Research in Sports Medicine

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The dribbling agility test as a potential tool for

evaluating the dribbling skill in young soccer
players

Evangelos Bekris, Ioannis Gissis & Stylianos Kounalakis

To cite this article: Evangelos Bekris, Ioannis Gissis & Stylianos Kounalakis (2018) The dribbling
agility test as a potential tool for evaluating the dribbling skill in young soccer players, Research in
Sports Medicine, 26:4, 425-435, DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1492395

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15438627.2018.1492395

Published online: 28 Jun 2018.

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RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE
2018, VOL. 26, NO. 4, 425–435
https://doi.org/10.1080/15438627.2018.1492395

The dribbling agility test as a potential tool for evaluating

the dribbling skill in young soccer players
Evangelos Bekrisa, Ioannis Gissisb and Stylianos Kounalakisc
a
Department of Games and Sports, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Athens,
Athens, Greece; bDepartment of Physical Education and Sports Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Serres, Greece; cEvelpidon Hellenic Military Academy, Department of Physical & Cultural Education, Vari,
Greece

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The present study examined the construct validity and reliability of Received 16 October 2017
a new dribbling agility test (DAT) that incorporates reactive agility Accepted 17 April 2018
and multiple change of direction. To check its’ validity, (a) DAT was KEYWORDS
performed by four groups (under 10, under 12, under 14 and Dribbling reactive agility;
under 16 yrs) of young soccer players (n = 125 in each group) structural validity; reliability
and (b) a regression analysis was conducted to define the best
DAT predictors. The reliability of DAT was assessed with repeated
measurements. This test can differentiate the dribbling skill
between groups (p < 0.01). Furthermore, 68% of the observed
variance in DAT was explained by zigzag dribbling test, Illinois
agility test, reaction time and running speed. The test-retest relia-
bility was high in all groups (ICC = 0.77 – 0.90, p < 0.01). It was
concluded that DAT can be a potential tool to evaluate the
dribbling performance in young soccer players.

Introduction
Among the required skills in soccer, dribbling, i.e. sprinting and changing direction while
keeping control of the ball, is considered to be one of the most common and critical
skills to the outcome of the game (Huijgen, Elferink-Gemser, Post, & Visscher, 2010;
Trecroci et al., 2016); dribbling is also a hallmark for gifted players (Ali, 2011; Reilly, 2001).
Dribbling agility incudes change of direction ability (a rapid whole-body movement) and
reactive agility (the response to a stimulus) (Paul, Gabbett, & Nassis, 2016; Sheppard &
Young, 2006), both synchronized with the ball control. Consequently, it is not surprising
that dribbling is often measured in young soccer players to classify the most talented
ones (Bekris, et al., 2018; Clemente, Figueiredo, Martins, Mendes, & Wong, 2016; Huijgen
et al., 2010; Reilly, Williams, Nevill, & Franks, 2000). This skill is evaluated with tests
comprising running with the ball around cones placed 2–4 meters apart in a figure of
eight fashion (Bekris et al. 2018; Forsman et al., 2016; Haaland & Hoff, 2003; McGregor,
Hulse, Strudwick, & Williams, 1999; Russell, Benton, & Kingsley, 2010). However, the
evaluation for the change of direction ability with pre-planned closed manoeuvres
with the ball is not representative of the dribbling ability, and the reactive agility

CONTACT Stylianos Kounalakis skounal@phed.uoa.gr Evelpidon Hellenic Military Academy, Varis – Koropiou
Street, 16673, Vari, Greece
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
426 E. BEKRIS ET AL.

evaluation, and visual searching should be added to increase the validity of the test and
to differentiate professional from amateur players (Bekris et al., 2018; Russell et al., 2010;
Sheppard & Young, 2006). Nevertheless, this setting can be critiqued for its mono-
directional nature and the reliance on sprinting ability rather than facets of perceptual
and motor technique that make up the dribbling skill (Ali, 2011; Bekris et al., 2018).
Recently, using a kinematic analysis of dribbling, Zago et al. (2016) noted that dribbling
technique can be trained effectively, if high stride frequency and narrow run trajectories
are used. This is in line with our recent observations of a higher number of visual
mistakes in professional young players when the dribbling test conducted in reduced
distance and therefore relied less on the sprinting ability (Bekris et al., 2018).
There is a lack of a new test for the evaluation of the dribbling skill, which could
comprise less covered distances with a single sprint and encompass repeatable visual
recognition from multiple angles. The inclusion of these characteristics could improve
the validity of dribbling evaluation in young soccer players. At the same time, this test
must be as simple as possible, easy to use and relatively inexpensive regarding the use
of equipment (Ali, 2011). We therefore modified the compass drill, or cone agility test, a
test that evaluates agility, and named it “Dribbling Agility Test” (DAT). In this new test,
players run with the ball in multiple directions, in random order. In addition, DAT
included a 360° visual recognition component. Our purpose was to examine the relia-
bility and validity of DAT in young soccer players. We hypothesized that DAT has high
repeatability and validity and can be used to evaluate the dribbling skill in young soccer
players.

Method
Participants
Five hundred young male soccer players participated in this study. They were divided in
four groups according to their age: under 10 yrs (U10, n = 125; Group A), under 12 yrs
(U12, n = 125; Group B), under 14 yrs (U14, n = 125; Group C) and under 16 yrs (U16,
n = 125; Group D). All participants were players in local Greek football teams. All players
participated regularly in the trainings (2–4 training sessions per week) during the last
6 months before the study without any absence for more than two weeks because of
injury or any other reason. Written consent was obtained from each participant and his
parents, after they had been informed of all the details of the experimental protocol.

Protocol
All participants underwent a 3-day protocol. During the first day, anthropometry and
fitness tests were performed. The zigzag test followed the second day and the third day
the DAT was conducted.
Players didn’t participate in any other physical activity two days before and during
the 3-day testing period. All tests were conducted at the same field, at the same time of
the day (morning hours), after the same 20-min warm up and at an environmental
temperature of 27 ± 2°C and humidity of 47 ± 3%.
 RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE 427

Anthropometry
Body mass and body stature were measured on a weight and height scale (BC1000,
Tanita, Japan).

Fitness tests
The following fitness tests were conducted for two reasons: (a) to confirm a connection
between these elements and performance in DAT since the latter skill incorporates all
these physical and physiological attributes and (b) to see if there are significant differ-
ences between the four groups, which, as we assumed, would be consistent also
for DAT.

Reaction time
The reaction time to a visual stimulus was assessed by the mean flight time with the
same optical system (Optojump, Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). The player was in standing
position and had to raise his leg and bring it to the ground as fast as possible following
an optical signal in a computer (red spot which was turned to green). The flight time was
detected and stored by the system. Three familiarization trials and three main trials were
conducted for each foot. The mean of the three trials was recorded for each leg.

Running speed
Running speeds were measured on the soccer pitch by means of a dual infrared reflex
photoelectric cells system (Polifemo, Microgate, Bolzano, Italy), placed at the beginning
and at the end of the distance. Players 9–12 years old were measured on 10 m and 20 m
sprint running speed, while 13–16 year-old players were measured on 10 m and 30 m
sprint running speed. The participants conducted two familiarization trials and two main
trials. Players began from a standing start with the front foot 0.5 m from the first timing
gate. The best out of the two main trials was recorded for each player.

Illinois agility test

Running agility was measured using the “Illinois agility test” as described by Sheppard
and Young (2006). Briefly, the players sprinted 9 m and returned to the commencement
line. Then they swerved in and out of four markers, completing two 9 m sprints. Finally,
they had to run 9 m before returning to the finishing line. After a 10-min break, the test
was repeated. The fastest time obtained from these two trials was used as the agility
score. No familiarization trial was needed since all players were already accustomed to
this procedure.

Zigzag dribbling test

The motor skill of ball travelling was measured with a zigzag test (Figure 1). A similar test
was proposed by McGregor et al. (1999) as a reliable indicator of the dribbling technique
(r = 0.78, p < 0.01; 95% CI = 0.08 ± 6.43 s). The task was to run with the ball as fast as
possible between the cones without touching them. Time was measured on the soccer
field via a dual infrared reflex photoelectric cells system (Polifemo, Microgate, Bolzano,
Italy), placed at the beginning and at the end of the distance (Figure 1). Two
428 E. BEKRIS ET AL.

Figure 1. Graphical presentation of the zigzag dribbling test.

experienced researchers-coaches evaluated the trials. After a 10-min break, the test was
repeated with the other leg. Two tests for each leg and one familiarization trial were
conducted. In all tests, the better out of these two trials was selected for further analysis,
and these trials were averaged for the left and right leg.

Dribbling agility test (DAT)

The dribbling agility test is presented in Figure 2. Four lights and four photocells were
placed 7 m apart from each other in a square-shaped area, thus “constructing” four
gates 80-cm wide. In the centre of the big square, another small square (1 m long-each
side) was shaped with four cones. The test started with the participant in the small
central square. After a visual signal, he started to run with the ball and pass the gate
whose light was on between the cone and the photocells. Immediately after passing the
gate, the light was off and another light was on (never the same one). The player then
had to step on the central square, and after this, to run as fast as possible in order to
pass the new gate whose light was on. The lights were switched on for 8 times, and in
the last pass, the time was stopped and stored automatically by the system. One
familiarization and one main trial were conducted with a 10-min break in between for
all participants. A subgroup of participants (n = 179; see Tables 1 and 2) executed the
test twice (one familiarization and two main trials), with a 20-min recess in between.

Analysis
Analyses were carried out using the SPSS for Windows (SPSS v.23, Chicago, IL, USA). A
one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey’s post hoc tests was used to determine
any significant differences in the variables between the groups when the model
revealed a significant F-ratio for main effects or interactions. Partial eta squared (ηp2)
was used as a measurement of effect size in ANOVA (the ηp2 range is between 0 and 1:
between 0 and .02 small; > .13 medium, and > .26 large effect size). Paired sample t-test,
intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC), variation coefficients (CV), typical errors and their
95% confidence limits (95% CL) were estimated for the association between the two
tests in accordance with the recommendations of Hopkins (2000). Limits of agreement
analysis (Bland & Altman, 1986) were also defined. Using standard errors of measure-
ment, the minimum differences necessary to be considered real were derived as
 RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE 429

Figure 2. Graphical presentation of the dribbling agility test (DAT).

outlined by Weir (2005). Multiple stepwise regression analysis was performed to deter-
mine the strength of relationships between the performance time in DAT and the rest of
the variables. The alpha significance level was set a priori at 0.05.

Results
All anthropometry and fitness variables showed significant differences between the
groups (Table 1). Specifically, the older group of participants was heavier, taller and
performed better than the previous age group.
In DAT, there was a significant main effect for group (F (3, 493) = 88, p < 0.01,
ηp = 0.32). The upper part of Figure 3 presents the specific differences between groups.
2

In the zigzag dribbling test, there was a significant main effect for group in both legs
(F (3, 456) = 33.0, p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.22). The specific differences for the averaged data for
both legs were shown in Figure 3 (lower part). No significant differences were observed
between groups C and D in the zigzag dribbling test. A significant correlation with DAT
(r = 0.76, p < 0.01) was observed.
430 E. BEKRIS ET AL.

Table 1. Anthropometry and fitness variables in the four groups of subjects.

ES
Variable A (n = 125) B (n = 125) C (n = 125) D (n = 125) (ηp2)
Anthropometry
Body mass (kg) 36.9 ± 8.0 44.5 ± 9.2 * 54.7 ± 9.7 *# 64.0 ± 8.1 *#^ 0.70
Body stature (cm) 140.3 ± 6.9 152.0 ± 8.0 * 164.5 ± 8.7 *# 174.7 ± 6.4 *#^ 0.54
Fitness
Reaction time (R) 0.511 ± 0.05 0.485 ± 0.05 * 0.467 ± 0.04 *# 0.462 ± 0.03 *# 0.14
Reaction time (L) 0.522 ± 0.05 0.497 ± 0.04 * 0.479 ± 0.04 *# 0.460 ± 0.03 *#^ 0.17
Running Speed, 10 m (sec) 2.32 ± 0.16 2.19 ± 0.14 * 2.04 ± 0.14 *# 1.95 ± 0.12 *#^ 0.46
Running Speed, 20 m for A and B, 30 m 4.05 ± 0.30 3.83 ± 0.27 * 4.68 ± 0.59 4.61 ± 0.26 0.47
for C and D (sec)
Agility (Illinois) (sec) 19.55 ± 1.39 18.37 ± 1.16 * 17.23 ± 1.05 *# 16.36 ± 0.73 *#^ 0.53
A: Under 10; B: Under 12; C: Under 14; D: Under 16; R: right leg; L: left leg; ES: the size of the effect. * Significantly
different from A; # Significantly different from B; ^ Significantly different from C; p < 0.01

Table 2. Differences between the two trials and intra-class correlation coefficient for the dribbling
agility test at four different groups of subjects.
T-test
Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean (P- value) RLOA (mean ratio) ICC
A (n = 55) 40.2 ± 4.3 39.2 ± 4.2 39.9 ± 4.4 0.28 0.975 0.77*
B (n = 55) 35.6 ± 4.2 34.0 ± 4.6 34.8 ± 4.4 0.42 0.955 0.86*
C (n = 39) 34.0 ± 4.1 33.3 ± 4.0 33.6 ± 3.9 0.12 0.979 0.87*
D (n = 30) 30.2 ± 2.5 29.5 ± 2.5 29.8 ± 2.4 0.34 0.977 0.85*
All (n = 179) 35.7 ± 5.1 34.6 ± 5.3 35.1 ± 4.1 0.10 0.969 0.90*
A: Under 10; B: Under 12; C: Under 14; D: Under 16
*Significant correlation between trial 1 and 2 (p < 0.01)

No significant differences were observed in mean results between the trials for the
DAT in repeated measurements (Table 2). The intra-class correlation coefficient was
significant in all groups (Table 2). The DAT test was reliable in all groups (Table 3;
Figure 4).
The stepwise regression analysis revealed that 68% of the observed variance
(r = 0.825, r2 = 0.677, adjusted r2 = 0.664, F(6,500) = 232, p < 0.01) in the DAT test was
explained by the zigzag dribbling test (t = 18.6, r2 = 0.52, p < 0.01), the Illinois running
agility test (t = 16.2, r2 = 0.41, p < 0.01), and the reaction time test (t = 3.9, r2 = 0.12,
p < 0.01).

Discussion
The present study examined the construct validity and reliability of a new dribbling test
(DAT) that incorporates visual recognition and running in multiple directions. DAT
differentiated between young players of different ages and with distinct anthropometric
and fitness characteristics. Moreover, DAT correlated significantly with another dribbling
agility test, but it seems to be superior for the detection of differences in the dribbling
skill in young soccer players. Lastly, the largest part of the observed variance in DAT was
explained by the dribbling test, and the Illinois running agility test.
The construct validity of DAT was verified by the significant differences observed in
performance among the four age groups. This is in agreement with longitudinal studies
 RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE 431

Figure 3. The time needed to complete the dribbling agility test (upper graph) and the zigzag
dribbling test (lower graph) for the four groups of subjects (n = 500).
* Significantly different from A; # Significantly different from B; ^ Significantly different from C; p < 0.01. Values
are mean ± CL at 95% level.
432 E. BEKRIS ET AL.

Table 3. Reliability statistics for dribbling agility test at four different groups of subjects.
LOA
Change in the mean (mean bias ± 2 s) sx 95% CL CV(%) MD
A (n = 55) −0.93 −4.7 to 6.6 2.0 1.7 to 2.6 9.8 6.7
B (n = 55) −1.58 −3.1 to 6.2 1.7 1.4 to 2.0 9.9 4.7
C (n = 39) −0.79 −3.4 to 4.9 1.5 1.2 to 1.9 9.0 4.2
D (n = 30) −0.74 −2.2 to 3.6 1.0 0.8 to 1.4 8.2 2.9
All (n = 179) −1.01 −3.6 to 5.7 1.6 1.5 to 1.9 9.8 4.7
A: Under 10; B: Under 12; C: Under 14; D: Under 16; sx = typical error; CL = confidence limits of the typical error;
s = standard deviation; LOA = levels of agreement; MD = minimum acceptable difference

showing that age is related with the levels of technical skills (Forsman et al., 2016;
Huijgen et al., 2010); namely, older players display better technical skills as well as speed
and agility characteristics than younger players do. Interestingly, the differences
between groups C and D were not detected in the zigzag dribbling test whereas they
were detected in DAT. This is similar to the results of the longitudinal study of Huijgen
et al. (2010); the authors evaluated the dribbling technique in young soccer players aged
12–19 years old and reported no improvements from ages 14 to 16. Although the agility
in team sports has been subcategorized as change of direction ability and reactive agility
(Paul et al., 2016), the latter component is not often evaluated in the dribbling skill (for
review see Ali, 2011). In the present study, the DAT test incorporated the reactive agility
component as a perceptual part of the dribbling skill (Sheppard & Young, 2006). This is

Figure 4. Bland and Altman plot for the data of four groups (n = 179) from the dribbling agility test
with the presentation of the levels of agreement (dotted lines).
 RESEARCH IN SPORTS MEDICINE 433

probably the main reason for the significant differences also observed between groups
C and D (Figure 3) in the present study. The above notion is in line with the greater
visual tracking capability of experienced compared to less experienced players (Alves,
Spaniol, & Erichsen, 2014; Nagano, Kato, & Fukuda, 2004; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, &
Philippaerts, 2007; Williams & Davids, 1998) and with the greater dependency on visual
feedback at increased speeds during dribbling (Fransen et al., 2017). In the present
study, DAT included a visual component in the dribbling evaluation and therefore was
more efficient than zigzag test to discriminate the differences in dribbling skill in older
groups of young soccer players. Indeed, our recent observations (Bekris et al., 2018) of
the significantly shorter number of visual mistakes in professional compared to novice
16 years-old young players during a modified zigzag dribbling test supports this
suggestion.
The test-retest data for the DAT measure were similar and biases were small in all
groups. The strong reliability was well-defined by the relative and absolute reliability
statistics (Tables 2 and 3, Figure 4). Specifically, intra-class correlation coefficients and
the typical error, the variation coefficient and limits of agreement were good in all
groups obtained from DAT. To our knowledge, only one study provides measurements
of absolute and relative reliability of dribbling in professional and recreational soccer
players; it is based on video analysis to define speed, precision and success (Russell et al.,
2010). The authors reported high reliability of dribbling with a typical error of ± 0.1 for
speed and of ± 3 for precision and success. The intra-class correlation coefficient was
0.78 for speed, 0.77 for precision and 0.40 for success. The above results and the results
of the present study are somehow similar despite the fact that these two tests reproduce
different outcome measurements. Even though the only measurement in the present
study, as in other studies (Ali et al., 2007; McGregor et al., 1999), was the performance
time, two important elements were included: the visual tracking and the running in
multiple directions incorporating small distances. These elements increased the con-
struct validity of the test. This notion was further corroborated by the regression analysis
results. The highest percentage of the observed variance in the DAT performance was
explained not only by the zigzag dribbling test, a traditional test to evaluate dribbling,
but also by the running agility test and the reaction time, all important components for
the dribbling skill.
Among the methodological considerations of the present study was the evaluation of
this test in young soccer players and not in older, professional players. Also, other
aspects of cognitive factors, such as the visual recognition (i.e. to report the colour of
the light) and the visual searching in different distances should be evaluated in the
future. Lastly, DAT should be evaluated according to playing position, since the char-
acteristics of a specific position in soccer could have a potential influence in the validity
and reliability of the test.
To conclude, this new setup seems to be closer to the needs of the game for the
evaluation of the dribbling skill and it was proven to be both valid and reliable.
DAT has good repeatability and can detect differences in dribbling skill between
young soccer players of different ages. Therefore, DAT can potentially be applied to
evaluate training interventions that aim to enhance the dribbling performance in
young soccer players. However, this needs further investigation.
434 E. BEKRIS ET AL.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this
article.

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