Resources and Environment 2012, 2(2): 1-8

DOI: 10.5923/j.re.20120202.01

Single Step Extractions of Metals in Coal Fly Ash

Lokeshappa B1,2, Anil Kumar Dikshit1,3,4,*

1
Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, 400076, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University BDT College of Engineering, Davangere, 577004, India
3
School of Civil Engineering, Survey and Construction, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa
4
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore

Abstract There is an increasing use of coal and subsequently large amounts of fly ash is generated in the thermal power
plants in India and elsewhere in the world. Hence it becomes increasingly important to be able to assess the environmental
risks involved in the management and disposal of fly ash materials. The fly ashes contain toxic metals that can be released
into the environment through the coal combustion processes and through the leaching during disposal/ wet storage/ reuse of
fly ash. The evaluation of the optimum time for leaching of the toxic metals and metalloids present in the three fly ashes was
determined using the single step extraction procedure. The optimum time of 4 hours agitation was determined for the water
soluble step as well as that for ion exchangeable step while the optimum time was 24 hours agitation in the acid soluble and
reducible steps.
Keywords Coal Fly Ash, Extraction Procedure, Leaching, Metals

sition of the coal used in combustion, combustion condi-

1. Introduction
India is the third largest producer of coal and coal based
thermal power plant installations in India contribute about
70% of the total installed capacity for power generation[1].
However, the bituminous and sub-bituminous coals used
contain over 40% ash content. At present, 120-150 million
tons of coal fly ash is generated from 120 existing coal
based thermal power plants in India[2]. Coal fly ash is an
industrial waste generated from coal combustion process in
thermal power plants. It is a fly ash, a coal combustion
residue having a complex heterogeneous mixture of amor-
phous and crystalline phases and is generally fine powdered
ferroaluminosilicate material with Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and
Si as the predominant elements. The coal fly ash also con-
tains significant amounts of toxic metals such as As, Ba, Hg,
Cr, Ni, V, Pb, Zn and Se characteristically enriched in coal
fly ash particles[3-5]. The coal fly ashes occupy more space
in the premises of industrial plants and are mixed with wa-
ter to discharge into fly ash settling ponds or land fills.
Large quantities of coal fly ashes are stored in the form of
waste heaps or deposits, whose contamination poses a seri-
ous threat to the environment as a major source of inorganic
pollution. The behaviour of many metal pollutants and the
release of such metals during storage can have deleterious
effects on the environment as well as on human health[6].
Metals present in the ashes are originated from the compo-
tions, removal efficiency of air pollution control device and
method of coal fly ash disposal[7]. Major environmental
implications of ashes are their disposal to landfill or reuse
as the constructional materials. The toxic meals transforma-
tion in the coal fly ash to environment during coal combus-
tion consists of several steps and is shown in the Figure 1.
Chemical process processes may then sequester or release
metals during long term wet storage. The mobility of toxic
metals from coal fired thermal power plant fly ashes show a
wide compositional range is examined by sequential extrac-
tion producer in order to assess their mobility when these
wastes are ponded or landfilled[8]. Extraction methods in-
volve the complete or selective mobilization of toxic metals
associated with the solid phase by extraction with aqueous
solution. The retention of metals with fly ash and associated
sorbents prevents their emission to the atmosphere, and the
solid phases that are now enriched in the metals must be
managed to prevent metal releases to groundwater and sur-
face water. The leaching potential of metals depends on the
composition of the aqueous leaching solution and on the
speciation of the metal in the solid phase[9,10].
In this present research work single-step extraction has
been carried to integrate into the full sequential extraction
procedure and to determine the optimum leaching time of the
extractant to assessing the potential mobilization of metals
ambient environmental conditions.

* Corresponding author:
dikshit@iitb.ac.in (Anil Kumar Dikshit)
2. Materials and Methods
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/re
Copyright © 2012 Scientific & Academic Publishing. All Rights Reserved 2.1. Materials
2 Lokeshappa B et al.: Single Step Extractions of Metals in Coal Fly Ash

Sorbent Emission to M (g)

Release from Addition Atmosphere
M (g)
Coal matrix
M (sorb )
Particulate
Ash
Matter capture Reuse in
Coal formation M (cement )
M (ash ) Cement
Fly Ash
M (ash )
Storage
M
(diss )

Figure 1. Toxic metals transformation in the coal fly ash to the environment

Three coal fly ash materials named as CFA1, CFA2 and 2.3. Determination of Metals Concentrations
CFA3 were collected from dust hoppers of electrostatic Concentrations of trace metals in samples from SSEP
precipitators of three full-scale Indian power plants in and were obtained using Jobin Yvon Horib ICP-AES (ULTIMA
around Maharashtra. The power plants are using bituminous 2000, France). Prior to analysis, the samples were diluted
and sub-bituminous coals from India and from imported with 2% HNO3 solution. Dilution factor was kept as 1:10 for
Indonesia. The coal fly ash materials were characterized for the water soluble step, 1:20 for the acid-soluble step and 1:50
their ash contents, calcium oxide contents and mineralogy for the other two steps. Calibration standards were analyzed
using X-ray diffraction. in the same matrices as the samples.
Ultra pure water produced by TWF EDI UV TM, Water
Kit (Semens, Singapore) was used for washing of glassware Table 1. Steps of SSEP
and preparation of reagents. Ammonium nitrate, acetic acid,
Steps Phase for Leaching Leaching Solution
sodium dithionite, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate,
concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acids were used to 1 Water Soluble (WS) Ultrapure Water
prepare extractants for the single step extraction. The acetic 2 Ion Exchangeable (IE) 1.0 M Ammonium Nitrate
acid, nitric and hydrochloric acids were trace metal grades. 3 Acid Soluble (AS) 0.11 M Acetic Acid
All chemicals were purchased from Merck chemical 0.158 M Dithionite, 0.3 M
(Mumbai, India). The 25 element aqueous custom standard 4 Reducible (RD)
Citrate and 1.0 M Bicarbonate
in 5% HNO3 (ZOASIS 1004) from VHG Labs, Manchester,
USA was used for calibration of ICP-AES. An aliquot of the
standard was also used as control for the extraction tests.
3. Results and Discussion
2.2. Single Step Extraction Procedure
3.1. Properties of Coal Fly Ashes
Single step extraction procedure (SSEP) was developed
The properties of coal fly ashes are shown in the Table 3.
to optimize the leaching time to achieve optimum leaching
Coal fly ashes are classified based on their calcium oxide
of elements. The following extractions were carried out: (1)
contents. Coal fly ash CFA2 is class C ash being cal-
Ultrapure water was used to extract metals that were water
cium-rich with greater than 10% calcium oxide while CFA1
soluble; (2) 1.0 M NH4NO3 was used to remove ion ex-
and CFA3 are silica-rich class F having less than 10% cal-
changeable metals; (3) 0.11 M acetic acid targeted acid
cium oxide.
soluble metals; (4) a solution of 0.128 M sodium dithionite,
0.3 M sodium citrate, and 0.1 M NaHCO3 (DCB) was used Table 3. Properties of Coal Fly Ash
to remove reducible metals. In all experiments, a solid to
Properties CFA1 CFA2 CFA3
liquid ratio of 5.0 g ash/500 mL (10 g/L) extractant was
Average ash content
used and contents were stirred in a magnetic stirrer at 500 25.0 1.9 38.6
in coal (%)
rpm. 10 mL samples were drawn after leaching time inter-
Loss on ignition (%) 1.4 1.11 1.6
vals of 1 hr, 2 hr, 4 hr, 8 hr, 12 hr, 24 hr, 30 hr, 36 hr, and
Coal fly ash classes* F C F
48 hr, respectively. Each sample was centrifuged for 10
Quartz and
minutes at 10000 rpm and the extractant was filtered with Quartz and Quartz and
Minerals in fly ash magnesium and
the 0.2 µm PTFE filter and analyzed for major and minor mullite mullite
iron oxides
metals using ICP-AES as given in section 2.3. The various
steps are shown in the Table 1. * C-calcium rich and F-Silica rich ash
 Resources and Environment 2012, 2(2): 1-8 3

3.2. Optimization of Leaching Time as shown in Figure 3(b).

The optimum leaching time required for attaining maxi- Ca Fe Mg
mum leaching in different leaching media, viz., ultrapure Na Si
water, ammonium nitrate, acetic acid, DCB and aggressive 25000
solution of 4:1 HNO3 and HCl were found out using single 22500 Optimum Leaching Time
step extraction for each leaching media. The results obtained 20000
are discussed below.

Concentration (µg/g)
17500

3.2.1. Water Soluble Fractions 15000

12500
Trends observed for CFA1: Among major metals, all
metals exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 4 hours 10000
except Na, which leached about 80% of its maximum 7500
leaching concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure 2(a). 5000
For minor metals more than 80% of maximum leaching was
2500
attained at 4 hours for all the metals except Ni. Ni leached
about 60% of its maximum concentration at 4 hours as 0
shown in Figure 2(b). 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs)
Ca Fe Mg Na Si (a)
12500 As Cr Mn Ni Cu
Optimum Leaching Time
Zn Se Cd Pb
10000
Concentration (µg/g)

5
Optimum Leaching Time
7500
Concentration (µg/g)

4
5000
3
2500
2
0
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr 1
Time (hrs)
0
(a)
As Cr Mn Ni Cu 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs)
Zn Se Cd Pb
6.00 (b)
Optimum Leaching Time Figure 3. Leaching of water soluble fractions for CFA2, (a) Major metals,
5.00 (b) Minor metals
Concentration (µg/g)

4.00 Trends observed for CFA3: Among major metals, all

metals exhibited their peak leaching concentrations at 4
3.00
hours except Si, which leached about 90% of its maximum
2.00 leaching concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure 4(a).
For minor metals maximum leaching was attained at 4
1.00
hours for all the metals except Cr, which leached about 80%
0.00 of its maximum concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr 4(b).
Time (hrs)
(b) 3.2.2. Ion Exchangeable Fractions
Figure 2. Leaching of water soluble fractions for CFA1, (a) Major metals,
Trends observed for CFA1: Among major metals, all
(b) Minor metals
metals exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 4 hours
Trends observed for CFA2: Among major metals, all except Ca and Mg which leached about 95% of their maxi-
metals exhibited more than 90% of their peak leaching mum leaching concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure
concentrations at 4 hours except Si, which leached about 5(a). Among minor metals, Cd, Cr, Ni and Zn did not leach
70% of its maximum leaching concentration at 4 hours as in ion exchangeable conditions, while Mn leached about
shown in Figure 3(a). For minor metals maximum leaching 65% of its maximum leaching at 4 hours. The remaining
was attained at 4 hours for all the metals except Mn, which metals showed their maximum concentration at 4 hours as
leached about 65% of its maximum concentration at 4 hours shown in Figure 5(b).
4 Lokeshappa B et al.: Single Step Extractions of Metals in Coal Fly Ash

Fe exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 4 hours, Na and

Ca Fe Mg Na Si
Si leached about 95% of their maximum leaching concen-
6000 Optimum Leaching Time tration at 4 hours, while Mg leached about 80% of its peak
5000 leaching concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure 6(a).
Concentration (µg/g)

Among minor metals, Mn leached about 60% of its maxi-

4000
mum leaching at 4 hours. The remaining metals showed their
3000 maximum concentration at 4 hours as shown in Figure 6(b).
2000 Ca Fe Mg Na Si
50000 Optimum Leaching Time
1000
45000
0 40000

Concentration (µg/g)
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr 35000
Time (hrs) 30000
(a) 25000
As Cr Mn 20000
Ni Cu Zn 15000
4 10000
Optimum Leaching Time
5000
Concentration (µg/g)

3 0
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
2
Time (hrs)

1 (a)
As Cr Mn Ni Cu
0 Zn Se Cd Pb
50
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr Optimum Leaching Time
Time (hrs)
(b) 40
Concentration (µg/g)

Figure 4. Leaching of water soluble fractions for CFA3, (a) Major metals,
(b) Minor metals 30

Ca Fe Mg 20
6000 Optimum Leaching Time 10
5000
Concentration (µg/g)

4000 0
3000 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr

2000 Time (hrs)

1000 (b)
Figure 6. Leaching of ion exchangeable fractions for CFA2, (a) Major
0 metals, (b) Minor metals
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) Trends observed for CFA3: Among major metals, Ca and
(a) Mg exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 4 hours, Na
As Cr Mn and Si leached about 90% and 95% of their maximum
Ni Cu Zn
Se Cd Pb leaching concentration respectively at 4 hours, while Fe
4.00
Optimum Leaching Time leached about 66% of its peak leaching concentration at 4
hours as shown in Figure 7(a). Among minor metals, Cu and
Concentration (µg/g)

3.00
Zn leached less than 70% of their maximum leaching con-
2.00
centration at 4 hours, while Mn and Ni leached about 85% of
their peak concentration at 4 hours. The remaining metals
1.00 showed their maximum concentration at 4 hours as shown in
Figure 7(b).
0.00
3.2.3. Acid Soluble Fractions
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs)
Trends observed for CFA1: Among major metals, Ca and
(b) Fe exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, while
Figure 5. Leaching of ion exchangeable fractions for CFA1, (a) Major
metals, (b) Minor metals
Mg and Si leached about 95% and Na leached about 85% of
its peak leaching concentration at 24 hours as shown in
Trends observed for CFA2: Among major metals, Ca and Figure 8(a). Among minor metals, all metals exhibit more
 Resources and Environment 2012, 2(2): 1-8 5

than 80% of their peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, Trends observed for CFA2: Among major metals, Mg and
except Mn which leached about 70% of its maximum Si exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, while
leaching at 24 hours as shown in Figure 8(b). Fe and Na leached between 90% and 95% of their maximum
leaching concentration at 24 hours and Ca leaches about 85%
Ca Fe Mg
8000
of its peak leaching concentration at 24 hours as shown in
Optimum Leaching Time Figure 9(a). Among minor metals, all metals exhibit their
6000 peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, except Mn and Cr
Concentration (µg/g)

which leached between 90% and 95% of their maximum

4000 leaching at 24 hours as shown in Figure 9(b).
Ca Fe Mg Na Si
2000
120000
Optimum Leaching Time
0 100000

Concentration (µg/g)
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) 80000
(a)
As Cr Mn 60000
Ni Cu Zn
30 Optimum Leaching Time 40000

20000
Concentration (µg/g)

20
0
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
10 Time (hrs)
(a)
0 As Cr Mn Ni Cu
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr Zn Se Cd Pb
Time (hrs) 500
Optimum Leaching Time
(b)
Concentration (µg/g)

Figure 7. Leaching of ion exchangeable fractions for CFA3 (a) Major 400
metals, (b) Minor metals
300
Ca Fe Mg Na Si
7000 200
Optimum Leaching Time
6000
100
Concentration (µg/g)

5000
4000 0
3000 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
2000 Time (hrs)
1000 (b)
Figure 9. Leaching of acid soluble fractions for CFA2 (a) Major metals, (b)
0
Minor metals
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 32 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) Trends observed for CFA3: Among major metals, Ca and
(a) Na exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, while
As Cr Mn
Ni Cu Zn Mg, Na and Si leached about 90% of their maximum leach-
Se Cd Pb ing concentration at 24 hours as shown in Figure 10(a).
150
Optimum Leaching Time Among minor metals, all metals exhibit their peak leaching
concentrations at 24 hours, except Mn and Cr which leached
Concentration (µg/g)

100 about 90% of their maximum leaching at 24 hours as shown

in Figure 10(b).
50
3.2.4. Reducible Fractions
Trends observed for CFA1: Among major metals, Mg, Si
0
and Fe exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours,
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) while Ca and Na leached more than 95% of their maximum
(b)
leaching concentration at 24 hours as shown in Figure 11(a).
Figure 8. Leaching of acid soluble fractions for CFA1 (a) Major metals, (b) Among minor metals, all metals exhibit their peak leaching
Minor metals concentrations at 24 hours, except Mn and Cr which leached
6 Lokeshappa B et al.: Single Step Extractions of Metals in Coal Fly Ash

about 90% of their maximum leaching at 24 hours as shown Trends observed for CFA2: Among major metals, Mg, Ca
in Figure11(b). and Fe exhibited peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours,
Ca Fe Mg
while Si and Na leached more than 90% and 95% respec-
10000 tively of their maximum leaching concentration at 24 hours
Optimum Leaching Time
as shown in Figure 12(a). Among minor metals, all metals
8000 exhibit their peak leaching concentrations at 24 hours, except
Concentration (µg/g)

6000 Pb and Ni which leached about 90% of their maximum

leaching at 24 hours, while Cr showed a peak at 4 hours and
4000 decreased rapidly thereafter as shown in Figure12(b).
2000
Ca Fe Mg Na Si
0 3000000
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr Optimum Leaching Time
Time (hrs)
2500000
(a)

Concentration (µg/g)
As Cr Mn
Ni Cu Zn 2000000
40
Optimum Leaching Time
1500000
Concentration (µg/g)

30

20 1000000

10 500000

0
0
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
(b) Time (hrs)
Figure 10. Leaching of acid soluble fractions for CFA3 (a) Major metals,
(a)
(b) Minor metals
As Cr Mn
Ca Fe Mg Ni Cu Zn
2500000 Se Cd Pb
Optimum Leaching Time 50 Optimum Leaching Time
2000000 45
Concentration (µg/g)

Concentration (µg/g)

40
1500000
35
1000000 30
500000 25
20
0
15
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) 10

(a) 5
As Cr Mn 0
Ni Cu Zn
Se Cd Pb 1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
20
Optimum Leaching Time Time (hrs)
Concentration (µg/g)

15 (b)
Figure 12. Leaching of reducible fractions for CFA2 (a) Major metals, (b)
Minor metals
10
Trends observed for CFA3: Among major metals, Ca ex-
5 hibited its peak leaching concentration at 24 hours, Si
leached about 95% of its peak leaching concentration while
0 Na, Mg and Fe leached more than 90% of their maximum
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr leaching concentration at 24 hours as shown in Figure 13(a).
Time (hrs)
(b)
Among minor metals, all metals exhibit their peak leaching
Figure 11. Leaching of reducible fractions for CFA1 (a) Major metals, (b) concentrations at 24 hours, except Cr, Cu, Mg and Ni which
Minor metals leached about 90% of their maximum leaching concentra-
 Resources and Environment 2012, 2(2): 1-8 7

tions at 24 hours as shown in Figure13(b). step can be fixed as 24 hours.

Reducible Solids Fractions: Na and Si show about 90%
Ca Fe Mg Na Si of their maximum leaching concentrations at 24 hours for
2500000 Optimum Leaching Time some ash samples, rest samples exhibit peak leaching or
more than 95% of the peak leaching concentration at 24
2000000
Concentration (µg/g)

hours. Cr, Cu, Mg, Ni and Pb show about 90% of their

maximum leaching concentrations at 24 hours for some ash
1500000
samples. But most minor metals exhibit peak leaching con-
1000000 centrations at 24 hours for all ash samples. Thus, the opti-
mum leaching for the reducible solids step can be fixed as 24
500000 hours.
0
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr 8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Time (hrs)
(a) The authors are thankful to Centre for Environmental
As Cr Mn Ni Cu Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Zn Se Cd Pb Bombay and scholars of Professor Dikshit Research Group
30
for their help and cooperation to complete these experiments.
Optimum Leaching Time
25
Concentration (µg/g)

20

15
10
5 fication of persistent organic pollutants in fly ash from coal
0 fueled thermal power stations in India., Journal of Micro-
1 hr 2 hr 4 hr
(b)
Figure 13. Leaching of reducible fractions for CFA3, (a) Major metals, (b)
Minor metals
5. Conclusions
Water Soluble Fractions: Most of the metals exhibit
more than 90% of their peak leaching concentrations at 4
hours, except Si, Na, Ni, Mn, Cr, which show divergence in
behaviour for some ashes. Thus, 4 hours can be taken as the
optimum leaching time for water soluble metals.
Ion Exchangeable Fractions: Many metals leach more
than 80% of their peak leaching concentrations after 4 hours,
many of them even leaching more than 90% of their peak
values. Mn shows low leaching at 4 hours for two ash sam-
ples, so it will not be correctly estimated at 4 hours. Cu, Fe,
Mg Ni and Zn exhibit moderate leaching for some ash sam-
ples. Thus, 4 hours can be asserted as the optimum leaching
time for ion exchangeable conditions.
Acid Soluble Fractions: All major metals exhibit more
than 90% of their maximum leaching concentrations at 24
hours, although Ca and Na exhibit about 85% of their
maximum leaching concentrations for some ash samples at
24 hours. All minor elements show maximum leaching at 24
hours except Mn and Cr which show about 70% to 80% and
90% respectively of their maximum leaching concentrations
at 24 hours. Thus, the optimum leaching time for acid soluble
REFERENCES
[1] Sahu, S. K., Bhangare, R.C., Ajmal, P.Y., Sharma, S., Pandit,
G.G., and Puranil, V.D., 2009 , Characterization and quanti-
chemical, 92, 92-96.
8 hr 12 hr 24 hr 30 hr 36 hr 48 hr
Time (hrs) [2] Lokeshappa B., and Dikshit, A.K., 2011, Disposal and man-
agement of coal fly ash, Proc. ICLST, 11-14
[3] Adriano, D. C., Page, A. L., Elseewi, A. A., Chang A. C., and
Straughan, I., 1980, Utilization and disposal of fly ash and
other coal residues in terrestrial ecosystems: a, review.,
Journal of Environmental Quality, 9, 333–344.
[4] Aitken, R.L., and Bell, L.C., 1985, Plant uptake and phyto-
toxicity of boron in Australian fly ash., Journal of Plant and
Soil, 84, 245-257.
[5] Mattigod, S. V., Rai, D., Eary, L. E., and Ainsworth, C. C.,
1990, Geochemical factors controlling the mobilization of
inorganic constituents from fossil fuel combustion residues:
review of the major elements., Journal Environmental Qual-
ity,19, 188–201.
[6] Yuan, C. C., Fang, W. C., Mui, D.T., and Chiang., H.L., 2009,
Application of methods (sequential extraction procedures and
high pressure digestion method) to fly ash particles to deter-
mine the elements: a case study of BCR 176., Journal of
Hazardous Materials, 163, 578-587.
[7] Carlson, C.L., and Andriano, D. C., 1993, Environmental
impacts of coal combustion residues, Journal of Environ-
mental Quality., 22, 227-247.
[8] Turiel, F.J.L., Carvacho, W., Cabanas, M., Querol, X., and
Soler, L.A., 1994, Mobility of heavy metals from coal fly ash.,
Environmental Geology, 23, 264-270.
[9] Worathanakul, P., Kongkachuichay, P., Noel, J.D., Suriya-
wong, A., Giammar, D.E. and Biswas, P., 2008, Evaluation of
nanostructured sorbents in differential bed reactors for ele-
8 Lokeshappa B et al.: Single Step Extractions of Metals in Coal Fly Ash

mental mercury capture., Environmental Engineering Science,
25, 1061-1070.
[10] Groot, D. G.J., Wijkstra, J., Hoede, D., and vander Sloot, H.,
1989, Leaching characteristics of selected elements from coal
fly ash as a function of the acidity of the contact solution and
the liquid/solid ratio. In Environmental aspects of stabiliza-
tion and solidification of hazardous and radioactive wastes;
Côté, P., Gilliam, T. M., Eds.; American Society for Testing
and Materials: Philadelphia, PA, pp 170-183.