminate, remain in solution or are absorbed into the hydrated cement
paste (Ca-silicate hydrate, or CSH). After the concrete temperature returns to ambient conditions, and in a
gradual manner, ettringite starts precipitating in the hardened concrete, and it is believed that the pressure of
crystallisation causes concrete cracking.
Several factors are involved in the deleterious form of the DEF process, including the alkali, sulphate and
aluminate contents of cement, as well as the exposure environment of concrete. This is a controversial issue
and researchers have disagreement on whether DEF is the main cause of cracking or whether it merely
contributes to cracking caused by other processes. Other deterioration mechanisms such a frost damage
and/or alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) have often been found to be present in cases where DEF has been
identified, making the diagnosis of the main factor difficult. In Australia, symptoms of DEF in concrete
structures have always been observed when the structures concerned have been damaged by AAR (Shayan
2003; Shayan & Morris 2004; Shayan, Xu & Tagnit-Hamou 2004).
An instance of DEF-related deterioration occurred in prestressed concrete piles in New South Wales. The
severe deterioration of the piles was believed to be the result of initial cracking caused by AAR allowing
penetration of seawater into the piles with chlorides, sulphates and magnesium ions. The increased moisture
in the piles resulted in the delayed precipitation of ettringite generating destructive expansive forces.
Subsequent investigations pointed to steam curing at excessive temperatures greater than 80 °C as the
primary cause of the problem. The excessively high temperatures prevented the formation of ettringite during
the early hydration. The problem surfaced 40 years later.
The deterioration of the piles highlights the importance of ensuring that steam curing of concrete is carried
out in strict accordance with the specification requirements (Section 2.11.10).
4.1.6 Chloroaluminate Formation
Recent work by Shayan (2006) indicates that under certain circumstances the formation of chloroaluminates
may occur in a manner analogous to delayed ettringite formation (DEF) and this form may be expansive.
Pre-requisite conditions appear to be a ready supply of chloride ions, water and concrete that is cracked by
some other mechanism. It appears that, similar to the case of DEF, this mode of occurrence may aggravate
any damage caused by AAR.
4.1.7 Sulphate Attack
Sulphates are found in fresh and sea water, industrial or domestic sewage and in soils that contain iron
sulphides and have been exposed to air (acid sulphate soils). During the setting process tricalcium aluminate
combines with water and sulphates to form ettringite in concrete. While the gel is still plastic the ettringite then
reacts further with tricalcium aluminate and water to form a compound known as monosulphate. If at some time
after this setting process sulphate ions become available, the latter reaction will be reversed and the
monosulphates will be reconverted into ettringite, which has a larger volume than the monosulphate. Concrete
affected by sulphate attack expands, initiating cracking and spalling, and finally becomes soft and friable.
The primary conditions for sulphate attack to occur are:

• the availability of soluble sulphates
• a relatively permeable concrete matrix that allows sulphate solution to penetrate
• the availability of tricalcium aluminate component.

In contrast to the usual increase in corrosion with increase in temperature, sulphate attack diminishes with
increasing temperature in the range 0–80 °C (Roads and Traffic Authority 2005a).
The sulphate content is limited to 4.0–5.0 kg/m3 of cement as specified in the revised AS 5100.5.
There are two types of sulphate attack, including external and internal. The former is the more common type
and typically due to the penetration of dissolved sulphates in solution, such as groundwater, into the
concrete from outside. External sulphate attack comprises a series of interactions which occur within
concrete and can be classified as either being chemical or physical, though their separation is inappropriate.
Chemical process is characterised by the formation of ettringite from the interaction between the sulphate ion
and the hydrated calcium aluminate or the calcium hydroxide components of the hardened cement paste.
Physical process occurs when dissolved salts diffuse through the concrete and precipitate in pores, causing
damage.
Internal sulphate attack refers to situations where the source of sulphate is internal to concrete which may
come from cement, supplementary materials, aggregate, mixtures or water.
The use of fly ash with either type GP (general purpose) or type SR (sulphate resisting) cements can
improve the level of sulphate resistance.
4.1.8 Acid Attack
In contrast to sulphate attack where only certain compounds in the cement system react, acid attack
destroys the complete system. Acids in concentrations common in natural waters and soils tend to dissolve
the carbonate layer on the surface of concrete, preventing further carbonation. Concrete will deteriorate
because the calcium hydroxide in the concrete and the acids attacking it form water-soluble salts which are
subsequently leached (Figure 4.8).
The resistance to acid attack is independent of the permeability of the concrete and dependent upon the
amount of acid available to attack the structure.
The rate of acid attack of any concrete is controlled by the nature of the acid, the concentration of free
hydrogen ions (the pH), the availability of the acid and the solubility of the calcium salts formed by exchange
reactions with the salts dissolved in the water and the rate at which insoluble salts are removed by
mechanical action.
Figure 4.8: Acid attack

An instance of acid attack of concrete occurred near Lithgow in NSW. The bridge was constructed over a
cutting in volcanic tuff that has high sulphur content. The first sign that a problem existed was the
observation of the disintegration of a concrete kerb at the base of the cutting. Testing of the ground water
resulted in a pH of 2.2. The bridge piers consisted of precast, prestressed segmental columns supported on
spread footings. The material was removed around the piers and footings and revealed that deterioration
had occurred to a depth of 15 mm over 20 years. Remedial measures included restoration of the piers by
constructing a concrete collar around them and isolating the pier from the volcanic tuff by backfilling with
calcium carbonate.
It is interesting to note that the acid had not attacked the mortar between the precast column segments. It is
considered that this was due to the high strength and low permeability of the sand and cement mortar.
Acid sulphate soils (ASS)
Acid sulphate soils are naturally occurring soils, sediments, or organic substrates (e.g. peat) that are formed
under waterlogged conditions. These soils contain iron sulphide minerals (predominantly as the mineral
pyrite) or their oxidation products. In an undisturbed state below the water table, acid sulphate soils are
benign. However, if the soils are drained, excavated, or exposed to air by a lowering of the water table, the
sulphides will react with oxygen to form sulphuric acid.
Release of this sulphuric acid from the soil can in turn release iron, aluminium, and other heavy metals
(particularly arsenic) within the soil. Once mobilised in this way, the acid and metals can create a variety of
adverse impacts: killing vegetation, seeping into and acidifying groundwater and water bodies, killing fish and
other aquatic organisms. Sulphuric acid produced by acid sulphate soils corrodes concrete, iron, steel and
certain aluminium alloys. It has caused the weakening of concrete structures and corrosion of concrete
slabs, steel fence posts, foundations of buildings and underground concrete water and sewerage pipes.
As noted in (Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) 2005a):

Unless concrete structures are very dense (low porosity), acid can react with the calcium
carbonate and calcium hydroxide present to form gypsum (calcium sulphate). Gypsum
reacts with calcium aluminates in the concrete to form ettringite. Both gypsum and
particularly ettringite formation cause an increase in the volume of the affected concrete.
This results in the expansion and weakening of the concrete and its eventual exfoliation
and dissolution. Etching of cement and exposure of aggregate are typical early signs of
the attack of acidic effluent on concrete.
Federal, state, local authorities and industry organisations in Australia are involved in the development of
legislation and policies to address the environmental issues related to acid sulphate soils. This has included
the development of a national strategy for the management, identification and mapping of the extent of ASS
particularly for Australian coastal regions (Australian Soil Resource Information System (ASRIS) website,
RTA 2005a). Additional information on the risk management and occurrence of acid sulphate soils is
available (Thomas et al. 2003).
It should be noted that the term ‘acid sulphate soils’ includes both potential acid sulphate soils and actual
acid sulphate soils.
• Potential acid sulphate soils (PASS) are soils or sediments that contain iron sulphides and/or other
sulphide minerals that have not been oxidised by exposure to air. The field pH of these soils in their
undisturbed state is more than pH 4 and is commonly neutral to alkaline (pH 7 to pH 9). These soils or
sediments are invariably saturated with water in their natural state. The waterlogged layer may be peat,
clay, loam, silt, or sand and is usually dark grey and soft but may also be dark brown, or medium to pale
grey to white.
• Actual acid sulphate soils (AASS) are soils or sediments that contain iron sulphides and/or other sulfidic
minerals that have previously undergone some oxidation to produce sulphuric acid. This results in
existing acidity (pH < 4) and often a yellow and/or red mottling (jarosite/iron oxide) in the soil profile.
AASS commonly also contain residual un-oxidised iron sulphides or potential acidity as well as existing
acidity.

The soils and sediments that are most prone to becoming acid sulphate soils are those which formed within
the last 10 000 years, after the last major sea level rise. When the sea level rose and inundated the land,
sulphate in the seawater mixed with land sediments containing iron oxides and organic matter. Under these
anaerobic conditions, lithotrophic bacteria such as Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans form iron sulphides (pyrite). Up
to a point, warmer temperatures are more favourable conditions for these bacteria, creating a greater
potential for formation of iron sulphides. Tropical waterlogged environments, such as mangrove swamps or
estuaries, may contain higher levels of pyrite than those formed in more temperate climates.
The pyrite is stable until it is exposed to air, at which point the pyrite oxidises and produces sulphuric acid.
The impacts of acid sulphate soil leachate may persist over a long time, and/or peak seasonally (after dry
periods with the first rains).
The Roads and Maritime NSW has produced guidelines for managing acid sulphate soils (RTA 2005a).
Information on the location and distribution of acid sulphate soil in Australia is available from the CSIRO and
the ASRIS website online database, which is a major part of the Atlas of Australian Acid Sulphate Soils
(CSIRO website; ASRIS website; CSIRO Atlas). Additional information on acid sulphate soil may be found
(CSIRO 2003, Sammut & Lines-Kelly 2000).
4.1.9 Physical Damage
Physical damage is defined as the damage caused to a concrete structure due to an external force or
loading pattern as distinct from the chemical attack of the concrete matrix. The following types and causes of
physical damage are noted:
• cracking and spalling due to overloading of structural elements
• impact damage and abrasion of surfaces due to vehicles
• fire on or below a bridge
• abrasion of surfaces due to water-borne debris and suspended sediments in high velocity streams.
Cracking
Refer to Section 2.9.1.
Spalling
Apart from spalling caused by corrosion of reinforcing steel, pieces of concrete may detach from the
structure as a result of local over-stressing, overloading, impact, excessive relative movement of one or more
components or fire damage. Figure 4.9 shows a spall caused by seismic movement.

Figure 4.9: Spall caused by seismic movement
Surface erosion
Surface erosion will remove the dense, impermeable surface layers of cement paste and reduce the depth of
effective cover to the steel. The principal mechanisms of surface erosion are:
• soft water (i.e. water with little dissolved mineral matter) that leaches components of the hydrated cement
paste, softening the surface of the exposed concrete
This is commonly observed on concrete piers, piles and abutments where immersed at river level. The
softened surface is vulnerable to removal by water flow with or without suspended particles.
• freeze-thaw cycles causing gradual and continual removal of surface mortar and aggregate exposed to
frost, e.g. on wing walls and kerbs (Figure 4.10)
• abrasion by solid particles erodes the concrete surfaces of piles, abutments or piers at bed level in rivers
with a high bed load
• salt scaling caused by the crystallisation of salt crystals in the surface layers of concrete.
It extends several millimetres in depth
Distinctive white salt deposits are visible.
• surface wear due to traffic and minor surface erosion due to weather and water.

Figure 4.10: Surface mortar can be removed by frost
Drainage and leakage of water
Staining, biological growths and efflorescence may indicate where surface water has leaked through deck
joints (Figure 4.11), inadequate drainage detailing has directed water over concrete surfaces, ground water
has leaked through cracks and construction joints in abutments, or blocked drains, gutters and weep holes
may have caused water to seep through cracks. Reinforcement corrosion is commonly associated with such
water flow.
Figure 4.11: Staining on the pier headstock indicating failure of deck joint
Source: ARRB Group (n.d.).

4.1.10 Freeze/Thaw
The transition of water to ice produces an increase in volume of 9%. For saturated concrete this volume
increase will cause spalling of the affected concrete. The limiting value of the water content causing damage
to occur depends on:
• the age of the concrete
• pore size distribution and the pore shape
• the rate of cooling and frequency of freeze/thaw cycles
• any drying out which may occur between freeze/thaw cycles.
4.1.11 Fire Damage
Concrete
Concrete has high thermal insulating properties and provides a high level of fire protection. However, high
intensity fires will cause damage to concrete and possibly reinforcing and prestressing steel, depending on
the temperature and duration of the fire (Figure 4.12).
Concrete begins to lose strength when heated to 100 °C. A permanent loss of 25% of strength occurs when
concrete is heated to 250 °C. Fire damaged concrete will exhibit a change in colour.
The assessment of the structural implications of fire damage to a concrete bridge will require input from
concrete specialists with experience in fire damage. The assessment will require the extraction of cores from
the affected areas to establish the extent of damage. The need for the imposition of a load limit or a
temporary closure should be carefully considered in the first instance until a detailed inspection is carried out.
It is important to establish the depth/temperature profile in the concrete. The depth of fire damage can be
measured by detecting the depth of the 250 °C isotherm, as this is the lowest temperature with a clear
indication of fire effect in the form of a colour change. The depth of the 100 °C isotherm can then be
determined by extrapolating from the 250 °C isotherm.
AS 5100.5 specifies provisions for design for fire resistance, particularly it provides a methodology to
address the structural performance of concrete components under hydrocarbon fire, which was not
addressed in the 2004 version. Various temperature-dependant factors are specifies to modify the material
properties of concrete, steel reinforcement and prestressing tendons at elevated temperatures.
Refer also to AS 5100.8 for provisions on the assessment of fire-affected concrete. Methods specified
include visual inspection, concrete coring, strength assessment, petrographic examination, and structural
analysis.
Mild steel
Higher reinforcement grades that are cold worked steel will be affected if the steel temperature exceeds 400
°C. In the case of prestressing steel, the material is affected by temperatures > 100 °C.
The affects of the fire also include the loss of:

• protection to the reinforcement from the effect on the cover concrete, and hence the long-term durability
• composite action of decks due to effects on the reinforcing steel
• anchorage for reinforcing steel
• effective section which affects concrete compression and shear.

Figure 4.12: Fire damage to Yowaka River Bridge
4.2 Protection of Concrete in Adverse Environments
4.2.1 Environmental Exposure Classifications
The environmental exposure classifications have been revised in the recent revision of AS 5100.5. The
exposure classification C, for maritime structures in sea water, has been split into C1 for the spray zone
(above 1.0 m above wave crest level), and C2 for the tidal splash zone (1.0 m below lowest astronomical tide
and up to 1.0 m above the highest astronomical tide, and all exposed soffits of horizontal structures over the
sea).
4.2.2 Minimum Requirements for Concrete Materials in Adverse Environments
Minimum requirements have been set out in AS 5100.5 for concrete materials in adverse environments.
These requirements include minimum yield strength, 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐′ , minimum cement content, maximum water/cement
ratio, minimum initial curing requirements, minimum average compressive strength at the time of accelerated
curing and/or at the time of stripping forms or removal from moulds and minimum compliant cement material
proportions.

Refer to AS 5100.5 for particular requirements for concrete structures in the aggressive conditions such as
sulphate and acid sulphate soils, saline soils, and marine environments.
4.2.3 Concrete Cover Thickness
The selection of concrete cover thickness is based on exposure classification (in accordance with
AS 5100.5). Refer to Section 2.10.1.
4.2.4 Curing
Proper curing of concrete after placement is the first and most important step for concrete protection and
should not be overlooked. Specification requirements must be carefully complied with.
To ensure the long-term durability enhancement of SCM concretes (Section 4.2.5), moist curing is highly
recommended. Curing compounds are less effective for SCM concretes with high cement replacement levels
in marine and other aggressive environments. However, they are better than no curing.
Refer to Section 2.11.10 for further information on curing methods.
4.2.5 SCMs
Refer to Section 2.5 for descriptions of SCMs.
Chemical compounds of SCMs
There are two main groups of reactions responsible for strength development in modern concretes that
incorporate SCMs. The first and main group is the hydration of hydraulic cement compounds. The second
reaction is known as the pozzolanic reaction. Pozzolanic reaction occurs between an added pozzolan, as a
mineral admixture, and the lime produced during hydration of the hydraulic cement. Fly ash and silica fume
have pozzolanic properties, while slag has primarily the properties of hydraulic cement.
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of pulverised coal in thermal power plants. By oxide analysis, it is
predominantly composed of silica, with alumina, oxides of iron and minor amounts of other oxides and
organic matter. Blast furnace slag is a mixture of lime, silica and alumina with small quantities of other
materials (magnesia, alkalis, etc.). It is developed in a molten form simultaneously with iron in a blast
furnace. Rapid chilling with high pressure, high volume water sprays, forms a glassy (amorphous) granular,
coarse sand-like material known as granulated iron blast-furnace slag.
It should be noted that not all fly ash and blast furnace slag materials have the chemical properties that result
in the enhancement of concrete durability. Hence the need for testing of proposed materials for compliance
to specifications.
Silica fume is produced in submerged arc furnaces used to manufacture ferro-silicon and silicon metal alloys.
SCM and concrete protection
Most of the desirable attributes of SCM concretes depend on the combinations of paste enhancement, water
reduction and pozzolanic activity, resulting in refinement of the pore distribution in the paste fraction of the
concrete, and hence enhancing physical resistance. Also SCM concretes have high chemical resistance in
different aggressive environments. SCMs often tend to be finer than cement and hence provide a smaller
pore structure in the cement, which enables hydration products to more effectively fill the voids within the
matrix.

For marine exposure, SCM concretes in general perform better than would be predicted from physical
resistance enhancement alone. This is due to a high chemical resistance. The chemical resistance, in
respect to this environment, is the ability of SCM concretes to chemically bind the harmful chloride ions in
concrete.
The use of SCM enhances the concrete resistance to the deleterious expansion of AAR, where aggregate of
potential AAR is incorporated in the concrete mix. However, the use of silica fume in concretes for the
purpose of suppressing AAR is contentious. One issue is the fact that the silica fume tends to aggregate in
lumps, which can actually cause AAR. The natural silica product used in New Zealand is not prone to this
problem.
When properly cured, concretes containing SCM have superior sulphate and acid resistance than concretes
without SCM.
4.2.6 Waterproofing Membranes
Waterproofing membranes are increasingly being used particularly on bridge decks. The main materials
used at this stage (based on economics) are rubberised or polymer modified bituminous surface treatments,
slurry seals and some bituminous proprietary products. Some sheet membranes have been used
(Section 2.11.6).
4.2.7 Protective Coatings
Protective coatings play a key role in the overall repair process. They are characterised by their ability to
prevent the ingress into the concrete of water, oxygen, deleterious materials such as chlorides, carbon
dioxide, and other aggressive liquids or vapour.
Materials which are commonly used to formulate proprietary coating systems for the protection of concrete
include organic and inorganic generic types of materials such as polyurethane resins, polymer modified
Portland and blended cements, epoxy resins, chlorinated rubber, acrylic resins, vinyl ester, bituminous and
silane/siloxane.
Protective coatings and treatments are required to have a range of properties to ensure an effective and
durable protection of concrete. These include adherence to the concrete surface, alkali resistance, ability to
accommodate movements in the concrete, resistance to chalking, UV radiation, water, chloride and carbon
dioxide ingress and penetration capability for pore lining.
In terms of carbonation, film-forming coatings such as acrylics, epoxies and polyurethanes are effective
barriers. Pigmented coatings give much better protection and decorative finish and are more durable than
unpigmented coatings.
It should be noted that where deterioration has already begun, but is not yet visible, the application of a
protective coating will prevent further ingress of corrosive agents, but will not halt the deterioration process.
Therefore, protective coatings are best applied to the fresh concrete before exposure to adverse
environments.
In order to ensure the quality of application, tests should be specified before and after the application of the
coatings. Prior to application of the coatings these include surface moisture condition of the concrete
substrate and moisture content to demonstrate that it is free of water back-pressure. After application tests
may include bond strength and wet and dry film thickness to confirm compliance with the materials
manufacturer’s specification and depth of penetration of the pore lining penetrant.
Coatings used as part of a repair system must be compatible with the other components of the repair
system.

4.2.8 Hydrophobic Impregnating Materials
Silane/siloxane materials are hydrophobic impregnating materials that do not form a thin film on the concrete
surface. These materials impregnate the concrete and react with the moisture and silicates present in the
cement, thus modifying the concrete surface to form a water repellent but vapour permeable (breathable)
barrier.
Silanes/siloxanes prevent contamination by preventing water containing salts and other deleterious
substances from entering the concrete. However, being vapour permeable they have low resistance to
carbon dioxide and are not effective against carbonation.
Re-application of the material at the time interval recommended by the manufacturer is required for the
ongoing protection of the concrete.
There is an extensive range of commercial products available. Roads and Maritime has conducted extensive
testing of the efficacy of the currently available silanes/siloxanes. Information on the test results can be
obtained from the Roads and Maritime.
4.2.9 Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors based on calcium nitrites have been extensively used overseas in reinforced concrete
structures. Such corrosion inhibitors are now available in the Australian market. From a study by the Roads
and Maritime, calcium nitrite, when appropriately used, can extend the service life of reinforced structures in
marine environments. However, calcium nitrite inhibitors retard the curing of concrete and this has to be
properly managed. The user of corrosion inhibitors requires specialised advice as they have the potential to
reduce the durability of concrete as well as enhancing it.
Typical types of corrosion inhibitors include (Metrohm Autolab n.d.):

• Anodic inhibitors: by using ions such as chromates, nitrates, tungstate to create a protective oxide film on
the surface of the metal which causes a large anodic shift of the corrosion potential and forces the
metallic surface into the passivation region.
• Cathodic inhibitors: by using cathodic poisons, or oxygen scavengers that react with dissolved oxygen, to
slow the cathodic reaction to limit the diffusion of reducing species to the surface. Cathodic poisons,
however, can also increase the susceptibility of a metal to hydrogen induced cracking.
• Mixed inhibitors: by using inhibitors such as silicates and the phosphates to reduce both the cathodic and
anodic reactions.
4.2.10 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection (CP) of reinforced concrete is a practical long-term solution for the protection of new
bridges and for the rehabilitation of bridges suffering from chloride-induced corrosion.
The principle of the operation of a CP system is based on reversing the flow of electrical currents that sustain
the corrosion process. This is achieved by imposing a direct external current source into the system via an
external anode. The impressed current is transferred through the concrete matrix to the embedded
reinforcement.
New bridges
In the case of new bridges the electrical connectivity of the reinforcement has to be verified prior to the
pouring of concrete. Provision for CP at construction (electrical connectivity and installation of cabling and
junction boxes) is a very economical method of ensuring future protection of the reinforcement.

Existing bridges
The use of CP on existing bridges is a very cost-effective alternative to the difficult and extensive removal of
chloride-contaminated concrete surrounding the steel reinforcement and the subsequent ongoing repair
operations required to achieve the life expectancy of a structure. However, it may be difficult to obtain full
electrical connectivity for the system to operate.
CP systems
There are a number of CP systems available. Each system or combination of systems can differ in terms of
design life, ease of installation, aesthetic effect on the structure, imposition of dead loads, cost, degree of
access requirements and suitability for particular structural components. Expert advice from corrosion
engineers is essential.
Some of the systems used are:

• internal anode/water-soil anode combination
• titanium mesh/cementitious overlay
• slotted/water-soil anode combination
• mesh or slotted ribbon anodes with overwrap systems
• impressed current soil anode
• spray zinc/sacrificial anodes combination.
Overwrap systems are only considered appropriate for small to medium size columns/bridges where
aesthetic appearance is not considered a problem. Sacrificial and sprayed zinc systems are uncomplicated,
require very little maintenance, are self-regulating and can be installed at low initial cost. They are also only
considered appropriate for small to medium size columns/bridges.
Side effects of CP include possible acid attack at the anode/concrete interface and hydrogen embrittlement
of prestressing steels due to over-protection and potential for AAR due to the increase in alkalinity at the
steel. Other problems could include electrical short circuits and galvanising. Such potential problems can be
overcome with careful diagnostic assessment, design, installation and subsequent monitoring and
maintenance.
All cathodic protection systems should be installed with a remote monitoring capability to provide readily
available information on their performance. The systems should be controlled centrally by people with
expertise in CP systems.
The use of CP impressed current systems is preferred to galvanic CP on bridges. Galvanic CP systems
cannot be remote monitored.
4.3 Durability Assessment Techniques
Cautionary Note: The limitations of investigation and inspection techniques used for the assessment of
existing bridges are highlighted in Middleton and Lea (2004).
4.3.1 Desktop Investigation
An integral part of the investigation of deteriorated structures is the collation and review of background
information, including drawings, specifications, construction records, details of previous investigations and
repairs, and other historical data.

4.3.2 Visual Inspection
A visual inspection is one of the most important steps in a detailed site investigation and will basically detect
obvious indications of concrete deterioration such as cracks, stains, spalls and physical damage. Visual
inspection will not, however, give any information on the possible contamination or deterioration of
apparently sound concrete.
4.3.3 Defect Mapping
A comprehensive investigation of a deteriorated concrete structure will include the mapping of identifiable
defects and the locations where other test procedures are performed. Defects will include:
• cracking
• scaling – local flaking or peeling away of the surface portion of hardened concrete or mortar
• spalling – concrete fragments, usually detached from the parent concrete
• efflorescence – deposition of white salts or lime mortar on the concrete surface
• honeycombing – clear evidence of voids or spaces between the coarse aggregate particles
• dampness – wet or moist areas of concrete
• joint leakage – water and contaminated fluids originating from the road surface.
4.3.4 Measurement of Crack Development
Crack development over a period of time can be measured using various methods including optical
equipment and electrical strain gauges. The Demec gauge, a mechanical strain gauge, is another simple
way to measure crack movements with studs fixed permanently on either side of appropriate cracks. This is
only necessary for critical cracks. Visual estimates are sufficient for most situations. Pen sized optical crack
measurers and comparator cards with lines of varying thicknesses are suitable for most requirements. The
extent, width and date of observation should be recorded in records and on the component.
The measurement of crack movement is important in establishing whether a crack is live or not, so that the
appropriate repair method can be adopted.
4.3.5 Cover Surveys
The depth of cover, size and location of reinforcement can be measured with electromagnetic cover meters.
Note that that the instrument must be calibrated to the size of bar and anticipated depth. Cover readings
should be analysed statistically.
Cover surveys are correlated with other elements of the investigation, including defect mapping, carbonation
depths and chloride profiles.
4.3.6 In Situ Compression Testing
A number of destructive and non-destructive tests are available to measure the surface hardness of concrete
and hence predict strength. The most commonly used device is the non-destructive rebound hammer called
the Schmidt hammer. Other tests include the Windsor probe test, pull-off test, internal fracture and surface
hardness. Significant skill and training are required to use all types of equipment.

4.3.7 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
Ultrasonic testing utilises sound waves at frequencies above the audible range to measure the integrity of
objects. This method consists of measuring the time required for an ultrasonic pulse to travel through bridge
structural members. Cracks or voids within a material will increase the transit time of an ultrasonic pulse
versus a solid material of the same dimension. This time difference is measured and used to accurately
determine the thickness and depth of a crack or void.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity technique is similar to the ultrasonic testing which measures the speed of travel
of a pulse through concrete and is used for relative strength assessment and the detection of voids,
delamination, under-compaction and honeycombing. The presence of steel reinforcement can affect pulse
velocity values and needs to be considered when interpreting test results.
4.3.8 Ground Penetrating Radar
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been used successfully to assess the extent of defects in concrete
members. Applications have included the assessment of flotation of voids in prestressed planks and to
determine the extent of voids in the web of a prestressed box girder. GPR detects and analyses how
electromagnetic waves propagate through a material. This method is a powerful method of non-destructive
evaluation because it is relatively insensitive to ambient conditions and is effective with and without asphalt
overlays.
4.3.9 Permeability and Water Absorption
Determination of the permeability, water absorption and volume of permeable voids (interconnected void
space) can give a good indication of the quality of the concrete microstructure and its ability to limit the rate
of ingress of aggressive agents such as chlorides and carbon dioxide.
4.3.10 Half-cell Method
This method is used to detect corrosion in reinforced steel concrete by measuring the potential difference
(voltage) between the steel and a half-cell apparatus. The half-cell apparatus, which is usually made of
copper or copper sulphate, is used as a voltage reference source. The relative probability of corrosion
activity can be determined based on the measured potential difference by the empirical method.
4.3.11 Delamination Detection Machinery
In this method, a delamination detection machinery is moved across the concrete deck and measures the
reflection of acoustic signals sent to the deck. The reflected signals are then electronically interpreted to
determine the delaminated areas.
4.3.12 Infrared Thermography
This method uses an infrared camera to measure the emitted infrared radiation from a concrete member to
detect cracks. Infrared thermography can be divided into two major groups: passive and active
thermography. Active thermography involves intentionally heating or cooling a surface before it is tested to
induce temperature differences; while in passive thermography, the testing is done without any induced
external heating or cooling. The passive approach is the most common approach for bridge inspection.
4.3.13 Concrete Sampling
Concrete sampling is undertaken by taking cores from the member in question. The requirements for the
minimum diameter, aspect ratio, number, specimen conditioning, testing and age correction factor are set out
in specifications and the relevant standards.

A number of tests can be undertaken on the cores to assess the quality and quantity of the main physical
and chemical characteristics of the concrete, including:
• visual assessment of integrity
• petrographic description of aggregates
• chloride content
• concrete density
• compressive strength
• cement content
• water cement ratio
• concrete permeability to water and air
• volume of permeable voids.
The following test methods specified in AS 1012 are applicable to (cylindrical) concrete cores taken from an
existing concrete member for the determination of the compressive strength to estimate the member’s
in-service strength:
• Method 9: determination of the compressive strength of concrete specimens
• Method 14: method for securing and testing cores from hardened concrete for compressive strength.
For cored specimens, the relevant criteria of AS 1012.14 is used to determine acceptability of cored
specimens. Refer to AS 1012.14 for a guidance on securing cores.
Increased accuracy is obtained in estimating the strength of the member when more cores are secured. At
least three cores should be taken for each sample. AS 1012.14, however, does not provide a method for
applying standard deviation with number of samples.
NZTA Bridge manual (NZ Transport Agency 2016) provides a method for determining the characteristic
strength of materials acting individually, e.g. concrete compressive strength, by a statistical analysis of test
results, as in Equation 1.
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑋𝑋� − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1
where
𝑓𝑓 = the characteristic strength of the individual material
𝑋𝑋� = The mean of the group of test results
k = a one-sided tolerance limit factor
s = the standard deviation of the test results
The value of k is determined on the basis that at least a proportion (P) of the population will be greater than
the value calculated with a confidence (α). A table is provided in NZ Transport Agency (2016) for the
selection of k. It is recommended that for concrete, (P) and (𝛼𝛼) should both be 0.90. The value of k varies
greatly with the number of test results, n. For example, k = 10.253 with n = 2, k = 4.258 for n = 3, k = 2.742
for n = 5.

5. Grouts and Mortars
5.1 Grouts
Grouts are used in bridgeworks in a number of applications including:

• the grouting of ducts in post-tensioned prestressed concrete members after the stressing operation to
provide corrosion protection for the prestressing steel
The prestressing steel will consist of either bar, strand or wire.
• the grouting of permanent rock anchors to provide bond to develop the anchor capacity and provide
corrosion protection for the tendon.
• the grouting of the ducts of tie-backs that are used to provide stability to retaining walls and abutments
The grout provides corrosion protection for the steel tendon resisting the forces involved.
• as a surface primer on the hardened concrete at construction joints.
Grout consists of neat cement and water mixed to the specified water/cement ratio to provide the required
performance requirements. In some instances fine aggregate may be used but its nominal maximum
aggregate size is limited to 1 mm.
The performance requirements are:

• strength – which is controlled by cement properties and water/cement ratio
• fluidity (ability of a batch of grout to be pumped and to flow into voids for the duration of the grouting
operation), which is controlled by the cement particle characteristics and water/cement ratio
• early expansion (to counter shrinkage), which is controlled by the addition of expansive admixtures to
counter early expansion and prevent segmentation of the grout
• bleed characteristics – to ensure excess water does not remain after hydration is completed. Any excess
water will collect in high points of ducts in prestressed concrete girders and in the ducts of vertically
prestressed concrete columns and this is unacceptable from a corrosion protection point of view.
The specification requirements for cement and fine aggregate for grout are the same as those required for
concrete.
Standard specifications for grout specify standard test methods and acceptance criteria for performance
requirements. The use of iron or aluminium powders as expanding admixtures is precluded by standard
specifications.
The grout mix design for a project may be developed through a testing program. Alternatively, a proprietary
grout may be used provided testing is carried out to confirm the product complies with all requirements of the
specification. This includes performance requirements and material properties and the use of approved
admixtures.
Some state road authorities preclude the use of premixed grouts for mortar pads (Section 6.2.1).
Grouting is a critical activity and needs to be strictly controlled. The fact that it is extremely difficult to assess
the quality of grouting after completion makes the need for strict supervision of the process imperative.
Hi-flow grout has been introduced recently in bridge construction for such components as bearing plates and
anchorages. Hi-flow grout is characterised by high fluidity for ease in placement, high strength,
non-shrinkage, non-bleeding and non-segregating. It comprises a natural aggregate system with a
shrinkage-compensating binder.

5.2 Mortars
5.2.1 Mortar Types
Cement mortar
Cement mortar is used in bridgeworks in a number of applications, including:

• support of bearings
• support of traffic barrier posts
• support of lighting standards
• support of fixtures including noise barriers
• infill at prestressing anchorage recesses
• infill at the shear-key joints between the recast deck units
• as a bedding layer for bridge deck joints
• minor concrete repairs.
Mortar consists of cement, fine aggregate and water mixed to a specified water/cement ratio to provide the
required performance requirements. The mix proportions of cement/sand ratio will vary depending of the
performance requirements but will generally range from 1:1 to 1:3.
The performance requirements will be determined by:

• specified strength – determined by cement properties and water/cement ratio
• control of shrinkage characteristics
• friction requirements (particularly for elastomeric bearings)
• time to initial set
• accessibility of area
• specified thickness
• plan area
• method of installation of the member – e.g. mortar pad installed prior to or after member is temporarily
supported in position.
Dry pack mortar
In some instances it may be advantageous to use what is referred to as ‘dry pack mortar’. For a dry pack
cement mortar the amount of water used in the mix is only that sufficient to ensure hydration of the cement.
The cement mortar is compacted in place by hammering in vertical layers under a horizontal base plate of a
component. This results in a high strength, high density mortar which does not slump ensuring uniform
bearing over the base plate being supported. The use of dry pack mortar will require the use of packing,
usually in the form of steel wedges, to support the component until the cement mortar has cured. When the
cement mortar has cured the wedges are removed and additional dry pack mortar installed in the gap
remaining.
Curing
It should be noted that cement mortar requires the same curing regime as concrete to ensure the required
strength is obtained and to prevent drying shrinkage cracking. The general tendency on construction projects
is for a lack of attention to the curing of mortar.

Surface preparation
The concrete surface on which the mortar is to be placed should be scabbled to remove surface laitance. It
should also be saturated to prevent the hardened concrete absorbing moisture from the wet mortar resulting
in a loss of strength and increased drying shrinkage. The surface should be primed immediately prior to
installation of the mortar with a cement grout to enhance adhesion.
Polymer mortar
In some instances, bridge designers may specify a polymer mortar rather than a cement mortar. In a polymer
mortar the cement binder is replaced with a polymer such as epoxy resin.
Polymer binders are available in a range of types and characteristics depending on the application. For
example, thixotropic binder polymers are available that will produce a mortar than will not flow under gravity.
For detailed information on polymer binders and mortars consult the manufacturers such as Epirez, Sika and
Vivacity Engineering.
Cautionary Note: (1) The use of proprietary premixed grouting compounds for bridge bearing mortar pads is
precluded by some state road authority standard specifications. (2) The use of polymer mortar for
elastomeric bearings is problematic because of the lack of friction on the top surface of the mortar. The
potential exists for the bearings to ‘walk out’ if the friction allows the bearing to slide rather than shear under
horizontal loads.
5.2.2 Mortar Pad Set Up
It is imperative that mortar pads conform to the drawing requirements in terms of position, dimensions and
reduced level. Instances have occurred where the top surface of mortar pads for bearings has cast out of
level and as a consequence has used part of the rotational capacity of the bearing in compensating for the
error.
5.2.3 Mortar Pad Problems
Mortar pad problems include:

• cracking – lack of curing, lack of thickness, lack of strength
• drumming, edge lifting – lack of curing, lack of bond, concrete substrate dry when mortar placed,
expansive mortar used with no constraints.

6. Metallic Materials – Material Characteristics
6.1 Historic Development
The modern steels that are used in bridges today are the result of the long development of metallic materials
over many centuries. Each step in the process resulted in the refinement of material properties to meet the
need for different bridge forms.
Iron
Iron is the most important of the industrial metals. Its three basic alloys, cast iron, wrought iron and steel, are
the world’s cheapest and most useful metals. They have made a significant contribution to the development
of modern civilisation, particularly since the start of the industrial revolution over 200 years ago. From bridges
to railways, ships, motor vehicles, machinery, canned foods, knives and forks, even reinforced and
prestressed concrete, iron and steel have played a fundamental role.
Iron is a generic term that can be applied to the pure element, iron, or to its alloys, particularly cast iron and
wrought iron, but not generally to steel because it has proved to be ‘something different’ and is by far the
more important and dominant metal. Steel bridges are usually referred to as metal bridges, not iron bridges,
such is the important distinction between the two.
The three basic iron alloys consist almost entirely of two elements, iron and carbon, with iron usually in
excess of 95% and carbon at a maximum of 4%. Addition of silicon assists in the casting process. Special
alloys have other elements added, usually at the expense of the iron, in order to achieve particular
characteristics. For example, non-corrodible stainless steel has 12–30% chromium and some nickel,
whereas manganese imparts hardness and long wearing qualities.
When viewed through a microscope, iron appears as a collection of grains. Pure iron has a useful strength
(equal in tension and compression), is easily worked into shapes by rolling or forging (it is malleable) and is
weldable. When overstressed, it deforms by a large amount before breaking (it is ductile), but it is relatively
soft and so is easily abraded. Wrought iron is almost pure iron but it is the result of an expensive
manufacturing process. Any impurities in wrought iron are as inclusions between grains of iron.
Carbon
The introduction of carbon changes all the basic characteristics of iron, initially for the better then gradually
for the worse. As little as 0.10–0.25% creates mild steel, which is a much stronger metal than wrought iron
because the carbon is held as an alloy with the iron atoms in the grains causing a locking action that resists
deformations. However, malleability, ductility and weldability remain good. Being readily rolled into plates,
bars, wire and a large range of structural shapes, it is the most widely used steel. Its manufacturing process,
originally using large, open-hearth furnaces, now mostly replaced by the modern basic oxygen steelmaking
converter furnace, allows huge quantities to be made much more cheaply than wrought iron.
As the amount of carbon increases, it continues its locking action but begins to push the iron atoms apart.
The introduction of around 0.45% carbon creates high strength steel with a doubling of strength but at the
expense of a significant loss of malleability, ductility and weldability. Loss of ductility means an increase in
brittleness, hence, high strength steels are more susceptible to brittle failure. The higher the carbon content
the more brittle the steel, and hence the more susceptible the steel is to brittle failure. The higher strength
has little effect on the susceptibility of the steel to fatigue under cyclic loading, so the combined effect of the
more brittle behaviour and the fatigue behaviour renders very high strength steel unsuitable for general
structural use. By the time the percentage of carbon reaches 1%, strength is still high but the other
characteristics are unsuitable for structural use, such as bridges. However, the steel is very hard and is
therefore widely used for machine parts and tools.

At 2%, the carbon can no longer be held within the grains, and so precipitates out, with the iron and carbon
being separate phases and grey cast iron is the result, with the carbon separating as flake graphite. It has
useful compression but negligible tensile strength. It cannot be rolled or worked but has improved fluidity
suitable for casting into moulds, hence the name cast iron. Under load, particularly in tension, the flake
graphite promotes fracture of grey cast iron without signs of distress as it is now brittle (a dangerous
condition) and so it cannot be welded. It has become a niche product suitable for particular applications such
as columns in buildings and trestles for bridges. The addition of magnesium to the cast iron was found in the
1940s to cause the carbon to separate out as spherical nodules. This provides a significant increase in
toughness and fatigue resistance, this variant is known as nodular cast iron or spheroidal graphite cast iron.
At 4% carbon the metal is useful only where sheer mass is desirable, such as engine blocks for motor
vehicles.
Historically, steel and high strength steels have been used for two thousand years but mainly in weaponry,
particularly for swords. The high costs of labour intensive production and the small quantities produced
meant that steel was not available for general use, such as for bridges. But cast iron was well known and
widely used. It was cheaper to make and large quantities could be produced.
The first metal bridge, the 1776 Coalbrookdale Bridge on the Severn River in the United Kingdom, was an
open, lightweight arch, a basic compression structure, for which cast iron was ideal and affordable (Figure
6.1).
Figure 6.1: Coalbrookdale cast iron bridge
Source: Austroads (2001).
Concurrently, ironmakers were experimenting with methods to refine cast iron, as had been done by
blacksmiths for centuries, but in economic quantities. The most successful method was developed by Henry
Cort in England in 1783. His ‘puddling’ process raised a quantity of cast iron to a spongy white-hot mass that
was beaten under a forge hammer (it was wrought or worked or shaped) such that the impurities and the
carbon were oxidised and squeezed out as a slag. The process was repeated a number of times until a
uniform mass of near pure iron was obtained. It was malleable and was able to be worked into many forms,
merchant bars or structural sections. This was wrought iron.

Wrought iron
Wrought iron was an outstanding contribution to iron technology and increased production from one ton per
day to 15 tons per day. This process provided the means for making pure iron of reasonably uniform quality
and in quantities needed for the great industrial expansion of the early 1800s. Wrought iron became the
major civil engineering material for railways and bridges where the brittleness of cast iron made it
unacceptably dangerous. However, when appropriately used, a mix of cast iron and wrought iron elements
could create useful bridges in which compression members are cast iron and tension members are wrought
iron. There are some 200-year-old examples still in use in England and Europe, and wrought iron structures
in Australia that are approaching 150 years.
The quest to further improve wrought iron continued. Experience had shown that small amounts of carbon
could increase strength, but the manufacturing process beat it all out again. A new process was required.
Steel
The breakthrough came in 1856 when Henry Bessemer invented his converter, which was basically an iron
pot with holes at the bottom by which air or oxygen could be blown through a molten mass of cast iron to
oxidise the impurities in only about 20 minutes. The resulting pure iron could then be transferred to another
furnace where pre-determined amounts of carbon, or any other alloying material, could be added. A technical
process for the production of steel had been invented. This development sat dormant for almost 100 years
because oxygen was not available both in adequate quantity and at an economic price. In the 1940s,
research in Austria used the Bessemer invention and tonnage oxygen to develop the commercially viable
Linx-Donawitz (LD) process, initially as a 30 tonne oxygen converter. It led to the mass production, in now up
to 400 tonne BOS converters, of uniformly reliable, low cost steel which was stronger than wrought iron, was
equally strong in tension and compression, malleable, ductile and tough.
6.2 Cast Iron
Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals used in construction. It is primarily composed of iron, carbon and
silicon but may also contain traces of sulphur, manganese and phosphorous.
It has a relative high carbon content of 2–5%. It is hard, brittle and non-malleable, i.e. cannot be bent,
elongated or hammered into shape. Its structure is crystalline and relatively weak in tension with very low
ductility. Typical properties of cast iron are outlined in Table 6.1.
The most common form is grey cast iron, which can be easily cast but cannot be forged or worked
mechanically.
In grey cast iron the carbon content is in the form of flakes distributed throughout the metal. In the other form
of cast iron, white cast iron, the carbon content is chemically combined as carbide of iron. White cast iron
has superior tensile strength and malleability. It is known as malleable cast iron.

Table 6.1: Typical properties of cast iron
Cast Iron
Period BC – 1920s (Still used in many applications, but in few bridges)
Yield strength – tension (MPa) No yield point – (brittle failure)
Ultimate strength – tension (MPa) 140
Yield strength – compression (MPa) 240
Brittleness Very
Fatigue resistance Poor
Weldability No
Main uses in bridges Pier caissons, bearings
Main fastening method Bolts/rivets
Composition – carbon Above 1.7% (Generally 2-4%)
Other chemical features –
Heat treatable? No
6.2.2 Deterioration Mechanisms
Corrosion – Cast iron is highly susceptible to corrosion when the humidity is above 65%. The rate of
corrosion depends on the type of material, protective coatings used and the severity of exposure. Corrosion
may be accelerated by atmospheric pollutants such as sulphur dioxide.
Graphitisation – Cast iron contains carbon, in the form of graphite, in its molecular structure. It is composed
of a crystalline structure, as are all metals. One condition that can occur in the presence of acid rain and/or
salt or brackish water is graphitisation. Under this condition the stable graphite crystals remain in place but
the less stable iron is converted into somewhat soluble iron oxide and is leached out. As a result the cast iron
retains its shape but has no mechanical strength due to the loss of the iron (Figure 6.2). The corrosion
process is galvanic.
Figure 6.2: Graphitisation of cast iron

Instances have occurred where the loss of section has affected the structural capacity of members to the
point where strengthening was required.
Testing members for the effects of graphitisation involves the coring of the material to ascertain the extent of
the loss of section. Cores should be removed from the member both above and below water level. The tidal
range should also be taken into account when assessing the material.
Grain growth – Over time the crystalline structure changes with the result the grains become larger and the
material becomes more brittle. It is the practice in NSW to replace all cast iron shoes in timber trusses with
fabricated steel shoes in conjunction with other maintenance work.
6.2.3 Cast Iron Applications
Pier caissons and columns – Bridge pier caissons were constructed using cast iron in the lower sections
below the point of fixity where they were subjected to axial loads only. In the sections of the caissons
subjected to combined bending and compressive loads wrought iron was used (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: Wrought iron caissons above ground – cast iron caissons below ground
The level of the connection of the cast iron to wrought iron is important as bank or stream bed scour may
result in the cast iron being subjected to bending for which it was not designed.
Instances have occurred where a combination of bank scour and the freezing of expansion bearings resulted
in additional bending moments to caissons resulting in fracturing of the cast iron.

In some shorter span bridges cast iron was used as pier columns (Figure 6.4). They were usually filled with
stone rubble and grouted.
Figure 6.4: Cast iron columns on timber bridge pier
Cast iron in timber trusses – Cast iron was used on timber truss bridges at the member connections
(Figure 6.5). However, due to the brittleness of the material, cracking of the castings often occurred.
The material was also used in tension rod anchorages, column heads and bearings.

Figure 6.5: Cast iron shoe at lower end of timber truss member
Cast iron repairs – Cast iron cannot be satisfactorily repaired by welding.
6.3 Wrought Iron
Wrought iron was used in a number of road bridges in Australia and New Zealand in the latter part of the 19th
century in forms of trusses and plate web girders (Figure 6.6). In NSW, 25 wrought iron lattice truss road
bridges were built, and in Victoria, wrought iron has been used for a score of lattice and riveted plate bridges.
Many of the bridges survive today, and some are still in service.
Wrought iron is a two component metal consisting of high purity iron and iron silicate, an inert glass-like slag.
The materials are merely mixed and not chemically joined as in an alloy. Slag accounts for 1–3% in the form
of small fibres up to 20 000 per 25 mm of cross-section.
The material has a laminated structure and as a result the transverse strength is significantly lower than the
strength in direction along the laminations.
Refer to AS 5100.7 for information about historical standards for steel and wrought iron.

Figure 6.6: Wrought iron lattice truss
6.3.2 Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing process for wrought iron was labour intensive with the result that the mechanical
properties were highly variable even from the same iron works.
The process was complex, time consuming and required a highly skilled work force. Molten iron was cast
into ingots then stacked in a puddling hearth. It was heated and puddled to remove impurities. The iron was
then transferred to a shingling hammer, which was a giant power hammer capable of earth shattering blows
that formed the iron into a billet. This was then rolled, cut into lengths, restacked, and the whole process
repeated over and over again. The more times the process was repeated, the better quality of the finished
wrought iron. The hammering process squeezed most of the slag out of the iron.
Close examination of the edge of some wrought iron members will reveal a laminated structure (Figure 6.7).
This is indicative of the repeated process of heating, folding over, and hammering to improve the material
properties.
Figure 6.7: Wrought iron plate showing laminar structure
Wrought iron was made in batches or charges of about 200 kg and therefore in 1889 when the British
production was 2.2 million tonnes there would have been about 11 million individual charges in some 5400
iron works. Hence, the highly variable mechanical properties of wrought iron.

6.3.3 Recommendations for Assessment of Existing Wrought Iron Bridges
The structural assessment of a wrought iron bridge requires a rigorous approach in terms of:
• material properties
• connections and second order effects
• inspection
• measure up
• an understanding of the nature of the material and the method of manufacture
• load effects both globally and at member level
• dynamic effects of current heavy loads.
A number of road authorities have carried out structural assessments of wrought iron bridges, which have
included:
• structural modelling
• inspection
• fatigue assessment
• load testing to calibrate structural models
• tensile testing of samples removed from non-critical members
• in situ (non-destructive assessment), laboratory hardness testing and chemical analysis
• testing of small (25 mm diameter) cores from selected members for micrographic examination and
chemical analysis for comparison with those of samples used for tensile testing.
The test results confirm the high variability of the material.
Yield strength
Yield strengths of samples removed from three wrought iron bridges in one state varied markedly. Yield
strengths varied from 237 to 310 MPa. The tensile test also indicated that the thinner plates have higher yield
strengths than thicker plates.
Ultimate tensile strength
The ultimate tensile strength of samples removed from three bridges also varied markedly. UTS varied from
338–427 MPa.
Hardness
The results of testing on samples and in-situ on three bridges indicated that when hardness tests only were
done, some quite low hardness values occurred, which would predict low UTS values and based on a typical
yield to UTS ratio, then some members could have yield strengths as low as 200 MPa.
Ductility
The percentage elongation at failure varied from 9% to 18% that is indicative of a ductile failure. However,
subsequent testing of another bridge resulted in elongation as low as 5%.
These results highlight the variable material properties of wrought iron that result from the differing degrees
of refining and working used by different foundries and at different times within a foundry.

AS/NZS 5100.6 Clause 2.8 states that the minimum characteristic elongation at failure must be 5% for the
design rules for steel to be used to assess the capacity of a wrought iron structure.
Members and connections
Wrought iron rivets were used to construct wrought iron truss members and built-up beams from angles
(100 x 100 x 12), bar (100 x length x 12) and plate (length x to about 1200 x 12). Member-to-member
connections were also achieved using wrought iron rivets.
Assessment of the rivet capacity may necessitate the removal of a section of non-critical member with the
rivets still intact.
Actual member dimensions and thicknesses should be verified on site. Actual edge distances and rivet
layout should also be verified on site. Any section losses due to corrosion should be accounted for in any
structural assessment.
Second order effects at connections should also be investigated.
Weldability
Welding of wrought iron is possible using appropriate electrodes but is not recommended without
investigation because of the possibility of secondary effects. These include the heat input that can cause
cracking on cooling in situations where the member or area of welding is restrained or if the wrought iron
contains significant amounts of phosphorous (> 0.10 %). There is also the risk of lamellar tearing if welding is
carried out on the surface of a member because of the low strength of wrought iron normal to the direction of
laminations. Welding of tension connections subjected to fatigue in particular is to be avoided. Welding may
result in the loss of the laminar structures and may cause the formation of irregular lumps of slag within the
heat-affected zone. These may result in major reductions in fatigue life.
Bolting should be used in preference to welding.
Fatigue
Wrought iron has good fatigue strength. The laminations prevent the propagation of cracks, thus any
cracking has to be re-established as it passes through each lamination.
Any structural assessment should include a fatigue analysis. Fatigue cracks are often initiated at connections
and at pitted and corroded surfaces. However, there is a need to distinguish between cracking that occurred
at fabrication and in service.
6.4 Structural Steel
6.4.1 Modern Steel Properties
The typical properties of the materials described are summarised in Table 6.2 (indicative only). The
properties of materials in existing bridges will vary from one to another. In addition descriptions of metals
have evolved over time as properties have improved. For example, modern iron castings can in fact have a
wide range of properties. Steels have varying strength, depending on their composition – most notably
carbon. Additionally, properties of steels are affected by the rate of cooling, work hardening or cold working.
AS/NZS 5100.6 introduces provisions for use of quenched and tempered steels with a yield strength up to
690 MPa.

Table 6.2: Typical bridge material properties
Cast iron Wrought iron Structural steel

Period
BC–1920s
(Still used in many 1850–1900s 1890s–today
applications, but few in
Properties and bridges)
applications
Yield strength – tension (Brittle, no yield point) 210 220–450
(MPa)
Ultimate strength – tension 140 345 400–600
(MPa)
Yield Strength – 140 210 220–450
Compression (MPa)
Brittleness Very Good Good
Fatigue resistance Poor Best Good
Weldability No Was done by fusion Progressively improved
Welding is problematic –
avoid
Main uses in bridges Pier caissons, bearings Truss members; Trusses, girders, cables
caissons
Main fastening method Bolts/rivets Rivets Rivets then bolting and
welding
Composition – carbon Above 1.7% Low Low
(Generally 2–4%) 0.02–0.04% typical 0.15–0.25%
Other chemical features Silicon around 2% 1–2% ferrous silicate slag in Manganese to 1.7%
long fibres Silicon to 0.2%
Heat treatable? No No No
6.4.2 Hardness
The hardness of steel can be used as an indicator of the tensile strength. The testing of hardness is
generally determined by testing its resistance to deformation. A number of test methods are available
including Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell, and hardness testing can be done in-situ using protable hardness
testers.
Hardness testing can be used in a number of bridge applications including:

• assessment of the variation in strength of older wrought iron and steel where it is not possible to obtain
samples for destructive testing
A statistically significant number of tests are required to enable the testing to identify variations in
strength. It should also be noted that in the case of wrought iron the inherently highly variable
microstructure may give widely scattered results, which must be treated with caution.
• assessing the properties of the heat affected zone (HAZ) of welds
This is best done in the laboratory on prepared polished sections using the Vickers harness test where
the hardness impression is much smaller than the width of the HAZ.
• to determine variations in strength properties (UTS) of steels.
Significant variations in hardness are an indicator of either poor quality control in the original material, or
possibly that different types of steel were used in different parts of the bridge – perhaps to suit required
strength. Also, hardness of steel can be changed by straining it beyond its yield point (work-hardening).

Figure 6.8 shows the stress-strain curve of steel before and after hardening. Whilst the hardened material
will take a higher load before getting to yield, its failure is then brittle. This situation can be rectified by heat
treating, or ‘tempering’ the steel after it has been hardened. The current class of N bars uses a different
process to achieve a similar strength, but with better ductility.
Figure 6.8: Effect of hardening and tempering
Summary
The properties of steel and wrought iron have undergone major changes over the years.
In assessing or repairing any existing steel bridge it is imperative that the particular steel be identified by
carrying out one or more of the following:
• examination of bridge drawings for the nominated steel classification
• hardness testing
• destructive testing to determine tensile strength; the removal of samples from an existing member should
only be undertaken after a structural assessment of the bridge has been carried out to identify suitable
locations; the designer should provide detailed information on the location, sample dimensions, method of
removal and method to restore the member and protective treatment to exposed surfaces
• chemical composition to determine weldability and welding consumables if repairs or welding to the
bridge are required.
Steel manufacturers and National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) certified laboratories offer a
service in metallurgical identification of steels. It is only when the steel is identified and the mechanical
properties and chemical composition are known that a metallurgist can advise on what can and cannot be
done with a particular steel.
6.4.3 Ductility
Ductility is an important property of a metal as it indicates its behaviour at high stress levels. A ductile
material can undergo large plastic deformations (yielding) before failure occurs. This is an important property
for the bridge engineer. It means that if the material is being subjected to excessively high stresses warning
signs will be evident in the form of permanent beam deflections, as opposed to elastic beam deflections that
recover when the load is removed.

Figure 6.9 shows the plastic deformation that occurs in a tensile test of a steel specimen. The plastic
deformation has caused ‘necking’ at the point of failure and an indicator of a ductile material.
Figure 6.9: Tensile test of a steel specimen – ductile failure
Source: Twi-global (2016).
6.4.4 High Strength Steel
Steel strengths have increased over time. The yield stress of ordinary carbon steel has increased from about
180 MPa to over 400 MPa. Modern high strength steels offer economic advantages in steel bridge
construction as less steel mass is required compared to that required when using lower strength steel.
It should be noted that the high strength properties may be lost when the steel is heated, depending on the
process that was used to increase the yield strength. The reduction in strength is a consequence of
metallurgical changes that occur as a result of direct heating or incorrect welding procedures including tack
welding.
High strength steels usually have a lower ductility than lower strength steels. In the past the low ductility
caused brittle fracture, particularly at low temperatures. Modern high strength steels have addressed this
issue, particularly through the use of grain refinement in steel making technology. High strength steels are
prone to hydrogen embrittlement, which occurs when hydrogen diffuses into the steel as a result of exposure
to it. For this reason high strength steel produced by cold working should not be galvanised as hydrogen
embrittlement may occur.
The welding of high strength steel requires an even stricter control of the welding process, compared to
lower grade steels, as there is an increased risk of detrimental effects on the material if the specified welding
procedures are not complied with.

6.5 Aluminium
Pure aluminium has an ultimate tensile strength of about 90 MPa. However, by cold-working the tensile
strength is approximately doubled. The alloying of aluminium with small percentages of other metals such as
manganese, silicon, magnesium or zinc results in much higher tensile strengths.
The alloys are classified into two categories, non-heat treatable and heat treatable.
6.5.2 Non-heat Treatable Alloys
The initial strength of alloys in this group depends on the effects of elements such as manganese, silicon,
iron and magnesium in isolation or in combination. The non-heat treatable alloys are designated in the 1000,
3000, 4000 or 5000 series.
These alloys can be strengthened by work hardening denoted by the H series tempers.
6.5.3 Heat Treatable Alloys
The initial strength of alloys used in this group is enhanced by the addition of alloying elements, which show
increasing strength with increasing temperature.
Using the proper combination of heat treatment, quenching, artificial ageing and cold-working the highest
strengths are obtained.
Temper designation
The basic temper designations and subdivisions are as follows:

• F – as fabricated
• O – annealed, recrystallised
• H – strain hardened
– H1 – strain hardened only
– H2 – strain hardened and then partially annealed
– H3 – strain hardened and then stabilised
• T – thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O or H
– T1 – cooled from elevated temperature and naturally aged at room temperature
– T3 – solution heat treated, cold worked and naturally aged
– T4 – solution heat treated and naturally aged
– T5 – cooled from elevated temperature and artificially aged
– T6 – solution heat treated and artificially aged
– T8 – solution heat treated, cold worked and artificially aged
– T9 – solution heat treated, artificially aged and then cold worked.
It should be noted that specifications for material used in extruded sections in traffic barrier railing and
pedestrian railing are designated as Alloy 6061-T6 and Alloy 6063-T6 respectively.
Typical properties are set out in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Typical properties of aluminium used in bridge applications
Alloy 6061 – T6 6063 – T6

UTS (MPa) 310 241
0.2% yield (MPa) 276 214
Elongation (%) in 50 mm 12 12
The material used in the works is to be tested and certified by a NATA registered laboratory. As set out
above, there is a wide range of materials available. Therefore, identification of the material to be used in the
works is essential.
The test certificates are to be related to the aluminium by trademarks and heat number, which are marked on
each piece.
6.5.5 Welding
Welding of aluminium is to be carried out in accordance with AS/NZS 1665 Welding of Aluminium Structures.
The requirements for welding of steel in regard to weld procedure pre-qualification and welders’ pre-
qualification also apply to aluminium.
Certification is also required that the welding consumables (rods and continuous wire) are compatible with
the material being welded.
6.5.6 Fatigue
The fatigue strength of aluminium is an issue for members subjected to repeated loading. Unlike steel the
fatigue life of aluminium has no lower limit of stress required to cause fatigue damage.
As a consequence a high number of cycles at low stress levels can cause a fatigue failure. An instance has
occurred where the welded connection between the balusters and the bottom rail have cracked after ten
years in service. It is suspected that a sympathetic vertical vibration in the rail induced by the vertical
vibrations in the bridge under traffic loads along with the effects of wind induced vibrations have caused the
failure, as shown in (Figure 6.10).
Figure 6.10: Fracture in aluminium weld

7. Metallic Materials – Connections and Coatings
7.1 Rivets
Prior to the development and acceptance of welding, riveting was the main means of connecting steelwork.
Rivets are typically made from steel or wrought iron with good malleability properties. This means that the
material can be made to change shape without developing cracks or otherwise weakening.
Initially rivets were installed manually. The blank rivet, essentially looking like a cuphead bolt without a
thread, was heated in a small furnace to a cherry red colour. It was removed by tongs and placed in the hole.
With one person leaning against the head, another person with a special shaped hammer beat the other end
into a matching cup shape. As the rivet cooled, its contraction would add to the tightness of the joint already
achieved by the hammering process. This procedure was improved by the use of pneumatically driven tools,
which hammered the rivet head more efficiently – but essentially achieved the same result.
Whilst rivets tend to hold a joint tight, they are not designed to use friction between the connected surfaces.
Rather, they are sized to carry the load in shear across the rivet. Overloaded joints will exhibit enough
movement to indicate that the tolerance in the rivet holes has been used up by movement, plus some more
indicating that the rivets have begun to shear.
The ability of rivets to expand and fill holes during installation made them the perfect fasteners for bridges
that required tight fitting connections. The level of skill required to install rivets is considerably higher than
that to install bolts.
The rivets consisted of a solid cylindrical shank with a manufactured head on one end. The rivets were
heated in the field to a cherry red (approximately 1800–2300 °F which is 980–1260 °C), inserted into the hole
and a head formed on the blunt end with a pneumatic rivet gun. The gun was fitted with the proper die to
form the head by rapid, successive blows to the rivet (Figure 7.1).
Shop riveting was done in a similar fashion except that the rivet was driven in one stroke with a pressure
type riveter.
As the rivet cools it shrinks creating a clamping force between the parts it connects. Measurements have
shown this force to approach the yield load of the rivet. This residual force contributes to the frictional
resistance of the connection, but unlike high strength bolts, which are tightened by a specific procedure, this
force is unpredictable and is not included in the design or utilised in calculating the load capacity of the
bridge.
The inspection and load capacity assessment of existing bridges presents three issues related to rivets:
• the shear capacity of the rivets
• the effect of the degree of corrosion of the rivet head on its capacity
• the effects of long-term shear loads on the rivet material.
A report Reichle (1999) provides useful information on rivet behaviour and the effects of rivet head corrosion.
Refer to Section 8.6.6 for typical defects in rivet connection.

Figure 7.1: Power riveting
Source: State Library of NSW (n.d.).
7.2 Bolts
Bolting has always been used for connections which could not be riveted, or which might need to be undone.
Examples include bolts used for securing bearings. Particularly with the introduction of welding, bolts began
to be used for joints connected on site – so-called ‘field joints’. Field joints are common in truss bridges, but
also in girder bridges where they are used to increase length of the girders plus connect the cross bracing.
High-strength bolting comprises two types, including friction grip with no slip and bearing in which an initial
slip is allowed. Generally, bolted connections of major structural elements of bridges are designed as friction
grip joints.
The steel used in the bolts is a special alloy that will stand much higher stresses than structural steel, and it
will elongate considerably before failure. The nuts are made of material to suit and the washers are hardened
to resist scuffing when the bolts are being tightened.
The tension in the bolt creates friction between parts of the joint, and this friction can transmit forces through
the joints. If the tension in the bolt and the coefficient of friction between the plates are known, the force that
can be transmitted without any movement of the parts can be calculated. All high-strength, friction grip bolted
joints work on this general principle, irrespective of the number and arrangement of the bolts in any joint.
The higher the clamping force created by the bolt and the higher the friction between the components, the
more force can be transmitted between parts of the joint. To bring this principle to a practical level, the
designer assumes a lower limit of bolt tension and a reasonable value for the friction coefficient between the
mating surfaces.
The minimum bolt tension that must be obtained for different bolt diameters is normally stated in the bridge
construction specification. The friction between the contact surfaces of steelwork in reasonable condition is
known. Provided the bolt is correctly tightened and the specification is followed by keeping the contact
surfaces clear of dirt, paint, loose rust, grease, etc., the bolt will transmit the force as expected by the
designer.

Initially bolts were no stronger than the parent metal, but this evolved to the more recent situation where
ordinary bolts (or ‘black’ bolts) are still used for non-structural connections, but all structural joints use high
strength bolts. These have markings to indicate their properties (Figure 7.2). Whereas structural steel has
yield strength of 250, 350 or 450 MPa, high strength bolts go much higher. Table 7.1 indicates current
grades.
Table 7.1: Bolting classification
General Minimum tensile Minimum yield Bolting

Grade Mode of action
description strength MPa strength MPa category
4.6 Commercial 400 240 4.6/S Snug tight
8.8 High strength 830 660 8.8/S Snug tight
8.8/TB Fully tensioned-bearing
8.8/TF Fully tensioned-friction
grip
10.9 Precision 1000 900 Used for specific
applications such as
machine anchors etc.
12.9 Precision 1200 1080
Figure 7.2: Markings for high strength bolts
For bolts to achieve the tension-friction (TF) or tension-bearing (TB) category, they must be tightened to
beyond their yield stress. For TF joints to work, they rely on a known value of friction co-efficient between the
joining surfaces. Care must be taken with these to match the design assumptions for friction. The designer
should specify the condition of the mating surfaces for TF joints, as different coatings will have different
friction characteristics. The most common coating conditions specified are galvanised, hot zinc metal spray,
inorganic zinc primed and organic zinc (zinc epoxy) primed. Top coats are not normally specified as these
are more likely to render the connection ineffective.
Full tensioning is achieved by one of three methods:

• Part-turn method – This utilises the known extension coming from the slope of the thread. The bolt is first
brought to snug tightness, then the nut turned, say 120° to achieve the specified elongation. The degree
of turn required is a function of the length of the bolt.
• Torque control method – Torque control typically utilises a torque wrench or mechanical gun with a clutch,
which slips when the required torque is attained. Particular care is required here with calibration based on
bolts with the same thread friction – putting grease on the threads may result in the gun failing the bolt in
tension before the torque resistance is reached.
• Load indicator method – This uses washers with upstands. The required torque is indicated by the
upstands being closed to a defined gap.
These methods all require sound judgement and field experience to achieve a reliable, repeatable outcome.

It is worth noting that bolts that have been fully tightened cannot be reused as a result of work hardening.
The material has been taken beyond the yield point. Consequently, if a joint is undone for repair etc. it should
be re-made using new bolts.
Material certification together with random sampling and testing are recommended for metallic connection
products. As with reinforcing and prestressing, steel bolts are now imported into Australia and New Zealand
from a number of countries. This situation raises issues in terms of the need for verification of the compliance
of these materials with local standards. Instances have occurred of bolts failing during tightening despite
being designated by the markings as high strength bolts. Subsequent testing revealed the bolts did not
comply with local standards. Instances have also occurred where bolts with a particular manufacturer’s
identification marking were, in fact, manufactured by others.
Refer to Section 8.6.6 for typical defects in bolts.
7.3 Proprietary Mechanical Fasteners
In addition to standard nuts and bolts there are a number of proprietary fasteners and anchors available for
specific applications. The types include:
• expanding anchors
• anchors for fastening to blind holes
• screw in anchors
• U bolts
• Stud shear connectors (welded to steel girders to develop composite action with concrete decks (Figure
7.3 and Figure 7.4).
Information on specific applications and design information can be obtained from manufacturers.
Figure 7.3: Stud shear connectors used for composite action girder/slab
Concrete deck Shear connectors
Steel girder
Concrete deck Shear connectors
The shear
connectors make
the slab and girder
act as one

Figure 7.4: Stud shear connectors on top flange of a steel girder
Information on specific applications and design information can be obtained from the relevant manufacturers.
7.4 Proprietary Chemical Fasteners
Chemical fasteners and anchors use polymers as the adhesive to anchor bolts, bars and threaded rod to
provide the required capacity as opposed to mechanical devices. One advantage of chemical anchors is that
they do not impart expansive stress on the surrounding material to develop their capacity.
Proprietary chemical fasteners and anchors are available for a range of applications including:
• hold down bolts
• anchorages into vertical and horizontal faces
• anchoring reinforcing steel into concrete
• anchoring threaded bar into concrete.
The products are available in various forms:

• adhesive resin plus anchor bar or bolt
• adhesive resin only.
The adhesives used include a range of resins including epoxies and polyesters. Some resins are supplied in
vial with the resin and the hardener inside. Insertion of the anchor bar breaks the vial and brings the
hardener and the resin together. Mixing is required to produce a homogeneous material. Alternatively, the
hardener and resin are supplied and proportioned and mixed on site.
The advantage of the vial concept is that no proportioning is required on site and only the required amount of
resin is used reducing waste material.
Additional information can be obtained from manufacturers.
7.5 Welding
Welding involves connection by melting both the parent metal and the filler metal so that the end product is a
continuous path of steel. Welding in bridges gradually replaced riveting – mainly between the 1930s and the
1950s. However, welding did develop before that, with fully coated electrodes being developed in 1911.

An important aspect of the welding process is the use of fluxes. The main role of the flux is to generate a gas
around the weld metal that prevents harmful gases (particularly hydrogen and oxygen) from becoming
absorbed into the molten metal and then being retained on solidification – potentially causing embrittlement
and other defects. The residue of the flux is called slag, and the weld process needs to keep this from being
incorporated in the weld.
Fluxes may be coated on the outside of the welding rod – as is typically the case for stick welding, or
deposited from a hopper onto the weld area for other types of welding, particularly those that use raw wire
fed from a spool.
7.5.1 Welding Standards and Methods
Road Authority specifications require that welding be carried out in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.1.
Welding on bridges is carried out using a number of methods including (Figure 7.5):
• shielded manual metal arc (SMAW)
• submerged arc (SAW)
• gas metal arc (GMAW)
• flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
• stud welding.
Figure 7.5: Shielded manual metal-arc welding, submerged-arc welding, metal inert gas arc welding and flux-
cored arc welding
(a) Shielded manual metal-arc welding (b) Submerged-arc welding
(c) Gas metal arc welding (d) Flux-cored arc welding

The electrodes used in welding must be compatible with the material being welded. The mechanical
properties of the weld metal depend on the wire and flux combination.
Particular attention should be paid to storage of electrodes as some flux coatings absorb moisture, which will
adversely affect the weld.
Flux for submerged-arc welding should be dry and free of contamination from dirt and other foreign material.
7.5.2 Type of Welds
Fillet welds – Fillet welds are the most common welds, typically joining two members at right angles (Figure
7.6). They typically do not require any edge preparation.
Figure 7.6: Fillet weld terminology and dimensions
Butt welds - Butt welds provide a full strength method of connecting plates in one plane and similar
connections where the weld metal is laid into a slot created by preparing the edges of the plates to be joined
(Figure 7.7 and Figure 7.8). Partial penetration butt welds can be specified if the full depth of the plate is not
required for strength, but this is uncommon as the gap left can start corrosion and it also looks like a defect
when inspected (Figure 7.8).

Figure 7.7: Butt weld terminology and dimensions
Figure 7.8: Partial penetration butt welds
Whilst welders strive to achieve perfect welds, for any given application there are a range of acceptable
defects, and this needs to be considered when deciding whether an identified defect should be repaired.
Defects are identified by a range of destructive and non-destructive methods, the details of which are outside
this guide. However, they include:
• Visual inspection – surface inspection, looking for size, shape and visible cracks.
• Dye penetrant inspection – an aid to visual inspection, where the penetrant seeps into cracks and is
then visible when the surface is cleaned off.
• Radiographic (X-ray) inspection – works like X-rays of bones to detect cracks and flaws.
• Magnetic particle inspection – a sprinkle of magnetised filings can form patterns that indicate surface or
subsurface flaws.
• Ultrasonic inspection – using ultrasonic waves to detect defects by the wave reflection.
7.5.3 Effects of Welding
When steel is heated to high temperatures in the welding process metallurgical changes occur in the weld
metal and the heat affected zone of the parent material. This produces significant changes in the grain
structure that results in changes in strength, hardness and ductility.

The heating and cooling process also results in stresses being locked in the material. Post-weld heating is
designed to relieve these stresses. The welding process may also cause distortion of the component, which
must be addressed by the fabricator in the weld procedure.
The steel fabrication of a major member or smaller component on any bridge project requires advanced
planning by the project manager to ensure that all the pre-work activities are completed so that the required
degree of control is achieved to produce the specified quality.
7.5.5 Weld Categories
The drawings should be examined to determine what weld categories are included in the works. The weld
category will determine the type of inspection that is required. Weld categories include:
• general purpose weld (GP) – inspection requires 100% visual scanning to determine that all welds called
for in the drawings are included and to detect gross defects, with a limit, minimal amount of visual
inspection.
• special purpose weld (SP) – SP welds are the minimum requirement for all bridge works. Inspection
requirements will vary depending on the location and type of member. Inspection will include visual
scanning and visual examination of a percentage of the welds, plus any one or more of these
requirements, to determine whether the required weld quality has been achieved
– magnetic particle testing
– dye penetrant testing
– ultrasonic or radiographic inspection.
The percentage of weld to be tested by ultrasonic, magnetic particle or dye penetrant testing will vary
from 0–100% depending on the component and the assessed risk.
• fatigue purpose weld (FP) – FP welds are specified where the fatigue is a primary design consideration.
The inspection requirements are similar requirements to those for SP welds or to the requirements of
AS/NZS 1554.5 category FP whichever has the highest inspection requirement.
7.5.6 Weld Procedure Qualification
All weld procedures are to be qualified and approved by a welding engineer or welding supervisor. The weld
procedure will include:
• plate standards, grades and thicknesses
• production of a suitable length of test piece of the same joint type, material type, material thickness and
edge preparation as the component upon which the procedures are to be applied, and testing it in
accordance with the relevant part of AS 2205 (set), where the type of joint allows such testing
NOTE: The test piece may be made as a production test piece.
• welding consumables/electrodes
• welding machine settings
• pre and post heat treatment
• interpass temperature – the temperature in the steel immediately before the second and subsequent
passes of a multiple pass weld
If the temperature of the steel drops below the interpass temperature before subsequent welding passes
additional preheating is required.
• weld speed
• the range of materials and material thicknesses on which the procedure may be used.

Obtaining weld procedure qualification may include one or more of the following:
• using a previously approved procedure
• carrying out weld test pieces and subsequently testing them to destruction to confirm the adequacy of the
weld; the test pieces are to replicate the conditions under which the weld will be carried out
• preparation of a macro test piece cut from the test piece and polished to show the cross-section of the
weld to assess its adequacy (Figure 7.9 and Figure 7.10)
• impact testing to verify that the heat affected zone of the parent metal still retains its impact properties.
Figure 7.9: Macro – full penetration fillet weld flange to web
Figure 7.10: Macro – butt weld (double sided)

7.5.7 Welders
Each welder to be used on the works is to be pre-qualified by carrying out weld tests to the approved welding
procedure unless documentary evidence is produced that demonstrates the capability to produce SP welds
of the type involved.
Pre-qualification is to be by macro testing to demonstrate the ability to produce sound welds using the
approved procedures.
The weld designation will designate what pre-work is maintained on the welding processes.
7.5.8 Welding of High Strength Steels
Welding of high strength steel is generally in accordance with category SP unless stated otherwise on the
drawings. However, there are additional requirements in regard to preheat, treatment of consumables, and
heat straightening.
7.5.9 Weld Defects
In the welding process defects can occur as a result of deficiencies in the process caused by the welder or
the welding process including:
• incomplete penetration
• lack of fusion
• loss of edge of the weld
• undercut
• overlap
• slag inclusions
• porosity
• cracks
• incorrect profile and size of weld.
The size and extent of any weld defects need to be established to determine if remedial measures are
required or if the defects are within prescribed limits. The implications of a defect will depend on the
particular member and the location and size of the defect.
For details of typical weld defects see Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 6: Bridge Construction.
7.5.10 Stud Welding
Stud welding is the process used in bridges to connect shear connectors to the top of steel members or at
other locations as specified. The process is semi-automated using a dedicated welding machine with the
surface being free of any deposits. However, unlike conventional welding there is no added weld metal. No
drilling of holes or weld edge preparation is required.
Stud welding is carried out to AS/NZS 1554.2 Structural Steel Welding – Stud Welding (Steel Studs to Steel).
The studs are supplied as proprietary products and come complete with a ceramic ferrule to shield the weld
in the in the molten state.

The process is as follows:

• place the stud against the steel surface and then switch the current on
• lift off the stud while the current is flowing creating an arc which melts the end of the stud and the steel
surface
• plunge the stud into the weld pool fusing the two surfaces together.
For additional information on welding see:

• Welding Technology Institute of Australia website www.wtia.com.au.
• The European Steel Design Education Program (ESDEP) course which provides a range of lecture notes
on steel bridges including
– WG2 – Applied Metallurgy
– WG3 – Fabrication and Erection.
7.5.11 Welding Education
For additional information on welding refer to:

• Welding Technology Institute of Australia website www.wtia.com.au
• Australian Steel Institute website http://steel.org.au/bookshop/BookType/Fabrication/.
7.6 Protective Coatings – Paints
Refer to AS/NZS 2312.1 Guide to the Protection of Structural Steel Against Atmospheric Corrosion by the
Use of Protective Coatings – Paint Coatings.
7.7 Protective Coatings – Hot Dipped Zinc (Galvanising)
Refer to AS/NZS 2312.2 Guide to the Protection of Structural Steel Against Atmospheric Corrosion by the
Use of Protective Coatings – Hot Dip Galvanising.

8. Steel Distress Mechanisms and Defects
8.1 Corrosion
References on iron and steel include Chandler and Bayliss (1985) and Tilly et al. (2008).
Corrosion of iron and steel is essentially an electrochemical process occurring in the presence of oxygen and
moisture. Variations of either the surface condition or the environment between two pieces of steel may
result in an electrolytic cell being established with the moisture acting as an electrolyte (Figure 4.2). This
process is described in Section 4.1.1. Under normal conditions the oxide formed is (Fe2O3), the familiar
reddish-brown rust, but under acidic conditions a different oxide (Fe3O4) known as magnetite is formed.
Contact with, or the presence nearby, of dissimilar metals, may also lead to the formation of electrolytic cells,
and induce corrosion.
In general, the rust produced by steel provides a poor protective film to its surface that does not act as a
barrier to prevent continuing corrosion. Rust has a much greater volume than the parent metal from which it
was formed, and this causes localised buckling when the rust expands in a crevice (Figure 8.1). Rust also
does not have the strength of the parent metal and is brittle in nature, so the replacement of metal by rust
results in a loss of load carrying capacity of the structural member. Severe corrosion can lead to localised
pitting, which increases the likelihood of failure in a brittle manner in notch sensitive steels.
Figure 8.1: Distress due to corrosion in a crevice
The main types of corrosion are:

• Metallic corrosion – the reaction between the steel and its environment to form chemical compounds. The
process is an electrochemical reaction and involves the formation of a cell similar to a battery. The cell
drives the removal of electrons from the metal and results in the reduction of the bulk of the steel.
• Galvanic corrosion – the corrosion that occurs when two different metals are in electrical contact when an
electrolyte is present. The more active metal corrodes faster. The Galvanic Series lists metals from the
least active platinum to the most active magnesium.
The two primary factors that influence the corrosion of steel are the metal alloy itself and the environment
(Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.2: Corrosion due to accumulation of dirt in member
Figure 8.3: Crevice corrosion at steel/timber interface-1
Control of steel corrosion can be achieved by various measures that prolong its service life including:
• good design details that reduce the potential for corrosion
• maintenance of the protective coating

• good maintenance practices such as the removal of accumulated debris, dirt and contaminants from the
steel surfaces.
In terms of a steel bridge other factors also have an influence including:

• contact with other metals – in the presence of an electrolyte the more reactive metal corrodes
e.g. galvanised steel bolts used with stainless steel plate will corrode faster as the zinc is more reactive
than stainless steel
The stainless steel will corrode slowly or not at all.
• the location within a bridge – the level of contaminants e.g. chlorides, acids etc. in areas not subject to
rainfall will be higher than in those areas where they are regularly washed off
• proximity to other surfaces – if a steel section is in contact with a concrete surface a type of corrosion
termed ‘crevice corrosion’ will occur as a result of the corrosion cell that is driven by the presence of
moisture at the interface and the contaminants present (Figure 8.4)
• the type of protective coating system used
• the amount of moisture present
• the presence of contaminants
• the accumulation of debris in or on members
• the size of the component.
Figure 8.4: Crevice corrosion at steel/steel interface-2
For a particular type of steel bridge there are specific areas that are more prone to corrosion than other
areas. For example, U-shaped bottom chords collect dirt and moisture, which accelerates the corrosion
process (Figure 8.5).

Figure 8.5: Severe corrosion of a U-shaped truss bottom chord
Additional examples of ‘crevice corrosion’ are shown below for the locations at the interfaces of steel/steel at
connections (Figure 8.6 and Figure 8.7) and steel/timber on timber decks (Figure 8.8). With this type of
corrosion the affected area may not be visible from the exterior with the result perforation of part of the
member may be the first sign of a problem.
Figure 8.6: Crevice corrosion in steel truss at the intersection of a diagonal with the gusset plate
Note: The only way to prevent crevice corrosion is to seal the interface.

Figure 8.7: Example of crevice corrosion at steel/steel riveted connection
Note: The increase in volume of the corrosion product has forced out the unrestrained corner.
Figure 8.8: Crevice corrosion between steel member and timber decking
Note: The corrosion is not visible.

Steel members in close contact with a concrete face present a problem to apply protective coatings.
Deterioration may go unnoticed for years unless inspections are rigorous.
In marine environments in areas where air flow is minimal, such as the underside of top chords of a truss,
concentrations of salt may be high, leading to accelerated corrosion (Figure 8.9, Figure 8.10 and
Figure 8.11).
Figure 8.9: Severe breakdown of protective coating requiring full removal by grit blasting

Figure 8.10: Deterioration of protective coating in a moist marine environment leading to corrosion of the steel
Locations where water constantly drops onto steel will cause deterioration of the protective coating leading to
corrosion of the steel (Figure 8.11).
Figure 8.11: Corrosion of cross girders and rivet heads

Weathering steels, such as AUSTEN, have small quantities of alloying elements that under suitable ambient
conditions produce an adherent rust layer and reduce the rate of subsequent corrosion. The formation of this
layer is inhibited in the presence of chlorides (Heidersbach 1987).
For detailed information on metal corrosion go to the Australian Corrosion Association –

www.corrosion.com.au and the Corrosion Doctors – www.corrosiondoctors.org.
8.2 Fatigue
8.2.1 Fatigue and Fatigue Fracture
Members subjected to continued reversal of stress, or repeated loading such that a range of change in stress
occurs, are subject to a behaviour called fatigue. Members that have a relatively constant, steady stress are
not subject to fatigue. The term has been in use for almost a century and is currently defined by the
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM D610-95-2008) as ‘the process of progressive localised
permanent structural change occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses
and strains at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient
number of fluctuations.’
Fatigue can result in:

• loss of strength
• loss of ductility
• reduced service life.
Fatigue causes the reduction in resistance to failure of a material due to repeated stresses to less than the
ultimate strength of the material under static stress. As a result, cracks occur at a lower stress level, and if
the loading cycles continue, the crack will propagate until a sudden rupture occurs. However, in wrought iron
the propagation of a crack across a section may be arrested by its diversion along a lamination (Grundy et al.
1987).
Fatigue cracking is usually initiated at points of high stress concentration such as bolt and rivet holes, slag
inclusions or incomplete fusion of welds, re-entrant corners, intermittent welds and abrupt changes in section
size, or where there are locked-in additional stresses such as cooling stresses in welds or weld strikes and
areas of restraint. In short, cracking is usually initiated at points of either abrupt mechanical and/or abrupt
metallurgical change.
The reduction in fatigue strength of iron and steel under repeated axial stresses is well documented
(Timoshenko & Young 2010, Van Maarschalkerwaat 1981) and under variable loading (Fisher, Mertz &
Zhong 1983).
Fatigue fractures are the most difficult to predict since conditions producing them are often not clearly
recognisable.
Fatigue fracture occurs in three distinct stages:

• local changes in atomic structure, accompanied by sub-microscopic cracking
• crack growth
• sudden fracture.
For additional information on fatigue cracking see Tilly et al. (2008). Refer to AS/NZS 5100.6 for additional
information on fatigue in steel bridges due to road traffic loading.

8.2.2 Fatigue in Secondary Members
Secondary members may also have fatigue problems. For instance, main girder stress reversal may induce
vibrations in lateral bracing or diaphragms. In many cases the number of stress reversals in the secondary
member is a magnification of those stresses in the main member. The attachment of plates to a girder web
may cause out-of-plane bending in the web, a situation not usually considered by the designer.
In general, secondary members themselves are not subject to an FC inspection. However, some secondary
members, even though designed only as secondary members, such as lateral wind bracing in the lower
plane of a girder system, will act as primary members. These cases generally occur in curved or heavily
skewed structures. A curved bridge will have twisting or torsional effects due to the live loads that are
partially resisted by the diagonal lateral wind bracing. These braces, particularly those near supports, should
be inspected for possible fatigue cracks.
8.3 Brittle Fracture
As well as strength, toughness is a critical property for bridge steels. This is a measure of their ability to carry
loads applied suddenly, such as the impact of a truck bumping over a brick sitting on a bridge deck. Early
cast irons and steels did not perform well under these circumstances particularly on cold days, as
temperature affects how the steel behaves. Tests to measure this property use an impact testing machine,
which applies an impact load from a pendulum to a specimen with a standard notch machined in it. The
height that the pendulum swings up after hitting the test piece indicates the amount of energy the specimen
absorbs – a high swing indicates that the specimen did not absorb much energy, and vice versa (Figure
8.12).
Figure 8.12: Schematic drawing of a standard impact testing apparatus

The failure of the King Street Bridge in Melbourne in 1962 from brittle fracture on a cold morning under the
impact of a passing truck is shown in Figure 8.13. The cracks in the webs of the girders propagated from
welding defects and the brittleness of the steel failed to stop the crack from spreading up to 1500 mm
through the webs. Designers now address the issue of brittle failure by specifying steel properties according
to the extremes of low temperature the steel will be subjected to in service. Designation of L0, L10 and L15
relates to steels that have good ductility down to 0 °C, –10 °C and –15 °C respectively.
Figure 8.13: Brittle failure of King Street Bridge girder
Source: Victorian Royal Commission (1963).
8.4 Protective Coatings
References on corrosion protection systems include Chandler and Bayliss (1985), Pollard (1979),
AS/NZS 2312 and Tilly et al. (2008).
The onset of corrosion can be inhibited and significantly delayed by the use of a corrosion protection system.
An understanding of the corrosion process provides an insight into the actions of various corrosion protective
systems (See Section 8.1). Corrosion of steel may be prevented by any one of the following systems:
• providing a durable protective barrier to prevent the oxygen and moisture from reaching the steel
(painting, enclosure, galvanising)
• inhibiting the attack on the steel substrate (inhibitive primers)
• providing a sacrificial anode for galvanic action (zinc rich paints, galvanising)
• impressing a current from an external source to suppress the anodic reaction (cathodic protection).
8.4.1 History of Protective Coatings
Up to the mid-1920s pigmented oil paints were used which consisted of natural oils and metal oxide
pigments. Lead oxides (red lead and white lead) were the best pigments for protection. Lead oxides work by
saponification of the pigment, improving the performance of the paint. Red lead oxide is commonly used as
the pigment in primers.
In the early 20th century alkyd base and micaceous iron oxide (MIO) were developed.

Alkyds are a thermoplastic polymer, and are the reaction product of oils or fatty acids, alcohols and polybasic
acids. They are oil soluble and are a single pack paint and are compatible with lead oxides.
Lamellar pigments, such as MIO or aluminium flake, were introduced in the 1920s and resist the entry of
oxygen and moisture to a greater degree.
In NSW, red lead/MIO alkyd systems were first used on Tom Uglys bridge and then on the Sydney Harbour
bridge.
Chlorinated rubber
Chlorinated rubber was invented in the 1940s. A solvent carried chlorinated natural or synthetic rubber, for
example, neoprene. It is a single pack thermoplastic paint with a high solvent content – up to 30% v-v.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were sometimes used as a plasticiser. Chlorinated rubber cures by
evaporation of the solvent and can be applied in medium build coats. It has an infinite overcoat life but
solvents can soften the cured resin. It is prone to solvent bubbling if applied in too thick a layer and to solvent
entrapment if applied to relatively porous substrates. Care is required when over coating an existing coating.
8.4.2 Present Protective Coatings
The protective system usually adopted for iron and steel members in bridges is painting, although members
comprised of individual small components, such as handrails, may be galvanised, and large areas that are
difficult to access for painting may be cathodically protected.
Epoxy coatings
Epoxy coatings are the mainstay of coatings and were invented in the early 20th century and comprise high
molecular weight polyamines. They have excellent resistance to atmospheric and submerged exposure, and
also to many chemicals. The recoatability of epoxies varies from being poor to excellent.
Epoxies are formulated from low to ultra-high build coating thicknesses and can accept a wide range of
pigments.
Epoxy primers
Epoxy primers can be formulated to coat poor to excellent surface preparation, including rust penetrating
primers, but suffer from very high chalking when exposed to UV light.
Polyurethane
Polyurethane coatings are based on isocyanate reactions with amine and urea co-reactants. They were
invented by Otto Bayer in 1937, and developed as a replacement for rubber in WW II and as paint for
aircraft.
Polyurethanes can be tailored for specific properties. Solvent and water-borne formulations exist and high
temperature and ‘room’ temperature cure formulations are available. Aliphatic diisocyanites are used for
resistance to UV degradation, improving gloss and colour retention.
Siloxanes
Siloxanes are based on silicon-oxygen groups to form long chain molecules. The family of coatings includes
inorganic zinc silicates.

There are two types of siloxane coatings – pure inorganic siloxanes and hybrid inorganic/organic siloxanes:
• inorganic polysiloxanes have a long chain Si-O backbone with hydrogen attached to the silicon atoms
• hybrid polysiloxanes have a long chain Si-O backbone with organic side chains attached to the silicon
atoms.
Bridge and industrial top coatings are usually based on hybrid inorganic/organic chemistry.
Two formulations of hybrid polysiloxanes are used – epoxy polysiloxanes and acrylic polysiloxanes:
• Epoxy polysiloxanes contain epoxy side chains and have a similar workability and chemical resistance as
epoxies but have better corrosion resistance than epoxies. They also have similar or better weathering
characteristics when compared with polyurethanes.
• Acrylic polysiloxanes contain acrylic side chains and have a similar corrosion resistance as
polyurethanes, but not quite as good as epoxies or epoxy-polysiloxanes. They have better weathering
characteristics when compared with polyurethanes.
Fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers are based on fluorinated hydrocarbon chemistry. There are two basic families – vinylidene
fluoride (VDF) and fluorethylene vinyl ether (FEVE):
• The FEVE polymers are of a lower molecular weight solution polymer. These coatings offer excellent
weathering and corrosion resistance.
• VDF and FEVE have a high chemical resistance and high gloss retention, which make these coatings
very resistant to graffiti. They require special treatment to overcoat.
Qualities of the paints
Lead based primers can be both red lead and white lead based. Red lead reacts with linseed oil or alkyds to form
soaps. This acts as a barrier against moisture and salts, protecting the steel. It does not require a blast cleaned
surface before application and is compatible with alkyd top coats. White lead was also used as a primer.
Cautionary Note: Lead based paints are toxic and therefore touching, scaping or blasting of the material is a
potential health hazard. The management of lead based paints is a specialised area and requires the input of
experts in the field.
Zinc rich paints have several properties:

• Zinc rich paints have both galvanic and barrier qualities provided the zinc content is high enough. With
exposure, the zinc corrodes, producing a barrier effect. This galvanic behaviour tends to restrict under-
film corrosion.
• Zinc silicate was invented in the late 1930s by Victor Nightingall in Australia. Its earliest extant usage was
on the Whyalla pipeline in South Australia. There are two formulations, one water borne and the other
solvent borne.
• Zinc silicates do not need top coating. Old zinc silicate coatings can be recoated with zinc silicate but
requires careful treatment. The intercoat adhesion (zinc silicate over zinc silicate) is poor initially, but
improves with time. Application of top coats on a repaired zinc silicate coating is problematic. Zinc silicate
coatings are very sensitive to surface preparation.
• Zinc epoxy (primer). There are two classes of zinc epoxy (primer) – very high zinc and high zinc
– Very high zinc (over 90% by weight) primers have some galvanic action to start with. These primers
are sensitive to application, curing and the thickness of top coats.
– High zinc (80% to 90% by weight) primers have only a barrier action. These coatings are much less
sensitive to application, but still require good curing. Thickness of top coats is also less of an issue.

• Zinc phosphate epoxy (primer). This primer has corrosion inhibiting properties and is more tolerant of
surface preparation then zinc epoxy. It is a very good maintenance primer.
• Zinc phosphate alkyd is used where compatibility is required with an existing alkyd or chlorinated rubber
coating.
Typical current systems

• Inorganic zinc silicate is used on its own and its build is about 75 microns, although some formulations
permit higher build. It is satisfactory for up to moderately high corrosion exposure. As it is a matt coating,
mid grey colour, it may not be suitable if aesthetics are important. It is also not suitable for immersion.
• Epoxy is comprised of a zinc rich primer, preferably inorganic zinc silicate, an MIO epoxy build coat and
an epoxy finish coat. It is used where colour and gloss retention is not important e.g. inside hollow
members, and can be used in severe environments.
• Polyurethane is comprised of a zinc rich primer, preferably inorganic zinc silicate, an MIO epoxy build
coat and a polyurethane finish coat. It is used where colour and gloss retention is important and can also
be used in severe environments.
• Polysiloxane is comprised of a zinc rich primer, preferably inorganic zinc silicate, possibly with an MIO
epoxy build coat, and a polyurethane finish coat. It is used where colour and gloss retention is very
important. It can also be used in severe environments. The Roads and Maritime specifies a three-coat
system, but there are arguments for a two-coat system.
• Metallic zinc – galvanising produces metallic zinc and zinc iron alloys bonded metallurgically to the steel
substrate.
Galvanising is used on bridges for the following components:

• bearings
• traffic barriers
• pedestrian railing
• anchor bolts
• fitments
• steel members.
Design issues
• The thickness of the galvanising is a function of the mass of the component being galvanised. Therefore,
light items such as bolts have a much thinner layer of zinc than heavy steel plate.
• The use of galvanised components and members in marine environments is not recommended.
• Vent holes must be provided in closed sections to prevent the build up of high pressure when the member
is immersed in the molten zinc bath.
• The process includes the immersion of the member in acid in the pickling process to clean the steel of
impurities and scale. This situation presents a problem if partial penetration wells are used as the acid
accumulates in the gap causing long-term corrosion. This occurs where hollow steel sections are welded
to base plates using a fillet weld and not a full penetration
Hot zinc metal spray

• Hot metal zinc spray is the process of spraying a metallic zinc coating to steel using equipment that melts
the zinc at the spraying head.
• It has been used on rolled steel bridge members as a primer and over coated with conventional paints. It
has not been used extensively but its in service performance has been good.

8.5 Unusual Deterioration Mechanisms
8.5.1 Graphitisation of Cast Iron
Graphitic corrosion is the selective leaching of iron from grey cast iron, where the iron gets removed and the
graphite grains remain intact. In slightly acidic waters cast irons can be corroded due to the anodic behaviour
of the matrix with respect to the cathodic graphite. The less noble metal is removed by microscopic-scale
galvanic corrosion. The structure is converted to a weak porous mass of corrosion products and graphite
residue. Generally, there is little sign of the extent of the corrosion from the external appearance of the
material. The graphitised surface can be easily penetrated by a screwdriver or knife and the extent of the
corrosion determined by microscopic examination. Figure 8.14 shows an example of graphitic corrosion of a
bridge pile in an environment of salty to brackish water.
Figure 8.14: Graphitisation of cast iron resulting in leaching of iron and loss of strength
Note: Graphitisation occurs in brackish water.

8.5.2 Microbially-induced Corrosion (MIC)
Microbially induced corrosion (or biocorrosion) is corrosion caused by or promoted by micro-organisms,

usually chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metals and non-metallic minerals. MIC results in pitting,
crevice corrosion, selective de-alloying, stress corrosion, and under-deposit corrosion. MIC in metals occurs
as a consequence of bacterial action at the metal-biofilm interface. The products of the micro-organisms and
the metabolic products can alter the electrochemical processes. In some cases the presence of a biofilm can
accelerate corrosion and in other cases some types of biofilm can form a barrier to significantly reduce the
rate of corrosion. There are many mechanisms for MIC and many causative micro-organisms for each
mechanism. The following groups of organisms are identified as causative organisms: slime producing,
sulphur-oxidising, sulphate-reducing, metal-oxidising and metal-reducing bacteria in addition to
acid-producing bacteria and fungi (Little & Lee 2007).
Sulphate reducing bacteria produce hydrogen sulphide, which can cause sulphide stress cracking.
Acidithiobacillus bacteria produce sulphuric acid. Acidiothiobacillus thioxidans frequently damage sewer
pipes. Ferrobacillus ferro-oxidans directly oxidise iron to iron oxide and iron hydroxides. Other bacteria
produce various acids, both organic and mineral, or ammonia.
In the presence of oxygen, aerobic bacteria like Thiobacillus thio-oxidans, Thiobacillus thioparus, and
Thiobacillus concretivorus (all three are widely present in the environment) are the common corrosion-
causing factors resulting in biogenetic sulphide corrosion.
Without the presence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria, especially Desulfovibrio and Desulfotomaculum, are
common. Desulfovibrio salexigens requires at least 2.5% concentration of sodium chloride, but D. vulgaris
and D. desulfurisians can grow in both fresh and salt water. D. africanus is another common corrosion-
causing micro-organism. The Desulfotomaculum genus comprises sulphate-reducing spore-forming bacteria;
Dtm. orientis and Dtm. nigrificans are involved in corrosion processes. Sulphate-reducers require reducing
environment; the electrode potential of at least – 100 mV is required for them to thrive. However, even a
small amount of hydrogen sulphide can achieve this shift, so the growth, once started, tends to accelerate.
Layers of anaerobic bacteria can exist in the inner parts of corroded deposits, while the outer parts are
inhibited by anaerobic bacteria. Some bacteria are able to utilise the hydrogen formed during the cathodic
corrosion processes. Bacterial colonies and deposits can form concentration cells, causing and enhancing
galvanic corrosion.
Bacterial corrosion may appear like pitting corrosion. Anaerobic corrosion is evident as layers of metal
sulphides and hydrogen sulphide is a smelly gas. On cast iron, a graphitic corrosion selection leaching may
result, with iron being consumed by the bacteria, leaving a graphite matrix with low mechanical strength in
place. See Figure 8.14 for an example of graphitic corrosion in a bridge pile.
Microbial corrosion can also apply to plastics, concrete, and many other materials. One such example is
nylon-eating bacteria.
Biogenitic sulphide corrosion is a bacterially linked process of forming hydrogen sulphide gas and the
subsequent conversion to sulphuric acid that attacks steel within wastewater environments. The hydrogen
sulphide gas is oxidised in the presence of moisture to form sulphuric acid that attacks the matrix of
concrete. The effect of sulphuric acid on concrete and steel surfaces exposed to severe wastewater
environments can be severely destructive.
Fresh domestic sewage entering a wastewater collection system contains an abundance of sulphates, SO42-.
In the absence of dissolved oxygen and nitrates, these sulphates are reduced by sulphate reducing bacteria
(SRB), identified primarily from the obligate anaerobic species Desulfovibrio, to form H2S via a complex
pathway of biochemical reactions.
Once the H2S gas diffuses into the headspace environment above the wastewater, a sulphur oxidising
bacteria (SOB), primarily genus Thiobacillus aerobic bacteria, which colonise on the pipe crowns, walls, and
other surfaces above the water line in wastewater pipes and structures, metabolise the H2S gas and oxidise
it to H2SO4. This oxidising process can take place where there is an adequate supply of hydrogen sulphide
gas greater than 2 ppm, and atmospheric oxygen.

Comprehensive additional information on MIC is available in Borenstein (1994).
8.6 Steel Bridge Defects
Defects in a steel bridge will generally appear as a result of the environment in which the bridge exists or as
a result of a planned (or unplanned) loading history. Defects may also have been incorporated into a
structure at the time of its construction through poor detailing, workmanship or manufacture.
8.6.1 Protective Coating Failure
It is rare for a protective coating to outlast the life of the structure. Breakdown of paint or loss of galvanising
is inevitable, and should be anticipated.
The main cause of paint deterioration is ultraviolet light.
The breakdown of protective paint systems in order of increasing seriousness takes the form of chalking,
checking, cracking, blistering, rust staining and, finally, the break through of rust and flaking of the paint.
Failure of the initial paint system on steel structures may occur over a relatively small proportion of the total
surface area, particularly at edges and sharp corners where the paint film may be thinner.
Where the initial paint system is applied over hand-cleaned steel the failure takes the form of blistering and
flaking of the paint film with rusting of the steel. Where the initial paint system is applied over a blas-cleaned
surface initial breakdown may take the form of pinpoint rusting at peaks on the steel surface that have not
been adequately covered with paint.
As the paint film ages, it may become brittle and chip when struck.
The usual forms of paint deterioration are listed in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Common paint defects and their causes
Defect Causes
Poor adhesion • application over grease, oil, water, rust, alkali residues, other material on surface
• application over partially dried undercoat
• surface too hot or too cold while being painted
• film too thick
• surface too smooth
Blistering • moisture trapped on substrate surface
• improper solvent
• surface too hot or too cold while being painted
• insufficient drying time between coast; solvent trapped in undercoat escaping through
partially dried finish coat
• excessive air pressure in spraying process when applying undercoat causing porosity and
air pockets
Brittleness • improper paint formulation
• overheating of tar enamels
Chalking • weathering (n.b. this is a normal feature, not a defect with epoxy paints)
Colour separation • incomplete mixing
• poor mixing during application
Cracking • paint not thoroughly mixed before application
• surface not clean (e.g. see poor adhesion 1st dot point above)
• insufficient thinner
• undercoat too thick
• surface too hot or too cold, while being painted
• oil or water in air line during spraying
Crazing, • application of top coat over undried overcoat
alligatoring, etc. • pigment not blended properly in paint

Defect Causes
Drying slowly • application over grease, oil or fingerprints
• film too thick
• cold or humid drying conditions
Poor flow-out • viscosity of paint too high
• temperature of paint too high
• solvent vaporises too rapidly
• surface temperature too low
• improper solvent
Poor gloss • paint film too thin
• application over undried undercoat
• cold or humid conditions
• application over alkali residues
Gritty appearance • insufficient solvent
• solvent vaporises too rapidly
• excessive air pressure during spray application
• spray gun too far from work
• spray pattern too wide
• dry overspray on wet paint
Poor hiding power • pigment not mixed properly in paint
• solvent vaporises too slowly
• too much solvent
Orange peel • film too thick
• surface too hot or too cold, while being painted
• badly adjusted spray gun
• air pressure in spray gun too high (see also blistering 5th dot point and gritty appearance
3rd dot point above)
Runs, curtains and • film too thick, or too thin
sags • application to poor keying surfaces
• increase in temperature while paint is wet
• solvent vaporises too slow
• poor spray gun technique
• air pressure in spray gun too low
• hot or humid drying conditions
Streaking • surface too hot or too cold, while being painted
• poor spray gun technique
Under-rusting • application over wet surface
(Steel substrate) • inclusion of foreign matter under paint film, e.g. from cleaning steel
• industrial corrosive material deposited on substrate after preparation and before painting
• millscale, rust, etc., on surface
• electro-chemical reaction between steel and another metal
• total coat too thin
• incorrect choice of paint system
Uneven film • solvent vaporises too slowly
thickness • careless or unskilled application
Wrinkling • film too thick
• hot or humid drying conditions
The rate of breakdown depends on a number of inter-related factors, with ‘time of wetness’ being the most
important. This usually results from condensation and may be increased by absorption of moisture by wind-
borne salts on areas not subject to rain washing. Figure 8.15 shows how the exposure to rainwashing by the
removing of marine salts has kept the bottom of the outer beam corrosion free for 14 years. Accumulation of
debris, bird droppings, flaking paint etc. will all retain moisture and promote corrosion (Figure 8.16).

In addition to eventual failure of a coating system by weathering, premature failure may result from:
• loss of coating adhesion due to faulty specification or application
• subsurface rusting due to inadequate surface preparation and/or priming paint (Figure 8.17)
• incompatibility of successive coats (Figure 8.18)
• localised failure due to mechanical damage
• inadequate film-build on sharp edges welds and paint ‘shadow areas’.
In some cases, specialist advice may be required to establish the cause and recommend suitable remedial
action.
Figure 8.15 Effect of rainwashing Figure 8.16: Damp patch caused by accumulated rust
and debris
Note: Red lead/MIO alkyd system. Source: Transit New Zealand (2001).

Figure 8.17: Loss of adhesion (inadequate surface preparation)
Figure 8.18 Incompatible coatings (alkyd paint over zinc-rich surfacing)

8.6.2 Loss of Section
Where the protective coating has not been maintained or an area of damaged coating not been repaired,
corrosion resulting in a loss of section usually follows. The corrosion rate largely depends on the proximity of
the bridge to the coast.
Corrosion can also be accelerated by the following situations:

• presence of cracks and crevices
• different metals in contact
• stray electrical currents
• ponding of moisture
• concentration of salts through evaporation
• chemical attack.
Loss of section may also result from wear in pins or from mechanical abrasion where members rub together
(Figure 8.19).
Figure 8.19: Loss of section – severe pitting due to condensation and concentration of salts on bottom
flange (and lack of maintenance)

8.6.3 Cracking
Cracking of any bridge component is potentially serious and needs to be thoroughly investigated. Cracks in
steel bridge members can be caused by metal fatigue, embrittlement, impact damage or manufacturing
defects such as rolling flaws, and can extend with time. Structural cracks are most likely to have started at
obvious stress concentrations such as a bolt or rivet hole, extremities of welds, abrupt changes of section, or
at nicks and notches.
Fatigue cracks might not become obvious until a member has been subject to a large number of stress
reversals or fluctuations. Some such cracks grow to a certain length and stabilise, but generally they will
continue to grow until a critical length is reached. At this point, sudden fracture will occur. Inferior welds,
holes and other geometric anomalies and old corrosion pits are common starting points.
Steels with poor ductility characteristics can crack suddenly under impact loads, particularly at low
temperatures. Such brittle fracture will initiate at a point of high local stress. Modern structural steels are
usually ‘notch ductile’ steels and do not have this problem.
Rolling flaws or areas of delamination may show up as cracks in structural sections, sometimes many years
after construction.
In addition to fatigue, cracks may form in or near welds due to metallurgical reasons. Possible causes
include:
• hydrogen cracking
• lamellar tearing in the parent metal
• heat treatment cracking
• stress corrosion cracking (transgranular)
• corrosion fatigue (intergranular).
The effect is to cause the steel to lose its ability to absorb the small amounts of plastic strain in areas that
have high local stresses, and thus induce a brittle fracture. A material having a high resistance to brittle
fracture is said to have a high toughness.
Factors that influence the fracture behaviour include:

• temperature (steels become less tough at lower temperatures)
• thickness of the component (thicker components have less toughness)
• the ratio of yield stress to stress at which fracture occurs under the standard Charpy V notch test (the
lower the ratio, the tougher the metal)
• crack sharpness (sharp cracks such as hydrogen induced, fatigue, heat treatment and stress corrosion
have a pronounced effect, while blunt cracks or defects such as corrosion pits, slag inclusions, porosity or
lack of fusion may have a lesser effect)
• crack orientation (crack growth across the laminations in wrought iron will be inhibited, and other
anisotropic materials may also inhibit crack growth in some directions)
• strain rate of the applied loading, the faster the rate the lower the toughness
• the nature and extent of the metallurgical changes in the heat-affected zone
• the magnitude and pattern of the residual stresses.
References include Australian Welding Research Association (1980) and Broken Hill Proprietary Company
(1972).

8.6.4 Impact Damage
Accidental damage to bridge members through vehicle impact is a serious matter and one which needs to be
investigated promptly. Through-truss bridges are particularly prone to this type of damage, and underpasses
also get struck by high loads. Obvious damage will usually be in the form of bent and distorted members and
overstrained fastenings, but cracks and nicks from which future fatigue cracks can propagate may also result.
Low-level steel overpasses are susceptible to impact damage from high and wide loads. Impacts may cause
permanent displacements that may have resulted in cold working of the steel that would change the
weldability of the material. Any repairs involving welding must be clear of areas of cold-worked steel.
The risk of impact damage to a through-truss bridge from errant or over height vehicles is high. Members can
be severely distorted (Figure 8.20 and Figure 8.21) and may require temporary support against collapse
(Figure 8.22). Contingency measures to mitigate the risk include:
• installation of continuous rails along the face of the truss to prevent vehicles pocketing behind vertical and
diagonal members (Figure 8.23)
• strengthening of end diagonals (referred to as principals or principal diagonals) portal bracing to resist
impacts at the point of entry into the truss
• installation of over height detection warning systems
• installation of supplementary lateral bracing on the top of the truss clear of any possible impact (Figure 8.24).
Figure 8.20: Impact damage to a steel truss Figure 8.21: Impact damage to a steel truss vertical
diagonal member member with temporary stabilising member in place
Source: D Carter (c2009). Source: D Carter (c2009).

Figure 8.22: Impact damage to a steel truss vertical member
Figure 8.23: Continuous rails installed to prevent vehicles pocketing between vertical and diagonal members
Note: Location Pacific Highway truss bridge at Hexham, NSW.

Figure 8.24: Supplementary lateral bracing installed at the top of the truss to be clear of possible vehicle impact
Note: Location Manning River Drive truss bridge at Taree, NSW.
8.6.5 Deformation and Distortion
A structural member’s resistance to compressive forces is considerably reduced if components are buckled
or distorted out of plane. Tensile members can act unpredictably. Deformation and distortion can occur as a
result of:
• accidental damage
• axial over-strain
• excessive shear in thin webs
• seized bearings
• inadequate provisions for expansion.
Deformations cause members designed for tension being forced to take compressive loads. Substructure
settlement may also lead to distortion in members.
Buckling
Buckling of a member may be caused by a compressive overstress of the member due to externally applied
loading or thermal expansion. It may also be caused by impact damage. Built up members and thin plates
may also suffer local buckling of some components.
Buckling may result in purely an elastic deformation that recovers when the stress is removed, or plastic
deformation resulting in permanent change.

When redundant members buckle, their load plus any subsequent loading will be directed towards the
remaining structure, which may possibly become overloaded.
8.6.6 Loose Connectors
Wrought iron and steel members may be connected by rivets or bolts.
Rivets are normally driven hot and exert a clamping force as they cool. They do not usually work loose, and
a recent inspection of 1000 rivets in a bridge revealed only six that were loose (Grundy et al. 1987).
Structural bolts are usually tightened either to a specified torque or through a specified number of turns. The
torque method of tightening assumes a particular set of conditions, such as clean, oiled threads.
Looseness may be caused by:

• incorrect initial installation
• tensile failure of the connector (perhaps even initiated by loss of area of the connector due to corrosion,
or expansion forces generated by corrosion of the faces being connected)
• vibration of bolts resulting in the nut becoming loose.
Whether operating in shear or in a friction grip joint, fastenings must be properly installed to function
correctly. Sometimes, because of excessive vibration, over-straining, corrosion or improper installation,
fastenings can become loose and should be replaced.
Problems typically associated with various types of fastenings are:

• Rivets can become loose and can also suffer from loss of head section if the protective coating is not
maintained.
• Mild steel bolts tend to corrode rapidly if the protective coating is not intact. This type of bolt may also
loosen with vibration unless suitable washers or lock nuts are provided.
• High-strength bolts will also corrode unless the protective coating is maintained. Galvanised bolts are
usually better than painted ‘black’ steel. Improperly torqued bolts will loosen, and bolts that have been
installed through heavily tapered flanges without suitably tapered washers may flex and become
overstressed.
• ‘Huck’ fasteners might not be installed to the manufacturer’s specifications. The collar must be correctly
swaged onto the pin, which must be of the correct length for the particular joint. Improperly installed
fasteners are unlikely to provide the correct clamping force across a joint. Even when using galvanised
fasteners, the collar needs a full protective coating to prevent corrosion.
• Nuts might be of a material incompatible with the bolts or the material being joined. This may lead to
electrolytic action if not separated by a non-conductive washer.
• Load indicating washers might be incorrectly installed. The gap provided by the protrusions can be
outside the manufacturer’s tolerances.
• Spring washers can corrode and/or fracture.
8.6.7 Manufacturing Defects
Despite the rigorous specifications and the tight manufacturing tolerances to which structural components
are rolled and formed, manufacturing and fabrication defects can and do find their way into completed
structures.
Rolling flaws may show up as delaminations, cracks, blisters, pits or inclusions as well as out-of-tolerance
straightness or lack of squareness. Such defects may be of little consequence, or they can help to initiate a
future serviceability problem.

Inferior welds and rough gas-cut edges can lead to major structural problems. A poorly formed or undercut
weld, the presence of slag inclusions or the effects of frequent starting and stopping could lead to an
eventual fatigue problem. Unfortunately, few welding defects are observable, particularly once a structure is
in service.
8.6.8 Faults in Detailing
Regrettably, defects can be built into a bridge structure through poor design, detailing, and specification.
Generally, such oversights are the result of people being unaware of the significance of certain features on
the long-term serviceability of a structure. In this category are found such details as:
• the abrupt curtailment of steel section flanges in tension members
• excessive eccentricities (both in plane and out of plane) in joint intersections
• inadequate provision for rotation
• poor drainage provisions
• curtailment of welds in inappropriate locations.
For information on weld defects refer to Section 7.5.9.
8.6.9 Fire Issues for Steel Trusses
The implications of a fire on a steel truss are considerable and can lead to loss of structural function as the
temperature of the material increases.
The damage can include distortion and buckling of members as a result of displacements that occurred when
the material was heated to a temperature that caused softening (Figure 8.25 to Figure 8.27).
Figure 8.25: Fire damage to steel truss Figure 8.26: Fire damage to steel truss –
damage to joint
Source: RTA NSW (n.d.). Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).

Figure 8.27: Fire damage to steel truss – warped and distorted members
8.7 Interior of Steel Members
The corrosion protection requirements for the interior of steel members depend on the physical details and
the corrosion protection system adopted.
8.7.1 Hermetically Sealed
If the interior of the member is hermitically sealed and provided no excessive amount of moisture remains
then no further corrosion protection measures are required.
8.7.2 Hot Dip Galvanising
If a member is to be hot dipped galvanised vent holes must be provided to prevent the build up of dangerous
internal pressures during the galvanising process. The size and location of the vent holes need to be critically
determined to ensure the efficiency of the galvanising process and to ensure the pickling (acid bath) and
neutralising liquids and excess zinc are drained from the member.
In the case where members with steel hollow sections welded to steel base plates are to be hot dipped
galvanised the weld detail is of critical importance (Figure 8.28 and Figure 8.29). Full penetration welds are
to be used. If fillet welds are specified the gap between the steel section and the base plate traps acid from
the pickling process resulting in corrosion that will lead to failure.

Figure 8.28: Welding of hollow steel to base plate – full penetration weld compared to fillet weld
Steel hollow
section
Fillet weld – partial
penetration leaves
Full penetration
length where acid
weld required
remains from
galvanising
Base plate
Figure 8.29: Base plate showing corrosion of fillet weld
Source: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads (TMR) (n.d.).
8.7.3 Steel Box Girders
The interior of steel box girders is required to be accessible for inspection and therefore require that a
protective coating system be applied and be maintained.
8.7.4 Steel Trough Girders
Steel trough girders do not have a continuous top flange and therefore there is a risk that cracking in the
composite concrete deck slab above will allow the ingress of water into the interior of the girder. Drain holes
need to be provided in the bottom flange of the girder to ensure that water does not accumulate in the
interior.
The inspection of the interior of all steel girders should be included in routine maintenance inspections.

9. Timber
9.1 Botanical Classification
Timber is classified botanically as either hardwood or softwood. It has nothing to do with hardness but relates
to the growth system and cell structure of the timber. For example, balsa is botanically a hardwood.
Within a hardwood or softwood tree there are two kinds of wood – sapwood and heartwood.
9.1.1 Softwood
The wood of conifers (e.g. pines) and a few other trees is commonly known as softwood, or sometimes as
‘non-pored’ wood. The bulk of the wood is made up of cells that are all much the same, long narrow cells
fitting closely together called tracheids (Figure 9.1). The walls of these tracheids are made of carbohydrates
and cellulose. The tracheids are held together by lignin.
Figure 9.1: Softwood cell structure
Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) (1983).
9.1.2 Hardwood
In most hardwood trees (e.g. eucalypt, red cedar) two distinct types of cells occur – vessels and fibres.
Vessels or pores are the large ducts that carry the sap from the roots to the leaves. Wood possessing
vessels is sometimes called ‘pored wood’. The more common term for pored wood is hardwood.
Fibres impart strength in hardwood trees and make up the bulk of the wood. As in softwoods, the walls of
these cells are of cellulose, cemented together by lignin.
The tensile strength of timber along the fibres (along the grain) is significantly higher than across the fibres
(perpendicular to grain) (Figure 9.2). This fact is important in engineering applications to ensure the loads are
applied in the strongest directions. Tension perpendicular to the grain will have the tendency to split the
timber.

The cell structure also explains why it is important to seal the ends of timber members as moisture travels
much faster along the grain compared to across the grain. This has implications for durability.
Figure 9.2: Hardwood cell structure
Source: RTA (1983).
Most Australian native trees are hardwoods.
In most species there is no significant difference in the strength of sapwood and heartwood. However,
sapwood has low durability compared to heartwood.
Durable native hardwoods are preferred for bridge timbers because of their high strength and durability.
9.2 Moisture Content of Timber
The condition of timber is classified by its moisture content. Timber freshly cut from a tree is classified as
‘green’. Timber that has dried in air or has undergone accelerated drying by heating (kiln drying) and has a
moisture content of 10–15% is classified as ‘seasoned’.
It should be noted that large hardwood sections e.g. 175 x 350 x 8000 may take in excess of
30–40 years to season in air. Kiln drying of large sections is not practical.
As the timber dries the moisture content reduces and as a result there is a reduction in density.
9.3 Shrinkage
As timber loses moisture it undergoes a volumetric change that results in shrinkage of the member. The
shrinkage occurs in two directions, parallel to the growth rings (maximum) and at right angles to the growth
rings. The degree of shrinkage varies with the species. Splits and checks seen on the surface of a piece of
timber are caused by the difference in shrinkage between the timber on the outer face and inner timber.

9.4 Engineering Classification
9.4.1 Hardwood
Extensive full scale testing of round girders and sawn sections cut from hardwood trees was carried out in
Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries. Numerous tests were carried out on each of the hardwood species to
determine their individual engineering properties including:
• tensile strength along the grain
• tensile strength perpendicular to grain
• bearing strength
• shear strength
• compressive strength
• strength for bolted connections – minimum edge distances, bearing strength
• Modulus of Elasticity (MoE) – stiffness
• Modulus of Rupture (MoR) – ultimate bending stress.
The tests were carried out on green as well as seasoned timber. Using the test data each hardwood species
was allocated a ranking for both green and seasoned timber referred to as strength group.
9.4.2 Softwood
The strength groups for softwoods are generally lower than structural hardwoods.
9.4.3 Strength Properties
The classification for structural timber is set out in AS/NZS 2878.
For green timber the strength groups are S1 (strongest) to S7 (weakest) (Table 9.1).
For seasoned timber the strength groups are SD1 (strongest) to SD8 (weakest) (Table 9.2).
Table 9.1: Strength properties of green timber
Strength group
Strength property S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
Modulus of rupture MoR (MPa) 103 86 73 62 52 43 36
Modulus of elasticity MoE (MPa) 16 300 14 200 12 400 10 700 9 100 7 900 6 900
Compressive strength (MPa) 52 43 36 31 26 22 19
Table 9.2: Strength properties of seasoned timber
Strength group
Strength property SD1 SD2 SD3 SD4 SD5 SD6 SD7 SD8
Modulus of rupture MoR (MPa) 150 130 110 94 78 65 55 45
Modulus of elasticity MoE (MPa) 21 500 18 500 16 000 14 000 12 500 10 500 9 100 7 900
Compressive strength (MPa) 80 70 61 54 47 41 36 30

9.5 Structural Grading – Australia
9.5.1 Visual Grading
The strength group for each species indicates the potential structural strength of the timber. However,
structural defects such as knots, slope of grain, splits etc. in individual logs or sawn pieces of timber result in
some reduction in structural strength and as a result the log or piece of timber is downgraded. This is
referred to as visual grading and is carried out by qualified timber inspectors.
Hardwood timber is generally visually graded. The grading of timber provides the designer with information
on the stress that the timber is able to carry under in-service loads.
9.5.2 Mechanical Grading
Mechanical grading is carried out by subjecting each piece of sawn timber to a standard bend test. The
deflection of the timber under the applied load is measured and the modulus of elasticity (MoE) calculated
and correlated to strength.
As a result each piece of timber is stress graded rather than structurally graded purely on the basis of
species and the existence of defects as is done in visual grading.
In the case of softwood species, such as Radiata Pine and Douglas Fir, each piece of timber is stamped with
a stress grade e.g. F7–7 MPa bending strength, F11–11 MPa bending strength.
Machine stress grading is based on the results of testing a large number of pieces of timber species to failure
to provide a statistical basis for the process.
9.5.3 Australian Standards
There are a number of Australian Standards for timber and timber products, which relate to timber bridge
components:
AS 2082 Timber: Hardwood: Visually Stress-graded for Structural Purposes
These visual grading rules for structural timbers set out limits for the size and/or frequency of a number of
strength reducing characteristics depending on the strength grouping of the species.
AS/NZ 2878 Timber: Classification into Strength Groups
This standard sets out the procedure for the strength grouping of a species and gives the strength groups of
an extensive list of species.
It is important to note that the strength group is a rating applied to the species and not to an individual piece
of timber of the species.
AS 3818.1 Timber: Heavy Structural Products: Visually Graded: General Requirements
This standard sets out the general requirements for grade, including definitions and methods of
measurement.
AS 3818.3 Timber: Heavy Structural Products: Visually Graded: Piles
These grading rules set out limits for the size and/or frequency of a number of strength reducing
characteristics as well as the requirements for the shape of a pile.
AS 3818.6 Timber: Heavy Structural Products: Visually graded: Decking for Wharves and Bridges

AS 3818.7 Timber: Heavy Structural Products: Visually Graded: Large Cross-section Sawn Hardwood
Engineering Timbers
AS 3818.8 Timber: Heavy Structural Products: Visually Graded: Stumps and Sole Plates
AS 5604 Timber: Natural Durability Ratings
Until the publication of AS 5604, the available durability ratings for timber were for in-ground ratings only.
AS 5604 provides:
• a durability rating for in-ground use
• a durability rating for above-ground use when exposed to the weather
• a lyctid susceptibility rating
• a termite-resistant rating (when used as timber framing not in-ground contact).
AS 5100.9 Bridge Design: Part 9: Timber
This part of the AS 5100 Bridge Design provides the requirements for the design and construction of timber
bridges and associated structures including members that contain steel connections, based on the limit
states approach. This standard is applicable to the design of new timber structures using seasoned sawn
timber sections, glued-laminated timber and structural laminated veneer lumber. Timber logs used in existing
timber bridges are not covered.
AS 1720-1988 SAA Timber structures code
This standard sets out the design methods for the structural use of timber products including sawn timber,
laminated timber, timber in pole form, plywood and various types of fastenings.
This standard is now superseded, however, it is still in use in several Australian road jurisdictions for the
assessment of existing timber bridges using a working stress approach.
The following parts are included in AS 1720-1988:

• Part 1: Design methods
• Part 2: Timber properties
• Part 3: Non-standard connectors
• Part 4: Fire resistance of timer structures.
AS 1720-2010 Timber Structures
This is the current standard, which is based on a limit states approach. This standard provides a code of
practice for the design and acceptance of timber structures and elements. It includes design methods and
design data appropriate for commonly encountered structural elements and materials and requirements to be
met for specification of the design, installation and maintenance of timber structures.
The following parts are included in AS 1720-2010:

• Part 1: Design methods
• Part 2: Timber properties
• Part 4: Fire resistance of timer structures.

9.6 Structural Grading – New Zealand
9.6.1 Visual Grading
There are minimum target values for visually graded timber and these are shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Minimum target values for visually graded timber
Bending Compression Tension Modulus of Fifth percentile

Species and moisture
Grade strength strength strength elasticity modulus of
condition
fb (MPa) Fc (MPa) ft (MPa) E (GPa) elasticity (GPa)
Moisture condition – dry (m/c = 16%)
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir VSG10 20.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 6.7
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir VSG8 14.0 18.0 6.0 8.0 5.4
Moisture condition – green (m/c = 25%)
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir G8* 11.7 12.0 4.0 6.5 4.4
*G8 is a visual grade, which has been verified, in the green condition for when timber will be used in a service situation
where the moisture condition may be 25% or over.
9.6.2 Machine Stress Graded Timber
Table 9.4 provides minimum target values for machine stress graded timber.
Table 9.4: Minimum target values for machine stress-graded timber
Bending Compression Tension Modulus of Fifth percentile

Species and moisture
Grade strength strength strength elasticity E modulus of
condition
fb (MPa) Fc (MPa) ft (MPa) (GPa) elasticity (GPa)
Moisture condition – dry (m/c = 16%)
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir MGS15 41.0 35.0 23.0 15.2 11.5
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir MGS12 28.0 25.0 14.0 12.0 9.0
Radiata Pine & Douglas Fir MSG10 20.0 20.0 8.0 10.0 7.5
Note: A producer can offer other species or grades with different stresses and moduli subject to verification in
accordance with the standard NZS 3622.
9.6.3 New Zealand Standards
There are a number of New Zealand standards for timber and timber products, which relate to timber bridge
components (listed below). Verified Timber grades can be produced by two types of grading system,
machine stress grading and visual grading. Timber graded through both systems is tested in the same way
through random sampling and testing on a calibrated bending test machine. Rigid pass requirements must
be adhered to by all Verified Timber licensees to ensure that the standards of strength and stiffness are
maintained. For information relating to New Zealand standards refer to www.vereifiedtimber.co.nz.
NZS 3622 Verification of Timber Properties
This standard describes procedures for the initial evaluation and daily quality control requirements necessary
to ensure that timber has the structural properties claimed for it. The procedures apply to timber that is
visually and machine stress graded.

NZS 3603 Timber Structures Standard
Sets out in limit state design format the requirements for methods of design of timber elements of buildings
and applies specifically to sawn timber, glue laminated timber, natural round timber and construction
plywood.
AS/NZS 4063.1 Characterization of Structural Timber: Test Methods
Specifies test methods for measuring the structural properties of rectangular sections sawn solid timber of
commercial structural size.
AS/NZS 4063.2 Characterization of Structural Timber: Determination of Characteristic Values
Provides requirements for the sampling, statistical evaluation of test data and the determination of design
characteristic values for structural timber for structural design in accordance with the relevant Australian or
New Zealand timber engineering design standard.
AS/NZS 1748.1 Timber: Solid: Stress-graded for Structural Purposes: General Requirements
Specifies structural property, marking and physical requirements for mechanically stress-graded timber.
Physical requirements are given for strength considerations as well as for utility considerations.
AS/NZS 1748.2 Timber: Solid: Stress-graded for Structural Purposes: Qualification of Grading Method
Specifies the requirements for qualifying the grading method in accordance with AS/NZS 1748.1.
Qualification requirements include evaluation of the characteristic values from tests of the stress-graded
timber against the specified characteristic values for design, selection of indicator properties and
establishment of target values, correlation and responsiveness analyses and the compilation of a grading
method qualification report.
9.7 Timber Deterioration Mechanisms
The common faults occurring in timber bridge components are splits, shakes, checks, pipes, and knots.
9.7.1 Splits, Shakes and Checks
These faults affect both the strength and durability of the piece (Figure 9.3). Deep checks tend to reduce
durability as they provide a convenient entry for fungal spores and insects to the central part of a piece. Both
splits and checks are a result of longitudinal separation of the wood fibres.
In sawn timber:
• a surface check extends from the surface towards the centre of the piece of timber but with a depth of
only about 10% of the thickness of the piece
• a check is deeper but does not go all the way through the piece
• a split goes right through the piece

Figure 9.3: Common timber faults
Barrel Check
Pipe
Ring Shakes
Star Shake
Source: RTA (1983).
Splits (separations along the grain extending right through the member), checks (surface cracks on one side
of a member), and shakes (cracks between annual growth rings) result from the weakness of timber to
tension across the grain and differential shrinkage during drying (Figure 9.4).
Figure 9.4: Accumulation of gravel, splits and advancement of decay at bearing area of timber beam
9.7.2 Pipe
A pipe is simply a hollow up the centre of a log commencing at the butt. It is often associated with the
development of heart rot.

9.7.3 Knots
Knots are usually round or oval in shape on the surface of the timber. In the living tree they were the limbs or
branches. The effect of knots on durability depends on their occurrence, type and size.
Knots reduce the effective member cross-section and cause local areas of sloping grain with a consequent
decrease in most mechanical properties.
9.7.4 Sloping Grain
Sloping grain, which is grain not parallel to the member axis, may result either from the natural growth of the
tree or the way the timber was sawn. Sloping grain means a discontinuity in the timber fibres and hence
lower strength.
9.7.5 Fungal Decay
Decay is the rotting of timber as a result of fungal attack (Figure 9.5 and Figure 9.6). The cellulose materials
or wood sugars, the main constituent of timber, are a food source for a variety of fungi. Generally speaking
the effects of decay are loss of strength, density, and structure. Typical indicators of decay are as follows:
• colour changes
• softening
• change in density
• change in odour
• loss of cross-sectional area due to crushing.
Figure 9.5: Decay is the most serious timber defect

Figure 9.6: Decay in laminated macrocarpa deck after 10 years
Wood decay in timber varies in pattern depending on the environmental conditions and the species of fungi
colonising the wood. Severe internal decay of bridge timbers is caused by ‘white rot’ or ‘brown rot’ fungi.
External surface decay, especially in ground contact areas, is caused by ‘soft rot’ fungi. Other fungi such as
mould and sap-stain fungi may produce superficial discolorations on timber but are generally not of structural
significance.
Brown rot
• Attacks the cellulose leaving chemically degraded lignin (the brown colour).
• Can delete up to 65% of weight.
• Spreads rapidly so that decay is still occurring in the original location while continuing to spread.
• Affected wood seems better than it is.
• Causes less reduction in toughness than white rot but other strength properties decrease more quickly.
• Causes the infected timber to cube or crumble into a powder.

White rot
• Attacks lignin and cellulose.
• Can delete up to 100% of weight.
• Often decomposes the cell from the centre out and completes the destruction of each cell before moving
to the next cell.
• Reduces toughness more rapidly than does brown rot.
• White rot feeds on the cellulose and lignin, which results in a bleached appearance. The decayed area is
usually stringy and, when dry, the wood is easily crumbled between the fingers.
Fungal growths will not develop unless there is a source of infection from which the plants can grow. Fungi
procreate by producing vast numbers of microscopic spores that may float in the air for long periods and be
blown for considerable distances. Although it is fair to say that no timber in service will be free from decay
because of an absence of infecting spores, these spores will not germinate and develop unless there is:
• an adequate supply of food (wood cells)
• an adequate supply of air or oxygen (prolonged immersion in water saturates timber and inhibits fungal
growth)
• a suitable range of temperatures
(Optimum temperatures are 20 °C to 25 °C for soft rots, while their rate of growth declines above or below
the optimum with a greater tolerance of lower temperatures apparent)
• a continuing supply of moisture
(Wood, with a moisture content below 20%, is safe from decay. Many fungi require a moisture content
above 30%).
Fungi will attack both sapwood and heartwood under favourable moisture and temperature conditions,
causing breakdown of the wood substance, which is then said to be decayed or rotted.
Where pieces of timber are used externally and are against another piece of timber or other material and
there is a moisture trap, there is a greater potential for decay.
Once established, the decay fungi continue to grow at an accelerating rate as long as favourable conditions
prevail. Depriving the fungus of any one of these required conditions will effectively curtail the spread of
decay. Wood that is kept dry or saturated will not rot. Moisture change can affect decay indirectly because
drying often leads to surface checks, which may expose untreated parts of timber or create water-trapping
pockets. Proper preservative treatment effectively provides a toxic barrier to the decay fungi’s food supply,
thus preventing decay.
9.7.6 Marine Organisms
Damage to underwater timber in the sea or tidal inlets is usually caused by marine borers and is more severe
in tropical and sub-tropical waters than in colder waters. The two main groups of animal involved are:
• Molluscs (teredinindae) – this group includes various species of Teredo, Nausitora and Bankia. They are
commonly known in Australia as teredo or as ‘shipworm’. They start life as minute, free-swimming
organisms, and after lodging on timber they quickly develop into a new form and commence tunnelling. A
pair of boring shells on the head grows rapidly in size as the boring progresses, while the tail with its two
water-circulating syphons remains at the original entrance. The teredine borers destroy timber at all levels
from the mudline to high-water level, but the greatest intensity of attack seems to occur in the zone
between 300 mm above and 600 mm below low tide level. A serious feature of their attack is that, while
the interior of a pile may be practically eaten away, only a few small holes may be visible on the surface.

• Crustaceans – this group includes species of Sphaeroma (pill bugs), Limnoria (gribbles), and Chelura.
They attack the wood on its surface, making many shorter and narrower tunnels than those made by the
teredines. The timber so affected is steadily eroded from the outside by wave action and the piles assume
a wasted appearance or ‘hourglass’ effect. Attack by Sphaeroma is limited to the zone between tidal
limits, with the greatest damage close to half-tide level. They cannot survive in water containing less than
1.0 to 1.5% salinity, but can grow at lower temperatures than the teredines.
Many strategies have been developed for control of marine borers, but, assuming that the piles have
sufficient remaining strength, the most effective method is by reducing the oxygen content of the water
around the borers.
9.7.7 Shrinkage and Splitting
Moisture can exist in wood as water or water vapour in the cell cavities and as chemically bound water within
the cell walls. As green timber loses moisture to the surrounding atmosphere, a point is reached when the
cell cavities no longer contain water, but the cell walls are still completely saturated with chemically bound
water. This point is called the ‘fibre saturation point’. Wood is dimensionally stable while its moisture content
remains above the fibre saturation point, which is typically around 30% for most timbers. Bridges are
normally constructed from green timber that gradually dries below its fibre saturation point until it reaches
equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. As it does so, the wood shrinks, but because it is anisotropic, it
does not shrink equally in all directions. Maximum shrinkage occurs parallel to the annular rings; about half
as much occurs perpendicular to the annular rings, and a small amount along the grain.
The relatively large cross-section timbers used in bridges lose moisture through their exterior surfaces so
that the interior of the member remains above the fibre saturation point while the outer layers fall below and
attempt to shrink. This sets up tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain, and when these exceed the tensile
strength of the wood, a split or check develops, which deepens as the moisture content continues to drop. As
timber dries more rapidly through the ends of a member than through the sides, more serious splitting occurs
at the ends. Deep checks provide a convenient site for the start of fungal decay.
Shrinkage also causes splitting where the timber is restrained by a bolted steel plate or other type of
fastening. This splitting can be avoided by allowing the timber to shrink freely by using slotted holes. As
timber shrinks, it tends to lose contact with steel washers or plates, so the connection is no longer tight.
Checking the tightness of nuts in bolted connections is therefore a standard item of routine maintenance for
timber bridges.
9.7.8 Fire
Wood itself does not burn. The effect of heat is firstly to decompose the wood (a process known as
‘pyrolysis’), and it is some of the products of this decomposition that burn if conditions are suitable. This
concept is important in discussions on the action of fire retardants.
In theory, wood decomposes even at temperatures as low as 20 °C (at the rate of about 1% per century). At
93 °C the wood will become charred in about five years.
When wood is heated, several zones of pyrolysis occur that are well delineated due to the excellent
insulating properties of wood (thermal conductivity roughly 1/300 that of steel). These zones can be
described generally as follows:
• Zone A: 95 °C – 200 °C – water vapour is given off and wood eventually becomes charred.
• Zone B: 200 °C – 280 °C – water vapour, formic and acetic acids and glyoxal are given off, ignition is
possible but difficult.
• Zone C: 280 °C – 500 °C – combustible gases (carbon monoxide, methane, formaldehyde, formic and
acetic acids, methanol, hydrogen) diluted with carbon dioxide and water vapour are given off. Residue is
black fibrous char. Normally, vigorous flaming occurs. If, however, the temperature is held below 500 °C,
a thick layer of char builds up, and because the thermal conductivity of char is only a quarter that of wood,
it retards the penetration of heat and thus reduces the flaming.

• Zone D: 500 °C – 1000 °C – in this zone the char develops the crystalline structure of graphite, glowing
occurs and the char is gradually consumed.
• Zone E: Above 1000 °C – at these temperatures the char is consumed as fast as it is formed.
As the temperature of the wood is lowered, the above-mentioned behaviour still holds, e.g. combustion
normally ceases below 280 °C.
The numerical values quoted are approximate and in practical situations depend on many factors such as
the duration of heating and the rate at which oxygen is fed to the combustible gases.
Geometrical configuration is also very important. For example, a vertical stick less than 20 mm thick may
burn from the bottom up without assistance from an external source of heat, but will not burn from the top
down. A stick appreciably thicker than 20 mm will not burn unaided by an external heat source. Large section
round timbers, as used in bridge construction, have good resistance to fire and, except during a severe bush
fire, usually survive quite successfully.
When a timber element is heated above 280 °C, it chars at more or less a constant rate regardless of the
value of temperature. Typical charring rates are.
• softwood 0.6 mm/minute
• hardwood 0.4 mm/minute.
These rates hold reasonably true provided that the minimum dimension of the structural member is not
reduced to less than 50% of the original.
The strength of a timber structural member during a fire depends on the portion of wood that has been
charred, the temperature distribution in the sound wood and the relationship between strength and
temperature as shown in Figure 9.7. To obtain the strength of structural members from these considerations
is a complex analytical problem. However, research has shown that for most practical situations it is
reasonably conservative to assume that the strength of burning sound timber is 80% of the value that it had
before the burning commenced.
Figure 9.7: Effect of temperature on structural properties of timber
Source: CSIRO (1975).

9.7.9 Other Defects
Accumulations
Any build-up of dirt, vegetation, or water has an influence on the drying and equilibrium moisture content of
the timber and can hasten cracking and deterioration of the timber (Figure 9.8).
Holes
Any holes, either from boring insects, nails, spikes, bolts, or drilling investigation, provide the means of
access for the natural elements that cause deterioration of the surrounding timber cell structure (Figure 9.9).
Figure 9.8: Splits in painted macrocarpa rail and moss growth after 10 years
Figure 9.9: Drill hole, accumulation of road gravel, vegetation growth, and decay in deck planks

Connections and fasteners
Timber structures depend on members effectively connected together. Connections may involve holes,
foreign materials such as bolts, and concentration of loads and stresses. They are a likely location of defects
from crushing of the timber grain, chemical attack of the timber cell structure, corrosion of steel fixings,
splitting of the timber member from the wedge action of nails and spikes, and decay from the access of
moisture and oxygen into the joint. Figure 9.10 shows a combination of movement from compression,
looseness of tension member, open holes from investigation drilling, corrosion of steel fixings, moss growth
and decay.
Corrosion of steel fasteners can cause serious strength reductions for two related reasons. Firstly, the steel
fastener reduces in size and weakens, and secondly a chemical reaction involving iron salts from the rusting
process can significantly reduce the strength of the surrounding wood (this is not a fungal decay).
Looseness
Looseness, usually associated with movement in a joint or failure of spikes to hold members firmly, can lead
to progressive deterioration of the structure and be hazardous to users.
Figure 9.10: Multiple joint defects

Misalignment
Misalignment, either sag in main beams or trusses, lateral bucking in truss compression members, or abrupt
misalignment of secondary members such as kerbs and rails, is an indicator of some problem of failing
capacity and performance.
Abrasion
Mechanical wear and loss of section may result from traffic effects on deck timbers, which sometimes result
in an undesirable slipperiness, or from stream-bed movement on piles.
Vehicle impact
Timber kerbs and rails are very subject to damage by vehicle impact.
9.8 Durability
Timber species are classified by durability class of 1 to 4 to indicate their resistance to fungal and termite
attack as shown in Table 9.5.
The durability class of each species was determined by long-term in-ground exposure tests. The durability
class is an indication of the expected life of a particular species in contact with soil. Species such as ironbark
and turpentine are durability class 1, whereas species such as spotted gum and yellow stringy bark are
durability class 2.
Table 9.5: Durability class and in-service life
Durability class Life in years

1 > 25
2 15–25
3 8–15
4 <8
9.8.1 Termites
Most wood, whether living (trees in the forest) or in the form of sawn or round timber, is susceptible to attack
by termites. The termites, therefore, are correctly labelled major destroyers of wood.
Termites are commonly called ‘white ants’ but are really not even closely related to the true ants. Their
nearest relatives are the cockroaches.
Termite attack, once established, usually degrades timber much more quickly than fungi, but it is rare for
termite attack to occur in the durable hardwoods normally used in bridge construction without some pre-
existing fungal decay. This decay accelerates as the termites extend their galleries through the structure,
moving fungal spores and moisture about with their bodies. Hence, although most of the material removed
by termites has already lost its structural strength because of decay, the control of termite infestations
remains an important consideration.

Distribution
Australia has a large number of different species of termites that are widely distributed. Heavy termite attack
is found in the northern tropical belt of Australia, but the hazard is sufficient in the southern states to
constitute a significant problem. Tasmania and the colder districts of Victoria do not have a major termite
problem. Practically all termite damage to timber bridges occurs through subterranean termites (especially
Coptotermes acinaciformis and allied species), which require contact with the soil or some other constant
source of moisture
The termite colony
Termites live in colonies or nests that may be located below ground in the soil, or above ground in a tree
stump, hollowed out bridge member or an earth mound. Each colony contains a queen, workers, soldiers
and reproductive or alates which are physically different from each other and have their own particular duties
to perform. All the activities of the individuals are directed towards the maintenance and survival of the
colony. The workers, who usually constitute the highest proportion of the colony population are white bodied,
blind insects some 3 mm in length that have well-developed jaws for eating timber. Attack by subterranean
termites originates from the nest, but may spread well above ground level, either inside the wood or via mud-
walled shelter tubes called galleries that are constructed on the outside of bridge members. These galleries
are essential for termites as they require an absence of light, a humid atmosphere, and a source of moisture
to survive. At least once a year the alates develop eyes and wings and leave the nest under favourable
weather conditions to migrate up to 200 m from the original nest. After migration, their wings fall off and a few
of these may pair to start new colonies.
Timber in moist ground, or moist timber, is a favoured nesting area for a new colony. In most cases nests are
built at or just below ground level or within standing living trees. Many nests are started in or near dead tree
stumps or within wounds in the bark of living trees. Some nests are in the form of a mound, which extends both
above and below ground level. With some species there may be no indication of the nest above the ground.
Termite containment
It would be almost impossible to eliminate all the termites from a timber bridge. This is because of the
difficulty of locating immature colonies and the likelihood that timber bridges would be reinfested over time.
Therefore, the best outcome is to contain termite activity to a level considered economically acceptable. This
would include:
• regular inspections of areas that are deemed at most risk to termite attack
• training of maintenance personnel to be aware of possible termite problems so that they know when to
call in a termite specialist
• keeping records of termite activity so more informed decisions can be made when treating termites and
when deciding where inspections should be carried out
• using termite treatment procedures which are directed at colony elimination
• installing termite monitoring devices.
Australian Standards AS 3660 recommend that termite activity that has been treated be inspected again
after six months.
Treatment of termite activity
Basically, there are two main strategies in termite control:

• eradication of the nest (by either direct chemical treatment or by separation of the colony from its
sustaining moisture)
• installation of chemical and physical barriers to prevent termites from entering a bridge or attacking timber
in contact with the ground.

In practice, it may be difficult to eradicate the nest because of the problem of locating it.
Chemical termite treatment must be carried out in accordance with any of the chemical manufacturer’s label
requirements and relevant Australian Standards.
9.9 Preservative Treatments
9.9.1 Treatment of Timber Bridge Components
There are two basic kinds of treatment of timber bridge components, which are:
• A full-length pressure impregnation of the sapwood with preservatives. This kind of treatment is done
prior to the timber being purchased. The pressure treatment of heartwood in hardwoods is not possible.
• A remedial treatment with a chemical or grease and is done when the timber member is being fitted into
the bridge or is done during routine bridge maintenance.
There is a range of chemical treatments that is available and these include:

• oil-borne preservatives (e.g. creosote, PEC) which are themselves an oil, or they are carried into the
wood, mixed in an oil
• water-borne preservatives (e.g. ACQ, CCA, copper azole) which are carried into the wood mixed in water
• light organic solvent-borne preservatives – commonly called LOSPs (e.g. permethrin) which are carried
into the wood mixed in a light organic solvent
• proprietary liquid fungicides
• diffusing chemical rods placed in holes in members.
Levels of treatment
There are six levels of treatment. These are called hazard levels and relate to the hazard to which the timber
is going to be exposed and can be seen in Table 9.6.
The level of treatment required by a timber bridge component will depend on the hazard to which the
component will be exposed. Most components will be treated to H5 or H6. Even round corbels supporting
girders or indeed round girders require H5 treatment because, whilst not in ground contact, they are in
contact with soil and effluent which contain the bio-organisms which generate high risk for in-ground
exposure. The soil and effluent comes from vehicle tyres and, for example, cattle trucks and from ‘wildlife,’
which may colonise the bridge structure.
For additional information on timber see RTA (1983) and Publication and Advisory Services of Forestry
Authorities in Australia and New Zealand.

Table 9.6: Preservative treatment and classification
Hazard level Exposure Specific service conditions Biological hazard Typical uses
H1 Inside, above Completely protected from the Lyctid borer Framing, flooring,
ground weather and well ventilated and furniture, interior joinery
protected from termites
H2 Inside, above Protected from wetting, nil Borers and termites Framing, flooring, etc.,
ground leaching used in dry situations
H3 Outside, Subject to periodic moderate Moderate decay, Weatherboard, fascia,
above ground wetting and leaching borers and termites pergolas (above
ground), window joinery,
framing and decking
H4 Outside, in Subject to severe wetting and Severe decay, borers Fence posts,
ground leaching and termites greenhouses, pergolas
contact (in ground) and
landscaping timbers
H5 Outside, in Subject to extreme wetting and Very severe decay, Retaining walls, piling,
ground leaching and/or where the borers and termites house stumps, building
contact, critical use requires a higher poles, cooling tower fill
contact with degree of protection
or in fresh
water
H6 Marine Subject to prolonged immersion Marine wood borers Boat hulls, marine piles,
waters in sea water and decay jetty cross bracing
9.9.2 Replacement of Timber Components
Due to the increasing difficulties in sourcing new timber logs of the same quality for like-for-like
replacements, timber bridge components such as girder, corbel and bracing have recently been replaced by
using FRP products. Refer to Section 11.1.6 for details.

10. Masonry
Masonry arch bridges were typically constructed in the early years of the Australian colonies. This was due
to their prevalence in Britain and Europe at the time, which is where the bridge engineering experience in the
colony at the time came from. When convict labour ceased in the 1840’s, masonry arch bridges became less
popular due to increased construction costs (Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) 2005b). However, masonry
continued to be used for bridge components, often in abutments and piers for long span timber truss and
wrought iron bridges. Masonry construction is widespread today for common components such as
abutments, wingwalls and retaining walls on many modern structures.
Masonry construction is formed with discrete blocks mortared together with cementitious material to form a
structural component, such as a wall. The blocks may be either cut from naturally occurring stone or
manufactured from other materials and formed into bricks or blocks. The mortar most commonly used in the
past was a lime mortar that is softer than cement mortar and thus has better ability to distribute load evenly
across the joints between the discrete blocks. Due to the lack of direct tensile strength, masonry has
historically been used in components and forms where compressive forces are dominant, such as retaining
walls, abutments, piers and masonry arch bridges.
See also UK Department for Transport (2005).
10.1 Types of Masonry
See also Ontario Ministry of Transport (2008).
The three main types of masonry in use in Australia are as follows:

• Ashlar masonry – Stone worked to a square shape or cut square with uniform coursing height and vertical
joints staggered. The stone has a minimum course height of 200 mm set in joints with an average
thickness of 10 mm or less.
• Squared stone masonry – Stone in natural bed thicknesses or roughly squared stones with course height
less than 200 mm and joints greater than 10 mm but not over 20 mm.
• Rubble masonry – Stone masonry constructed with rough field stones or only roughly squared stones set
in mortar joints with average thickness greater than 20 mm; any squared stone masonry in which the
joints are greater than 20 mm, but less than 30 mm in thickness.
10.2 Masonry Distress Mechanisms and Defects
The principal causes of the deterioration of masonry are:

• fretting of blocks and/or mortar jointing
• cracking or movement due to subsidence of the foundations or relative movement between separate
parts of the structure
• abrasion of blocks and/or mortar jointing, biological attack from plants or marine organisms.
10.2.1 Fretting of Blocks and Mortar Joints
Fretting of blocks and mortar joints can be caused by the loss of the cementing or binding agents by leaching
due to the percolation of water through the structure. The water may be either drawn up from the footings
and backfill by capillary action or leak down through the fill from the roadway.

Fretting can also be caused by a cycle of wetting and drying. Water passing through the backfill or up from
the foundations dissolves any salts present in the soil. As mortar and stone are both pervious, this water is
drawn up into the wall by capillary action, again dissolving any salts present in the wall. The water is drawn
towards any face of the wall in contact with air, where it evaporates, leaving behind any salts that were
dissolved. These salts form crystals just below the surface of the wall, and the pressure developed during
crystallisation is usually sufficient to spall the surface layer. If this process continues unchecked for a length
of time, considerable loss of material may occur. Since lime mortar is much more pervious than the hard
sandstone with which many walls are built, most of the moisture will percolate through the mortar and thus
most of the fretting will occur there. Furthermore, in most sandstones, an aging process caused by the action
of rain and air and known as ‘case-hardening’ occurs, which toughens the outer skin.
10.2.2 Cracking or Movement
Cracking or movement is especially significant if it is recent in origin. It is important to distinguish those

cracks that relate to the stability and load carrying capacity of the roadway from those which do not.
Masonry abutments, retaining walls, and wing walls are vulnerable to cracking from excessive settlement or
differential settlement of the foundations.
Factors affecting the stability of a masonry arch bridge include:

• differential settlement across an abutment or pier – this may cause longitudinal cracks along an arch ring,
indicating that the arch has broken up into separate rings
• movement or settlement of the foundations of an abutment or pier – this may cause lateral cracks across
an arch ring and settlement in the roadway, indicating that the arch has broken up into separate
segments
• settlement at the sides of an abutment or pier – this may cause diagonal cracks starting near the side of
the arch at the springing and extending to the centre of the arch at the crown
• flexibility of the arch ring – this may cause cracks in the spandrel walls near the quarter points
• outward movement of the spandrel walls due to the lateral pressure of the fill, particularly if the traffic can
travel close to the parapet – this may cause longitudinal cracking near the edge of the arch
• movement of the wingwalls – this may cause cracking and, if adjacent to the roadway, loss of the road
surface.
10.2.3 Abrasion
Water-borne abrasive particles may abrade soft masonry. This can be particularly significant if the base flow
of the watercourse is permitted to run along the faces of piers or abutments.
10.2.4 Biological Attack
The fill over the arch ring retained within the spandrel walls or the fill retained behind abutments, retaining
walls and wing-walls can store enough water and nutrients to support a large mass of vegetation.
Lichens and ivy can chemically attack the surface while attaching themselves to masonry. Roots and stems
growing in crevices or joints can exert a wedging force that prises them open, dislodging blocks.

11. Non-metallic Materials
11.1 Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
11.1.1 History
FRP composites have been used for some time in the aerospace industry. The first applications in concrete
structures occurred in the 1980s in Europe and Japan where they were retrofitted to existing structures to
increase load capacity and seismic resistance. Since that time the use of FRP systems has progressively
increased in both the area of bridge strengthening and new FRP bridges. By 1997 more than 1500 concrete
structures had been strengthened using externally bonded FRP materials.
In Australia, FRP materials have been implemented in bridge structural components in the last decade in the
forms of bridge component strengthening, component replacement or new entire FRP bridges. These
materials have a great potential to replace traditional materials in bridge construction due to improved
material characteristics such as high strength, low weight, resistance to corrosion, lower energy consumption
in the manufacturing process and potentially improved durability. The restriction in transparency and
openness to knowledge disclosure and sharing due to commercial confidentiality of the FRP proprietary
products, however, has held back the pace of putting these materials into wider acceptance and
applications.
In addition, the durability and long-term performance of FRP materials has been the subject of extensive past
and on-going research, however, given the fact that FRP materials have only been used in bridge
applications within the last two decades, long-term field data is either not currently available or sufficient to
rationalise trends. It is still difficult to accurately predict the life of in-service FRP components. The long-term
behaviour of FRP is therefore an undeveloped area of knowledge that requires further applied research in
order to demonstrate that the whole-of-life cost benefit of these systems can be justified for the remaining
useful life of the structure.
11.1.2 Types of Materials
Currently, most FRP materials are made from one of the following:
• Glass FRP (GFRP).
• Carbon FRP (CFRP).
• Aramid (Kevlar) FRP (AFRP).
The materials can be manufactured in different forms:

• fabric with parallel or cross-ply fibres
• pre-cured strips in which the fibres are bound into a resin matrix ready to be bonded to members
• prepreg tape, which consists of fibres pre-coated with resin. It is a semi-hardened product and comes in a
variety of forms – rolls, cut sheets or pre-cut forms
The material is applied to the concrete member and then heat cured in one to three hours.
• tendons for prestressing applications
• reinforcing bars
• pultruded sections (resin matrix and fibres extruded through a die of the required cross-section).

FRP materials are four to six times stronger than steel and concrete but are only a fraction of the weight.
However, under load their behaviour is different to conventional bridge materials. They behave linear
elastically to failure i.e. there is no yield point. This results in a lack of ductility at failure compared to other
materials and consequently there is no indication of imminent failure. This issue is addressed in design
codes and design guides by limiting the stresses at the serviceability limit state to a lower enough level to
ensure there is no possibility of lack of ductility being an issue.
In FRP members, stiffness will generally control the design rather than the strength.
A comparison of different materials is provided in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Comparison of material properties of FRP to steel, concrete and timber
Stiffness E Tensile Compressive strength Density

Material
(GPa) (MPa) (MPa) (kg/m3)
Steel 200 300 300 7650

Concrete 28 5 50 2500
Glass composite 30 500 400 1800
Carbon composite 90 900 800 1300
Hardwood timber F27 18 50 60 1100
Softwood timber F11 10 40 25 800
Glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP)
GFRP was the first FRP material used in bridge applications. However, some of the shortcomings listed
below have meant it has a limited use:
• susceptible to creep rupture at low sustained stress levels; in California GFRP shells applied to concrete
columns failed instantaneously due to creep rupture
• susceptible to degradation in alkaline environments
• not suitable where exposed to marine environments
• low fatigue resistance
• high impact tolerance
• not tolerant of alkalinity/acidity.
Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)
The development of CFRP technology initially occurred in the aerospace industry. Its applications in bridges
have been steadily growing. Its comparatively high cost has limited its broader use. However, as the material
cost decrease applications in bridges will increase. Properties include:
• high fatigue resistance
• not affected by UV degradation
• creep rupture not an issue
• low impact tolerance
• high resistance to alkalinity/acidity.

11.1.4 Glass Transition Temperature of Polymers
The stability of FRP at elevated temperatures is a function of the temperature at which it was cured, defined
as the glass transition point (melting point). A differential scanning calorimeter is used to determine the glass
transition temperature and can also be used to determine the degree of cure. If a resin is uncured heating
above the glass transition temperature will result in the glass transition temperature continuing to increase.
The glass transition temperature of a resin must be in excess of the maximum temperature the material will
be subjected to in service.
11.1.5 Resins and Moisture
There is a wide range of resins available for use in FRP materials. These include epoxies, vinylesthers and
polyesters. However, some resins are susceptible to deterioration by moisture. The type of resin used must
be suitable for the exposure conditions and the likelihood of moisture coming in contact with the resin.
Some resins can also be affected by atmospheric moisture at the time of curing.
11.1.6 FRP Bridge Applications
FRP bridge applications include:

• complete FRP bridges
• FRP replacement components
• FRP strengthening of existing structures.
New bridges – design issues
The main design issue to address in an FRP road bridge is robustness. Generally strength is not an issue as
the material is designed to operate at low stress levels given the non-ductile failure mode. However, over its
service life the bridge will be subjected to repetitive live loading with the possibility of high impact loading as
a result of adverse conditions, such as uneven approaches. A combination of FRP materials, such as CFRP
and GFRP, in flexural members allows the designer to engineer the yield and ultimate behaviour (Figure
11.2). Examples exist overseas where FRP bridge decks with thin multiple webs have failed under in-service
traffic.
The construction of bridge superstructures from FRP (Figure 11.1 and Figure 11.2) has a number of
advantages over conventional materials, including the following:
• high strength
• low mass compared to conventional materials with resulting cost savings in substructures and
foundations
• reduced transport costs particularly to remote sites
• high durability
• non-corrosive
• high fatigue resistance of CFRP.

Figure 11.1: FRP span – bridge over Orara River at Coutts Crossing
Figure 11.2: Proof loading of FRP span for Coutts Crossing

FRP timber member replacements
There are still some 20 000 timber bridges in use on the road and rail networks. Many of these bridges will
be required to remain in service for the foreseeable future. The sourcing of timber to maintain these bridges
is becoming increasingly difficult as the availability of suitable timber diminishes. In addition the cost of
structural timber has increased significantly over the last
10–15 years.
This situation led to the development of FRP girders as an alternative for timber girder replacements. To date
FRP girders have been developed based on design criteria required by TMR and Roads and Maritime for
their respective applications. Prototype girders have been tested to destruction to confirm compliance with
the design criteria.
Trial installations of FRP girders in timber beam bridges have been carried out by TMR. In NSW a trial
installation of an FRP cross girder in a timber truss bridge has also been carried out (Figure 11.3).
Figure 11.3: Trial FRP cross girder for timber truss bridge
Bridge strengthening
FRP strips or fabric are used to increase the flexural and shear strength of concrete members. The material
is either applied in the form of pre-cured strips bonded to the concrete or impregnating fabric with resin and
then applied to the concrete surface.
Carbon fibre wraps are used to strengthen concrete columns by providing confinement to the member. Glass
fibre shells were used to strengthen bridge columns in California. However, the material failed prematurely
due to creep rupture. GRFP is not suitable for use in applications where it is under constant strain.

The most important characteristics of FRP in repair and strengthening applications are the speed and ease
of installation. Cost savings in labour, road closures, the need for handling equipment and overcoming site
constraints offset the costs of FRP compared with other methods such as bonded steel plates and external
prestressing. The use of FRP strips removes the safety issue associated with lifting and support of heavy
steel plates into restricted areas. FRP materials can also be used to strengthen walls.
The use of CFRP to strengthen steel members is an issue due to possible corrosion caused by galvanic
action between the two materials.
Examples of FRP usage include:

• Westgate Bridge, Melbourne – CFRP strips used to increase shear and flexural strength of prestressed
concrete box girder.
• Oyster Channel Bridge, Yamba, NSW – CFRP strips used to increase the shear capacity of a reinforced
tee beam bridge.
• Hornibrook Highway, Brisbane – CFRP wrap used to confine concrete columns.
To cater for the possible failure of FRP system, it is required by AS 5100.8 that the minimum tensile strength
of the concrete to be strengthened be 1.5 MPa and its minimum compressive strength not less than 15 MPa.
Whilst long-term performance is still the subject of ongoing research, FRP systems have been successfully
used in structural applications for bridges since the 1980s. As a result, a design life of 30 years is considered
a conservative estimate for FRP composite strengthening systems provided regular inspection, monitoring
and maintenance regimes are put in place (AS 5100.8).
Flexural strengthening
Where CFRP strips are used to increase the flexural strength of a member the anchorage of the strips to
develop their tensile capacity is a critical consideration. The strips must extend sufficiently past the point at
which they are required flexurally to develop their full tensile capacity.
The propensity for laminates to peel from the concrete substrate for beams under flexure is an issue that
needs to be addressed in the design by providing a sufficient anchorage length. In some instances
secondary fixtures have been used to prevent peeling. Ongoing monitoring of the integrity of the bonding of
the laminates should be included in the maintenance procedures.
Limitations on over-reinforcing the member
Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using CFRP strips should be limited to the point where
in the event of the loss of integrity of the strips the stresses in the original reinforcing steel do not exceed the
yield stress. In addition, the design must be such that non-ductile failure occurs due to an over-reinforced
member i.e. compression failure in the concrete.
Shear strengthening
Anchorage of laminates is the critical design issue. The development length may require protrusion into the
deck slab or additional horizontal laminates bonded to the vertical leg.
Where vertical laminates on each face of a member are lapped on the soffit, the laminates should be
staggered so each one is bonded direct to the concrete and not to another laminate.
Corners of members must be modified to provide a curved surface to prevent high contact pressures
(Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4: Shear strengthening of a reinforced concrete T-beam bridge with CFRP strips
Columns and piles
Attention to the detail at the extremities of the member is critically important, as a lack of adequate
confinement will compromise the strengthening measures.
On square and rectangular columns the corners must be rounded to the radius required for the thickness of
the laminate used.
The aspect ratio of a column may result in the FRP wrap not being effective in providing confinement. In
such instances the FRP wrap will need to be fixed to the concrete column by bolting or ties to be effective.
The pre-strain of CFRP systems should be limited to 50% of ultimate strain due to damage tolerance
concerns with fibres in the one direction.
Options for wrapping systems include:

• wet lay-up using fabric, tape or individual tow (a bundle of continuous untwisted fibres)
• pre-impregnated (prepreg) in the form of tow, tape or fabric
• prefabricated shells – split tube or in two halves. The integrity of the system relies on the strength of the
connections.
The moisture content of the concrete may be an issue where heat curing is required. Water vapour may
cause blistering of the wrap.
Automated wrapping equipment is available to apply the particular system used.
Design standards for column strengthening have been published by road authorities in the USA, Europe and
Japan.

11.1.7 Design Issues – Strengthening
The design rationale must be supported by research and testing. Design guidelines are available from a
number of authorities and industry bodies.
The strength and quality of the concrete to which the laminates will be bonded is of critical importance. Pull-
off testing is required to assess if the strength of the concrete is sufficient to resist the shear stresses at the
FRP/concrete interface.
The evenness of the concrete and the quality of the surface preparation are critical. Any unevenness in the
surface will impose high point loads on the laminate leading to possible failure. Poor surface preparation will
compromise the bond strength.
Blow holes or areas where slurry loss has occurred during construction will require repair prior to installing
the laminates.
In some situations the risk of fire damage must be addressed. This may require the application of a fire
retardant coating to protect the FRP material.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods should be used to confirm that full bonding of the FRP materials to
the substrate has been achieved. This may include the use of thermal imaging techniques or similar test
methods.
To provide long-term monitoring of the in-service performance of CFRP strips additional non-load bearing
strips should be installed at the time of construction to provide pull-off test specimens of laminates to assess
the long-term performance of the materials.
Over-reinforcing concrete members
In concrete members the increase in load capacity should be limited to the point where in the event of the
FRP laminate de-bonding or failing for other reasons, the stress in the original reinforcing steel under the
increased loading does not exceed yield. This is considered appropriate given the relatively short time the
technology has been used and provides redundancy in the member.
11.1.8 Strengthening Materials
Pre-cured FRP laminates
Pre-cured FRP laminates are supplied by various manufacturers in varying thicknesses and widths as part of
their system.
A requirement should be included in the specification to provide confirmation of the material properties of
pre-cured laminates to be used on a project. It is recommended that third party testing be carried out on
materials to ensure compliance with the specification including:
• material properties of the fibres in the laminate
• material properties of the resin matrix
• material properties of the laminate (note: it is the strength of the fibre/resin combination that is important,
not the fibre strength in isolation)
• the fibre/resin ratio; a high fibre/resin ratio results in a thinner layer of resin which optimises the fibre
strength; a low fibre/resin ratio will result in a thicker layer of resin which will result in the capacity of the
laminate being limited to the strength of the resin
• material properties of the resin used to bond the laminate to the concrete.

Wet lay-up
The fibre fabric is applied to the concrete surface and the resin applied by roller to infuse into the fibre.
Alternatively, the resin is infused into the fabric and then layed-up on the concrete surface.
Dry lay-up
The fibre fabric is applied with the resin partly cured, (prepreg) and then heat cured, or a dry fabric with the
resin is infused by roller, or by a vacuum process.
The quality of the construction process is critical to the success of the strengthening of members using FRP
laminates.
Some construction issues include:

• material storage and handling
• health and safety issues
• sampling of the mixed resin on site and testing to confirm material properties and adequacy of mixing
• a laminate support system that ensures a thin layer of bonding material to optimise strength of the FRP.
This will require a support system that exerts sustained pressure to the laminate over the curing period.
• surface preparation and surface profile quality
• treatment of surface voids
• curing times
• inspection methods
• acceptance criteria.
11.1.10 Monitoring
In view of the lack of information on the long-term performance of FRP materials it is recommended that an
ongoing inspection program be put in place.
This may include visual and NDT methods such as thermal imaging to detect delaminations. In addition, the
installation of bonded laminate test pieces adjacent to the strengthening should be carried out to allow future
destructive testing over time to check bond performance.
11.2 Bridge Bearing Materials
11.2.1 Elastomers
Elastomers are a range of polymers that include natural rubber and synthetic materials. This material is used
in bridge bearings.
The most common elastomers used in bridge bearings are natural rubber and neoprene. Various additives
are used to achieve the required physical characteristics and to improve the resistance of the material to
oxidation, ozone and sunlight.

Types of elastomeric bridge bearings
The manufacturer can adjust the stiffness of the material depending on the design requirements. The four
design parameters of an elastomeric bearing are:
• shape factor
• compressive stiffness to resist vertical loads
• rotational stiffness to resist rotation at the supports caused by member deflection
• shear stiffness to resist horizontal loads from thermal and creep movements and braking loads.
Elastomeric bridge bearings come in the form of:

• Plain strip bearings – usually up to 125 mm x 25 mm and available in various lengths. These bearings are
usually used in short span bridges.
• Plain pad bearings – square, rectangular or circular. Dimensions vary according to the design
requirements.
• Laminated pad bearings – square, rectangular or circular. Dimensions vary according to the design
requirements. Laminated bearings are reinforced by steel plates that are internally bonded to the
elastomer during the manufacturing process. The dimensions of the bearing and number and size of steel
plates depend on the design requirements.
Under load laminated bearings will exhibit ripples on the vertical face of the bearing. This is normal
behaviour. However, if the bearing is unevenly loaded the ripples on one side of the bearing may be deeper.
This situation may require further investigation.
For specific details of elastomeric bridge bearings see Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 3: Typical
Bridge Superstructures, Substructures and Components.
Construction issues
It is imperative that the bearing seating is planar and to the specified level to ensure the bearing is uniformly
loaded. The seating of members on bearings should be checked at the time of erection of the member.
The position of the bearing seating must be accurately set out to ensure that the required distance from the
edge of the seating to the bearing face is achieved. Failure to provide the required edge distance may lead
to a lack of friction to confine the lower edge of the bearing and result in lifting of the edge of the bearing and
possible tearing of the material.
Neat epoxies (i.e. no filler included) on bearing seats do not provide sufficient friction between the surface
and the bearing and can lead to bearings ‘walking out’. If repairs are carried out to seatings using epoxies
coarse sand should be broadcast on the surface to ensure sufficient friction is developed. Poured
cementitious grouts may also lack sufficient friction to retain the bearings, and should not be used.
Bearing plates and other devices attached to precast members should be checked for accuracy of position
and level to ensure uniform loading of bearings.
Vertical hog of prestressed members can often result in a gap on the front edge of the bearing resulting in
non-uniform loading. Similarly, girders placed on a cross-fall or on a slope may cause non-uniform loading
unless precautions are taken.

Serviceability issues
Shear strains
Over time the shear strain of a bearing will often increase to excessive amounts due to the combined effects
of:
• movements in the substructure
• movements in the superstructure due to creep and thermal movements.
It is generally accepted that the maximum acceptable shear strain of an elastomeric bearing is equal to its
depth. However, lower threshold values may apply in some authorities. Once the maximum shear strain of a
bearing is reached the bridge should be jacked-up to allow the bearing to reset.
Failure modes
Failure modes include:

• horizontal splits due to excessive strains or the debonding of the steel plates in laminated bearings
• lifting of the edges of the bearing due to lack of friction causing excessive strains
• crushing of the bearing following the development of a number of horizontal splits that extend into the
bearing
• deterioration due to the effects of ozone resulting in the breakdown of the material
• bearings ‘walking out’ due to lack of friction or the bearing being too lightly loaded
• instability where the bearing is too tall for its base dimension.
For specific details of failure modes of bridge bearings see Austroads Guide to Bridge Technology Part 7:
Maintenance and Management of Existing Bridges.
11.2.2 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
PTFE is the most commonly used fluorocarbon polymer and is used widely as the sliding material in modern
types of structural bearings such as pot disc and spherical bearings. Due to its very low friction under load,
this material offers very little resistance to the movements of the superstructure. Refer to Austroads Guide to
Bridge Technology Part 3: Typical Superstructures, Substructures and Components for details of the
bearings which use PTFE.
Chemical resistance
PTFE resins are resistant to attack to practically all chemicals except molten alkali metals – such as sodium
and potassium. No known solvents will swell or dissolve PTFE below 300 °C.
Working temperature range
PTFE has a wider working range than any other plastics material. The lowest temperature is about –196 °C
and the upper limit is 250 °C.
Coefficient of friction
Frictional qualities are exceptional and better than any dry, solid material. The dynamic friction is higher than
static friction, which eliminates any ‘stick/slip’ performance.

The friction of lubricated PTFE is lower than dry PTFE, hence the manufacturing requirements in
specifications in regard to lubrication.
In bridge bearings the sliding surface in contact with the PTFE must be polished stainless steel to a required
surface finish.
Extrusion of PTFE
Instances have occurred in service where the layer of PTFE in contact with the sliding surface has extruded
out. This has generally been a result of the lack of a recess in which the PTFE can be confined. The later
specification requirements to provide lubrication of the PTFE via silicon grease in dimples in its surface
appear to have overcome this problem.
The extrusion issue can also be related to excessive contact stresses as a result of overloading of the
bearing due to design errors or structural movements.
Cleanliness of the PTFE surface
It is imperative that the sliding surface in contact with the PTFE be kept clean. Any accumulation of dirt or
dust will shorten the service life of the PTFE. Bearings with the facility to wipe the sliding surface clean, as
movement occurs, will have a longer service life compared to other types of bearings.
11.3 Polystyrene
Polystyrene is a lightweight cellular plastic material and is used extensively in bridge construction in the
following applications:
• void formers in prestressed and precast concrete members
• block-outs in formwork to form recesses
• as a separator between adjacent concrete faces when new concrete is placed adjacent to hardened
concrete.
The material suitable for use in bridge applications must be rigid cellular polystyrene complying with Class S
of AS 1366.3.
In the case of void formers the polystyrene is to be coated with a minimum 2 mm thick rapid curing
solventless aromatic urethane coating or equivalent.

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in concrete, 12th, 2004, Beijing, China, International Academic Publishers, Beijing, China, pp. 773-88.
Specialty Steel Industry of North America n.d., The stainless steel information center, webpage, Specialty
Steel Industry of North America (SSINA), viewed17 March 2017, <http://www.ssina.com/index.html>.
Thomas, BP, Fitzpatrick, RW, Merry, RH & Hicks, WS 2003, ‘Coastal acid sulfate soil management
guidelines’, Barker Inlet, SA, version 1.2, CSIRO Land and Water, Urrbrae, SA.
Tilly, GP, Matthews, SJ, Deacon, D, De Voy, J & Jackson, PA 2008, Iron and steel bridges: condition
appraisal and remedial treatment, rev. edn, CIRIA, London, UK.
Timoshenko, SP & Young, DH 2010, Elements of strength of materials, 5th edn, Van Nostrand, New York,
NY, USA.
Transit New Zealand 2001, Bridge inspection and maintenance manual, SP/M/016, NZTA, Wellington, New
Zealand.
Twi-global 2016, Mechanical testing: tensile testing, part 1, webpage, Twi-global, Cambridge, UK, viewed 8
March 2017, <http://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/job-knowledge/mechanical-testing-tensile-
testing-part-1-069/>.

UK Department for Transport 2005, Management of highway structures: a code of practice, The Stationery
Office, London, UK.
Van Maarschalkerwaat, HMCM 1981, ‘Criteria for the replacement of some railway bridges in the
Netherlands’, [in French], International symposium on management structures: inspection, maintenance
and repair of road and railway bridges, 1981, Brussels, Belgium & Paris, France, Association Amicale des
Ingenieurs, Paris, France, vol. 1, pp. 123-8.
Victorian Royal Commission 1963, Report of Royal Commission into the failure of Kings Bridge, No.
1-6352/63, Royal Commission, Government printer, Melbourne.
Australian and New Zealand Standards

AS ISO/IEC 17025-2005 (R2016), General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration
laboratories.
AS 1012 (set), Methods of testing concrete.
AS 1012.1-2014, Methods of testing concrete: sampling of fresh concrete.
AS 1012.3.5-2015, Methods of testing concrete: determination of properties related to the consistency of
concrete: slump flow, T500 and J-ring test.
AS 1012.9-2014, Methods of testing concrete: compressive strength tests: concrete, mortar and grout
specimens.
AS 1012.10-2000 (R2014), Methods of testing concrete: determination of indirect tensile strength of concrete
cylinders (‘Brasil’ or splitting test).
AS 1012.11-2000 (R2014), Methods of testing concrete: determination of the modulus of rupture.
AS 1012.12.1-1998 (R2014), Methods of testing concrete: determination of mass per unit volume of
hardened concrete: rapid measuring method.
AS 1012.12.2-1998 (R2014), Methods of testing concrete: determination of mass per unit volume of
hardened concrete: water displacement method.
AS 1012.14-1991, Methods of testing concrete: method for securing and testing cores from hardened
concrete for compressive strength.
AS 1012.17-1997 (R2014), Methods of testing concrete: determination of the static chord modulus of
elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of concrete specimens.
AS 1141 (set), Methods for sampling and testing aggregates.
AS 1366.3-1992, Rigid cellular plastics sheets for thermal insulation: rigid cellular polystyrene: moulded
(RC/PS - M).
AS 1379-2007, Specification and supply of concrete.
AS/NZS 1554.1-2014, Structural steel welding: welding of steel structures.
AS/NZS 1554.2-2003, Structural steel welding: stud welding (steel studs to steel).
AS/NZS 1554.3-2014, Structural steel welding: welding of reinforcing steel.
AS/NZS 1554.5-2014, Structural steel welding: welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue
loading.
AS/NZS 1665-2004, Welding of aluminium structures.
AS 1720-1988, SAA Timber structures code, (superseded).
AS 1720-2010, Timber structures.
AS/NZS 1748.1-2011, Timber: solid: stress-graded for structural purposes: general requirements.
AS/NZS 1748.2-2011, Timber: solid: stress-graded for structural purposes: qualification of grading method.
AS 2082-2007, Timber: hardwood: visually stress-graded for structural purposes.
AS 2205 (set), Methods of destructive testing of welds in metal.

AS 2205.5.1-2003, Methods for destructive testing of welds in metal: macro metallographic test for cross-
section examination.
AS/NZS 2312-2014, Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the use of
protective coatings.
AS/NZS 2312.1-2014, Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the use of
protective coatings: paint coatings.
AS/NZS 2312.2-2014, Guide to the protection of structural steel against atmospheric corrosion by the use of
protective coatings: hot dip galvanising.
AS 2350 (set), Methods of testing Portland and blended cements.
AS 2758.1-2014, Aggregates and rock for engineering purposes: concrete aggregates.
AS/NZS 2878-2000, Timber: classification into strength groups.
AS 3582 (set), Supplementary cementitious materials.
AS 3600-2009, Concrete structures.
AS 3660-2014 (set), Termite management.
AS 3818.1-2009, Timber: heavy structural products: visually graded: general requirements.
AS 3818.3-2010, Timber: heavy structural products: visually graded: piles, (superseded).
AS 3818.6-2010, Timber: heavy structural products: visually graded: decking for wharves and bridges,
(superseded).
AS 3818.7-2010, Timber: heavy structural products: visually graded: large cross-section sawn hardwood
engineering timbers, (superseded).
AS 3818.8-2010, Timber: heavy structural products: visually graded: stumps and sole plates, (superseded).
AS 3972-2010, General purpose and blended cements.
AS/NZS 4063.1-2010, Characterization of structural timber: test methods.
AS/NZS 4063.2-2010, Characterization of structural timber: determination of characteristic values.
AS/NZS 4671-2001, Steel reinforcing materials.
AS/NZS 4672-2007, Steel prestressing materials.
AS/NZS 4672.1-2007, Steel prestressing materials: general requirements.
AS 5100.5-2017, Bridge design: part 5: concrete.
AS/NZS 5100.6-2017, Bridge design: part 6: steel and composite construction.
AS 5100.7-2017, Bridge design: part 7: bridge assessment.
AS 5100.8-2017, Bridge design: part 8: rehabilitation and strengthening of existing bridges.
AS 5100.9-2017, Bridge design: part 9: timber.
AS 5604-2005 (R2016), Timber: natural durability ratings.
NZS 3101-2006 (set), Concrete structures standard.
NZS 3104-2003, Specification for concrete production.
NZS 3109-1997, Concrete construction.
NZS 3121-2015, Water and aggregate for concrete.
NZS 3603-1993, Timber structures standard.
NZS 3622-2004, Verification of timber properties.

British Standards Institution

BS 6744-2016, Stainless steel bars: reinforcement of concrete: requirements and test methods.
BS EN 14889-1-2006, Fibres for concrete: steel fibres: definitions, specifications and conformity.
ASTM
ASTM C295/C295M-2012, Standard guide for petrographic examination of aggregates for concrete.
ASTM D610-95-2008, Standard test method for evaluating degree of rusting on painted steel surfaces.
Additional Reading
Austroads 1997, Concrete structures durability, inspection and maintenance procedures: position paper, AP-
127-97, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
CCAA 2005, Avoiding early cracking, data sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia (CCAA), Sydney,
NSW.
Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand c2003, Alkali aggregate reaction: minimising the risk of
damage to concrete: guidance notes and model specification clauses, TR 3, Cement & Concrete
Association, Wellington, NZ.
Mirmiran, A, Shahawy, M, Nanni, A & Karbhari, V 2004, Bonded repair and retrofit of concrete structures
using FRP composites: recommended construction specifications and process control manual, NCHRP
report 514, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, USA.
Neville, A 1987, ‘Why we have concrete durability problems’, Katherine and Bryant Mather international
conference, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, USA, ACI SP-100-3, pp. 21-30.
Pomeroy, D 1987, ‘Concrete durability: from basic research to practical reality’, Katherine and Bryant Mather
international conference, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, USA, ACI SP-100-3, pp. 111-30.
The Concrete Society 2012, Design guidance for strengthening concrete structures using fibre composite
materials, 3rd edn, technical report TR-55, The Concrete Society, Camberley, Surrey, UK.
University of Kansas 2008, ‘Pooled fund study for the construction of crack-free concrete bridge decks’,
Transportation Pooled Fund (TPF) Program, contract number TPF-5(174), Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, USA.

Glossary
The following definitions have been used throughout this guide.
Term Definition
Aggregate A material composed of discrete mineral particles of specified size or size distribution,
produced from sand, gravel, rock or metallurgical slag, using one or more of the following
processes: selective extraction, screening, blasting or crushing.
Alkali-aggregate Disruptive chemical reaction within the concrete matrix between the alkali hydroxides (sodium
reactivity and potassium) and susceptible aggregates (characterized by unstable silica minerals) in the
(reaction) presence of moisture, which produces an expansive alkali silica gel which subsequently exerts
excessive tensile stresses that results in cracking of the concrete structure.
Alkaline soil Soil having a pH value greater than 7.0.
Anode A metal that is placed in or in contact with an electrolyte and connected to the steel
reinforcement to apply cathodic protection (CP) to a reinforced concrete structure.
Batch (concrete) A quantity of material (e.g. concrete) containing a fixed amount of ingredients and produced in
a discrete operation.
Batching The process of combining the ingredients of a mix in fixed proportions by mass or by volume.
Batching plant Mechanical equipment for measuring, by mass or volume, the quantities of various ingredients
to make up each complete charge of a mixer.
Binder A material used to fill the interstices between small stones or coarse gravels. It provides
mechanical, chemical and physical bonding and holds the aggregate particles together as a
coherent mass.
Bitumen A very viscous liquid or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their derivatives,
which are soluble in carbon disulphide. It is substantially non-volatile and softens gradually
when heated. It possesses waterproofing and adhesive properties. It is obtained from native
asphalt or by processing the residue from the refining of naturally occurring crude petroleum.
Blended cement A hydraulic cement as defined in AS 3972.
Bleeding Mix water which is released from concrete after placement. Normally forms pools on the
concrete surface. Degree of bleeding is controlled by good mix designs.
Bond The property of mechanical interlock between particles arising from their shape and
disposition relative to each other.
Brittle (material) A material which has a low toughness and is subject to cracking or fracture under deformation.
Cathodic protection The prevention or reduction of corrosion of steel in concrete by the distribution of sufficient
(CP) current to the metal (i.e. steel reinforcement and tendons), to make it the cathode in a galvanic
or electrolytic cell.
Cathodic protection, Protection system consisting of a metal less noble or lower in the galvanic series (different
galvanic (sacrificial) electropotentials), which when connected to steel produces a galvanic cell and corrodes in
place of the steel to protect the structure.
Cement A hydraulic binder composed of Portland or blended cement used alone or combined with one
or more supplementary cementitious materials.
Characteristic That value of the concrete strength, as assessed by standard test, which is exceeded by 95%
strength (concrete) of the concrete.
Checking (timber) Checking is cracking that develops along the radius of a log. It rarely extends through the
beam to the other side, and is accounted for in engineering calculations when sizing timbers.
Usually it is not a structural problem. FOHC (free of heart centre) timber typically has less
checking than boxed heart timber. The heart is the centre of the bulls-eye on a log before it is
squared up into a timber beam.
Chloroaluminate The anion AlCl4-.
Coarse aggregate A general term for aggregates substantially retained on a sieve of specified size, commonly
4.75 mm.
Compressive Australian Standard measure of concrete strength. Procedures for this can be found in AS
strength (MPa) 1012 (set) Methods of Testing Concrete. Measured in Megapascals (MPa) which is basically a
force applied per unit of area.

Term Definition
Compressive This involves taking a standard size concrete cylinder and curing as per Australian Standard
strength test AS 1012 (Methods of Testing Concrete). Cylinders are normally cast on site, put in a water
tank (cured) for 7, 14 or 28 days at which point they are tested for compressive strength by
applying an increasing compressive force until failure.
Concrete A mixture of cement, aggregates, and water with or without the addition of chemical
admixtures or other materials.
Concrete cylinder A concrete specimen used for testing. Described in AS 1012 (Methods of Testing Concrete)
the commonly used standard size specimen is 100 mm diameter by 200 mm long.
Core A cylindrical sample drilled out of soil, concrete, rock or a pavement for testing purposes.
Corrosion inhibitor A corrosion inhibitor is a substance when added in a small concentration to an environment
reduces the corrosion rate of a metal exposed to that environment.
Corrosion of steel Deterioration of steel when the passivity (pH of about 12) around the steel, which protects it, is
reinforcement lost or breaks down, or when the concrete is cracked or delaminated sufficiently to allow
easier access of water and oxygen.
Corrosion of The deterioration of steel by chemical or electro-chemical reaction resulting from exposure to
structural steel air, moisture, industrial fumes and other chemicals and contaminants in the environment in
which it is placed.
Cover The thickness of concrete between a reinforcing bar, tendon or duct, and the nearest surface
of a concrete member.
Crack A complete or partial separation of concrete into two or more parts with or without a readily
visible opening produced by breaking or fracturing.
Curing The facilitation of the achievement of the desired end state of concrete or other material
(e.g. strength) through the provision of a suitable environment.
Curing compound A substance sprayed or painted onto any concrete or pavement surface to retard loss of
moisture during hardening.
Curing membrane A membrane enclosing concrete to retard loss of moisture during hardening.
Delamination Separation, splitting, debonding or cracking within a concrete component along a plane
generally parallel to a surface, as in the separation or delamination at the reinforcing steel
caused by corrosion, or debonding of the fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) which is usually
detected by tapping with a hammer producing a hollow sound or by non-destructive testing.
Density Mass per unit volume.
Deterioration Manifestation of defects or failure of a component or associated material (cracking,
delamination, spalling, staining, etc.), due to influencing factors of an internal and/or external
origin.
Ductility The ability of a structure to undergo large deflection prior to collapse.
Electrolyte The liquid component in a composite material, such as soil or concrete, in which electric
current may flow by ionic charge transfer.
Ettringite A normal hydration product of Portland cement that forms early in the cement hydration
process and is responsible for early strength gain of concrete.
Fatigue The process of progressive localised permanent structural change occurring in a material
subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some point or points
and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.
Fibre fabric A material formed from fibres orientated in the required direction in a woven or non-woven
form and made available in blankets of various widths, weights, thicknesses, and lengths.
Fibre laminate Fibre-reinforced polymer composite comprising two or more layers of fibres, bound together in
a resin matrix and produced in the form of a sheet or plate of required widths, thicknesses and
lengths.
Fibre reinforced Concrete manufactured with steel fibres of any type and geometry and where the fibres are
concrete (FRC) mixed together with the other constituent materials before casting.
Fibre reinforced Composite material comprised a resin matrix such as epoxy or other adhesive materials
polymer (FRP) reinforced with high strength fibres such as carbon, aramid or glass, moulded and hardened to
form the required shape including fibre fabric and laminates, which can act in composite to
enhance the capacity of concrete structures.

Term Definition
Fine aggregate A general term for aggregate that substantially passes the 4.75 mm sieve. Mostly composed
of sand.
Finishing The process of obtaining the final surface of a concrete element (usually a major process in
concrete slab construction).
Flexural strength A strength test measuring the ability of concrete to resist failure in bending (beam test).
Described in Australian Standards AS 3600 Concrete Structures and AS1012 (set) Methods of
Testing Concrete.
Fly ash A fine-grained waste pozzolanic material generally obtained from the combustion of pulverised
coal in power stations. Fly ash can be used in blended cement and in lime stabilisation.
Formwork Temporary structure of timber, metal or other material comprising the moulds in which
concrete is formed to the desired shape.
Gravel A mixture of mineral particles ranging in size from 60 mm to 2 mm.
Hardened concrete Concrete after initial set, as represented by test specimens that have been subjected to a
specified process and duration of curing.
Hydration The chemical reaction which takes place as a result of combining cement and water.
Maximum hydration equals maximum potential strength of concrete.
Indirect tensile A strength test that measures a concrete's resistance to being pulled apart (called an indirect
tensile test and described in AS1012 (set)). Tested by applying a compressive force to a
concrete cylinder specimen placed on its side.
Kibble A bucket for holding and transferring concrete from the agitator truck discharge point to
placement point. Commonly lifted by a crane (crane and kibble).
Lightweight An aggregate composed of inorganic materials having a particle density on a dry basis of less
aggregate than 2.1 t/m3.
Lightweight concrete A structural concrete, the density of which is reduced by using lightweight aggregate such as
expanded or foamed blast furnace slag, scoria or shales, or by the entrainment of air.
Limestone A metamorphic rock, composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sometimes used as filler or as
an aggregate in pavements and concrete.
Maintenance The ongoing upkeep of a structure undertaken during its service life, comprising routine,
repetitive and preventative tasks and repair actions, aimed at delaying damage or
deterioration and retaining the structure in a state in which it can perform its required functions
under acceptable conditions of serviceability and safety.
Mix The proportions of ingredients in a quantity of concrete or mortar or asphalt.
Mix design The process of combining materials in to specified proportions used in producing concrete.
Considerations include specified properties such as strength, plastic properties such as
bleeding, setting times, customer satisfaction and materials available and costs.
Mixing The mechanical process of combining the constituent ingredients of concrete.
Mortar 1. A mixture of cement and/or lime and sand with water.
2. A mixture of fine aggregate with an epoxy compound or other binder.
Normal class (N) Concrete described in AS 1379 specified by standard strength, standard slump and standard
concrete maximum size aggregate. Standard strength grades are N20, N25, N32, N40, N50 and
standard slumps are between 40 mm and 120 mm.
Plastic concrete Concrete in the state between completion of mixing and initial set.
Polyethylene (PE) A plastomeric polymer used in the modification of bitumen.
Polymer A predominantly organic substance comprising a very large number of chemical entities.
These chemical entities may comprise identical segments (producing a homopolymer) or a
combination of two or more different segments (producing a copolymer).
Porosity (aggregate) The ratio of the volume of voids in an aggregate sample to the total volume of the sample.
Portland cement An artificial cement manufactured from Portland cement clinker. Usually referred to as cement.
Portland cement Portland cement clinker is the partially fused product resulting from the intimate mixing of
clinker calcareous and argillaceous or other silica, alumina, or iron-bearing materials, or any
combination of these materials, and burning them at a clinkering temperature.

Term Definition
Portland cement Concrete in which the binding material is Portland cement. Usually referred to as concrete.
concrete
Post-tensioning Method of prestressing in which internal or external prestressing tendons or bars are
tensioned after the concrete has hardened.
Precast concrete Concrete that is cast and cured in moulds and shifted into the final position. Generally enables
better quality control and surface finish.
Premix A mixture of cutback and/or fluxed bitumen and aggregate, usually stored in a stockpile and
used for patching.
Prestressed Specially designed concrete elements like slabs and beams that have compressive forces
concrete applied by the tensioning of prestressing cables (strands – used as part of the reinforcement).
The strands may be pretensioned (tension before casting) or post-tensioned (after casting).
Protective coating Protective coatings, waterproofing membranes and similar systems that may be included in
systems the repair process to extend the service life of the repairs and slow down further deterioration
in the structure.
Rehabilitation The process of restoring a structure (or part thereof) to its original or required level of service
by undertaking repairs or modifications that are remedial in nature, and which are less
frequent than maintenance activity.
Reinforcement Bars, or mesh, usually of steel, embedded in concrete, masonry, or brickwork, for the purpose
of resisting particular stresses, e.g. tensile, temperature related, etc.
Reinforced concrete Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. Therefore most concrete is reinforced
with steel to improve the tensile strength of the finished concrete element. Reinforcement in
concrete is also used to limit cracking by other forces such as shrinkage effects.
Retarder An admixture which reduces the rate of hardening of cement, thus increasing the time during
which concrete may be worked.
Sand Natural or man-made mineral particles ranging in size from 2 mm to 60 microns and are free
of appreciable quantities of clay and silt.
Screeding Process of levelling freshly placed concrete ready for surface finishing (the process for
establishing the final surface of a concrete element).
Seasoned timber Timber in which the average moisture content is nominally between 10% and 15%.
Segregation Separation of coarse aggregate from the matrix of a graded material such as crushed rock,
asphalt and concrete. Separation of the cement-water paste from an aggregate in concrete.
Self-compacting Concrete that is able to flow and consolidate under its own weight, completely fill the formwork
concrete or excavation even in the presence of dense reinforcement, whilst maintaining homogeneity
and without the need for additional compaction, and which complies with specified
requirements for slump flow, measure of viscosity and passing ability.
Shake (timber) Shake is a timber defect. It occurs around the growth rings of a timber and is often found in
older trees that grow in wet areas. Hemlock and Cyprus are particularly prone to shake. It may
or may not be a structural problem depending on its depth. Usually it is just an aesthetic issue,
like onion skin peeling away. Shake can be looked for in the beams when cutting them, any
shaky beams that may cause structural issues or that look bad are discarded. Shake
sometimes can show up a year after the beam starts drying out and be completely invisible in
the shop at the time of cutting.
Shotcrete A concrete product designed to be pumped and sprayed using compressed air through a
nozzle. Normally has a slump of 60 mm and is used for the construction of concrete swimming
pools, walls, bank stabilisation etc. Sometimes referred to as Gunite which was an old
outdated reference to manufacture and supply of this material at a construction site.
Shrinkage Interconnected cracks in a road which form a series of large blocks usually with sharp corners
or angles. Frequently caused by volume change in either the base or subgrade, or
occasionally the asphalt mix.
Slag A product produced simultaneously with iron in a blast furnace that is quenched (cooled
rapidly with water) and ground to produce a supplementary cementitious material that is used
in concrete. Termed ground granulated iron blast furnace slag and described in AS 3582 (set),
it can be incorporated into concrete directly or as a blended cement. It can provide concrete
with many beneficial properties.

Term Definition
Slump A measure of the consistency of freshly mixed cement concrete, determined in accordance
with standard test procedure.
Slump test The standard test to measure slump.
Special class (S) Concrete which is specified to have certain properties or characteristics different from or
concrete additional to those of Normal class concrete.
Standard deviation A statistical measurement which indicates the amount of variation. Commonly used for 28 day
concrete compressive strength result analysis. A good result is a SD of less than 2 MPa.
Strength grade The specified value of the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days.
Designated by N20, N25, N30, N40 or N50 in the case of Normal class concretes. Refer
characteristic strength and Normal class concrete.
Strengthening The process of increasing the capacity of a structure or structural components in terms of
increased flexural, shear or axial strength or ductility or restoring the capacity of weakened
elements of structure to their original design capacity, using either active or passive
strengthening systems or both.
Superplasticiser An additive used in concrete to aid placement in difficult applications, e.g. where structure has
(SP) large quantity of reinforcement, or where reinforcement is very close together or where
structure has narrow opening. Increases workability (slump) of concrete without negatively
affecting strengths.
Ultra-high Refers to a relatively new class of advanced cementitious composite materials whose
performance mechanical and durability properties far surpass those of conventional concrete. These
concrete (UHPC) materials are defined as cementitious-based composite materials with discontinuous fibre
reinforcement that exhibit compressive strength above 150 MPa, pre- and post-cracking
tensile strength above 5 MPa, and enhanced durability via a discontinuous pore structure.
Water reducer Chemical admixture which reduces the amount of water required to achieve a nominated
slump. As the ultimate strength of concrete depends on the quantity of water in the mix (i.e.
water:binder ratio). It is possible to achieve target strengths using less cement. Also enables
control of setting times to what is desired for construction.
Water-cement ratio The ratio of the mass of total free water in a batch to the mass of cement in the batch.
Workability The ease with which the concrete mix may be placed and compacted.

AGBT02-18 Guide To Bridge Technology Part 2 Materials

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Guide to Bridge Technology Part 2:

• Section 2 Concrete Characteristics and Materials

2. Concrete Characteristics and Materials ............................................................................................... 3

Austroads 2018 | page i

2.12 Investigation of Concrete Construction Quality ...................................................................................... 34

3. Concrete Reinforcing Materials .......................................................................................................... 39

4. Concrete Durability .............................................................................................................................. 57

Austroads 2018 | page ii

4.2 Protection of Concrete in Adverse Environments .................................................................................. 72

5. Grouts and Mortars .............................................................................................................................. 80

6. Metallic Materials – Material Characteristics ..................................................................................... 83

7. Metallic Materials – Connections and Coatings ................................................................................ 98

Austroads 2018 | page iii

7.3 Proprietary Mechanical Fasteners ........................................................................................................ 101

8. Steel Distress Mechanisms and defects .......................................................................................... 110

9. Timber .................................................................................................................................................. 138

Austroads 2018 | page iv

9.6 Structural Grading – New Zealand ....................................................................................................... 143

10. Masonry ............................................................................................................................................... 157

11. Non-metallic Materials ....................................................................................................................... 159

References .................................................................................................................................................... 171

Austroads 2018 | page v

Table 7.1: Bolting classification ................................................................................................................ 100

Austroads 2018 | page vi

Austroads 2018 | page vii

1.2 Guide Structure

Table 1.1: Parts of the Guide to Bridge Technology

Part Title Content

Austroads 2018 | page 1

Part Title Content

Austroads 2018 | page 2

2. Concrete Characteristics and Materials

2.1 Properties of Concrete

Austroads 2018 | page 3

Refer to AS 5100.7 for information about historical standards for concrete.

2.1.2 Modulus of Elasticity

2.1.4 Stress-strain Curves

Figure 2.1: Typical concrete stress-strain curve

2.1.5 Poisson’s Ratio

Austroads 2018 | page 4

2.1.6 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Refer to Section 2.7.3 for concrete sample and testing specification.

Austroads 2018 | page 5

In Australia, Cementitious Materials Registration Scheme (CMRS) is a scheme to manage cement

2.3.2 Cement Reactivity – Setting Process

Austroads 2018 | page 6

2.3.3 Cement and Durability

Austroads 2018 | page 7

2.4.1 Coarse Aggregate

Strength and shape

2.4.2 Fine Aggregates

Austroads 2018 | page 8

Figure 2.2: Plastic shrinkage cracking in deck

Source: Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) NSW (n.d.).

2.4.3 Lightweight Aggregates

Austroads 2018 | page 9

2.4.4 Aggregates and Durability

Figure 2.3: Pier headstock cracking caused by AAR

Source: RTA NSW (n.d.).

2.5 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)

Austroads 2018 | page 10

Austroads 2018 | page 11

2.7 Concrete Mixes