Hidraulic Servovalve System

Hydraulic Servo Systems
Dynamic Properties and Control
by
Closed loop stiffness for a Karl-Erik Rydberg
position servo with
velocity feedback
s2 2 h K
s 1 K vfv s K f K sav qi
FL K vfv 2
h K vfv h Ap K qi
Sc K vfv 1 K fv K sav
Xp K ce Vt Ap
1 s
Ap2 4 e K ce
s s2 2 h Steady state loop gain [1/s]

2
1 2
s 1
A p
K vv K vfv h K vfv h K qi 1
Sc K vv K vfv K vv Kf K sav
K ce Vt Ap K vfv
1 s
K-E Rydberg 4 e K ce Feedbacks in Electro-Hydraulic
K Servo Systems
K (without velocity feedback)
vv v 7
For the same amplitude margin, Kv must have the same value in the system
with and without velocity feedback.
Velocity feedback increases the steady state stiffness with the factor Kvfv.!"
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Karl-Erik Rydberg, Linköping University, Sweden
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velocity feedback
Figure 12: A linear valve controlled position servo with velocity feedback
Am = 6 dB
If the bandwidth of the valve is relatively high and threshold and saturation is neglected
With velocity feedback, Kvv = 20 1/s, Kvfv = 9.0
the velocity feedback will give the effect on the hydraulic resonance frequency and
damping as shown in Figure 13.
Without velocity feedback, Kv =20 1/s !"
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Figure 13: A linear position servo with velocity feedback

Karl-Erik Rydberg, Linköping University, Sweden 22 included
From Figure 13 the new resonance frequency and damping ( hv and hv) caused by the
velocity feedback can be evaluated as
1 K qi
K vfv , , where the velocity loop gain is K vfv 1 K fv K sav .
hv h hv h
K vfv Ap
+11
Designing the position control loop for the same amplitude margin as without velocity
feedback gives the following relations:
K qi
Steady state loop gain without velocity feedback: K v K sa Kf
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control
______________________________________________________________________
Linköping November 6, 2014

Revised October 27, 2016
Karl-Erik Rydberg
Professor, PhD
Department of Management and Engineering

Linköping University
SE-581 83 LINKÖPING
ISBN: 978-91-7685-620-8
2
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Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control
Table of Contents
Hydraulic Servo Systems - Dynamic Properties and Control .................................. 1
1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 5
1.1 What is a servo? ................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Technology comparisons .................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Capabilities of electro-hydraulic servos ...................................................................... 7
1.4 Different electro-hydraulic concepts ............................................................................ 7
1.5 Servo system efficiency ..................................................................................................... 9
1.5.1 Servo valve efficiency ................................................................................................................. 9
2 Configuration of electro-hydraulic servos ..................................... 12

2.1 Position servo .................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Velocity and force servos ............................................................................................... 13
3 Servo valves and their characteristics ............................................ 15

3.1 Number of lands and ports ............................................................................................ 15
3.2 Types of valve center ....................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Valve sleeve ............................................................................................................................... 17
3.3 Examples of electro-hydraulic servo valves ............................................................ 18
3.3.1 Type of feedback ..................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.2 Number of stages .................................................................................................................... 19
3.4 General steady state valve characteristics .............................................................. 24
3.4.1 Valve Coefficients ................................................................................................................... 25
3.5 Critical center four-way valve ...................................................................................... 26
3.5.1 Practical null coefficients for a critical center valve ............................................... 26
3.5.2 Leakage characteristics of a practical critical center four-way valve ........... 27
3.5.3 Blocked line pressure sensitivity curve ........................................................................ 27
3.5.4 Leakage flow curves .............................................................................................................. 28
3.5.5 Real flow gain characteristics ........................................................................................... 29
3.6 Open center spool valve ................................................................................................. 30
3.7 Three-way spool valve analysis ................................................................................... 32
3.8 Dynamic response of servo valves .............................................................................. 34
4 Position servos with valve-controlled cylinders ......................... 36

4.1 Asymmetric cylinder ....................................................................................................... 36
4.1.1 Example ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Variation in resonance frequency for an asymmetric cylinder with line volumes .......... 38
Parameters ...................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Valve controlled symmetric cylinder ........................................................................ 39
4.2.1 Servo system stability and bandwidth .......................................................................... 42
4.4 Influence from flow forces on valve spools ............................................................. 45
4.5 Position servo with mechanical springs at connectors ....................................... 47
4.5.1 Simulation of position servo with mechanical springs .......................................... 48
5.1 Four-way valve controlled motor with position feedback ................................. 52
5.2 Valve controlled motor for an angular velocity servo ......................................... 54
5.3 Pump controlled motor .................................................................................................. 56
3
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5.4 Pump controlled motor with variable displacement ........................................... 58

5.5 Pump controlled symmetric cylinder ........................................................................ 59
6 Hydraulic systems with complex load dynamics ......................... 61

6.1 Loads with one degree of freedom ............................................................................. 62
6.2 Loads with two degrees of freedom ........................................................................... 64
7 Feedbacks in Electro-Hydraulic Servo Systems ........................... 75

7.1 Linear valve controlled position servo ..................................................................... 75
7.1.1 Influence of valve dynamics ............................................................................................... 76
7.1.2 Closed loop stiffness ............................................................................................................. 77
7.2 Valve controlled position servo with load pressure feedback .......................... 78
7.3 Valve controlled angular position servo with acc. feedback ............................. 79
7.4 Velocity feedback in position control servos .......................................................... 81
7.5 Valve controlled velocity servo ................................................................................... 83
7.6 Proportional valves with integrated position and pressure transducers .... 84
7.7 Electro-hydraulic servo actuators .............................................................................. 84
7.8 Design examples ............................................................................................................... 87
7.9 Summary of servo system design criterions ........................................................... 90
7.9.1 Control loop dynamics – possible improvements ....................................................... 90
8 Nonlinearities in Hydraulic Servo Systems ................................... 92

8.1 How to handle nonlinear properties in linear models? ...................................... 92
8.2 Common Nonlinearities in Hydraulic Systems ....................................................... 93
8.2.1 Saturation and its effect on system performance ................................................... 93
8.2.2 Dead-band .................................................................................................................................. 96
8.2.3 Threshold and Hysteresis ................................................................................................... 96
8.3.4 Nonlinear friction ...................................................................................................................... 97
9 Controller Design for Hydraulic Servo Systems ........................... 99

9.1 General structure of the controller ............................................................................ 99
9.2 Feed forward gain for reduction of velocity error in position servos ......... 100
9.3 PID Controller ................................................................................................................. 101
9.3.1 Proportional gain ................................................................................................................... 102
9.3.2 Integral gain ............................................................................................................................. 102
9.3.3 Derivative gain ....................................................................................................................... 103
9.3.4 Implementation and tuning of PID-controllers ....................................................... 103
9.4 A commercial digital controller ................................................................................ 104
References .................................................................................................... 106

Appendix 1 ................................................................................................... 107
Design of a linear position servo ......................................................................................... 107
4
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K-E Rydberg Hydraulic Servo Systems 1
______________________________________________________________________
1 Introduction
WhenHydraulic
closed-loop hydraulic control systems
Servo Systems first beganand
2 Theory to appear in industry, the
Applications
applications were generally those in which very high performance was required. While
1. servo
hydraulic Introduction
systems are still heavily used in high-performance applications such as
the machine-tool industry, they are beginning to gain wide acceptance in a variety of
When closed-loop
industries. Examples arehydraulic control
material systemsmobile
handling, first began to appear
equipment, in industry,
plastics, steel the
plants,
applications were generally those in which very high performance was required. While
mining, oil exploration
hydraulic andare
servo systems automotive testing.
still heavily used in high-performance applications such as
the machine-tool industry, they are beginning to gain wide acceptance in a variety of
industries.
Closed Examples
loop servo drivearetechnology
material handling, mobile equipment,
is increasingly becomingplastics,
the norm steelinplants,
machine
mining, oil exploration and automotive testing.
automation, where the operators are demanding greater precision, faster operation and
simpler adjustment. There is also an expectation that the price of increasing the level of
Closed loop
automation servo
should drive technology
be contained within is increasingly
acceptable becoming the norm in machine
limits.
automation, where the operators are demanding greater precision, faster operation and
simpler adjustment. There is also an expectation that the price of increasing the level of
automation should be contained within acceptable limits.
1.1 What is a servo?
In its simplest form a servo or a servomechanism is a control system, which measures
What is a servo?
its own output and forces the output to quickly and accurately follow a command
In its simplest form a servo or a servomechanism is a control system which measures its
signal,
ownseoutput
Figure
and 1-1.
forcesInthe
this way,tothe
output effect
quickly andofaccurately
anomalies in the
follow control signal,
a command deviceseitself
and Figure
in the load can
1-1. In thisbeway,
minimised
the effectasofwell as theininfluence
anomalies of device
the control external disturbances.
itself and in the A
load can be can
servomechanism minimised as well
be designed as thealmost
to control influence of external
any physical disturbances.
quantities, A
e.g. motion,
servomechanism can be designed to control almost any physical quantities, e.g. motion,
force, pressure, temperature, electrical voltage or current.
force, pressure, temperature, electrical voltage or current.
Power
source
Command
Mechanical Motion
signal
+ ! Servo
electronics
Power
modulator Actuator load
-
Feedback
transducer
Figure
Figure1-1:
1-1: Basic servomechanism
Basic servomechanism
1.2 Technology
Technologycomparisons
comparisons
The potential for alternative technologies should be assessed in the light of the well-
The known
potentialcapabilities
for alternative technologies should
of electro-pneumatic and be assessed in the light
electro-mechanical of the
servos. Highwell-
known capabilities
performance of system
actuation electro-pneumatic
is characterised and electro-mechanical
by wide bandwidth frequencyservos.
response,High
low resolution and high stiffness. Additional requirements may include demanding
performance actuation system is characterised by wide bandwidth frequency response, duty
low resolution and high stiffness. Additional requirements may include demanding duty
cycles and minimisation of size and weight. The last mentioned requirements are of
5
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______________________________________________________________________
special interests in aerospace applications. The most important selection criteria can be
summarised as follows:
cycles and minimisation of size and weight. The last mentioned requirements are of
• Customer
special interests inperformance
aerospace applications. The most important selection criteria can be
• Cost as follows:
summarised
• •Size and weight
Customer performance
• •Duty
Costcycle
• •Environment: vibration, shock, temperature, etc.
Size and weight
• Duty cycle
The performance available with electro-hydraulic servos encompasses every industrial
• Environment: vibration, shock, temperature, etc.
and aerospace application. As indicated in Figure 1-2 electro-hydraulic servos will
The performance
cover applications available with electro-hydraulic
with higher performance then servos encompasses everyand
electro-mechanical industrial
electro-
and aerospace application. As indicated in Figure 1-2 electro-hydraulic servos will
pneumatic servos. This is easily explained because electro-hydraulic servo systems
cover applications with higher performance then electro-mechanical and electro-
have been designed
pneumatic andis easily
servos. This developed to accomplish
explained essentially every
because electro-hydraulic task that
servo systems havehas
appeared.
been designed and developed to accomplish essentially every task that has appeared.
100
Electro-hydraulic
actuation limit
Actuation power [kW]
10
Electro-mechanical
actuation limit
1
Electro-pneumatic
actuation limit
0.1
1 5 10 50 100
Actuated load dynamics [Hz]
Figure 1-2: Typical performance characteristics for different types of servo actuators
Figure 1-2: Typical performance characteristics for different types of servo actuators
The above figure indicates that applications in the lower range of power and dynamic
response may also be satisfied with electro-pneumatic servos. However, the best choice
Theis above
always figure
determined by considerations,
indicates such as
that applications in those selection
the lower criteria
range discussed
of power and above.
dynamic
In most applications the aspect of cost is generally dominant.
response may also be satisfied with electro-pneumatic servos. However, the best choice
is Experience indicates that
always determined electro-mechanical
by considerations, suchor as
electro-pneumatic
those selectionactuators
criteria tends to
discussed
have lower cost than electro-hydraulic actuators in the low performance range. This cost
above. In most applications the aspect of cost is generally dominant.
difference rapidly dissipates for applications that require high power and/or high
dynamic response.
Experience indicates that electro-mechanical or electro-pneumatic actuator tends to
have lower cost costs,
In comparing than electro-hydraulic actuators
one must be careful in thethelow
to consider performance
total range.
cost of entire This
servo-
actuation system. The higher cost of an electro-hydraulic servo often results from
cost difference rapidly dissipates for applications that require high power and/or high the
power response.
dynamic conversion equipment needed to provide high pressure fluid with low
contamination level. It is also clear that the relative cost of an alternative actuation
In system designed
comparing costs,forone
a specific
must beapplication
careful towill depend,theprimarily,
consider on oftheentire
total cost actuation
servo-
power level.
actuation system. The higher cost of an electro-hydraulic servo often results from the
power conversion equipment needed to provide high-pressure fluid with low
6
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contamination level. It is also clear that the relative cost of an alternative actuation
system designed for a specific application will depend, primarily, on the actuation
power level.
1.3 Capabilities of electro-hydraulic servos

When rapid and precise control of sizeable loads is required an electro-hydraulic servo
is often the best approach to the problem. Generally speaking, the hydraulic servo
actuator provides fast response, high force and short stroke characteristics. The main
advantages of hydraulic components are.
• Easy and accurate control of work table position and velocity
• Good stiffness characteristics
• Zero backlash
• Rapid response to change in speed or direction
• Low rate of wear
There are several significant advantages of hydraulic servo drives over electric motor
drives:
♦ Hydraulic drives have substantially higher power to weight ratios resulting in
higher machine frame resonant frequencies for a given power level.
♦ Hydraulic actuators are stiffer than electric drives, resulting in higher loop gain
capability, greater accuracy and better frequency response.
♦ Hydraulic servos give smoother performance at low speeds and have a wide
speed range without special control circuits.
♦ Hydraulic systems are to a great extent self-cooling and can be operated in stall
condition indefinitely without damage.
♦ Both hydraulic and electric drives are very reliable provided that maintenance is
followed.
♦ Hydraulic servos are usually less expensive for system above several horsepower,
especially if the hydraulic power supply is shared between several actuators.
1.4 Different electro-hydraulic concepts

In electro-hydraulic applications different concepts will be used in order to meet the
actual requirements. One example of a system where the weight is of great importance
is an Electro Hydraulic Actuator (EHA) to be used in aircraft applications. A typical
EHA-concept is shown in Figure 1-3. This EHA consists of an electric motor, a speed
controlled pump with low displacement, a cylinder and an accumulator used as a tank.
In a real application there is also a need for additional functions, such as by-pass
damper and safety facilities, not shown in the figure. In order to save weight no cooler
is applied and there will be a risk for too high fluid temperature with failure of the EHA
7
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______________________________________________________________________
as a Rydberg
K-E consequence. Therefore, the Hydraulic
losses and thereby
Servo Systemsthe temperature of the fluid is 4of
great importance in this application.
______________________________________________________________________
"#
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Figure 1-3:
Figure 1-3: Electro
Electro Hydraulic
Hydraulic Actuator
Actuator with
with electric
electric motor
motor control
control
Figure 1-3: Electro Hydraulic Actuator with electric motor control
Other more conventional concepts are a pump or a valve controlled actuator, as shown
Other more conventional concepts are a pump or a valve controlled actuator, as shown
in Figure 1-4. The main difference between those systems is that the pump controlled
in Figure
Other
system more 1-4.
is one The main
conventional
separate unitdifference
concepts
suppliedare between
by aanpump those systems
or awire
electric valve ismotor
that the
controlled
to the pump
samecontrolled
actuator,
(the as
as shown
for the
in Figure
system is 1-4.
one The
separatemain
unitdifference
supplied between
by an those
electric systems
wire to is
the that
motor
system in Figure 1-3) and the valve controlled actuator is supplied by a constant the pump
(the same controlled
as for the
system
system is one separate
pressureinhydraulic
Figure 1-3) unit
line. and supplied by
In thethelastvalve an electric
case controlled wire to
the EHA isactuator the motor (the
feed by isa central same
suppliedhydraulicas for
by a constant the
supply
system
unit.
pressure in Figure 1-3) and the valve controlled actuator is supplied by
hydraulic line. In the last case the, EHA is feed by a central hydraulic supply a constant
pressure hydraulic line. In the last case" the EHA is feed by a central hydraulic supply
unit.
unit. $
#
$
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Figure 1-4: Electro Hydraulic Actuators with pump and valve control respectively
Figure 1-4: Electro Hydraulic Actuators with pump and valve control respectively
Comparing the electric
Figure motor
1-4: Electro controlled
Hydraulic ActuatorsEHA in Figure
with pump 1-3control
and valve and the pump controlled
respectively
EHA in Figure 1-4, the overall efficiency will be better in the first case, where the pump
Comparing
shaft speed thethe) electric
(n motor The
is controlled. controlled EHAcurves
efficiency in Figure 1-3 andsystems
for similar the pump arecontrolled
shown in
Comparing
EHA in Figure 1-4, the overall efficiency will be better in the first case, where controlled
p electric motor controlled EHA in Figure 1-3 and the pump the pump
Figure
EHA 1-5. Maximum pump flow is the same in both cases and pressure drop over the
shaft in Figure
speed (np1-4,
) is the overall efficiency
controlled. will be
The efficiency betterfor
curves in similar
the firstsystems
case, where the
are shown pumpin
directional valve is included as losses.
shaft speed (n
Figure 1-5. Maximum
p ) is controlled. The efficiency curves for similar systems
pump flow is the same in both cases and pressure drop over the are shown in
Looking at the
directional
Figure 1-5. valve variations
Maximum is includedin overall
pump asflow isefficiency
losses.the same itinisboth
clearcases
that and
speed controldrop
pressure has aover
favour
the
over displacement
directional control, especially in the power range up to 50% of maximum power.
Looking atvalve is included
the variations in as losses.
overall efficiency it is clear that speed control has a favour
However, there are other problems to overcome in the pump speed control concept. For
over displacement control, especially in the power range up to 50% of maximum power.
Looking
example, atthetheamplitude
variationsofinthe overall
flow efficiency
pulsations itfrom
is clear that speed
the pump mustcontrol
be veryhas lowa favour
at low
However, there are other problems to overcome in the pump speed control concept. For
shaft
over speeds in
displacement order to avoid
control, problems
especially with low
in the from frequency
powertherange vibrations in the system.
example, the amplitude of the flow pulsations pumpup to be
must 50% veryof low
maximum
at low
This,
power. require
However,a special design
thereto are of
other the pump.
problems One suitable pump design is the inner gear
shaft speeds in order avoid problems withtolow
overcome
frequency in vibrations
the pump inspeed control
the system.
concept. In such a pump both kinematic and compressibility dependent flow pulsations
This, require
concept. a specialthe
For example, design of the of
amplitude pump. One pulsations
the flow suitable pumpfromdesign
the pumpis the inner
must be gear
very
are extremely low compared to piston pumps.
concept. In such a pump both kinematic and compressibility dependent
low at low shaft speeds in order to avoid problems with low frequency vibrations in the flow pulsations
are extremely
system. low compared
This, require a special to piston
designpumps.
of the pump. One suitable pump design is the
inner gear concept. In such a pump both kinematic and compressibility dependent flow
pulsations are extremely low compared to piston pumps.
8
K-E
K-E Rydberg
Rydberg Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic
Hydraulic Properties and Control
Servo Systems 5
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
$%&"'("))*'+,!-.,/ # $%&"'*0("/1+)&)!-'+,!-.,/ #
ε"
!"
1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9
Overall efficiency [-]

0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
Pressure difference: 15 MPa Pressure difference: 15 MPa
Pump disp. setting: 1.0 Pump shaft speed: 1500 rpm
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0 1000 2000 3000 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Pump speed [rpm] Pump displacement setting [-]
Figure 1-5:
Figure 1-5: Overall
Overall efficiencies
efficiencies with
with pump
pump speed
speed control
control and
and displacement
displacement setting
setting control
control
2. Servo
1.5 Configuration of an electro-hydraulic servo
system efficiency
The overall
The basic elements
efficiency of an
of aelectro-hydraulic servo is
servo system depends shown
upon the in Figure
system 2-1. The output
configuration, of
which
the servo is measured with a transducer device to convert it to an
has been demonstrated in Chapter 1.4. However, the criteria for selection of systemelectric signal. This
feedback signal is compared with the command signal. The resulting error signal is then
concept to a specific application belongs to the system power level, system bandwidth,
amplified by the regulator and the electric power amplifier and then used as an input
control
control accuracy,
signal to the number
servoofvalve.
axis to control
The servoand thecontrols
valve installation conditions.
the fluid flow to the actuator
in proportion to the drive current from the amplifier. The actuator
In general, it’s a well-known fact that pump control is much more energy then forces the load
efficient to
than
move. Thus, a change in the command signal generates an error signal, which causes the
valve control. A speed or displacement controlled pump has much lower response than
load to move in an attempt to zero the error signal. If the amplifier gain is high, the
aoutput
servowill
valvevaryat rapidly
the sameandnominal power.
accurately Especially
following at high power
the command signal. (> 50 kW) pump
control will drastically reduce the bandwidth of the system compared to the dynamic
External
performance of a servo valve. Therefore, for servo systems with requirements on high
disturbances
response and accurate control, valve controlled actuators are the best choice. Also, if
-
several
Commandaxes have Error to be controlled simultaneously, valve control is less costly instead of
signal Servo ampl. Mechanical Output
+ ! + !
signal Servo
using one and
pump for each axis. Actuator
valve
regulator load
-
1.5.1 Servo valve efficiency Feedback

transducer
The use of servo valves is not energy efficient, because they introduce quite heavy
throttling losses Figure
into 2-1:
theComponents
system. inThis can be illustrated
an electro-hydraulic by looking at valve
servomechanism
specification. The nominal
External disturbances (forcesflow capacity
or torque) canofcause
a servo
the valve
load toismove
specified at aany
without total valve
changes
pressure drop of signal.
in the command 70 bar.InAssuming
order to aoffset
supplythepressure of 210
disturbance inputbarangives that output
actuator only theis
neededlosses
valve in therepresents
opposite 33%
direction (see
of the Figure
input 2-1).
power at To provide
nominal flowthisconditions
opposing and
output
onlya
finiteremains
67% error signal is required.
for load The magnitude of the required error signal is minimised if
actuations.
the amplifier gain is high. Ideally, the amplifier gain would be set high enough that the
The most ofsimple
accuracy way to
the servo supply dependent
becomes a servo valveonlyisupon
to use
thea accuracy
fixed displacement pump,
of the transducer
itself. However,
which since theflow
deliver a constant control loopthe
(qs) and gain is proportional
pump pressure (ps)toisthe amplifier
adjusted by again, this
pressure
relief valve, as shown in Figure 1-6. The figure also shows the servo valve efficiency.
9
Servo valve efficiency
K-E Rydberg Fixed
Hydraulic displacement
Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties pump
and Control

Load flow Supply flow (max valve flow)
______________________________________________________________________
1 1
qL = C q " w " x v 0 ( ps ! p L ) qs = Cq " w " xv 0 ps
# !
ps " p L ! p L 0.385
#sv =
Fixed
ps ! ps
qL ! p L
"sv [-]
pump Max valve efficiency acc. to pL: "sv =
d ("sv )
d ( pL )
2
= 0 ! p L = ps
3
qs ! p s
q = load flow
Karl-Erik Rydberg, IEI/Linköping University 9
Figure 1-6: Servo valve with supply unit and corresponding

L valve efficiency
pLsupply
The servo valve efficiency is defined as load power over
Variable = load
power,pressure
pump q ⋅p
(1-1)
ηsv = L L
qs ⋅ ps qs = supply flow
Ps =valve
The flow equation for a four port symmetric and zero-lapped supply pressure
is expressed as,
1
qL = Cq ⋅ w ⋅ xv0 ( ps − pP
L ) = constant (1-2)
δ s
The constant pump flow willKarl-Erik
have the same value as max valve flow, which gives,
Rydberg, IEI/Linköping University 8
1
qs = Cq ⋅ w ⋅ xv0 ps (1-3)
δ
The above equations make it possible to express the valve efficiency as a function of
the load pressure pL and ps as a parameter,
ps − pL ⋅ pL
ηsv = (1-4)
ps ⋅ ps
The load pressure that gives max efficiency is found from the efficiency/pressure
derivative as,
d(ηsv ) 2
= 0 ⇒ pL = ps (1-5)
d( pL ) 3
From Figure 1-6 it can be noticed that max valve efficiency is 38,5%, which can’t be
acceptable for a modern servo system.
In today’s servo system the supply unit is commonly a variable displacement pump
equipped with a constant pressure controller, see Figure 1-7. The pump line is also
supplied by an hydraulic accumulator. In a servo system it is important to keep the
supply pressure constant, because variations in ps has an impact system response. The
accumulator helps the pump to control its pressure when the servo valve are opened or
closed very fast.
10
qL ! p
pump
"sv =
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control qs ! p
______________________________________________________________________
qL = load flow
Variable pL = load pressu
pump
qs = supply flow
Ps = supply pres
Ps = constant
Karl-Erik Rydberg, IEI/Linköping University
Figure 1-6: Servo valve supplied by a variable pressure controlled pump and accumulator
The use of a variable displacement pump has the advantage that the pump flow always
is adjusted to fit the load flow, qs = qL. According to equation (1-1), the servo valve
efficiency can be expressed as,
pL
ηsv = (1-6)
ps
Nominal load flow gives a valve efficiency of η sv = 0,67.

In practice, the valve efficiency will be lower than the above figures, because of the fact
that the valve leakage flow has been neglected. For single stage servo valve (zero-
lapped) the leakage flow loss is about 2 % of nominal flow and for a two or three stage
valve up to 5 %. Under-lapped valves can have much higher losses.
11
0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8
K-E Rydberg
0.7
Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic
0.7
Properties and Control
Pressure difference: 15 MPa Pressure difference: 15 MPa
______________________________________________________________________
0.6
Pump disp. setting: 1.0
0.6
Pump shaft speed: 1500 rpm
0.5 0.5
0 1000 2000 3000 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2 Configuration of electro-hydraulic servos

Pump speed [rpm]
Pump displacement setting [-]
Figure 1-5: Overall efficiencies with pump speed control and displacement setting control
The basic elements of an electro-hydraulic servo are shown in Figure 2-1. The output
2.servoConfiguration
of the is measured with aof an electro-hydraulic
transducer device to convert it toservo an electric signal. This
feedback signal
The basic is compared
elements with the command
of an electro-hydraulic servosignal. The
is shown in resulting
Figure 2-1. error
Thesignal
outputisofthen
the servo is measured with a transducer device to convert it to
amplified by the regulator and the electric power amplifier and then used as anan electric signal. This
input
feedback signal is compared with the command signal. The resulting error signal is then
control signalbytothe
amplified theregulator
servo valve. Theelectric
and the servo power
valve controls
amplifiertheandfluid
then flow
used to as the actuator
an input
in proportion to the
control signal drive
to the servocurrent
valve. from the amplifier.
The servo Thethe
valve controls actuator thento forces
fluid flow the load
the actuator
in proportion
to move. Thus, atochange
the drive
incurrent from the signal
the command amplifier. The actuator
generates an errorthensignal,
forces the loadcauses
which to
move. Thus, a change in the command signal generates an error signal, which causes the
the load to move in an attempt to zero the error signal. If the amplifier gain is high, the
load to move in an attempt to zero the error signal. If the amplifier gain is high, the
output willwill
output vary rapidly
vary rapidlyand
andaccurately
accurately following
following thethecommand
command signal.
signal.
External
disturbances
Command Error -
Servo ampl.
Mechanical Output
! !
signal signal Servo
and Actuator +
+ regulator valve load
-
Feedback
transducer
Figure
Figure 2-1:
2-1: Components in
Components in an
an electro-hydraulic
electro-hydraulicservomechanism
servomechanism
External disturbances (forces or torque) can cause the load to move without any changes
in the disturbances
External command signal. In order
(forces to offset can
or torque) the disturbance
cause the input
load anto actuator output is any
move without
changes in the command signal. In order to offset the disturbance input output
needed in the opposite direction (see Figure 2-1). To provide this opposing a
an actuator
finite error signal is required. The magnitude of the required error signal is minimised if
output
the is neededgain
amplifier in the opposite
is high. Ideally,direction (see gain
the amplifier Figure 2-1).
would be To provide
set high enoughthisthat
opposing
the
output
accuracy of the servo becomes dependent only upon the accuracy of the transducer is
a finite error signal is required. The magnitude of the required error signal
itself. However,
minimised since the gain
if the amplifier control loop gain
is high. is proportional
Ideally, to the
the amplifier amplifier
gain wouldgain,
be setthishigh
enough that the accuracy of the servo becomes dependent only upon the accuracy of the
transducer itself. However, since the control loop gain is proportional to the amplifier
gain, this gain is limited by stability considerations. In some applications, stability may
be critical enough that the desired performance is not possible to reach.
The three common types of electro-hydraulic servos are:
• Position servo (linear or angular)
• Velocity or speed servo (linear or angular)
• Force or torque servo
12
gain is limited by stability considerations. In some applications, stability may be critical
enough that the desired performance is not possible to reach.
The three common types of electro-hydraulic servos are:
• Position servo (linear or angular)
______________________________________________________________________
• Velocity or speed servo (linear or angular)
• Force or torque servo
2.1 Position servo
Position servo
Probably the
Probably the most
most basic
basic closed-loop
closed-loop control
control system
system is
is aa position
position servo.
servo. A
A schematic
schematic
diagram of
diagram of aa complete
complete position
position servo
servo is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 2-2.
2-2.
!"#$%&'&%&()&
#6
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=-
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*9 *:
*+,"-"+(
-%.(,/0)&%
3&%4+
0) ? .567"'"&% " 8'
8,.
0 @
' *,$1$)+(,-2
Figure 2-2: Symbol circuit of a position servo

Figure 2-2: Symbol circuit of a position servo
In Figure 2-2 the actuator or load position is measured by a position transducer, which
In Figure 2-2 the actuator or load position is measured by a position transducer, which
gives an electric signal (uf) in voltage as an output. The servo amplifier compares the
gives an electric
command signal
signal (u (uf) in voltage as an output. The servo amplifier compares the
c) in voltage with the feedback signal (uf). Then, the resulting error
command
signal signal (u
are gained thec)with
in voltage withKthe
the factor feedback
sa. The outputsignal
current(usignal
f). Then, the resulting
(i) from error
the amplifier
will control
signal the servo
is gained valve.
with the factor Ksa. The output current signal (i) from the amplifier will
control the servo valve.
Velocity and force servos
2.2 Velocity
Another common and types force
of closedservos
loop control systems are velocity (speed) and force
(torque) servos. The configuration of these systems are identical to the position servo
Another common
depicted in Figure types of closed
2-2, expect that loop control systems
the transducer are velocity
measures velocity or(speed) and force
force instead of
(torque) servos.
position and thatThe the configuration
controller may of have
thesedifferent
systems characteristics.
are identical to Figure
the position servo
2-3 shows
depicted
both in Figure
a speed and a2-2,
force expect
servo.that thenotable
It is transducer
that measures
the same velocity or force
type of servo instead
valve of
can be
used in alland
position of these
that theapplications.
controller As may indicated in Figure
have different 2-3, velocity or
characteristics. speed 2-3
Figure servos are
shows
more commonly used to control the shaft speed of an hydraulic motor
both a speed and a force servo. It is notable that the same type of servo valve can be than to control
linear
used invelocity.
all of these applications. As indicated in Figure 2-3, velocity or speed servos are
In the commonly
more velocity servousedthe to servo amplifier
control the shaft is of integrating
speed type, asmotor
of a hydraulic shownthan in Figure 2-3.
to control
Compared to
linear velocity. a position servo the velocity servo has no integration between servo valve
displacement and the output velocity. Therefore, the integration in a velocity servo is
In the velocity
generally servoelectronically
provided the servo amplifierin theis amplifier.
of integrating
Thetype, as shownisindesirable
integration Figure 2-3.
to
minimise static errors and to maintain stability.
Compared to a position servo the velocity servo has no integration between servo valve
displacement and the output velocity. Therefore, the integration in a velocity servo is
generally provided electronically in the amplifier. The integration is desirable to
minimise static errors and to maintain stability.
13
K-E
K-E Rydberg
Servo Systems 7
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
-/ @9
!2 13
73 73
A2 >& 8&
!9
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03%%* !"#$%
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+ ;
6 ---) +6 ;
,)-.-$"()&/
0%#1"-)E)&%2-F5&G-)3%%*-6%%*H'$= 0%#1"-)E)&%2-F5&G-6"#$%-6%%*H'$=
Figure 2-3:
Figure 2-3: Symbol
Symbol circuit
circuit of
of aa speed
speed and
and aa force
force servo
servo
In a real force servo the transducer measures the output force and this signal is fed back
In
to athe
realamplifier.
force servo the transducer
A more measures
simpler way the outputa force
to implement forceand thisissignal
servo to useis fed
the back
load
pressure
to in the actuator
the amplifier. A moreassimple
a feedback
way signal. This is aquite
to implement forceclose
servoto is
a true force
to use theservo
load
except from
pressure the actuator
in the friction force in the actuator.
as a feedback signal. This is quite close to a true force servo
except from the friction force in the actuator.
3. Servo valves and their characteristics
The heart of the hydraulic servo system is the servo valve and it is essential that its
characteristics be thoroughly understood. A servo valve is a component which work as
an interface between an electrical (or mechanical) input signal and the hydraulic power
represented by the product of flow and pressure. Depending of the application there are
different types of servo valves to use.
3.1 Number of lands and ports

The most widely used valve is the sliding valve employing spool type construction.
Typical spool valve configurations are shown in Figure 3-1. As explained in the figure,
spool valves can be classified by the numbers of ways the flow can enter and leave the
valve and the number of lands. Because all valves require a supply, a return and at least
one line to the load, valves are either of three-port or four-port type.
7 ? 7 ?
, @ , @
@F";4'(*I-6"+#;3"#& @G#%%;4'(*I-6"+#;3"#&
7 ? 7
, @ @ ,
!"+#;4'(*I-6"+#;3"#& @F";4'(*I-&G#%%;3"#&
Figure 3-1: Typical confuguration of the main stage of hydraulic servo valves
14
<)'
DDDD <)'
,)-.-="()&/
+6 ; ---) +6 ;
,)-.-$"()&/
0%#1"-)E)&%2-F5&G-)3%%*-6%%*H'$= 0%#1"-)E)&%2-F5&G-6"#$%-6%%*H'$=
K-E Rydberg Figure 2-3:

Hydraulic Symbol
Servo circuit
Systems of a speed
– Dynamic and a force
Properties andservo
Control
In a real force servo the transducer measures the output force and this signal is fed back
______________________________________________________________________
to the amplifier. A more simpler way to implement a force servo is to use the load
pressure in the actuator as a feedback signal. This is quite close to a true force servo
except from the friction force in the actuator.
3 Servo valves and their characteristics
3. Servo
The heart of the valves
hydraulic and their ischaracteristics
servo system the servo valve and it is essential that its
characteristics
The be hydraulic
heart of the thoroughlyservo
understood. A the
system is servo valve
servo is a and
valve component, which that
it is essential acts its
as
an interface between
characteristics an electrical
be thoroughly (or mechanical)
understood. input signal
A servo valve and the hydraulic
is a component power
which work as
represented
an interface by the product
between of flow(or
an electrical andmechanical)
pressure. Depending
input signalof and
the application there
the hydraulic are
power
represented by of
different types theservo
product of flow
valves and pressure. Depending of the application there are
to use.
different types of servo valves to use.
spool valves
spool valves can
can be
be classified
classified by, the numbers
by the numbers of
of ways
ways the
the flow
flow can
can enter
enter and
and leave
leave the
the
valve and the number of lands. Because all valves require a supply, a return and at least
one line to the load, valves are either of three-port or four-port
four-port type.
type.
7 ? 7 ?
, @ , @
@F";4'(*I-6"+#;3"#& @G#%%;4'(*I-6"+#;3"#&
7 ? 7
, @ @ ,
!"+#;4'(*I-6"+#;3"#& @F";4'(*I-&G#%%;3"#&
Figure 3-1:
Figure 3-1:Typical
Typicalconfuguration
configuration of
of the
the main
main stage
stage of
of hydraulic
hydraulic servo
servo valves
valves
The four-port valves in Figure 3-1 have two, three and four lands. For mechanical
positioning of the main spool, two or three lands can be used. With four (or at least
three) lands on the spool it is possible to use hydraulic pressure for positioning of a
four-port valve. This is the most common concept for high response servo valves.
Special valves may have more than four lands.
A three-port valve, shown down to the right in Figure 3-1, requires a bias pressure
acting on one side of an unsymmetrical cylinder for direction reversal. Usually the
head-side piston area is twice the rod-side area and supply pressure acts on the smaller
area to provide the bias force for reversal.
15
three) lands on the spool it is possible to use hydraulic pressure for positioning of a
four-port valve. This is the most common concept for high response servo valves.
Special valves may have more than four lands.
A three-port valve, shown down to the right in Figure 3-1, requires a bias pressure
acting on one side of an unsymmetrical cylinder for direction reversal. Usually the head-
______________________________________________________________________
side piston area is twice the rod-side area and supply pressure acts on the smaller area to
provide the bias force for reversal.
3.2 Types of valve center
3.2 Types
The type ofcenter
of valve valveis center
defined by the width of the land compared to the width of
the port
The typeinofthe valve
valve sleeve
center arewhen the by
defined spool
theiswidth
in neutral
of theposition. If the width
land compared ofwidth
to the the land
of
is smaller
the port in than the port,
the valve sleevethewhen
valvethe
is said
spooltoishave an open-center
in neutral orthe
position. If to be under-lapped,
width of the land
is
as smaller
shown than the port,3-2.
in Figure the A
valve is said to have
critical-center or an open-center
zero-lapped or tohas
valve be under-lapped,
a land width
as shown in Figure 3-2. A critical-center or zero-lapped valve
identical to the port width. A valve with a land width greater than the port has a land width
width is
identical to the port width. A valve with a land width greater than the port width is
called closed-center or over-lapped.
called closed-center or over-lapped.
!" !" !"
#$%&'()*+ ,&'-()*+ ."&'()*+

Figure 3-2:
Figure 3-2: Different
Different valve
valve lapping
lapping when
when the
the spool
spool isis in
in neutral
neutralposition
position
The
The flow
flow characteristics
characteristics of of the
the valve
valve may
may bebe directly
directly related
related to
to the
the type
type of
of valve
valve center.
center.
Corresponding to Figure 3-2 there are three important flow gain characteristics, with the
Corresponding to Figure 3-2 there are three important flow gain characteristics, with the
shape shown in Figure 3-3. In fact, it is better to define the type of valve center from
shape
the shown
shape of thein flow
Figure
gain3-3.
nearInneutral
fact, it position
is betterthan
to define the type of valve
from geometrical center from
considerations. A
the shape of the flow gain near neutral position than from geometrical considerations.
critical center valve may be defined as the geometrical fit required to achieve a linear A
critical
flow center
gain in thevalve mayofbeneutral
vicinity definedposition,
as the geometrical
which usuallyfit necessitates
required to achieve
a slight aoverlap
linear
to offset
flow gainthe
in effect of radial
the vicinity of clearance.
neutral position, which usually necessitates a slight overlap
to majority
A offset theofeffect of radial
four-way servoclearance.
valves are manufactured with a critical center because of
the emphasis on the linear flow gain. Closed center valves are not desirable because of
A majority of four-way servo valves are manufactured with a critical center because of
the dead-band characteristics in the flow gain. With a proportional amplifier the dead-
the emphasis
band results in onsteady
the linear
stateflow
errorgain.
andClosed center
can cause valves which
backlash are notmay
desirable because
lead to of
stability
the dead-band
problems in thecharacteristics
servo loop. It is in possible
the flowtogain. With a proportional
compensate for dead-band amplifier the dead-
electronically but
it willresults
band at leastininfluence the response
steady state error andtimecanofcause
the servo valve.which may lead to stability
backlash,
problems in the servo loop. It is possible to compensate for dead-band electronically but
it will at least influence the response time of the servo valve.
16
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
34
-.() !"#$#%&'
%()$(" %()$("
/),("'&. !'*+(,
"(0#*) %()$("
21
-1("'&.
"(0#*)
Figure 3-3: Flow gain (load flow, Q versus spool stroke, x ) of different center types
Figure 3-3: Flow gain (load flow, QLL versus spool stroke, xv v) of different center types
Open center valves are used in applications which require a continuous flow to maintain
Open center valves
an acceptable are used inand/or
fluid temperature applications,
an increasewhich
of therequires
hydraulica damping.
continuous flow to
However,
maintain anpower
the large acceptable
loss influid temperature
neutral and/or
position, the an increase
decrease of the
in flow gain hydraulic
outside damping.
the under-lap
region and
However, the the decreased
large pressure
power loss sensitivity
in neutral of open
position, the center valves
decrease restrict
in flow their
gain use tothe
outside
special applications.
under-lap region and the decreased pressure sensitivity of open center valves restrict
their use to special applications.
Valve sleeve
SinceValve
3.2.1 the flow characteristics of a servo valve is of great importance in a servo system
sleeve
the valve must be manufactured with high precision. That close and matching tolerances
Since
for the flow
spool characteristics
lands, of a clearances
ports and radial servo valvemustis ofalso
great
be importance in a servo
held as constant system
as possible
during operating conditions. In order to compensate for the influence
the valve must be manufactured with high precision. That close and matching from pressure and
temperature the spool is working in a sleeve (bushing), which is surrounded by the
tolerances for spool lands, ports and radial clearances must also be held as constant as
valve housing. The sleeve or bushing, shown in Figure 3-4, is pressurised both inside
possible during
and outside andoperating
therefore, conditions.
the pressure In
willorder to compensate
not influence the radialfor the influence from
clearances.
pressure and temperature the spool is working in a sleeve (bushing), which is
surrounded by the valve housing. The sleeve or bushing, shown in Figure 3-4, is
pressurised both inside and outside and therefore, the pressure will not influence the
radial clearances.
Figure 3-4: Main spool and bushing of a servo valve
Figure 3-4: Main spool and bushing of a servo valve, (MOOG)
17
______________________________________________________________________
In Figure 3-4 it can also be seen that the port in the bushing is formed as a slot (flow
metering slot). Each port will include at least two or up to four slots arranged
K-E Rydberg
symmetrically around the bushing.Hydraulic Servo Systems
This means 10
that the flow metering area, for a spool
with the diameter, ds and the spool displacement, xv will be calculated as,
______________________________________________________________________
A(xv ) = f sc ⋅ π ⋅ d s ⋅ xv
In Figure 3-4 it can also be seen that the port in the bushing is formed as a slot (flow
where fsc is the fraction of spool circumference that is opened to the slots. Normally,
metering slot). Each port will include at least two or up to four slots arranged
this parameter will
symmetrically be in
around thethebushing.
following interval:
This means 0.25 ≤ fscflow
that the ≤ 0.5.
metering area, for a spool
with the diameter, ds and the spool displacement, xv will be calculated as,
3.3 Examples of electro-hydraulic
A( xv ) = f sc ⋅ π ⋅ dservo
s ⋅ xv
valves
The
whereelectro-hydraulic
fsc is the fractionservo valve
of spool connects the
circumference thatelectronic
is opened and
to thehydro-mechanical
slots. Normally,
portions of a hydraulic
this parameter will be insystem. Such ainterval:
the following valve has
0.25electric
≤ fsc ≤ current
0.5. as input signal. This
electric signal is, then transformed proportionally by different types of feedback loops,
to a mechanical
3.3 Examples or a hydraulic signal.
of electro-hydraulic servo valves
The electro-hydraulic servo valve connects the electronic and hydro-mechanical
portions
3.3.1 of a of
Type hydraulic
feedback system. Such a valve has electric current as input signal. This
electric signal is then transformed proportionally, by different types of feedback loops,
The
to a shape of theorsteady
mechanical state signal.
a hydraulic flow-pressure curves of a servo valve is given from the
type
Typeofoffeedback
feedback used in the valve. Three types of feedback can be identified, which are
spool position,
The shape of theload pressure
steady and load flowcurves
state flow-pressure feedback. In anvalve
of a servo ordinary flow from
are given direction
the
controlled servo valve, which is commonly used in position, velocity and
type of feedback used in the valve. Three types of feedback can be identified, which are force servos,
spool
the position,
main load pressure
spool position and loadtoflow
is proportional feedback.
the input In The
signal. an ordinary
position flow direction
feedback used
controlled servo valve, which is commonly used in position, velocity and
in this case can be realised in different ways, such as direct mechanical feedback, force force servos,
the main or
feedback spool position
electrical is proportional
position feedback.toInthe input
force signal. servo
feedback The position feedback
valves the used
main spool
in this case can be realised in different ways, such as direct mechanical feedback, force
position
feedbackisorconverted
electrical to a force
position by a spring
feedback. andfeedback
In force this force is balanced
servo valves theatmain
the torque
spool
motor armature
position against
is converted to the torque
a force by adue to the
spring andinput
this current. With pressure
force is balanced at thecompensation
torque motor
or pressureagainst
armature feedback the load
the torque dueflow
to theor input
load current.
pressure With
can be maintained
pressure to varying
compensation or
pressure feedback
proportionally to thetheinput load flowHowever,
signal. or load these
pressure
typescan be maintained
of valves will be besttosuited
varying
for
proportionally to the input signal. However, this types of valves will
special applications such as constant flow or constant pressure control. The pressure- be best suited for
special applications such as constant flow or constant pressure control. The pressure-
flow characteristics of the mentioned valves are illustrated in Figure 3-5.
flow characteristics of the mentioned valves is illustrated in Figure 3-5.
., /0-!1!02"34456%78 ., ,0%5"+94--:94"34456%78 ., ,0%5"3;0<"34456%78
! !
!"#"!$%&"'"()* !"#"!$%&"'"()* !"#"!$%&"'"()*
+,#+- ()* +,#+- ()* +,#+- ()*
Figure 3-5:
Figure 3-5: Pressure-flow
Pressure-flow curves
curves of
of aa servo
servo valve
valve using
using position,
position, load
load pressure
pressure and
andload
loadflow
flowfeedback.
feedback.
There are also servo valves where different characteristics are combined. One of these
There are also servo valves where different characteristics are combined. One of these
valves is called the dynamic pressure feedback servo valve. This valve has a
valves is called
characteristic of a the dynamic
position pressure
feedback valve feedback servo valve.
at low frequencies This valve has
and characteristics of aa
load pressure feedback valve at higher frequencies. This behaviour is useful in some
applications to increase the damping of valve-actuator combinations.
18
______________________________________________________________________
characteristic of a position feedback valve at low frequencies and characteristics of a

load pressure feedback valve at higher frequencies. This behaviour is useful in some
applications to increase the damping of valve-actuator combinations.
3.3.2 Number of stages
Servo valves may also be broadly classified as either single-stage, two-stage or three-
stage. Single-stage servo valves consist of a torque motor or a linear force motor
directly attached for positioning of the spool. Because torque or force motors have
limited power capability, this in turn limits the hydraulic power capacity of single-stage
servo valves. In some applications the single-stage concept may also lead to stability
problems. This is the case if the flow forces acting on the spool are close to the force
produced by the electro-magnetic motor. Flow forces are proportional to the flow and
the square root of the valve pressure drop, which gives a limitation in hydraulic power.
Single-stage valves
A single-stage servo valve with a linear force motor is shown in Figure 3-6. The valve
illustrated in the figure is a valve, which employs just one linear force motor
(proportional magnet) to move the spool either side of the central position. The electric
signal from a position transducer is then used for closed loop control of the spool
position. In addition, the spool has a “power off” position whereby when no power is
applied to the magnet, the bias spring pushes the spool fully over to the right side. I
“power off” position all ports (A, B, P and T) are closed. In normal operation the spool
will operate either side the null position but in the event of a power failure or machine
shut-down, the spool will move to the “power off” position. The maximum pressure for
this type of valve is, normally 350 bars and the maximum flow is less then 80 litre/min.
Figure 3-6: Single-stage servo valve with electrical position feedback, Vickers
Figure 3-7 shows another single stage servo valve with a linear force motor which can
actively stroke the spool from its spring centred position in both directions. This is an
19
______________________________________________________________________
advantage compared with proportional solenoids with one force direction only, as in
figure 3-6. The closed loop spool position electronics and pulse width modulated
(PWM) drive electronics are integrated into the valve. This permits control directly
from, for example, a machine control without the use of additional interface electronics.
The valve in Figure 3-7 has a quite strong force motor. High spring stiffness and
resulting centring force plus external forces (flow forces and friction forces) must be
overcome during out-stroking. During backstroking to centre position the spring force
adds to the motor force and provides additional spool driving force which makes the
drive very less contamination sensitive. The relatively high force from the force motor
also means that the influence from flow forces on the spool position control is very
small. This is important to avoid reduction of the hydraulic damping caused by
dominant flow forces.
Figure 3-7: Single-stage servo valve with electrical position feedback, MOOG Direct Drive (DDV)
Two-stage valves
One of the most common types of servo valve is the two-stages. The servo valve,
shown in Figure 3-8 uses an electrical torque motor, a double-nozzle pilot stage and a
sliding spool second stage. Electrical current in the torque motor gives proportional
displacement of the second stage spool. The flapper in the pilot stage attaches to the
centre of the armature and extends down, inside the flexure tube. A nozzle is located on
each side of the flapper so that flapper motion varies the nozzle openings. Differential
pressures caused by flapper movement between the nozzles are applied to the ends of
the valve main spool.
20
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-8: Two-stage servo valve (MOOG)
Operation: Electrical current in the torque motor coils causes either clockwise or
counter-clockwise torque, as shown in Figure 3-9, on the armature. This torque
displaces the flapper between the two nozzles. The differential nozzle flow moves the
spool to either the right or left. The spool continues to move until the feedback torque
counteracts the electromagnetic torque. At this point the armature/flapper is returned to
centre, so the spool stops and remains displaced until the electric input changes to a new
level.
Figure 3-9: Valve responding to change in electrical input for a two-stage servo valve, MOOG
Instead of flapper nozzle pilot stage a jet pipe stage can be used as illustrated in Figure
3-10. The “servo-jet” consists mainly of a torque motor, jet pipe and receiver. A current
through the coil displaces the jet pipe from neutral position.
21
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-10: Two-stage servo valve with jet-pipe pilot stage, MOOG
This displacement combined with the special shape of the nozzle direct focussed fluid
jet more into one receiver than the other. The jet now produces a pressure difference in
the control ports. This pressure difference results in a pilot flow, which in turn causes a
spool displacement. One advantage for the jet pipe pilot valve is the less sensitivity for
contamination than for example a flapper nozzle valve.
The position control loop for the main stage spool is closed by the integrated
electronics. An electrical command signal is applied to the integrated position
controller, which drives the valve coil. A position transducer measures the position of
the main spool. This signal is then fed back to the controller where it is compared with
the command signal. The controller drives the pilot valve until the error between the
command and feedback signal is zero. Thus the position of the main spool is
proportional to the electrical command signal.
Three-stage valves
For high flow capacity the required power to drive the main spool will be high. In such
applications (flow capacity over 150 litre/min and maximum pressure about 350 bar) a
three-stage valve will be used. Three-stage means that a two-stage servo valve, is used
as a pilot valve for the main stage, just as shown in Figure 3-11.
This valve has an electrical feedback for the main spool position control. In the
controller this signal is compared with the command signal. The controller drives the
pilot valve, in this case a two-stage servo valve, until the error between the command
and feedback signal is zero. In the same way as for the foregoing valves presented, the
position of the main spool will be proportional to the electrical command signal.
22
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 3-11: Three-stage servo valve with electrical feedback for main spool position control, MOOG
It is also notable that the valves in the Figures 3-10 and 3-11 have no sleeve for the
main spool. Therefore, these valves are often called proportional valves instead of servo
valves. Today, the main difference between, proportional and servo valves, is just the
sleeve. A proportional valve is not manufactured by such precision as a servo valve and
therefore also less expensive and mainly used for open loop control. However, the
valves shown above have quite linear characteristics through zero position of the main
spool and are well suited for closed loop control as ordinary servo valves.
P/Q-valve
In some applications there is a need for both pressure and flow control. Velocity control
can be required for a part of the working cycle and pressure control for another part of
the cycle. Other requirements can be pressure limiting during velocity control. A valve
capable of handling these requirements is shown in Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-12: MOOG PQ-proportional control valve for pressure and flow control
23
Figure 3-12: MOOG PQ-proportional control valve for pressure and flow control
______________________________________________________________________
3.43.4General
Generalsteady
steady state
state valve characteristics
valve characteristics
TheThedesign of ofa aservo
design servovalve
valvedepends
depends upon
upon the
the requirements
requirements on on hydraulic
hydraulicpower
power
capacity, accuracy
capacity, andand
accuracy dynamic
dynamicresponse. The
response. valve
The characteristics
valve characteristicswill
willalso
alsodepends
dependson
the on
port
thelapping and the
port lapping andtype
the of internal
type feedback
of internal control
feedback loops
control in in
loops thethe
valve.
valve.
As mentioned
As mentioned before, thethemost
before, mostcommon
commontypetypeof
of servo valve isisaafour-port
servo valve four-portcritical-center
critical-center
valve with
valve spool
with position
spool positioncontrol.
control.The
Themain
main stage
stage of this type
of this type of
ofvalve
valveisisschematically
schematically
shown
shown in Figure 3-13. This valve is a device that uses mechanical motion totocontrol
in Figure 3-13. This valve is a devices that use mechanical motion control
thethe
hydraulic power from a source to an actuator.
hydraulic power from a source to an actuator.
%&
!" $# $# !"
!#
Figure 3-13:
Figure Four-port
3-13: Four-portcritical
criticalcenter
centerspool
spool valve with three
valve with threeland
land
The load flow through the valve is expressed by the equation
1 ⎛⎜ xv ⎞
q L = C q wx v p s − p ⎟
L⎟
(3-1)
ρ ⎜⎝ xv ⎠
where, Cq = flow coefficient, [-] pL = p1 – p2 = load pressure dif., [Pa]
ps = supply pressure, [Pa] xv = spool displacement, [m]
w = area gradient, [m] ρ = fluid density, [kg/m3]
Assume constant supply pressure (ps) and let the load pressure vary in the range –ps ≤
pL ≤ ps and the spool displacement in the range –xvmax ≤ xv ≤ xvmax. With these
assumptions the load flow characteristics will be as illustrated in Figure 3-14.
24
where, Cq = flow coefficient, [-] pL = p1 J p2 = load pressure dif., [Pa]
ps = supply pressure, [Pa] xv = spool displacement, [m]
w = area gradient, [m] ρ = fluid density, [kg/m3]
Assume constant supply pressure (ps) and let the load pressure vary in the range Jps ≤ pL
______________________________________________________________________
≤ ps and the spool displacement in the range Jxvmax ≤ xv ≤ xvmax. With this assumptions
the load flow characteristics will be as illustrated in Figure 3-14.
+,
+,%&!
!"#$!"%&!#'#()*
!"#$!"%&!#'#*)0
/()*
-,#$-.
()*
!"#$!"%&!#'#/*)0
!"#$!"%&!#'#/()*
/+,%&!
Figure 3-14:
Figure 3-14: Load
Load flow
flow characteristics
characteristics for
for aa 4-port
4-port critical
critical center
center valve
valve
If the valve has an electrical input signal (iv) and the spool displacement xv is
If the valve tohas
proportional iv (xan electrical input signal (iv) and
v = Kiiv), the valve flow equation can the spool as
be written displacement xv is
proportional to iv (xv = Kiiv), the valve flow equation can be written as
1& x #
q L = K i C q wiv 1 ⎛$$ p s − x v p L ⎞!! (3-2)
q L = K i C q wiv ρ ⎜⎜% p s − xvv p L ⎟⎟" (3-2)
ρ⎝ xv ⎠
Valve Coefficients
The valve
3.4.1 Valvecoefficients
Coefficientsfor an ideal critical center valve can be obtained by
differentiation of the equation for the pressure-flow curves (equation 3-1) or graphically
The
from valve
a plot ofcoefficients for 3.14).
the curves (Fig. an ideal critical
These partial center valve
derivatives can the
define bemost
obtained by
important
parameters of the
differentiation valve.
of the Assuming
equation constant
for the supply pressure
pressure-flow (ps) they3-1)
curves (equation are:or graphically
from a plot of the curves (Fig. 3.14). These partial derivatives define the most important
parameters of the valve. Assuming constant supply pressure (ps) they are:
⎡ ∂q ⎤
Flow gain Kq = ⎢ L ⎥ (3-3)
⎣ ∂xv ⎦ pL =const
⎡ ∂q ⎤
Flow-pressure coefficient K c = ⎢− L ⎥ (3-4)
⎣ ∂p L ⎦ xv =const
⎡ ∂p ⎤ Kq
Pressure sensitivity Kp = ⎢ L ⎥ = (3-5)
⎣ ∂xv ⎦ qL =const K c
For an electro-hydraulic servo valve (electrical input) the valve coefficients will be
defined as
⎡ ∂q ⎤ ⎡ ∂q ⎤ ⎡ ∂p ⎤ K qi
K qi = ⎢ L ⎥ , K ci = ⎢− L ⎥ , K pi = ⎢ L ⎥ = (3-6)
∂i
⎣ v ⎦ pL =const ⎣ ∂p L ⎦ iv =const ∂i
⎣ v ⎦ qL =const K c
Now, the linearized equation of the valve pressure-flow curve becomes as,
25
______________________________________________________________________
ΔQL = K q ΔX v − K c ΔPL (3-7)
or ΔQL = K qi Δiv − K ci ΔPL (3-8)
3.5 Critical center four-way valve

Assuming a symmetrical valve (symmetrical orifices around zero, which means that
A1(xv) = A2(-xv)), only positive spool displacement (xv) can be studied. The valve flow
equation can now be simplified as
1 1
q L = C q wx v ( ps − pL ) or q L = K i C q wiv ( ps − pL ) (3-9)
ρ ρ
The valve coefficients for an ideal critical center valve can be obtained by
differentiation of (3-9).
1 1
Flow gain K q = Cq w ( ps − pL ) , K qi = K i C q w ( ps − pL ) (3-10)
ρ ρ
C q wx v K i C q wiv
Flow-pressure coeff K c = , K ci = (3-11)
2 ρ ( ps − pL ) 2 ρ ( ps − pL )
2( p s − p L ) 2( p s − p L )
Pressure sensitivity Kp = , K pi = (3-12)
xv iv
As system design parameters, the null operating point is the most important. Evaluation
of these coefficients at the point qL = pL = xv = 0 gives the null coefficients for the
ideal critical center valve as,
ps
Theoretical null coeff. K qi 0 = K i C q w , K ci 0 = 0 , K pi 0 = ∞ (3-13)
ρ
These null coefficients are just theoretical, but the computed null flow gain has been
amply verified by tests of practical critical center valves and may be used with
confidence. However, the theoretical values for Kci0 and Kpi0 are far from that obtained
in tests. It is possible to compute more realistic values for these null coefficients once
the leakage characteristics around zero operation for such valve has been investigated.
3.5.1 Practical null coefficients for a critical center valve

It has been shown that the valve coefficients vary a lot with the operating point. The
most important operating point is the origin of the flow-pressure curves (pL=qL=iv=0)
because system operation usually occurs near this region. The null coefficients are of
special interest, since they are used as design parameters for the servo system where the
26
amply verified by tests of practical critical center valves and may be used with
confidence. However, the theoretical values for Kci0 and Kpi0 are far from that obtained
in tests. It is possible to compute more realistic values for these null coefficients once
the
K-Eleakage
Rydberg characteristics
Hydraulicaround zero operation
Servo Systems – Dynamicfor such valve
Properties has been investigated.
and Control
______________________________________________________________________
Practical null coefficients for a critical center valve
It has valve
servo been shown
is used.that
Thetheservo
valveloopcoefficients vary a lot with
gain is proportional to thethevalve
operating point.(KThe
flow gain qi0).
most important operating point is the origin of the flow-pressure
This null coefficient represents the highest flow gain, which gives the maximum loop curves (pL=q L=i v=0)
because system operation usually occurs near this region. The null coefficients are of
gain to obtain stability. Most of the hydraulic damping comes from the valve flow-
special interest, since they are used as design parameters for the servo system where the
pressure
servo coefficient
valve is used. (K ci0).servo
The The null-coefficient gives the lowest
loop gain is proportional Kc-value
to the valve flowand limits
gain (Kqi0the
).
loop null
This gain coefficient
for stability. The pressure
represents sensitivity
the highest (Kpi0)which
flow gain, determines
gives the maximum
stiffness ofloop the
gain
servotosystem.
obtain Orstability.
in otherMostwords,of the
howhydraulic
well loaddamping
disturbances comescanfrom the valve out
de controlled flow-by
pressure coefficient
the closed loop system.ci0 (K ). The null-coefficient gives the lowest K c -value and limits the
loop gain for stability. The pressure sensitivity (Kpi0) determines the stiffness of the
servo system. Or in other words, how well load disturbances can de controlled out by
3.5.2
the Leakage
closed characteristics of a practical critical center four-way valve
loop system.
It is the leakage characteristics, which actually differentiate a practical valve from an
Leakage characteristics of a practical critical center four-way spool valve
ideal once. An ideal valve has perfect geometry so that leakage flow are zero. The real
It is the
valve hasleakage characteristics,
radial clearance whichminute
and perhaps actually differentiate
under- or overlap.a practical
In order valve from an
to compensate
ideal
for the once.
radialAnclearance
ideal valve has perfect
a critical valvegeometry
normally so hasthat leakage
a small flow of
overlap areabout
zero.5-25
The µm.real
valve has radial clearance and perhaps minute under- or overlap. In order to compensate
The leakage performance of such valves dominates their behaviour and the associated
for the radial clearance a critical valve normally has a small overlap of about 5-25 µm.
flow-pressure
The curves at of
leakage performance small
suchvalve
valvesopenings,
dominateslettheirsaybehaviour
|xv| ≤ 0.02⋅x
and vmax (or |iv| ≤
the associated
0.02⋅ivmax). Therefore,
flow-pressure curves atthesmallnullvalve
coefficients,
openings,Klet and |xKvpi0
ci0 say | ≤ are strongly
0.02⋅x dependent of the
vmax (or |iv| ≤ 0.02⋅ivmax).
valve leakage
Therefore, theperformance. On theKother
null coefficients, hand
ci0 and forare
Kpi0 larger valve openings
strongly dependentequation
of the (3-11)
valve
leakage
and (3-12) performance. On the other hand, for larger valve openings equations (3-11) and
fits quite well.
(3-12) fits quite well.
Consider a four-way, assumed to have matched and symmetrical orifices, as shown in
Consider
Fig 3-15. aWith four-way,
blocked assumed to have
load ports it canmatched
be seenand thatsymmetrical
the two gaps orifices,
for eachas land
shown fromin
Fig 3-15. With blocked load ports it can be seen that the two gaps for each land from
supply port (P) to tank (T) will be equal when the spool is in neutral position, xv = 0.
supply port (P) to tank (T) will be equal when the spool is in neutral position, xv = 0. For
Forout-stroked
an an out-strokedspool,spool,
xv > 0, xv one
> 0,gap oneforgap
eachforland
eachwill
land be will
openedbe opened up and
up and the leakagethe
leakage
flow (qleflow (qle) is restricted
) is restricted by the otherby thegap.other gap.
$%&'()*+%&,*+-&./0 $%&'()*+%&,*+-&./0
# $ # $
!"# !"#
! " ! "
!"#$#% !"#&#%
Figure 3-15:
Figure 3-15: Leakage
Leakage flow
flow in
in aa valve
valvewith
withblocked
blockedload
loadports
ports
3.5.3 Blocked line pressure sensitivity curve

If its true that all the four gaps from P to T are equal at xv = 0, the leakage flow over
each land will be equal and also the load pressures pA and pB will be equal. In order to
introduce a load pressure difference, pL > 0 (pL = pA - pB), the spool must be moved
from neutral position. By stroking the valve and recording load pressure, pL versus
input current (iv) the pressure sensitivity can be measured as demonstrated in Fig 3-16.
27
Blocked line pressure sensitivity curve
Blocked
If lineall
its true that pressure
the four sensitivity
gaps from Pcurveto T are equal at xv = 0, the leakage flow over
each land will be equal and also the
If its true that all the four gaps from P to
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic Servo load
Systems – pressures pA and
T are equal
Dynamic pB= will
at xvand
Properties be leakage
0, the
Control equal. Inflow
order to
over
introduce
each a load pressure difference, p >
land will be equal and also the loadL pressures 0 (pL = p - p ), the spool must be moved
pAA andBpB will be equal. In order to
______________________________________________________________________
from
introduce a load pressure difference, pL > 0 (pL = pA - pload
neutral position. By stroking the valve and recording pressure, pL versus input
B), the spool must be moved
current (i
from neutralv ) the pressure sensitivity can be measured.
position. By stroking the valve and recording load pressure, pL versus input
current (iv) the pressure sensitivity can be measured. !"
!!"#
iv !#
iv
Kpi0
ps
ps pL 1 Kpi0
1
iv
pL
iv
$!#
Figure 3-16:
Figure 3-16: Blocked
Blocked line
line pressure
pressure sensitivity
$!
for# aa critical
sensitivity for critical center
center valve
valve
The load pressure Figuredifference,
3-16: Blocked pLlinequickly increases
pressure sensitivityto
forfull supply
a critical pressure
center valve after a very
The
smallload pressure
increasing difference, p L quickly increases to full supply pressure after a very
The load pressureofdifference,
input current. For a good
pL quickly servotovalve
increases a typical
full supply value after
pressure of pressure
a very
small increasing
sensitivity is K of
= input
0.8 ⋅ p current.
/(0.01 ⋅ i For). a good
As an servo valve
example p = a typical
350 bar value
and i of=pressure
50 mA,
small increasing of input current. For a good servo valve a typical value of pressure
pi0 s vmax s vmax
sensitivity
gives is K =
10 0.8⋅ ps/(0.01⋅ ivmax). As an example ps = 350 bar and ivmax = 50 mA,
Pressure
Kpi0 =5.6
sensitivity 10= 0.8
pi0
is K⋅pi0 10
Pa/A.⋅ps/(0.01 ⋅ivmaxsensitivity (gain) ispusually
). As an example specified as the average
s = 350 bar and ivmax = 50 mA,
gives
slope K
of pi0 =5.6
the of ⋅ 10
load10 Pa/A.
pressure Pressure
drop sensitivity
versus input (gain)
current
gives Kpi0 =5.6⋅10 Pa/A. Pressure sensitivity (gain) is usually specified is usually
in the specified
region as the
between
as the±average
40% of
average
maximum
slope of
slope of the
theload
of pressure
of load
load pressuredrop. drop
pressure drop versus
versus input
input current
current in in the
the region
region between
between ±±40% 40% ofof
maximum load pressure drop.
Leakage flow curves
Leakage
3.5.4
By stroking flow
Leakage curves
the valveflow (ivcurves
) and measuring the supply flow (qs) for a given supply pressure
and with
By stroking blocked
strokingthe load
thevalve
valve ports
(iv)(iand the leakage
measuring flowsupply
the curve can be
flow (q plotted, asforshown
s) for(qas)given asupply inpressure
Figure
v) and measuring the supply flow given supply
3-17
and .
with blocked load ports the leakage flow curve can be plotted, as shown in Figure
pressure and with blocked load ports the leakage flow curve can be plotted, as shown in
3-17 . 3-17.
Figure %&
"104051(2-.3
%&
!# qs *"104051(2-.3
+
*+
'() '()
!# qs !"
!" ,%-./(&0-&1(2-.3
,%-./(&0-&1(2-.3%&
%&
Figure 3-17: Leakage flow characteristic for a two-stage four-way servo valve
The leakageFigure
flow 3-17:
Figure is maximum
Leakage flow(qccharacteristic
) at valve neutral (iv = 0)
for a two-stage
two-stage and decreases
four-way
four-way servo valverapidly with
servo valve
valve stroke because the spool land overlap the return valve orifice,
The leakage flow is maximum (qc) at valve neutral (iv = 0) and decreases rapidly see Fig. 3-15. Itwith
can
The
be leakage
observed flow is max (q ) at valve neutral (i = 0) and decreases rapidly with valve
stroke that the flow consumption of thethe pilot stage of the valvesee
is constant because
c v
valve because the spool land overlap return valve orifice, Fig. 3-15. It can
stroke
of the because supply
constant the spool land, overlap the return valve orifice, see Fig. 3-15. It can be
pressure.
be observed that the flow consumption of the pilot stage of the valve is constant because
observed that the flow consumption of the pilot stage of the valve is constant because of
of the constant supply pressure.
the constant supply pressure.
Looking at the supply flow (qs), it can be shown theoretically that the following
expression is valid:
∂q s ∂q
= − L = Kc (3-14)
∂p s ∂p L
28
______________________________________________________________________
Looking at the supply flow (qs), it can be shown theoretically that the following
K-E Rydberg is
expression valid:Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control
______________________________________________________________________
∂q s ∂q
= − L = Kc (3-14)
∂p s ∂p L
From equation (3-14) it is obvious that by measuring the center leakage flow (qc) versus
From equation (3-14) it is obvious that by measuring the center leakage flow (qc) versus
the supply pressure
the supply pressure (p
(ps)) it
it is
is possible
possible to
to calculate
calculate the
the null
null coefficient
coefficient K
Kci0..
s ci0
!"#
1*,"+#",-.!"/"0*$(
!"#% &'()*(+#",-.!"/"0*$(
% #$
Figure
Figure 3-18: Flow-pressure coefficient
coefficient versus
versus input
input current
current
The null coefficient, K is determined by the leakage characteristics only. However, for
The null coefficient, Kci0ci0 is determined by the leakage characteristics only. However,
higher stroking of the valve Kci will follow equation (3-11).
for higher stroking of the valve Kci will follow equation (3-11).
About the null coefficient it is important to note that the Kc-value varies as the valve
About
wears. the
For null coefficient
a new the centerit leakage
is important
flow to cannote that thelaminar.
be nearly Kc-value
Forvaries as the
a worn valve
valve the
center flow
wears. For awill
newbethemore
center andleakage
more turbulent.
flow can be Thenearly
centerlaminar.
leakageFor
cana be expressed
worn in
valve the
principal as,
center flow will be more and more turbulent. The center leakage can be expressed in
principal as, q c = cons tan t ⋅ µ ⋅ p s (laminar flow) (3-15)
q = cons tan t ⋅ µ ⋅ p (laminar flow) (3-15)
q cc = cons tan t ⋅ p s s (turbulent flow) (3-16)
qc = cons tan t ⋅ p s (turbulent flow) (3-16)
where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
where µ isalso
This fact the gives
dynamic viscosity on
implication of the fluid.
null pressure sensitivity, Kpi0. An approximate
expression for this null coefficient of a real critical center valve can be obtained by
This fact also gives implication on the null pressure sensitivity, Kpi0. An approximate
dividing equation (3-10) by (3-15) and (3-16) respectively,
expression for this null coefficient of a real critical center valve can be obtained by
Laminar equation
dividing center flow: K pi 0and
(3-10) by (3-15) = cons tanrespectively,
(3-16) t ⋅ µ ⋅ ps (3-17)
Turbulentcenter
Laminar centerflow:
flow: K piK0 pi=0 cons
= cons t ⋅ µt ⋅⋅ p s p s
tantan (3-18)
(3-17)
It is perhaps
Turbulent worth
center mentioning thatK equation
flow: (3-17) and (3-17) represents two extremes
pi 0 = cons tan t ⋅ p s (3-18)
and for a practical servo valve, measurement of Kpi0 related to the supply pressure (ps)
will
It is be something
perhaps worthbetween the equation
mentioning (3-17)(3-17)
that equation and (3-18).
and (3-17) represents two extremes
and for a practical servo valve, measurement of Kpi0 related to the supply pressure (ps)
will
Flowbegain
something between the equation (3-17) and (3-18).
The flow gain of a servo valve with electrical input represents the slope of the control
flow (qLReal
3.5.5 ) versus
flowinput
gaincurrent (iv) curve at any specific operation region. For a practical
characteristics
critical center valve the flow gain varies depending on non-linearities and hyteresis, as
The flow gain of a servo valve with electrical input represents the slope of the control
illustrated in Figure 3-19.
flow (qL) versus input current (iv) curve at any specific operation region. For a practical
critical center valve the flow gain varies depending on nonlinearities and hysteresis, as
29
K-E
K-E Rydberg
Rydberg Hydraulic
Hydraulic Servo Systems Servo Systems
– Dynamic Properties and Control 21
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
,-
,- /
!"
;+$6$<83+0*30 4
!" ;-$6$= /
;+$6$<83+0*30 4
ps ./+0121+!+
;-$6$=
ps qL #$% ./+0121+!+
&'(($)!*+ !"
qL #$%
-!31*2!0/
&'(($)!*+ /$5$4$6$7(89$:*!3 !"
-!31*2!0/ /$5$4$6$7(89$:*!3
Figure 3-19:
Figure 3-19: Flow
Flow gain
gain characteristics
characteristics for
for aa four-way
four-waycritical
criticalcenter
centervalve
valve
Figure 3-19: Flow gain characteristics for a four-way critical center valve
The straight dotted line in Figure 3-19 drawn from the zero flow point, throughout the
The straight dotted line in Figure 3-19 drawn from the zero flow point, throughout the
range
The of rated
straight current
dotted isincalled
lineis Normal
FigureNominal Flowfrom
3-19 drawn . The
Gainthe zerooperating conditions
flow point, for the
throughout
range
flow of
curverated
in current
the figure called
above is constant Flow
supply Gain. The
pressure operating
and no load conditions
pressure (pfor= the
the
0).
range of rated current is called Normal Flow Gain. The operating conditions for L the
flow curve
Flow gain indemonstrated
as the figure above in is constant
the figure is supply
the pressure
normal flow and
gain no loadzero-load,
with pressure which
(pL = 0).is
flow curve in the figure above is constant supply pressure and no load pressure (pL = 0).
called
Flow No-Load
gain as Flow Gain
demonstrated . The
in the no-load
figure flow
is the
Flow gain as demonstrated in the figure is the normal flowgain,
normalK will
flow vary
gain with
with supply pressure
zero-load,
qi0 gain with zero-load, which iswhich
as
is described
called by
No-Load equation
Flow (3-13).
Gain. The no-load
called No-Load Flow Gain. The no-load flow gain, Kqi0 will flow gain, Kqi0 will
vary vary
with withpressure
supply supply
as described
pressure by equation
as described (3-13). (3-13).
by equation
3.6 Open center spool valve
3.6 Open
Consider centerspool
the four-way spool
valvevalve
shown in Figure 3-20. When the valve is centred, the
underlap
Consider of the supply and thevalve
return portsin
are identical with the value U. centred, the
Consider the
the four-way
four-way spool
spool valve shown
shown in Figure
Figure 3-20.
3-20. When
When the
the valve
valve is
is centred, the
underlap of the supply and the return ports are identical with the value U.
under-lap of the supply and the return ports are identical with the value U.
4"
4"
? B A @
? B A @
> > > >
;+ ,- ,- ;+
> > > >
;+ ;- ;+
,- ,-
;-
Figure 3-20: Four-way open center spool valve with underlap U

Figurethe
If it is assumed Figure
that 3-20: Four-way
valve
3-20: open center
is matched
Four-way open center
andspool valve with
with underlap
symmetrical
spool valve and if UU
under-lap only the underlap
region
If is isassumed xv ≤the
studied, that U ,valve
the orifice areas are
and(observe the direction
andofififxvonly
in Fig.the
3-20) ,
If it
it is assumed that the valve is matched
is matched and symmetrical
symmetrical and only underlap
the under-lap
region
region is studied, xxvv ≤≤ U
is studied, U ,, the
the orifice areas are (observe the ,,
orifice
A1 =areas
w(U are ) = A3 the direction
+ xv(observe direction of
of xxvv in
in Fig.
Fig. 3-20)
(3-19)
3-20)
AA =w
A211 = w((U
U
U−++ xxxv ))) =
= AA3 (3-19)
(3-19)
vv = A 43 (3-20)
A w((U
A22 == w U −− xxvv )) == A
A44 (3-20)
(3-20)
30
______________________________________________________________________
The subscripts of the area refer to Hydraulic

K-E Rydberg
the number at the ports in Figure 3-20 and arrows
Servo Systems 22
at
the______________________________________________________________________
ports indicate flow directions. The general flow equation for positive and negative
spool stroke ( xv ≤ U ) and load pressure pL can be written as,
The subscripts of the area refer to the number at the ports in Figure 3-20 and arrows at
1 1
the ports indicate
q L = Cflow (
directions. The
q w U + xv )
p s −general
p L − flow (
equation
Cq w U )
− xv for positive (
(3-21)
p s + p L and negative ) ( )
ρ
spool stroke ( xv ≤ U ) and load pressure pL can be written as, ρ
This is the equation for the pressure-flow

q L = C q w(U + x v )
1
( p s − p L )curves of an open
− C q w(U − x v )
1 center four-way spool
( ps + pL ) (3-21)
valve for operation within the under-lap
ρ region. In normalised ρ manner equation (3-21)
becomes
This is the equation for the pressure-flow curves of an open center four-way spool
valve for operation within the underlap region. In normalised manner equation (3-21)
becomes qL ⎛ xv ⎞ p L ⎛ xv ⎞ pL
= ⎜1 + ⎟ 1 − − ⎜1 − ⎟ 1 + (3-22)
qL ps ⎝& U xv ⎠# ppLs &⎝ xU #⎠ pp
C q wU = $1 + ! 1− − $1 − v ! 1 + L s (3-22)
ρp s % U " ps % U " ps
C q wU
ρ
Equation (3-21) is plotted in Figure 3-21. These curves are quite linear compared to
Equation (3-21) is plotted in Figure 3-21. These curves are quite linear compared to
those
thoseforfora acritical
criticalcenter
centervalve
valve in
in the
the null
null displacement region.However,
displacement region. However,outside
outsidethethe
under-lap
underlapregionregion the
the valve
valve acts
acts as
as aa critical center valve,
critical center valve, because
becauseonly
onlytwo
twoorifices
orificesareare
acting
actingat ata time.
a time.
-"
%&'#(')'*+,
%&'#(')',
.*+,
!"#!$
*+,
%&'#(')'.*+,
Figure 3-21:
Figure Pressure-flow
3-21: Pressure-flowcurves
curvesfor
forunder-lap regionofofan
underlap region anopen
opencenter
centerfour-way
four-way spool
spool valve
valve
The valve coefficient can be obtained by differentiating (3-21). Evaluating the
The valve coefficient can be obtained by differentiating (3-21). Evaluating the
derivatives at qL = pL = xv = 0 will gives the null coefficients. The coefficients are,
derivatives at qL = pL = xv = 0 will gives the null coefficients. The coefficients are,
1 ps
Flow gain K q = Cq w
1ρ
[ ps − pL + ]
p s + p L , K q 0 = 2C q w
ρp s
(3-23)
Flow gain K q = Cq w [ ps − pL + ]
p s + p L , K q 0 = 2C q w (3-23)
C q wxρv & U + xv U − xv # C q wU ρ
Flow-pr. coeff. Kc = $ + ! , K c0 = (3-24)
2 ρ p −p p +p ρ ⋅ ps
C wx ⎡$% U s+ x L
q vv Us − x L v
!"⎤ C wU q
Flow-pr. coeff. Kc = ⎢ Kq
+ ⎥ , K c0 = (3-24)
Pressure sensitivity 2 ρ ⎢⎣ pKs p−=p L , Kpps0 += p2Lp⎥⎦s ρ ⋅ ps (3-25)
K U c
Kq 2 ps
Pressure sensitivity Kp = , K p0 = (3-25)
Kc U
31
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
As discussed before the null coefficients are the most important ones. It can be noted
that the flow gain in the under-lap region is twice of that for a critical center valve.
As discussed before the null coefficients are the most important ones. It can be noted
Further,
that Kc0 depends
the flow gain in on
thethe area gradient
underlap regionwisand the under-lap
twice of that forUaand Kp0 iscenter
critical independent
valve.
of w.
Further, Kc0 depends on the area gradient w and the underlap U and Kp0 is independent
of w.
Leakage flow curves similar to those defined for the critical center valve can be made
Leakage flow center
for the open curves valve.
similarThe
to those
total defined for the
center flow criticalthe
through center
valvevalve can besince
is useful madeit
for the open
describe center loss
the power valve. Theoperation.
at null total center
At flow through
this point, pL =the
xv valve
= 0 theis orifice
useful areas
sinceare
it
describe the power loss at null operation. At this point, pL = xv = 0 the orifice areas are
A1 = A2 = wU, which gives the total center flow as
A1 = A2 = wU, which gives the total center flow as
p
q c = 2C q wU p ss (3-26)
q c = 2C q wU ρ (3-26)
ρ
3.7 Three-way spool valve analysis

3.7 Three-way spool valve analysis
A three-way
A three-way spool
spool valves
valves must
must be
be used
used together
together with
with aa differential
differential area
area piston,
piston, to
to
provide direction
provide direction reversal.
reversal. The
The area
area ratio
ratio isis normally
normallytwo,
two,as
asshown
shownininFigure
Figure3-22.
3-22.
%& )*
!"
'(
!"#$
),!- )+
Figure 3-22: Three-way spool valve with differential piston

Figure 3-22: Three-way spool valve with differential piston
The rod and the head side areas of the piston is such that the steady state control
The rod and the head side areas of the piston is such that the steady state control
pressure acting on the head side is about
pressure acting on the head side is about
p
p c 0 ≈ pss (3-27)
pc0 ≈ 2 (3-27)
2
This design relation allows the control pressure pc to rise and fall and to provide equal
This design and
acceleration relation allows the
deceleration control pressure
capability. With no ploads
c to rise
on and fall and
the piston to isprovide
this equal
satisfied by
making the head
acceleration area twice the
and deceleration rod areaWith
capability. (Ah no
= 2A r). on
load This
therule is generally
piston used for
this is satisfied, by
piston sizing even with load forces. However, this type of valve and piston
making the head area twice the rod area (Ah = 2Ar). This rule is generally used for combination
ispiston
usually preferred
sizing in hydro-mechanical
even with servosthis
load forces. However, where
typetheofexternal
valve andload is quite
piston small.
combination
For a critical
is usually center in
preferred valve the pressure-flow
hydro-mechanical curves
servos can the
where be expressed as is quite small.
external load
For a critical center valve the pressure-flow
2 curves can be expressed as
q L = C q wx v ( p s − pc ) for xv ≥ 0
ρ2
q L = C q wx v ( p s − pc ) for xv ≥ 0
ρ 2
q L = C q wx v pc for xv < 0 (3-28)
ρ2
q L = C q wx v pc for xv < 0 (3-28)
The null operating point for a three-way valve ρ is defined by qL = xv = 0 and pL = ps/2.
Evaluating the derivatives at this point gives the null coefficients for a critical center
three-way valve as
32
______________________________________________________________________
The null operating point for a three-way valve is defined by qL = xv = 0 and pL = ps/2.
Evaluating the derivatives at this point gives the null coefficients for a critical center
three-way valve as,
ps
Flow gain K q0 = Cq w (3-29)
ρ
C q wx v
Flow-pressure coefficient K c0 = =0 (3-30)
ρ ⋅ ps
ps
Pressure sensitivity K p0 = =∞ (3-31)
xv
Comparing the null coefficients, it can be noted that the flow gain is the same but the
pressure sensitivity is half of that for a four-way critical center valve. Therefore load
forces will cause twice the static error compared with a four-way valve.
For a practical valve the null coefficients becomes,
ps K q0
Practical null coeff. K q 0 = C q w , K c0 > 0 , K p0 = (3-32)
ρ K c0
Three-way valves can also be of open center type. For operation within the underlap
region, the pressure-flow curves is given by
2 2
q L = C q w(U + xv ) ( p s − pc ) − C q w(U − xv ) pc (3-33)
ρ ρ
Evaluating the derivatives at qL = xv = 0 and pL = ps/2 will gives the null coefficients.
The null coefficients of a three-way open center valve are,
ps
Flow gain K q 0 = 2C q w (3-34)
ρ
2C q wU
Flow-pressure coefficient K c0 = (3-35)
ρ ⋅ ps
ps
Pressure sensitivity K p0 = (3-36)
U
33
______________________________________________________________________
3.8 Dynamic response of servo valves

The dynamic characteristic of servo valves is of great importance for a proper design of
a closed loop servo system. The valve must be fast enough to transmit its command
signal into the load actuator system with a frequency higher than the highest frequency
in the actuator/load system. In other words, the bandwidth of the valve must be 2-5
times higher than the bandwidth of the rest of the servo system.
Servo valve dynamics

The bandwidth of a servo valve can be determined by measuring the frequency at which
the phase lag between the input current and output flow reaches -90 ̊. The
measurements are normally presented in a bode-diagram as illustrated in Figure 3-23.
Valve transfer functi

(of max Slow valve ( sv < 50 H
input
ampl.)
QL K sv
Phase shift [o]

Gsv ( s )
iv s
1
Gain [dB]
sv
Fast valve ( sv > 50 H

QL K sv
Gsv ( s )
iv 2
1 sv
sv
Valve bandwidth =
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 3-23: Frequency response of a servo valve at different input signal amplitudes
For 2- or 3-stage valves the bandwidth depends
on the supply pressure to the pilot stage: sv ps
As can be seen from Figure 3-23 the frequency response varies with input signal
amplitude. Because of saturation in the valve spool actuator system the valve bandwidth
will be reduced at increased signal amplitude. The requirements on valve bandwidth,
depends upon the application. However, for valve selection a typical peak-to-peak
signal amplitude is 80% of the valve rated input signal.
For all valves with electro-hydraulic pilot stages the valve bandwidth is also affected by
the supply pressure ps. Since the loop gain of the pilot stage is proportion to its flow
gain the valve frequency behave as,

ω sv ∝ ps (3-37)
Also the fluid temperature will influence the valve dynamics. Low temperature gives
high fluid viscosity and thereby increased friction, which reduces the bandwidth.
Fixed pump ()
'*
!" '" 34
!* *+,-
qL p L
!"
sv
______________________________________________________________________
For modelling of valve dynamics the following transfer functions can be used:
Valve bandwidth lower than 50 Hz:
QL K sv
Valve bandwidth higher than 50 Hz: Gsv ( s ) = =
iv 2δ sv s2
1+ +
ωsv ωsv2
More details about servo valve definitions and specifications can be found in referense
[2].
35
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic servo systems 25
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4 Position servos with valve-controlled cylinders

4 Position servos with valve-controlled cylinders
4.1 Asymmetric
4.1 Asymmetriccylinder
cylinder
Consider aa valve-controlled
Consider valve-controlled piston
piston with
with position
position feedback
feedback as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4-1.
4-1.
!"#$%&'&%&()&
#6
!& >; >= !& B6
?-
!:
*; <; <= *=
9:; 9:=
*+,"-"+(
#4 -%.(,/0)&%
3&%4+
.567"'"&%
0) @ " 8'
8,.
0 A
' *,$1$)+(,-2
Figure 4-1: Asymmetrical cylinder controlled by four-way critical center spool valve
Figure 4-1: Asymmetrical cylinder controlled by four-way critical center spool valve
If it is assumed that the servo valve is matched and symmetrical and the supply pressure
If it is assumed that the servo valve is matched and symmetrical and the supply pressure
(ps) is constant and the tank pressure is approximately zero.
(ps) is constant and the tank pressure is approximately zero.
The general flow equations for positive spool stroke (xv) can be written as,
The general flow equations for positive spool stroke (xv) can be written as,
2 2
q L1 C q wx v 2 p s p1 and q L 2 C q wx v 2 p 2 (4-1)
q L1 = C q wx v ( p s − p1 ) and q L 2 = C q wx v p 2 (4-1)
ρ ρ
The valve coefficient can be obtained by differentiating (4-1). For an operating point 0
Thecoefficients
the valve coefficient
are, can be obtained by differentiating (4-1). For an operating point 0
the coefficients are,
2 2
Flow gain K q1 C q w p p10 , K q 2 C q w p 20 (4-2)
2 s
Flow gain K q1 = C q w ( p s − p10 ) , K q 2 = C q w 2 p 20 (4-2)
ρ ρ
C q wxv 0 C q wx v 0
Flow-pressure coeff. K c1 C q pwxv 0 p , K c2 C2 q wxpv 0 (4-3)
Flow-pressure coeff. K c1 = 2 s 10 , K c2 = 20 (4-3)
2 ρ ⋅ ( p s − p10 ) 2 ρ ⋅ p 20
The two linearised and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow
becomes
The two linearized and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow
becomes
QL1 K q1 X v K c1 P1 (4-4)
ΔQL1 = K q1 ΔX v − K c1 ΔP1 (4-4)
QL 2 K q 2 X v K c 2 P2 (4-5)
ΔQL 2 = K q 2 ΔX v + K c 2 ΔP2 (4-5)
Considering no leakage flow in the cylinder gives the linearised and laplace-
transformed
Considering continuity
no leakageequations
flow for
in the volumes
cylinderV1gives
and Vthe
2 as linearized and laplace-
transformed continuity equations for the volumes V V1 and V2 as

1
QL1 A1 s X p s P1 (4-6)
e
36
______________________________________________________________________
K-E Rydberg V1
Hydraulic servo systems 26
ΔQL1 = A1 sΔX p + sΔP1 (4-6)
____________________________________________________________________________________
βe
V
− ΔQL 2 = − A2 sΔX p + 2 sΔP2 (4-7)
Vβ2e
QL 2 A2 s X p s P2 (4-7)
The final equation for the actuator arises from the forces of the piston. The linearized
e
Thelaplace-transformed
and final equation for the actuator
force arises
equation willfrom the forces
be written as of the piston. The linearised
and laplace-transformed force equation will 2be written as
A1ΔP1 − A2 ΔP2 = M t s ΔX p + B p sΔX p + ΔFL (4-8)
A1 P1 A2 P2 M t s 2 X p B p s X p FL (4-8)
Combining equation (4-4) to (4-7) gives
Combining equation (4-4) to (4-7) gives
⎛ V ⎞
K q1ΔX v = A1 sΔX p + ⎜⎜ K c1 + V1 s ⎟⎟ΔP1 (4-9)
K q1 X v A1 s X p ⎝ K c1 β1e s ⎠ P1 (4-9)
e
⎛ V ⎞
− K q 2 ΔX v = − A2 sΔX p + ⎜⎜ K c 2 + V 2 s ⎟⎟ΔP2 (4-10)
K q2 X v A2 s X p ⎝ K c 2 β2e s ⎠ P2 (4-10)
e
Introducing the position feedback gain Kf, the servo amplifier gain Ksa and the transfer
Introducing the position feedback gain K , the servo amplifier gain K and the transfer
function of the servo valve Gv(s) the spoolf displacement of the valve (xsav) becomes
function of the servo valve Gv(s) the spool displacement of the valve (xv) becomes
(
ΔX v = U c − K f ΔX p K sa Gv (s )
X v U c K f X p K sa Gv (s )
) (4-11)
(4-11)
By
By using
using the
the equations
equations (4-8)
(4-8) –Q (4-11)
(4-11) aa block
block diagram of the
diagram of the closed
closed loop
loop system
system will
will be
be
as
as shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 4-2.
4-2.
,)
' .......) 3)
!9) ( 7 ,)
!&).(. )..+
..........!8 5
.
%& 6 : <+= 4; ( 42 )* 42
!+> #$ ' .......)
( ;
' /0.+.(.12 +
'
.......)
!9- ' .7 ,-
!&-.( -..+ 3-
(
..........!8
,-
!"
Figure4-2:
Figure 4-2: Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of aa position
position servo
servo with
with aa valve
valvecontrolled
controlledasymmetric
asymmetriccylinder
cylinder
In the above equations the leakage in the cylinder has been neglected. If leakage is taken
In the above equations the leakage in the cylinder has been neglected. If leakage is
into account an extra term will be added to the Kc-values. This can be modelled as
taken
K ce1 into
K c1account an extra
C p1 and K ce 2 term
K c 2willC be added to the Kc-values. This can be modelled as
p2 .
K ce1 = K c1 + C p1 and K ce 2 = K c 2 + C p 2 .
A problem with the asymmetric cylinder is that the behaviour of the system will not be
the same for both stroking directions. When the direction of output velocity is changed
it will also be a pressure jump because of the fact that different piston areas are used to
produce the actuator force acting on the load.
37
______________________________________________________________________
A problem with the asymmetric cylinder is that the behaviour of the system will not be
K-E the same for both stroking directions.
Rydberg When
Hydraulic thesystems
servo direction of output velocity is changed 27
it will also be a pressure jump because of the fact that different piston areas are used to
____________________________________________________________________________________
produce the actuator force acting on the load.
Example: Variation in resonance frequency for an asymmetric cylinder with line

4.1.1 Example
volumes
Variation in resonance frequency for an asymmetric cylinder with line volumes
A mass loaded
A mass asymmetric
loaded asymmetriccylinder
cylinderwith
withline
line volumes
volumes isisshown
shownininFigure
Figure 4-3.
4-3.
xp
A1 A2
Mt
V1 V2
VL1 VL2
Figure 4-3: A double acting hydraulic cylinder with line volumes

Figure 4-3: A double acting hydraulic cylinder with line volumes
Parameters
Parameters
Piston
Piston displacement:0 0 ≤x xp ≤xxpmax, ,xxpmax =
displacement: = 11 m
m
p pmax pmax
Piston area: A1 = 0.02 m2, A2 = 0.75A1
Piston area: A1 = 0.02 m2, A2 = 0.75A1
Line volumes: VL1 = VL2 = k⋅A1⋅ xpmax, 0 < k < 1
Line volumes: VL1 = VL2 = k A1 xpmax, 0 < k < 1
Bulk modulus: βe = 1000 MPa
Bulk modulus: e = 1000 MPa
Kh ⎡ A 12 A 22 ⎤
Resonance frequency: ω h = where K h = βe ⎢ + ⎥
KMh t A2 A2
⎣e V L 1 + A11x p V L 2 + A 2 (x p max2 − x p )⎦
Resonance frequency: h where K h
Mt V L 1 A 1x p V L 2 A 2 x p max x p
Figure 4-4 shows the relative frequency ωh/ωhmin versus piston displacement (xp) for
0.05shows
k = 4-4
Figure the relative
(the highest curve)frequency h/ hmin
and k = 0.10 (the versus
lowest piston
curve).displacement
It is notable (x p) for
that the
k =cylinder willhighest
0.05 (the be muchcurve)
stiffer when
and kthe=piston
0.10 is(the
close to endcurve).
lowest positions.
It is notable that the
cylinder will be much stiffer when the piston is close to end positions.
3
2.5
Wh/Whmin
1.5
38
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mt V LA A Ax p VL7 A 7 x p 6-B xp
$
Figure 4-4$2=4<2$5=)$*)/-503)$Q*)R.);1&$
K-E Rydberg =S =60;
Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic $3)*2.2$C0254;$'02C/-1)6);5$TB
Properties and Control CU$Q4*$
N$______________________________________________________________________
L$ J>JM$ T5=)$ =0+=)25$ 1.*3)U$ -;'$ N$ L$ J>AJ$ T5=)$ /4<)25$ 1.*3)U>$ V5$ 02$ ;45-(/)$ 5=-5$ 5=)$
1&/0;')*$<0//$()$6.1=$250QQ)*$<=);$5=)$C0254;$02$1/42)$54$);'$C420504;2>$
3
2.5
h/!hmin
Wh/Whmin
k = 0.05
2
!
1.5
k = 0.10
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Piston displacement,
Piston servo systemsXpX
displacement, [m] $
p [m]
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic 28
E0+.*)$F"FH$%)/-503)$*)24;-;1)$Q*)R.);1&$3)*2.2$C0254;$'02C/-1)6);5$Q4*$5<4$'0QQ)*);5$/0;)$34/.6)2$
____________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4-4: Relative resonance frequency versus piston displacement for two different line volumes
$
4.2 Valve controlled symmetric cylinder

cylinder
A
A position
position servo
servo with
with aa symmetric cylinder is
symmetric cylinder is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4-5.
4-5.
$ !"#$%&'&%&()&
#6
!& <6 <6 !& A6
=-
!>
*9 ;9 ;: *:
B>9 B>:
#4 *+,"-"+(
-%.(,/0)&%
3&%4+
0) ? .567"'"&%
" 8'
8,.
0 @ ' *,$1$)+(,-2
Figure 4-5:
Figure 4-5: Position
Position servo
servo with
with aa valve
valve controlled
controlled symmetric
symmetric cylinder
cylinder
The general
The general flow
flow equations
equations for
for the
the four-way
four-way critical
critical center
center valve
valve can
can be
be written
written as,
as,
11
qq LL = C
C qq wx
wxvv ( ppss − ppLL ) where pLL = p11 – p22
where (4-12)
(4-12)
ρ
From equation (4-12) the valve coefficient can be obtained as
From equation (4-12) the valve coefficient can be obtained as
1
Flow gain K q Cq w p p L0 (4-13)
1 s
Flow gain K q = Cq w ( ps − p L0 ) (4-13)
ρ
C q wxv 0
Flow-pressure coeff. Kc C qpwx v 0 p (4-14)
Flow-pressure coeff. Kc = 2 s L0 (4-14)
2 ρ ⋅ ( ps − p L0 )
The linearised and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow becomes
QL Kq X v K c PL (4-15)
39 cylinder (just across the piston) gives the
Considering no external leakage flow in the
linearised and laplace-transformed continuity equations for the volumes V1 and V2 as
V
______________________________________________________________________
The linearized and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow becomes
ΔQL = K q ΔX v − K c ΔPL (4-15)
Considering no external leakage flow in the cylinder (just across the piston) gives the
linearized and laplace-transformed continuity equations for the volumes V1 and V2 as
V1
ΔQL1 − C p (ΔP1 − ΔP2 ) = Ap sΔX p + sΔP1 (4-16)
βe
V2
− ΔQL 2 + C p (ΔP1 − ΔP2 ) = − Ap sΔX p + sΔP2 (4-17)
βe
Because of the symmetric cylinder it is possible to calculate the load flow as
ΔQ L1 + ΔQ L 2
ΔQ L = (4-18)
2
Assume that the piston is in centred position (xp=0) and the volumes are, V1 = V2 =
Vt/2, where Vt is the total pressurised volume in the cylinder. Combining equation (4-
16) to (4-18) using the definition of the load pressure difference ΔPL = ΔP1 − ΔP2 gives
Vt
ΔQL = Ap sΔX p + C p ΔPL + sΔPL (4-19)
4β e
Combining equation (4-15) and (4-19) and with electrical input to the servo valve gives
⎛ V ⎞
K qi ΔX v = Ap sΔX p + ⎜⎜ K ce + t s ⎟⎟ΔPL (4-20)
⎝ 4β e ⎠
where the total flow-pressure coefficient is K ce = K c + C p .
The final equation for the actuator arises from the forces of the piston. The linearized
and laplace-transformed force equation will be written as
Ap (ΔP1 − ΔP2 ) = Ap ΔPL = M t s 2 ΔX p + B p sΔX p + ΔFL (4-21)
ΔX v = (U c − K f ΔX p )K sa Gv (s ) (4-22)
By using the equations (4-20) – (4-22) a block diagram of the closed loop system will
be as shown in Figure 4-6.
40
K-E Rydberg X v Systems

Hydraulic Servo U c – KDynamic
f Xp K sa G v (s )and Control
Properties (4-22)
______________________________________________________________________
By using the equations (4-20) S (4-22) a block diagram of the closed loop system will
be as shown in Figure 4-6.
*+
. & 9
,- ( $ &! &&&&&&&0 23
&&&&&&&0 0 83
83 1
/ !"# % '( / / 45&"&/&63
. . &;5&&& 7+ "
!-:&/ "
&&&&&&&&&&<!:
23
!)
Figure 4-6:
Figure 4-6: Block
Block diagram
diagram of
of aa position
position servo
servo with
with aa valve
valve controlled
controlled symmetric
symmetriccylinder
cylinder
Consider aa first
Consider first order
order transfer
transfer function
function for
for thethe servo
servo valve,
valve, written
written as
as
1
Gv (( ss)) = 1
G (4-23)
(4-23)
v s
11 + s
ωvv
The block-diagram in Figure 4-4 can now be reduced to the following form, shown in
The block-diagram in Figure 4-4 can now be reduced to the following form, shown in
Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7: Block diagram of a position servo with a valve controlled symmetric cylinder
If the term B p K ce / Ap2 is smaller than unit the hydraulic resonance frequency ωh and the
hydraulic damping δh shown in the block-diagram (Figure 4-5) will be expressed as
β e A p2 ⎛ 1 1⎞ 4 β e A p2
ωh = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ V1 = V2 = Vt/2 gives ω h =
Mt ⎝ V1 V2 ⎠ M tVt
K ce βeM t Bp Vt
and δ h = +
Ap Vt 4 Ap βeM t
If the term B p K ce / Ap2 is included the resonance frequency and damping becomes
B p K ce δh
ω h' = ω h 1 + and δ h' =
A p2 B p K ce
1+
Ap2
41
______________________________________________________________________
4.2.1 Servo system stability and bandwidth

In order to study the stability of the servo system the open loop gain Au(s) must be
analysed. Figure 4-5 yields
K sa K qi K f / Ap Kv
Au ( s) = = (4-24)
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s 2 2δ h ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s 2 2δ h ⎞
⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 + s + 1⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 + s + 1⎟⎟
⎝ ωv ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠ ⎝ ωv ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠
Kv expresses the steady state loop gain and the value of this parameter must be set to a
certain level to make sure that the control system will be stable.
The critical parameter in this servo system is the amplitude margin Am, which is
expressed as
Kv
Am = −2010 log [dB] (4-25)
− 2δ hω h
In other words, the control system will be stable if the amplitude margin is positive,
which gives the stability criteria as
K v max < 2δ h minω h min (4-26 a)
or for a specified amplitude margin,

Am
−
K v max = 10 20
2δ h min ω h min (4-26 b)
TheBode-diagram of the
open loop gain of the position servo open
with Kv =loop gain
δhωh (Am ofisthe
= 6 dB) shown in
Figure 4-8. position servo
Kv
"c
#m
Figure 4-8: Bode-diagram of the open loop gain of the position servo depicted in Figure 4-5
Karl-Erik Rydberg, Linköping University, Sweden 10
42
______________________________________________________________________
The bode-diagram in Figure 4-8 shows the two stability margins, amplitude margin
(Am) and phase margin (φ m). Since, φ m is close to 90o, this is not a critical margin in the
actual system. The critical stability margin is Am. From the figure it can also be
Closed loop transfer function
observed that the marked crossover frequency ω c (when the amplitude curve cross the
zero-line, 0 dB) is equal to Kv, the amplitude at the frequency ω =1 rad/s
The closed loop transfer can be derived as illustrated in Figure 4-9a.

Xc Xp
+
Au(s) Xp A (s) 1
- Gc (s) = = u =
Xc 1+ Au (s) 1 / Au (s) +1
1
Figure 4-9a: Block diagram and corresponding closed loop transfer function
Au(s) as expressed in eq. (4-24), but without valve dynamics, gives the closed loop
transfer function as,
1 1
Gc (s) = ≈ (4-27)
s " s 2
2δ % " s % " s 2 2δ %
⋅ $ 2 + h s +1' +1 $ +1' ⋅ $ 2 + h s +1'
Kv # ωh ωh & # Kv & # ωh ωh &
The first order low-pass filter, 1/(s/Kv + 1) gives the bandwidth of the system. The
Bode-diagramKarl-Erik
bandwidth is ω b = Kv.
ofRydberg,
the closed
Linköping loop gain of 11
University, Sweden
the position servo

The bode-diagram of the closed loop system is shown in Figure 4-9b.
"b
Figure 4-9b: Bode-diagram of the closed loop gain of the position servo depicted in Figure 4-5
Karl-Erik Rydberg, Linköping University, Sweden 12
The closed system bandwidth ω b is shown in Figure 4-9b. Because of the -1 slope of
the open loop gain curve (Fig 4-8) up to just above the crossover frequency, there will
be a well-defined relation between these frequencies and Kv, which is,
ωb = ωc = Kv
43
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4.3 Three-way valve controlled cylinder with force feedback

4.3 Three-way
A valve controlled cylinder with force feedback
4.3three-way spool valves
Three-way valvemust be used together
controlled with with
cylinder a differential area piston, to
force feedback
A three-way
provide spool
direction valvesThe
reversal. mustareaberatio
usedis together
normallywith two, aasdifferential
shown in Figurearea piston,
4-10. Into
A three-way
provide spool
direction valves
reversal. must
The area be used together
ratio is normally with a differential
two,aasforceshown area
in Figure piston,
4-10.on to
In
the figure
provide the position
direction feedback
reversal. is
The area implemented by
ratio is normally using
two, as shownfeedback
in Figure(spring)
4-10. onIn
the
the figure
spool ofthe position
the control feedback is
valve. isThe implemented
control valve by using a
is equipped force feedback (spring)
with a proportional
the
the figure
spool the
of position
the control feedback
valve. The implemented by using
control valve a force feedback
is equipped (spring) on
with a proportional
magnet,
the spoolwhich
magnet, gives
of the
which aa force
control
gives (F
(Fmm))The
valve.
force proportional toto the
control valve
proportional theisinput current
equipped
input (i).
(i). Then
currentwith aThen the
the force
proportional
force
magnet,
balance
balanceon which
onthe gives
thevalve a
valvespool force
spoolmeans (F
means ) proportional
m that
thatthethepiston to the
pistonposition input
position(x current
(xpp))will
willbe (i). Then
beproportional the
proportionaltoto force
the
the
balance
input on
inputcurrent.the
current. valve spool means that the piston position (x p ) will be proportional to the
input current.
!.
!.
!7 '+ '()*)'+,-
!7 '+ '()*)'+,- #
%& #$$
%&
.6 /+
.6 /+
!"
01 !"
01
02
5 #4 02
5 #4
.3
.3
Figure
Figure4-10:
4-10:Linear
Linearactuator
actuatorwith
withaathree-way
three-way spool
spool valve,
valve, differential
differential piston
piston and
and force
force feedback
feedback
Figure 4-10: Linear actuator with a three-way spool valve, differential piston and force feedback
Neglecting flowforces
Neglecting forces theforces
forces actingon on the valve
valve spool isis given
given by the the equation:
equation:
Neglecting flow
flow forces the the forces acting
acting on thethe valve spool
spool is given by by the equation:
Fm K fΔXX p
ΔFFFmm − KK f ΔXX p − ΔXX v − KK 1ΔXX v = 00 ⇒ ΔXX v = ΔF
( ) Fmm − K (4-28)
K ff X pp (4-28)
K ff X pp X vv K11 X vv 0 X vv KK K (4-28)
K ff + K
m f 1
K11
Assuming that the
Assuming the magnet force isisaalinear function of input current, as Fm K m i Δ the
Assuming that magnet force
that the magnet forceis linearfunction
a linear function of of input
input current,
current, as asFmΔFmK=m Kimthe i
block diagram of the system will become as shown in Figure 4-11.
the block
block diagram
diagram of the
of the system
system willwill become
become as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 4-11.
4-11.
#$
#$
067 %# %# (
067-%##2 " !%#$ 3(&&&
'+ $2 " " !"3&'
'+- #$ !" $ !" '
8 ):
2 ):!.
5 # 4 )))))2 ! " 0B 8 2 2 !.
5 04 #49 )))))2 ! 0B & - - *
-- " - * & " 2
# ! . 3 !.
2
04 9 8 01)9)02 " )'+ 9 &
) )
01)9)02 )'+ 9 " # & "2
# 3
8 )#-# )#
;<35&5<=)177>?@6A
01 ;<35&5<=)177>?@6A
01
Figure 4-11: Block diagram of an actuator with a three-way spool valve, differential piston
Figure 4-11: Block diagram of an actuator with a three-way spool valve, differential piston
and force
Figure 4-11: Block diagram of an actuator withfeedback
a three-way spool valve, differential piston
and force feedback
and force feedback
In the system above there is only one cylinder volume acting as a spring, namely Vh. If
In the system above there is only one cylinder volume acting as a spring, namely Vh. If
also
In thethe viscous
system friction
above there of the piston
is only is low volume
one cylinder A2h2 1as) the
( B p K ce /acting hydraulic
a spring, resonance
namely Vh. If
also the viscous friction of the piston is low ( B p K ce / A2h 1 ) the hydraulic resonance
also the viscous
frequency friction of the piston is low ( B p K cein/ A
h and the hydraulic damping h shown 1) the hydraulic
h <block-diagram
the resonance
(Figure 4-11)
frequency and
will be expressed as
h the hydraulic damping h shown in the block-diagram (Figure 4-11)
44
______________________________________________________________________
frequency ωh and the hydraulic damping δh shown in the block-diagram (Figure 4-11)
β e Ah2
Hydraulic resonance frequency: ω h =
M tVh
K ce βeM t Bp Vh
Hydraulic damping: δ h = +
2 Ah Vh 2 Ah βeM t
If the term B p K ce / Ah2 is included the resonance frequency and damping becomes
B p K ce δh
ω h' = ω h 1 + 2
and δ h' =
A h B p K ce
1+
Ah2
⎛ 1 ⎞
analysed. Including valve dynamics ⎜⎜ Gv = ⎟ Figure 4-11 yields
⎝ 1 + s / ω v ⎟⎠
K f Kq
(K f + K 1 )A p Kv
(4-29)
Au ( s ) = =
⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s 2 2δ h ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ s 2 2δ h ⎞
⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 + s + 1⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 + s + 1⎟⎟
⎝ ωv ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠ ⎝ ωv ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠
certain level, according to equation (4-27), to make sure that the control system will be
stable.
This type of actuators, are commonly used for spool control in big valves and for
displacement control of variable pumps and motors. Because of the fact that the
cylinder pressures are only controlled in one chamber, the stiffness of the actuator will
be reduced compared to an actuator with two-chamber control. That means less
accuracy in system with heavy external forces.
4.4 Influence from flow forces on valve spools

In an actuator system with a direct controlled servo valve the flow forces acting on the
valve spool will influence the spool position. The flow forces act as a positive load
pressure feedback, which means reduced hydraulic damping in the system. To reduce
this influence the valve spool positioning system must be stiff enough so that the
deflexion of the spool, caused by the flow forces, is small.
By introducing a spring between the electric armature (magnet) and the valve spool, the
influence from flow forces can be studied. This is illustrated in Figure 4-12.
45
K-E
K-E Rydberg
servo systems 34
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
!"#$%&'&%&()&
#4
!& :4 :4 !&
!"#$%&'&%&()& ;-
#4!<
*!7& 9
:74 4 8 !*&8
:9
;-
!<
#. #2 *7 97 98 *8
*+,"-"+(
-%.(,/0)&%
1&%2+
.345"'"&% #. 6#2.
0) = " 6' *+,"-"+(
-%.(,/0)&%
> 6,.
1&%2+
6 *,$?$)+(,-@
00)' = .345"'"&% "
.
6'
> 6 ,.
0Figure
' Figure * $?$)+(,-@
4-12: Position servo with a weak ,spool control of the
the servo
servo valve
valve
Referring to Figure Figure 4-12: 4-12Position

the armature
servo withposition (xa)control
a weak spool can ofbetheexpressed
servo valveas x a = i ⋅ K m ,
where Kmm is the force coefficient of the magnet. In the four-port valve the flow forces
Referring
remains to Figure
from two orifices, 4-12 the
orifices, armature
which position
gives the
the (xa) can
total steady
steady statebe expressed as x i Km ,
remains from two which gives total state flow
flow force
force as,as, a
where Km is the force coefficient of the magnet. In the four-port valve the flow forces
F ft = 22from
remains
F Cq w
C xxvv (( pporifices,
w ⋅two p1 ) cos(
which) gives
2C qthe
w xtotal 2 cos( state
v p steady ) 2flow xv ( pas,
C q wforce p L ) cos( )
s − p1 ) cos(ϕ ) + 2C q w ⋅ x v ⋅ p 2 ⋅ cos(ϕ ) = 2C q w ⋅ x v ( p s − p L ) cos(ϕ )
s s
ft q
The force equation

2Cequation for the valve )spool
2Ccan now
x v pbe expressed as,w x ( p p ) cos( )
TheF ftforce q w x v ( pfor
s p1 )valve
the cos( spool q w now
can 2 cos(
be ) 2C
expressed as,q v s L
x K 2C q w xv ( p s p L ) cos( ) i K m xv K a K ft xv ( p s p L ) 0
(ii ⋅ force
The
K
xvv )K aa − 2for
K mm − equation C qthe v ( p s − p L ) cos(ϕ ) = (i ⋅ K m − x v )K a − K ft ⋅ x v ( p s − p L ) = 0
w ⋅ xvalve spool can now be expressed as,
A linearised
i K m xvexpression
K a 2C q wof xthe v(p
force pequation, according
i K m xtov the
L ) cos( ) according K variable
K ft xvx(vpand ppLL )gives,
0
A linearized expression of the force
s equation, to thea variable xv and
s pL gives,
A linearised expression i K K (p
X K a equation, p ) X P 0
K ft xvariable
(Δi ⋅ K m of− Δthe
m X v force
)K − K ft ( p s −according
v a ft s p L 0 )ΔX v +toKthe
L0 v xv 0 ΔPL = 0xv and pL gives,
ft v0 L
In this equation thei valve
K m dynamics
X v K a isKignored.
ft ( p s pThis can be
L0 ) X v K ftdone
xv 0 Pif the0bandwidth of the
In this is
valve equation
higherthe
thanvalve
thedynamics
dominantis resonance
ignored. This can be done
frequency of theifLthe bandwidth
system. The of the
spool
In
valvethis equation
is higher
displacement the
willthanvalve dynamics
the as,
become is ignored. This can be done
dominant resonance frequency of the system. The spool if the bandwidth of the
valve is higher than
displacement will become ias,the dominant resonance frequency of the system. The spool
displacement will become as, K m K a K ft xv 0 PL i K m K a K fp PL
Xv (4-30)
ΔiK⋅ aK m K
Kaft +( pKs ft xpv 0LΔ0 )PL Δi ⋅ KK mK + K ΔPL
a a K fx fp
ΔX v = i K m K a K ft xv 0 PL = i K m K a K fp PL (4-30)
Xv K a + K ft ( p s − p L 0 ) K a + K fx (4-30)
Implementation of equation K a (4-30)
K ft ( pins a pblockL0 ) diagramKof a theK fx servo system gives the
result presented in
Implementation of Figure
equation 4-13.(4-30) in a block diagram of the servo system gives the
Implementation of equation (4-30) in a block diagram of the servo system gives the
result 6'4
result presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 4-13.
4-13. !<
> > @
$
0) " 6 #. 6 = $$$ 7 #2 6 $$7 #4 7A #4
6,. 3 . 6C = '4 $$$$$$$7 :4 = !<
= = 6.=6'# 9 ;-$, $@ ,
>> > 6)&$=$ -$$$, *< >
0)
6,.
" 6 #. 6 = $$$ 7 #2
6C = $7 B!&
$$$$$$$$$$
$$$$$$ :4 = $$7 # 4 A #4
7
3 .
= = 6.=6'# 9 ;-$, ,
> > 6)&$=$ -$$$, *< :4
$$$$$$$$$$B!&
:64'
Figure 4-13: Block diagram of a position servo with flow forces

6' acting on the
spool control of the servo valve
Figure
Figure 4-13: Block diagram of a position servo
servo with
with flow
flowforces
forcesacting
actingon
onthe
the
Figure 4-13 shows that the flow spool control
force act of
as the servo valve
valve
a positive load pressure (pL) feedback.
It is
well known that the flow/pressure-coefficient of the valve and cylinder (Kce) act as a
Figure 4-13 shows that the flow force act as a positive load pressure (pL) feedback. It is
46
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 4-13 shows that the flow force acts as a positive load pressure (pL) feedback. It is
negative load pressure feedback. Therefore, it’s interesting to combine these effects and
negative load pressure feedback. Therefore, itBs interesting to combine these effects and
____________________________________________________________________________________
see
see what
what happens
happens with
with the
the resulting
resulting K
Kce -value. This can be done by reduction of the
ce-value. This can be done by reduction of the
block diagram as shown in Figure 4-14.
negative load pressure feedback. Therefore, itBs interesting to combine these effects and
see what happens with the resulting))) K%
ce-value.
5 This can be done by reduction of the
%&'
%7$%&0
block diagram as shown in Figure 4-14.
!"
))) %5 # ) /
))) * 06 $ %&' ))* 0'
%5 $ 7$%)&0
%)))))) * (' $
$ %7$%&0 3 !" +,)-
# %12)$) ,)))- ."
# ) /
))) * 06
%5 $
$
))))))))))4!2
)))))))* (' $ ))* 0'
$ %7$%&0 3 ( +,)-
# %12)$) ,)))- ." '
))))))))))4!2
Figure 4-14: Block diagram showing the load pressure feedback from flow forces
('
Figure 4-14: Block diagram showing the load pressure feedback from flow forces
If the positive load
Figure pressure
4-14: feedback
Block diagram istheco-operated
showingis into the
load pressure feedback main
from transfer function
flow forces
If the positive load pressure feedback co-operated
from flow to load pressure, this will give the resulting Kce-value as,into the main transfer function
from flowpositive
If the to load load
pressure, this feedback
pressure will give istheco-operated
resulting Kinto
ce-value as, transfer function
the main
K q K fp Kce-value as,
from flow to load pressure, this will give the resulting
*
K ce
* K ce K q K fp (4-31)
K ce = K ce − K K fx (4-31)
*
KKaa q+K K
fp fx
K ce K ce (4-31)
Equation (4-31)
(4-31) shows
shows thatthat K K *ce* < K K ce and K a the
and since
since K hydraulic damping is proportional
Equation ce ce the fxhydraulic damping is proportional
to Equation
the Kce-value it is
(4-31)itshows true that
thatthat * flow forces acting on a valve spool will reduce the
and since the hydraulic damping
to the Kce-value is true K ce flow K ce forces acting on a valve spool iswill
proportional
reduce the
hydraulic damping. For a good valve itBs therefore important to design the armature so
to the K
hydraulic ce-value itFor
damping. is atrue that flowit’s
good forces acting important
on a valvetospool will
thereduce the so
thathydraulic
stiffness (in this For
damping.
model a
Ka)valve
good
is much
valve itBs
therefore
higher than
therefore
the spring
important to
design
coefficient
design the
armature
of the so
armature
flow
that stiffness
forces, (in this
Kfx. With(insuch model K ) is much higher than the spring coefficient of the flow
this amodel
designKthe influence from flow forces will be small.
a
that stiffness a) is much higher than the spring coefficient of the flow
forces, K . With such a design the influence
forces, Kfx. With such a design the influence from
fx from flow
flowforces
forceswill
willbebesmall.
small.
4.5 Position servo with mechanical springs at connectors

Figure 4-14 shows a linear hydraulic position servo. For the cylinder the weakness of
Figure 4-14 shows a linear hydraulic position servo. For the cylinder the weakness of
theFigure
mechanical part isa related
4-14 shows to spring position
linear hydraulic systemsservo.
in the For
rearthe
mounting
cylinderend
the (K 1) and in
weakness ofthe
thethe
mechanical part is related to spring systems in the rear mounting end (K1) and in thethe
spring systems in the mounting end (K 1 ) and in
piston mechanical
rod (KL) aspart is related
shown in thetofigure.
piston rodrod
piston (K(K
L) Las
) asshown
shownininthe
thefigure.
figure.
%&
0* %& 0' 08 0"
0* 0' 08 0"
%* 3* (' 3 %"
%* 3* (' 388 %"
+
+, ,
'* '
'* '88
92:6;
92:6;
?&?&# 7<'=>&>2:
7<'=>&>2: 0066
# >>
%%-7-7
?1?1$ $
Figure
Figure4-14:
4-14:Valve
Valvecontrolled piston with
controlled piston withmechanical
mechanicalsprings
springs
Figure 4-14: Valve controlled piston with mechanical springs
According
According to toFigure
Figure4-14
4-14the
theblock
block diagram
diagram for
for the
the system,
system,without
withoutposition
positionfeedback,
feedback,
willwill
be be developedasasininFigure
developed Figure4-15.
4-15.
47
______________________________________________________________________
K-E Rydberg
K-E Rydbergto Figure 4-14 the blockHydraulic Hydraulic servo systems 36
According diagramservo
for systems
the system, without position feedback,36
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
will be developed as in Figure 4-15.
Kce
- KKce .
ce
Xv - 1
_____ PL 1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎤ X . .p 1_ X p
XXv K q + -
2
Ap M s ⎜ + ⎟ + 1 X
V1t1
_____ PPL ⎢
M11t s ⎣M s 2 2⎝ K 11 K 11 ⎠ ⎥
⎦ Xp
p 1
_s1 Xp
_ Xp
t
v Kq _____
___ L AAp 1
Kq + VVt s
1 L
+ -
- ___
4β p MMt s s M t s KK1 KKL
t 1 ss
___ e ts
44 e s
1
- QL
t L
e
QQL A p
L Ap
Figure 4-15: Block diagram for a A p controlled cylinder with elastic mountings
valve
Figure 4-15: Block diagram for a valve controlled cylinder with elastic mountings
Figure 4-15: Block diagram for a valve controlled cylinder with elastic mountings
Reduction of the block diagram in Figure 4-15 and completing with the transfer
Reduction
function of Xthetoblock
from diagram in Figure 4-15 and completing with diagram.
the transfer
Reduction of pthe X L and diagram
block the position
in feedback loop
Figure 4-15 gives
and the following
completing with the transfer
function from Xp to XL and the position feedback loop gives the following diagram.
function from Xp to XL and the position feedback loop gives the following diagram.
! ! &'
% ( & * * !, ! , ! !
-. , 0 $% ! " % ( & !! ,! ) , ! $&(' " ! $( ! $)
-. , !&* 0 +, $% ! " ! ! $ ! $ ! ! $)
#"
( (
!&* +, #$ &* *
! +
"' + ) % ( & * * !, ! , !
/ #$ & , * "& , ! # % ( & !! ,! ) ,!
/ ! +'* + * , *! +' '+ & , ! !! ! )
!' !'
!-
!-
Figure 4-16:
Figure 4-16: Complete block
block diagram for a valve controlled cylinder servo with elastic mountings
Figure 4-16:Complete
Complete blockdiagram
diagramfor
fora avalve
valvecontrolled
controlledcylinder
cylinderservo
servowith
withelastic
elasticmountings
mountings
'
' Ke 1 Vt 1 1 K M
where h' Ke ; 1 Vt2 1 1 and 'h ' Kce ce2 Mt t h 'h
where
where Mt
h ; Ke 4 e A p 2 K 1 K L and h A p 2 2
Mt Ke 4 e A p K 1 K L Ap 2
If can be noted that the effective spring gradient Ke is derived from the series
ItIf can
can bebe noted
noted that
that the
the effective
effective spring
spring gradient
gradient K 2 is derived
4 Ke eAe is
derived from
from the
the series
series
p2
connection between the hydraulic spring gradient 4 β A 4 A2 and the two mechanical
connection between
connection between thethe hydraulic
hydraulic spring gradient Vete p p and
spring gradient andthe
thetwo twomechanical
mechanical
VVt
springs K1, KL. t
springsKK,1,KK.L.
springs 1 L
Simulation of position servo with mechanical springs

Simulation
4.5.1 Simulation of position servo with mechanical
of position springs
The following parameter values is servo
used inwith mechanical
the simulation model:springs
Thefollowing
The followingparameter
parameter values is used in the simulationmodel: 9model:
Ap = 2,5·10-3-3m2 2 values is used in the simulation
e = 1,0·10 9Pa
A Ap =2,5·10
2,5·10-3 mm2 = 1,0·109 Pa
Pa
Bpp ==0 βef e=
K = 1,0·10
25 V/m
B Bp = 0 KK f = 25V/mV/m
Kpce==01,0·10-11-11m5/Ns
5 K f ==25
qi 0,02 m3/As3
K Kce =1,0·10
1,0·10-11 m5 /Ns KKqit qi===1500
0,02mm3/As/As
Kcesa =
= 0,05 A/Vm /Ns M 0,02 kg
K Ksa =0,05
0,05A/V
-3A/V MMt== t =1500
1500 kg
Vsat ==1,0·10 3
-3m 3 v 0,005 skg
V Vt =1,0·10
1,0·10-3 mm3 7 τv v==0,0050,005s s
Kt1= = KL = 5,0·10 N/m
7
KK1 1==KKL L==5,0·10
5,0·107 N/m
N/m
The transfer function from valve flow to piston position (Xp) has the form:
Thetransfer
The transferfunction
function fromvalve
from valveflow
flowtotopiston
pistonposition
position(X
(Xp)p)has
hasthe
theform:
form:
s22
s2 2 Ls 1
L
L2 2 L s 1 and from Xp to XL we have: 1

G hxp 2L G hxL 2 1
G hxp s 2 2 h s 1 and from Xp to XL we have: G hxL s 2 2 L s 1
L
s2 48 s2
h2 2 hh s 1 L 2 2 LL s 1
h h L L
ce qi
Ksa = 0,05 A/V Mt = 1500 kg
-3 3
Vt = 1,0·10 m v = 0,005 s
7
K1 = KL = 5,0·10
K-E Rydberg N/m
______________________________________________________________________
The transfer function from valve flow to piston position (Xp) has the form:
s2
2
2 L
s 1
L L and from Xp to XL we have: G 1
G hxp 2 hxL 2
s s
K-E Rydberg 2
2 h
s 1 Hydraulic servo systems 2
2 L
s 1 37
h h L L
____________________________________________________________________________________
where ωh = 91 rad/s, δh = 0.11 and ωL = 123 rad/s, δL = 0.01 (δL belongs to the viscous
friction
where onh the
= 91load side).
rad/s, h = 0.11 and L = 123 rad/s, L = 0.01 ( L belongs to the viscous
The valve dynamics is modelled as G = 1
friction on the load side).
v
The valve dynamics is modelled as Gv τ v s1 + 1
vs 1 K v K sa K qi
Form the parameter list it can be seen that the steady state loop is K v =K K K = 10 ,
v saA qi
Form the parameter list it can be seen that the steady state loop is K v p 10 ,
which gives an amplitude margin of about 6 dB. Ap
which gives an amplitude margin of about 6 dB.
Simulation of the system with piston position feedback, Xp
Simulation of the system with piston position feedback, Xp
A DYMOLA-model of the servo system with position feedback (Xp or XL) is shown in
A DYMOLA-model of the servo system with position feedback (Xp or XL) is shown in
Figure
Figure4-17.
4-17.By
Bysetting
settingthe
thefeedback
feedback gain to 11 or
gain to or 00 the
thefeedback
feedbackloop
loopcan
canbebeactivated
activated
oror
eliminated.
eliminated.
Figure
Figure 4-17:DYMOLA-model
4-17: DYMOLA-modelof
of the
the position
position servo
servo with
withposition
positionfeedback
feedbackofof
piston or or
piston load (Xp(X
load orp X
orL)XL)
results with
Simulation results
Simulation withpiston
pistonposition
positionfeedback (X(X
feedback p) are shown in Figure 4-18 and 4-19
p, versus time in [s]) are shown in
respectively. It can be noted that the amplitude of oscillation is higher for XL then for
Figure 4-18 and 4-19 respectively. It can be noted that the amplitude of oscillation is
Xp, because of the dynamics between these positions.
higher for XL then for Xp, because of the dynamics between these positions.
Integ1.y[1]
0.006Integ1.y[1]
0.006
0.004
0.004
XXp
p
0.002
0.002
0
0
0 0.25 0.5
0 0.25 0.5
Figure 4-18: Step response (0 - 5 mm) of piston position
Time(X[s]
p) with piston position feedback, Xp
Figure 4-18: Step response (0 - 5 mm) of piston position (Xp) with piston position feedback, Xp
49
______________________________________________________________________
GhxL.y
0.006
0.004
XL
0.002
0 0.25 0.5
Time [s]
Figure 4-19: Step response (0 - 5 mm) of load position (XL) with piston position feedback, Xp
Simulation of the system with load position feedback, XL

Simulation results with load position feedback (XL) are shown in Figure 4-20 and 4-21
respectively. From the simulation model (Figure 4-17) it is obvious that the introduced
load damping (δL) will not affect the amplitude of XL, but the piston position (Xp) will
be better damped if the load damping is increased.
Integ1.y[1]
0.006
0.004
XP
0.002
0 0.25 0.5
Time [s]
Figure 4-20: Step response (0 - 5 mm) of piston position (Xp) with load position feedback, XL
50
______________________________________________________________________
GhxL.y
0.006
0.004
XL
0.002
0 0.25 0.5
Time [s]
Figure 4-21: Step response (0 - 5 mm) of load position (XL) with load position feedback, XL
The results shows that feedback of Xp gives less oscillations amplitude than if XL is fed
back. The reason is that with feedback of Xp acts ωL as an anti-resonance and reduces
the resonance-top from ωh. A request for the reduction is that ωL is quite close to ωh, in
this case is ωL = 1.4 ωh (observe that ωL always is greater than ωh in the given system).
51
____________________________________________________________________________________

The results shows that feedback of Xp gives less oscillations amplitude than if XL is fed
______________________________________________________________________
back. The reason is that with feedback of Xp acts L as an anti-resonance and reduces
the resonance-top from h. A request for the reduction is that L is quite close to h, in
this case is L = 1.4 h (observe that L always is greater than h in the given system).
5 Servo systems with valve or pump controlled
5 motors
Servo systems with valve or pump controlled
5.1 motors
Four-way valve controlled motor with position feedback
5.1 hydraulic
The Four-way valve
actuator controlled
composed of a valvemotor withrotary
controlled position
motor feedback
is a widely used
The hydraulicAll
combination. actuator composed ofexisting
the nonlinearities a valveincontrolled rotary motor
a valve controlled is a widely
cylinder system used
will
combination.
exist All
even here. thespecial
One non-linearities
problem existing
is that theindisplacement
a valve controlled
volumecylinder systemis will
in the motor not
exist even here. One special problem is that the displacement volume in the
constant but varies in a discontinuous fashion with the shaft rotation. By using a motor motor is not
constant but varies in a discontinuous fashion with the shaft rotation. By using a motor
with
with aa high
high number
number of of "pumping"
"pumping" elements
elements (pistons)
(pistons) the
the amplitude
amplitude of of the
the kinematic
kinematic
displacement
displacement variation
variation will
will be
be reduced
reduced and and can
can bebe ignored
ignored inin dynamic
dynamic calculations.
calculations. A A
simplified angular position servo is shown in Figure
simplified angular position servo is shown in Figure 5-1: 5-1:
+,
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Figure 5-1: Valve controlled angular position servo
Figure 5-1: Valve controlled angular position servo
The linearised and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow becomes
The linearized and laplace-transformed equations describing the valve flow becomes
Q K X K P (5-1)
ΔQLL = K qiqiΔX vv − K ccΔPLL (5-1)
Assume that the volumes between valve and motor are equal, V1 = V2. The total
Assume thatvolume
pressurised the volumes
is Vt = between
V1 + V2. valve
From and motor are
the cylinder equal,
case, V1 =(4-16)
equation V2. The total
to (4-18)
pressurised volumeofisthe
and the definition Vtload
= V1pressure
+ V2. From the cylinder
difference PL case, P1 equation
P2 gives(4-16) to (4-18)
and the definition of the load pressure difference ΔPL = ΔP1 − ΔP2 gives
V
QL Dm s m C m PL V t s PL (5-2)
ΔQL = Dm sΔθ m + C m ΔPL + 4 t e sΔPL (5-2)
4β e
Combining equation (5-1) and (5-2) gives
Combining equation (5-1) and (5-2) gives
V
K qi X v Dm s m ⎛ K ce V t s⎞ PL (5-3)
K qi ΔX v = Dm sΔθ m + ⎜⎜ K ce + 4 t e s ⎟⎟ΔPL (5-3)
⎝ 4β e ⎠
where the total flow-pressure coefficient is K ce K c C m .
where the total flow-pressure coefficient is K ce = K c + Cm .
The final equation for the actuator arises from the torque of the motor. The linearised
and laplace-transformed
The final equation for theforce equation
actuator will
arises be written
from as of the motor. The linearized
the torque
and laplace-transformed force equation will be written as
Dm (ΔP1 − ΔP2 ) = Dm ΔPL = J t s 2 Δθ m + Bm sΔθ m + ΔTL (5-4)
52
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Dm P1 P2 Dm PL J t s 2 m Bm s m TL (5-4)
2
Dm P1 P2 Dm PL J t s m Bm s m TL (5-4)
Introducing
Introducing thethe position
position feedback
feedback gain K Kff, the servo amplifier gain K Ksa transfer
sa and the transfer
function
function of the
of
Introducing the servo
theservo valve
valve
position G
Gvv(s) thegain
feedback spool
Kf,displacement of the valve
the servo amplifier gain (x
valve (x v)) becomes
Kvsa becomes
and the transfer
function of the servo valve Gv(s) the spool displacement of the valve (x ) becomes
(
Δ X vv = U cc − K ff ΔX pp K sasaGvv (s )) v (5-5)
(5-5)
X v U c K f X p K sa Gv (s ) (5-5)
By using the equations (5-3)
By using the equations (5-3) – I (5-5) a block diagram of the closed loop system
system will be
will be
as
as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 5-2.
5-2.
By using the equations (5-3) I (5-5) a block diagram of the closed loop system will be
as shown in Figure 5-2. -.
!/
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30
30
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Figure 5-2:
5-2: Block
Block diagram
diagram of #,
Figure of aa valve
valve controlled
controlled angular
angular position
position servo
servo
The block-diagramFigurein5-2:
Figure
Block5-2 can be
diagram of areduced to the following
valve controlled form,servo
angular position shown in Figure
The block-diagram in Figure 5-2 can be reduced to the following form, shown in
5-3. Gv is a typical low pass filter describing the servo valve dynamics (eq. 4-23).
The block-diagram
Figure 5-3. Gv is a in Figurelow
typical 5-2pass
can filter
be reduced to thethe
describing following form,dynamics
servo valve shown in (eq.
Figure
4-
5-3.
23). Gv is a typical low pass filter describing - the
. servo valve dynamics (eq. 4-23).
#$% (& -'.% )+))
&" #
30=' + !$ & #$ *
#$% (& '% +
&" #
2 ))) "
.
1$ ;9 #:; 30 ' + !$ & #$ *
= "m " "m
#)7 Gv ! = # = %" ! #
" ". )" "m
& !3 & 2
1$ 2
#)7
;9 #:;0 $"== $"" m
& Gv
!30 & >1?)@ ! # = %" ! # )
2 "
$"= $"
#, >1?)@
#,
Figure 5-3: Reduced block diagram of a position servo with a valve controlled motor
If the term Bm5-3:

Figure
Figure / Dm2 isblock
K ceReduced
5-3: Reduced smaller
block thanof
diagram
diagram ofunit the hydraulic
aaposition
position with aresonance
servo with
servo a valve frequency
valve controlled
controlled motor h and
motor
thethehydraulic
term BBdamping 22 h shown in the block-diagram (Figure 5-3) will be expressedh as
IfIf the term m K ce / D m is smaller than unit the hydraulic resonance frequency
m K ce / Dm is smaller than unit the hydraulic resonance frequency ωh and
and
thehydraulic
the hydraulicdamping
dampingδDhh2shown shown
1 in in the block-diagram
1 the block-diagram (Figure(Figure 5-3) 5-3) will
4wille Dbe2 expressed
be expressed as
as
e m m
h V 1 = V 2 = V t /2 gives h
J t 22 V11 V12 J tVDt 22
β eeDD m
m⎛ 1 1 V1 = V2 = Vt/2 gives
⎞ 44β eeD m
m
ω hh = ⎜ + ⎟ V 1 = V 2 = V t /2 gives ω h=
JJt t ⎜⎝ VV11 VV22 ⎟⎠K ce JJtV
t Vt
h
e Jt Bm Vt t
and h
D V 4 D J
KKcece β eeJJt t BBmm VVt t
m t m e t
and
and δ hh = + 4D
If the term Bm K ce / Dm2 is included DDthe
m resonance
VVt 4 Dfrequency
m β eJJ t and damping becomes
m t m e t
22
IfIfthe
theterm
term BBmKK ce//D isincluded
' D is included the
Bm Kthe resonance' frequency
ce resonance frequency anddamping
h and dampingbecomes
becomes
h 1 and
m
m ce m
h 2 h
Dm B K
' BmKK
B ' 1 δ hmh 2 ce
' 1
ω hh = ω hh 1 + D22 m ce
ce
and '
and δ hh = Dm
Dmm BBmK K ce
11+ mD22ce
Dmm
53
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
In order to
analysed. study5-3
theyields
stability of the servo system the open loop gain Au(s) must be
In order toFigure
analysed. study5-3
Figure theyields
analysed. Figure 5-3 yieldsK sa K qi K f / Dm Kv
Au ( s) = K sa K qi K2 f / Dm = Kv (5-6)
Au ( s ) ⎛ s 2f / D2mδ h
s K⎞ sa K ⎛qi K ⎞ ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛Ksv22 2δ h ⎞ (5-6)
Au ( s ) ⎜⎜1 + s ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ s22 + 2 h s + 1⎟⎟ ⎜⎜1 + s ⎟⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜⎜ s22 + 2 h s + 1⎟⎟ (5-6)
⎝ 1 ωsv ⎠ s ⎝ ω s h2 2ω hh s 1⎠ ⎝1 ωsv ⎠ s ⎝ ω s h2 2ω hh s 1⎠
1 v s 2h h s 1 1 v s 2h h s 1
v h h v h h
Kv expresses
certain level tothe steady
make surestate
thatloop gain and
the control the value
system of stable.
will be this parameter must be set to a
K expresses the steady state loop gain and the value of this
v parameter must be set to a
5.2 Valve controlled motor for an angular velocity servo
5.2 Valve controlled motor for an angular velocity servo
5.2 Valve
A valve controlled
controlled, motor motor
is often for
usedan
forangular
velocity velocity servo
(shaft speed) control. If an
A valve controlled motor is often used for velocity (shaft speed) control. If an
integrating
A amplifier is
valve controlled used is
motor in a velocity
usedservo
for the loop gain Au(s) will be in principle
integrating amplifier is used in aoften
velocity servo velocity
the (shaft
loop gain Auspeed)
(s) will control. If an
be in principle
integrating
the
the same asamplifier
same as for is used servo
for aa position
position in a velocity
servo with servo the loop
with proportional
proportional gain A
control.
control. u(s) a
Such
Such will be in principle
a velocity
velocity servo
servo is
is
the
shownsame
in as for
Figure a
shown in Figure 5-4. position
5-4. servo with proportional control. Such a velocity servo is
shown in Figure 5-4.
*+
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,- / 00" '(
00" ! 2
/ '(
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!& #$ %&
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Figure 5-4: Angular velocity servo
Figure 5-4: Angular
Figure 5-4: Angular velocity
velocity servo
servo
A block diagram of the velocity servo is shown in Figure 5-5. An integrating amplifier
A blockthat
means diagram of theerror
the control velocity
will servo is shown
be integrated andin the
Figure
Figure 5-5.
5-5.
steady Ancontrol
state integrating
erroramplifier
becomes
means
zero. that
thatthe
thecontrol
control error willwill
error be integrated and the
be integrated andsteady
the state
steady control
state error becomes
control error
zero.
becomes zero.
%&
%&
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4- ( 56 5 5523@ *D5 . 08 !.
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" 5 23@ *D5 08E / 0 ; !m
/ . *"3 " 75? 0:208E 8;
0:2 /
. 75?
<4=">
<4=">
*+
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Figure 5-5: Angular velocity servo
Figure 5-5:
Figure 5-5: Angular
Angular velocity
velocity servo
servo
The transfer functions in the above block-diagram are:
The
The transfer
transfer functions
functions in
in the
the above
above block-diagram
block-diagram are:
are:
54
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
1 Vt 1
Gv ( s) = , G1 ( s) = 1 + s , Gh ( s ) =
s1 4 βVe tK ce s 2
21δ h
Gv ( s ) +1 , G1 ( s ) 1 s , G ( s ) + s +1
ωs v 4 e K ce
h ωs 2h2 2ω hh
1 2
s 1
In order to study the v stability of the servo system the open loop h gainh Au(s) must be
analysed.
In order toFigure
study5-5 theyields the of
stability same
theopen
servoloop gain the
system as for
open theloop
positiongainservo,
Au(s)shown
must bein
equation (5-6).
analysed. FigureTherefore, designopen
5-5 yields the same criteria
loop for
gainstability
as for the will be theservo,
position same shown
as for ina
equation (5-6).with
position servo Therefore, the design
proportional control.criteria for stability will be the same as for a
position servo with proportional control.
By using an integrating servo amplifier the steady state stiffness will be considerably
By using an integrating servo amplifier the steady state stiffness will be considerably
increased. The integration of the velocity error will cancel out the disturbance. The
increased. The integration of the velocity error will cancel out the disturbance. .
The
stiffness of the closed loop system describes the controlled signal deflection Δθ m due .
stiffness of the closed loop system describes the controlled signal deflection m due
to variations in the disturbance torque ΔT L. By setting Uc = 0 in the block-diagram in
to variations in the disturbance torque TL. By setting Uc = 0 in the block-diagram in
Figure 5-5
Figure 5-5andandif threshold
if threshold
and and saturation
saturation are neglected
are neglected the newthe new block-diagram
block-diagram becomes
becomes
as as in5-6
in Figure Figure
. 5-6.
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Figure 5-6:
Figure 5-6: Block
Block diagram
diagram for
for stiffness
stiffness calculation
calculation of
of aa velocity
velocity servo
servo with
with integrating
integrating controller
controller
The − ΔTTLL . Neglecting the valve

The stiffness
stiffness of
of the
the closed
closed loop
loop servo
servoisisdefined
definedasas SScc = .
. . Neglecting the valve
Δ θ mm
dynamics (Gvv = 1) the block diagram in Figure 5-6 gives the closed
dynamics (G = 1) the block diagram in Figure 5-6 gives the closed loop
loop stiffness
stiffness as
as
2
ss 33 22δ h 2 ss ⎛ ss 1 ⎞ ⎛ ss 2 22δ hh s 1 ⎞
2 2 +
h s2
s + + 11 2 ⎜ + 1⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 22 + s + 1⎟⎟
SS c = K
D 2
D Kω
m K v
2
h K
K vω h
v h KKv v Dmm2 ⎜⎝ K
D K vv ⎠ ⎝ ω hh ω hh ⎠ (5-7)
(5-7)
c K vv K m ⋅ v h V ≈K
K vv K ⋅
K ce V K ce s
ce ⎛
ss ⋅ ⎜11 + t
t ⎞
ss ⎟ ce
ss ⋅ ⎛⎜11 + s ⎞⎟
⎜ 44 β e K K ce ⎟ ⎜ 22δ h ω h ⎟
⎝ e ce ⎠ ⎝ h h ⎠
where
where the
the steady
steady state
state loop
loop gain
gain K
Kvv =
=KKsa K qiK
saKqi /Dmm..
Kff/D
The − ΔTTLL
The steady
steady state stiffness is
state stiffness is defined
defined as
as SS cc s 0
s →0
= .
.
.. Equation
Equation (5-7)
(5-7) gives
gives
Δ θ mm s 0
s →0
2
SS c K Dmm2 11
D
(5-8)
c s 0
s →0
= K vv K ⋅ s =∞ (5-8)
K cece s ss →00
From equation (5-8) it can be noted that the steady state stiffness goes to infinity
because of the integrating controller. It has to be observed that this is true only at very
low frequencies (steady state conditions). In practical applications the steady state
stiffness also will be limited by the resolution of the velocity transducer.
55
______________________________________________________________________
From equation (5-8) it can be noted that the steady state stiffness goes to infinity
because of the integrating controller. It has to be observed that this is true only at very
low frequencies (steady state conditions). In practical applications the steady state
stiffness
K-E Rydbergalso will be limited by the resolution
Hydraulic servoof the velocity transducer.
systems 43
____________________________________________________________________________________
5.3 Pump controlled motor

5.2
PumpPump controlled
controlled motors are motor
the preferred power element in applications which require
considerable
Pump controlledhorsepower
motors are for control purposes.
the preferred This intype
power element of closed
applications hydrostatic
which require
considerable
transmission horsepower
gives much for control
higher purposes.
efficiency This totype
compared of closed
a valve hydrostatic
controlled actuator,
transmission gives
since there are no much higher in
flow orifices efficiency
the maincompared to a valve
circuit. However, thecontrolled actuator,
comparatively slow
since there are no flow orifices in the main circuit. However, the comparatively slow
response of the pump displacement controller, limit their use in high performance
response of the pump displacement controller, limit their use in high performance
systems.InInFigure
systems. Figure5-7
5-7a apump
pumpcontrolled
controlledmotor
motorused
usedasasananangular
angularposition
positionservo
servoisis
shown.
shown.
"* *. 1.
#*
)+ Jt ,-
)*
!+
$% ' */ 1/
!"# 2 Angular
$ (
& *0 transducer
!&
Figure
Figure5-7:
5-7:Pump
Pumpcontrolled
controlledmotor
motorused
usedasasananangular
angularposition
positionservo
servo
AsAsshown
shownininthe thefigure
figurethe
thepump
pumpdisplacement
displacementsetting
setting( (εp)p)isiscontrolled
controlledbybya aposition
position
servo. During normal operation the pressure in one line between pump and motor will
beservo. During normal
at replenishing operation
pressure (pr) andthethe
pressure in one line
other pressure willbetween
modulate pump and motor
to match will
the load.
be at
The two replenishing pressure
lines will switch (pr) andifthe
functions theother pressureawill
load dictates modulate
pressure to match
reversal. the load.
It is possible
The
for twoline
both lines will switch
pressures functions
to vary if the loadifdictates
simultaneously a pressure
transients are rapidreversal.
and loadIt isreversals
possible
occur.
for bothHowever, for system
line pressures modelling
to vary it is assumed
simultaneously that onlyare
if transients onerapid
pressure varies
and load at the
reversals
same time and that both sides are identical.
occur. However, for system modelling it is assumed that only one pressure varies at the
Ifsame
it is time and that
assumed that both
p1 insides are5-7
Figure identical.
denotes the high pressure the continuity equation
for the volume V1 (constant volume) is
If it is assumed that p1 in Figure 5-7 denotes the high pressure the continuity equation
for the volume V1 (constant volume) V1
Dp p pC P is C P D s
tp 1 tm 1 m m s P 1 (5-9)
V
e
Δε p D pω p − Ctp ΔP1 − Ctm ΔP1 − Dm sΔθ m = 1 sΔP1 (5-9)
Introducing the total leakage coefficient for pump and motor, Cβt e C tp C tm gives
Introducing the total leakage coefficient for pump and motor,
V1 C t = C tp + C tm gives
p D p p C t P1 D m s m s P1 (5-10)
V
e
Δε p D pω p − Ct ΔP1 − Dm sΔθ m = 1 sΔP1 (5-10)
Assuming lumped constants to describe the load, Newton'sβ esecond law is used to obtain
the torque balance equation for the motor shaft. If, the friction torque is described only
by a viscous friction coefficient, Bm the torque equation is given as
Dm P1 Pr Pr Dm P1 J t s 2 m Bm s m
cons tan t TL (5-11)
56
The transfer function for the pump displacement controller from input current (iv) to
displacement setting ( p) is
______________________________________________________________________
Assuming lumped parmeters to describe the load, Newton's second law is used to obtain
the torque balance equation for the motor shaft. If, the friction torque is described only
by a viscous friction coefficient, Bm the torque equation is given as
Dm (ΔP1 − ΔPr ) = [Pr = cons tan t ] = Dm ΔP1 = J t s 2 Δθ m + Bm sΔθ m + ΔTL (5-11)
The transfer function for the pump displacement controller from input current (iv) to
____________________________________________________________________________________
displacement setting (εp) is
Δε p 11
p = KKps G ps = K (5-12)
(5-12)
Δiips ps G ps Kpsps s
ps 11+ s
ω ps
ps
where
where KKpsps isis the
the proportional
proportional gain
gain for
for the
the pump
pump servo
servo and
and GGpsps isis aa low-pass
low-pass filter
filter
describingthe
describing the dynamics
dynamics of
of the
the pump
pump servo.
servo.
Combiningequation
Combining equation(5-10)
(5-10)to
to(5-12)
(5-12)gives
gives the
the block
block diagram
diagram shown
shown in
in Figure 5-8.
Figure 5-8.
!"
/01 '% &$ )
%+ ! $ % ((
(
,
23 & # '
/4
#$ -.( +. 2./". % + *3 + *3
'() '.(8.( ! , ! , #" ! !
& ///23 & + (
% "", ""
5#6(7
'*
Figure5-8:
Figure 5-8:Block
Blockdiagram
diagramof
ofaapump
pumpcontrolled
controlledmotor
motorused
usedas
asan
anangular
angularposition
positionservo
servo
IfIf the
the term D2m2 isissmaller
term BBmCC t //D smallerthan
thanunit
unitthe
thehydraulic
hydraulicresonance
resonancefrequency
frequencyωhh and
andthe
the
m t m
hydraulic damping
hydraulic shown in
damping δ h shown in the
the block-diagram
block-diagram (Figure
(Figure 5-8)
5-8) will
will be
be expressed
expressed as
as
h
D2m2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
eD eDD2m2
β e m 1 . If V1 = V2 = V0 , β e m
ω hh = J t ⎜⎜ V1 ⎟⎟ . If V1 = V2 = V0 , ω h =
h
J t V0
J t ⎝ V1 ⎠ J tV0
C J B VV00
and δ h = Ct t β eeJ t t + Bmm
and
22DDmm VV00 22D
Dm
β eeJJtt
h
m
IfIfthe
theterm D2m2 isisincluded
term BBmCC t //D includedthe
theresonance
resonancefrequency
frequencyand and damping
damping becomes
becomes
m t m
B C
'
'h 1 BmmC2 tt and
and
'
δ h'h =
δ hh
ω =ω h 1 + D2
BBmCC t
h h
Dmm
11+ mD22 t
Dmm
In order toFigure
analysed. study5-8
theyields
analysed. Figure 5-8 yields
K sa K ps D p p K f / Dm Kv
Au ( s ) (5-13)
s s2 2 h s s2 2 h
1 s 2
s 1 1 s 2
s 1
ps h h
57 ps h h
certain level to make sure that the control system will be stable. In this system it will be
______________________________________________________________________
K sa K ps D pω p K f / Dm Kv
Au ( s) = = (5-13)
⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2
⎜1 + s ⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜ s + 2δ h s + 1⎟ ⎜1 + s ⎟ ⋅ s ⋅ ⎜ s + 2δ h s + 1⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ω ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ω ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ps ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠ ⎝ ps ⎠ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠
certain level to make sure that the control system will be stable. In this system it will be
noticed that both the hydraulic resonance frequency and its damping are reduced
because of the fact that the pressure is varying in only one volume between pump and
motor.
5.4 Pump controlled motor with variable displacement

If the motor in Figure 5-7 is replaced with a unit that has variable displacement, the
output speed range can be gained without oversizing of the pump. Therefore, the system
concept shown in Figure 5-9 is commonly used as hydrostatic drives in heavy vehicle
applications. In the figure, the closed hydrostatic transmission is equipped with a closed
loop speed control unit.
Figure 5-9: Pump controlled variable motor used as an angular velocity servo
Changing the fixed displacement motor to a variable unit means that max motor
displacement Dm has to be replaced with the factor εm.Dm, where εm is the motor
displacement setting. The motor setting can varies in the range, 0 < εm <= 1,0.
Implementation of the partial displacement (εm.Dm) of the variable motor in equation (5-
9) to (5-11) gives the block diagram illustrated in Figure 5-10.
58
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 5-10: Block diagram of a pump controlled variable motor used as an angular velocity servo
If the term BmCt / (ε m2 Dm2 ) is smaller than unit the hydraulic resonance frequency ωh and
the hydraulic damping δh shown in the block-diagram (Figure 5-10) is expressed as
βeε m2 Dm2 ! 1 $ βeε m2 Dm2

ωh = # & . If V1 = V2 = V0 , ω h =
J t " V1 % J tV0
Ct βe J t Bm V0
and δh = +
2ε m Dm V0 2ε m Dm βe J t
According to Figure 5-10 and equation (5-12) yields the open loop gain Au(s) for the
angular velocity servo as,
K sa K ps Dpω p K f / (ε m Dm ) Kv
Au (s) = = (5-14)
! s $ !s 2
2δ $ ! s $ ! s 2 2δ $
##1+ && ⋅ s ⋅ # 2 + h s +1& ##1+ && ⋅ s ⋅ # 2 + h s +1&
" ω ps % " ω h ω h % " ω ps % " ω h ω h %
It is interesting to note that the motor displacement setting (εm) has a great impact on
both the loop gain and system dynamics. In order to keep the amplitude margin of the
control loop constant when the motor setting is changed the servo amplifier gain Ksa has
to be multiplied with the actual motor setting, εm.
5.5 Pump controlled symmetric cylinder

It is possible to replace the motor in Figure 5-7 with a symmetric cylinder, without any
changes in the rest of the system. In that case we will have a closed hydrostatic
transmission with a linear actuator, which is shown in Figure 5-11.
59
5.3 Pump controlled
K-E Rydberg
symmetric cylinder
It is possible to replace the motor in Figure 5-8 with a symmetric cylinder, without any
______________________________________________________________________
changes in the rest of the system. In that case we will have a closed hydrostatic
transmission with a linear actuator, which is shown in Figure 5-9.
2+ 26 21
-+ -(
01
.%
56
!"#$%$"&
%'(&#)*+,'
!8 -/
!6
76
26'
*+ 3
-#(
* 4
/
Figure 5-11:
Figure 5-9: Pump
Pumpcontrolled
controlledcylinder
cylinderused
usedas
asaalinear
linearposition
positionservo
servo
Figure 5-9 also illustrates the valves needed to control maximum level of the high
Figure
pressure5-11 also illustrates
(pressure the valves
relief valves) needed toconstant
and to maintain control low
maximum
pressurelevel of the
(cooling high
valve).
The dynamics of this system will be similar to that described in Figure 5-8.
pressure (pressure relief valves) and to maintain constant low pressure (cooling valve).
The dynamics of this system will be similar to that described in Figure 5-8.
60
______________________________________________________________________
6 Hydraulic systems with complex load dynamics

The design of hydraulic systems is often based on a simple load model, represented by
single lumped parameters. This type of load model can be used if the connection
between the hydraulic system and the mechanical load is stiff. However, in many
applications, the mechanical system, which the hydraulic power elements are connected
to becomes weak compared to the stiffness of the hydraulic system. Such a weak
mechanical structures cause resonances, which can be lower than the hydraulic natural
frequency. If the structural resonances dominate the frequency response of the servo
system, it is extremely important to take this fact into account in system design. The
main reasons are that the stability of the systems and the bandwidths are limited by the
lowest natural frequency in the control loop.
A simple valve-controlled hydraulic cylinder with a load represented by a mass Mt and
an arbitrary load force FL is shown in Figure 6-1. The four-way valve is assumed to be
a servo-valve with constant flow gain Kq.
Figure 6-1: Valve-controlled hydraulic cylinder with a mass load
For the special case of centred piston, the oil volumes between the piston and the valve
are V1 = V2 = Vt/2. If then the load pressure is defined as pL = p1 - p2 the following
linearized and laplace transformed equations can be derived:
⎛ Vt ⎞
KqXv = Ap sXp + ⎜ Kce + s⎟ P (6-1)
⎝ 4βe ⎠ L
61
______________________________________________________________________
Linköpings universitet Mt s2Xp = Ap2008-10-13

PL − FL (6-2)2
IEI / FluMeS,
Linköpings K-E Rydberg
universitet 2008-10-13 2
IEI / FluMeS, K-E Rydberg
These equations
These resulted
equations in in
resulted thethe
block diagram
block in in
diagram Figure 2. 6-2.
Figure
These equations resulted in the block diagram in Figure 2.
!"#$%&'()*+"+,-. /-)0%1()%'*+"+,-.*2*34%#
!"#$%&'()*+"+,-. /-)0%1()%'*+"+,-.*2*34%#
!"# 52
!"# 5
72 '3
7
/0 7 '(
))))) 12 7 '(
)))) /
'3 % () /%
/0 ! & '( 12 $ % / /%
6 )))))
*+
'))) 6 .'(+',
)))) % (,
)
!& 7 ', $%
6 *
')))
-β+#', 6 .+ ,' ,
7
-β# 42
42 $%
$%
Figure 2: Block diagram of a valve-controlled hydraulic cylinder with a mass load
Figure6-2:
Figure 2: Block
Blockdiagram
diagramof
ofaavalve-controlled
valve-controlledhydraulic
hydrauliccylinder
cylinderwith
withaamass
massload
load
The question is now to define a load model, which is simple to connect to the hydraulic
The question
system. As canis be
now to from
seen define a load2 model, which is simple to connect to the hydraulic
The question is now to defineFigure the transfer
a load model, whichfunction
is simpleoftothe mechanical
connect load can be
to the hydraulic
system. As can be seen from Figure 2 the transfer function of the mechanical load can be
expressed
system. as
As can be seen from Figure 6-2 the transfer function of the mechanical load can
expressed as
be expressed as,
QL
Gm s Q ; QL Ap sX QLp (3)
PLL
Gm s ; QLm(s)A=p sX
G
PLp
; Q L = Ap sX p (3)
(6-3)
PL
1. Loads with one degree of freedom

1. 6.1 Loads
Loadswith
with one
one degree
degree of freedom
of freedom
AnAhydraulic
hydrauliccylinder acting
cylinder, actingonon
a simple mass
a simple load
mass is illustrated
load in in
is illustrated Figure 3. This
Figure 6-3. is a load
This is a
An hydraulic
with one cylinder
degree acting on a simple mass load is illustrated in Figure 3. This is a load
load with one of freedom.
degree of freedom.
with one degree of freedom.
$% $%
$% $% .+ 52
%( 9( 98 %8 .+ 52
%( :9
%(
98 %8
:%
Figure6-3:
Figure 3: Symmetric
Symmetrichydraulic
hydrauliccylinder
cylinderwith
withaamass
massload
load
Figure 3: Symmetric hydraulic cylinder with a mass load
ForFora adouble
doubleacting
actingsymmetric
symmetric cylinder
cylinder loaded
loaded byby aa mass
massMMand t and
anan external
external force
force FL FL
t
For a
accordingdouble
to to acting
Figure symmetric
3, the cylinder loaded by a mass M
by equation t(2) asand an external force FL
according Figure 6-3,piston position
the piston Xp isXgiven
position p is given by equation (6-2) as
according to Figure 3, the piston position Xp is given by equation (2) as
2 2
Ap PL FALp P L − FL Ap s A1p s 1
Xp A X = ; F ;0 F =G0 ⇒
s G 2 (s ) = = (6-4)
(4)
p PL 2 F L M s2 L Ap s2
p L m
m M
M1ts2 Mt
Xp Mt s ; t FL 0 Gm s Mt s t s (4)
Mt s
2
Mt s
2 M2t s 2
Ap s Ap
2
Ap
62
Linköpings universitet 2008-10-13 3
______________________________________________________________________
The load dynamics, from force to piston velocity, is in this case represented by a pure
integrator. Introducing the total capacitance of the cylinder CL the transfer function Gm(s) can
The load as
be rewritten dynamics from force to piston velocity is in this case, represented by a simple
integrator. Introducing the total capacitance of the cylinder CL the transfer function
Gm(s) can QL CL CL
Gm bes rewritten as (5)
PL CLMt s
s 2
QL CL CL
A2p Gm(s) h= P = C M = s (6-5)
L L t
s
A2p ω2h
The capacitance of the cylinder CL is definded as
The capacitance of the cylinder CL is defined as
1 1 1 V1 V2
; 1C1 1 1 och C2V1 V (6)
CL C1 C2 = +e ; C1 = and
e C2 = 2 (6-6)
CL C1 C2 βe βe
Centered
Centredcylinder piston
cylinder gives
piston the the
gives Capacitance CL and
Capacitance the hydraulic
CL and natural
the hydraulic frequency
natural h as
frequency
ωh as
Vt Vt 4 eA2p
V1 V2 CL 2 (7)
2 Vt 4 e Vt h Vt Mt 4βeAp
V1 = V2 = ⇒ CL = ⇒ ωh = (6-7)
2 4βe Vt Mt
Figure 4 shows a more general load situation where the mass load is completed with a spring
Figure 6-4 shows a more general load situation where the mass load is completed with
gradient KL and a viscous damping coefficient BL. The cylinder is also defective with viscous
a spring gradient KL and a viscous damping coefficient BL. The cylinder is also
friction, the coefficient Bp.
defective with viscous friction, the coefficient Bp.
*(
!" !"
+, '(
"# %# %$ "$
&" )" )(
Figure
Figure6-4: Symmetrichydraulic
4: Symmetric hydrauliccylinder
cylinderwith
witha mass,
a mass,spring
springand
and damping
damping load
load
The load transfer function will be expressed in the same way as in equation (6-5),
The load transfer function will be expressed in the same way as in equation (5) which gives
which gives
A2p A2p
s
QL QL CL sCL s KL KL s
GmGsm(s) = =M = (8)
(6-8)
PL PL C L CtLM2t 2CLB CeLBe CLKCLLKL Mt M2t 2Be Be
s s +2 s s+2 s s + s s1 + 1
A2p A2p Ap A2p Ap A2p KL KL KL KL
where the total viscous friction coefficient is B = B + B .

where the total viscous friction coefficient is Be = eBL + LBp. p
63
where e
; t
and ce t h
h
Mt Ke 4 e A 2p K1 KL h
Ap
2
2
If can be noted that the effective spring gradient Ke is derived from the series connection
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic Servo Systems –2Dynamic Properties and Control
4 eA p
between the hydraulic spring gradient and the two mechanical springs K1, KL.
______________________________________________________________________
Vt
2. 6.2 Loads
Loadswith
withtwo degrees
two of freedom
degrees of freedom
a) Mechanical flexibility between two masses on a piston rod
a) Mechanical flexibility between two masses on a piston rod
Assume
Assumethatthat
thethe
load consists
load of of
consists twotwo
masses
masses(M(M
1 and M2M
1 and ), 2of which
), of whichthethe
firstfirst
oneone
is fixed
is
mounted to the piston
fixed mounted to theand the second
piston. massmasses,
The second is connected by a spring
is connected to the(K L) and
first massa by
viscous
a
damper (B
spring (K) to the first mass.
L L) and a viscous damper (BL).
+(
!" !"
)# )$ '(
"# %# %$ "$
*(
&" &(
Figure6-5:
Figure 9: Hydraulic
Hydrauliccylinder
cylinderwith
withaaload
loadwith
withtwo
twodegrees
degreesofoffreedom
freedom
The force balance equations for the masses M1 and M2 are for FL = 0
M1s2Xp + M2s2XL = ApPL (6-9)

M2s2XL = −BLs (XL − Xp) − KL(XL − Xp) (6-10)
The piston position Xp can be expressed as

⎛ M2 2 BL ⎞
⎜ s + s + 1⎟ Ap PL
⎝ KL KL ⎠
Xp = (6-11)
M1 M2 BL
(M1 + M2 ) s2 ⎡⎢ s 2
+
⎤
s + 1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ KL(M1 + M2 ) KL ⎦
With the load flow QL = ApsXp we obtain the transfer function
⎛ M2 2 BL ⎞
CL ⎜ s + s + 1⎟
QL ⎝ K L KL ⎠
Gm(s) = = (6-12)
PL CL M1 M2 BL
(M1 + M2 ) s ⎡⎢ s
2
+
⎤
s + 1⎥⎥
2 ⎢⎣ KL(M1 + M2 ) K
Ap L ⎦
Equation (6-12) can also be written in the following form
64
______________________________________________________________________
⎛ s2 2δa ⎞
⎜⎜ + s + 1⎟⎟
Ap
2
⎝ ω2a ωa ⎠
G m (s ) = (6-13)
(M1 + M2 ) s ⎛ s 2 2δ1 ⎞
⎜⎜ + s + 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ ω21 ω1 ⎠
KL KL(M1 + M2 ) M2
ωa = , ω1 = = ωa 1+
M2 M1 M2 M1
where
BL 1 BL M1 + M2 M2
δa = , δ1 = = δa 1+
2 KLM2 2 KLM1 M2 M1
From equation (6-13) it can be seen that the two, coupled masses cause one natural
frequency of the fundamental mode ω1 and one natural frequency of nodes of vibration
ωa. For these frequencies, it is always evident that ωa < ω1 and the damping ratio δa < δ1.
A Bode diagram for equation (6-13) is shown in Figure 6-6.
101
Amplitude
100
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
50
0
Phase
-50
-100
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-6: Frequency response according to equation (6-13). Solid line is

valid for M1 = M2 and dashed line for M1 = M2/2
Figure 6-6 explains how the amplitude and the phase curve change when the mass M1 is
reduced in proportion to M2. If M1 instead increases in proportion to M2 the frequency
response will be influenced in the way as expressed in Figure 6-7.
65
______________________________________________________________________
100
Amplitude
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
50
0
Phase
-50
-100
100 101 102
IEI / FluMeS, K-E Rydberg Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-7: Frequency response according to equation (16). Solid line is

valid for M1 = M2 and dashed line for M1 = 2M2
It isItconvenient to combine
is convenient equation
to combine (16)(6-13)
equation with the
withhydraulic part ofpart
the hydraulic theof
system. If the If
the system. external
the
force FL = 0,
external the F
force valve cylinder combination (compare with Figure 1) and the load with two
L = 0, the valve cylinder combination (compare with Figure 1) and the
masses
load give
with the
twoblock diagram
masses illustrated
give the in Figure
block diagram 12.
&2
#$ !"
./ %%% %%%%%%%%%% 01 &&&&&&&&&4 ."
&&&&&&&&'( !" %%%%%%%%%%&5 6,7
1.
!" + #)*&+&&%%% &, 684&+&897&,
3 -β
&&&&&&&& *
ss2
2
22 δaa
+ ss + 11
ω2aa
2 ωaa
GLX
LX(s ) =
where ss
2
2 22 δ11
+ ss + 11
ω211 ω11
2
Figure 6-8: Block diagram for a valve-controlled cylinder with a load of two masses (FL = 0)
Figure 12: Block diagram for a valve-controlled cylinder with a load of two masses (FL = 0)
From Figure 12 the transfer function for the hole system, with valve opening Xv as input
From Figure 6-8 the transfer function for the hole system, with valve opening Xv as
signal and piston velocity dXp/dt as output signal, can be derived as
input signal and piston velocity dXp/dt as output signal, can be derived as
sXp Kq GLX s
GHL s (17)
Xv Ap s 2 2 h
2
s GLX s
h
h
K66
2
4 eAp ce e M1 M2
where h ; h (18)
Vt M1 M2 Ap Vt
______________________________________________________________________
sXp Kq GLX(s)
GHL(s) = = (6-14)
Xv Ap s2 2 δh
+ s + GLX(s)
2
ωh ωh
2
4βeAp Kce βe(M1 + M2)
where ωh = ; δh = (6-15)
Vt (M1 + M2) Ap Vt
The frequency response for equation (6-14), when the hydraulic natural frequency ωh is
lower than the structural resonance’s (ωa and ω1) is shown in Figure 6-9. The dashed
lines in the diagrams illustrated the response when the mass M2 is increased 5 times
compared to the situation of the solid lines. The hydraulic spring rate Kh (=4βeAp2/Vt)
has the same value for both cases.
In this system, the frequency response will be dominated by the hydraulic system. In
IEI /the low K-E
FluMeS, frequency
Rydbergrange
is GLX(s) ≈ 1 and the system can be treated as a one-mass
system with the load mass Mt = M1 + M2.
#$#
#$$
6789:;,2*
#$%#
#$%'
ω! ω" ω#
#$%&
#$$ #$# #$'
()*+,*-./01)"2345
%<$
=!"4*
%#$$
%#<$
%'$$
#$$ #$# #$'
()*+,*-./01)"2345
Figure
Figure6-9:
13: Frequency response for GHL HL(s) according to equation (17).
(6-14). Solid
Solid line:
line: M1M=1 M
=M = 1.
2 =2 1.
Dashed line:
Dashed line: M
M11 == 11 and
and M
M22 =5.
=5. K 0,1..K
Khh == 0,1 KLL for
for both
both curves
curves
If we now
If we nowconsider
considerthat
thatthe
thestructural
structural resonanceTs
resonances areare lower
lowerthan
thanthethehydraulic
hydraulic natural
natural
frequency, the the
frequency, system response
system willwill
response change drastically,
change which
drastically, can be
which canseen in Figure
be seen 14. 6-
in Figure
10.
#$#
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#$$ 67
ω" ω# ω>!
%#
Figure 13: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (17). Solid line: M1 = M2 = 1.
Dashed line: M1 = 1 and M2 =5. Kh = 0,1.KL for both curves
If we now consider that the structural resonanceTs are lower than the hydraulic natural
______________________________________________________________________
frequency, the system response will change drastically, which can be seen in Figure 14.
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Figure
Figure6-10: Frequency response
14: Frequency response for
for G
GHL(s)
(s) according to equation (6-14). Solid line: M = M = M .
HL according to equation (17). Solid line: M1 =1M2 =2M0. 0
Dashed line:
Dashed line: M
M1 == M
M0 and
and MM2 =5M
=5M0.. KKh = 10..K
= 10 KL for
for both
both curves
curves
1 0 2 0 h L
In Figure 6-10 the hydraulic spring rate Kh is 10 times greater than the mechanical
spring rate KL, which means that ωh will be the highest frequency. If we look at the
amplitude of the transfer function GLX (see Figure 6-8) with frequencies greater than
ω1, this equation will reach a constant value
2
⎛ ω1 ⎞ M2
⏐GLX(s)⏐ω>ω = ⎜ ⎟ =1+ (6-16)
1 ⎝ ωa ⎠ M1
Since the hydraulic resonance, occur at a frequency higher than the structural
resonances, the value of ωh have to be influenced by the function GLX written as
equation (6-16). For this case, the hydraulic frequency and damping, here named ω´h
and δ´h, may be changed from the original expression (equation 6-16) to
M2 Kh 4βeA2p
ω,h = ωh 1+ = =
M1 M1 Vt M1
(6-17)
M2 Kce βeM1
δ,h = δh / 1+ =
M1 Ap Vt
68
______________________________________________________________________
This equation shows that the dynamics of the hydraulic system only is dependent on the
mass M1. Increasing of the mass M2, of course, will lower the mechanical resonances
but the hydraulic frequency ω´h is not influenced by change of this mass. The reason is
that the movement of the mass M2 is approximately zero at such high frequencies as
ω´h. The hydraulic natural frequency is solely determined by the mass M1, which is
stretched between the hydraulic spring in the cylinder Kh and the load spring KL.
However, the low value of KL compared to Kh means that KL can not be seen in
equation (6-17).
If the system is changed so that only the hydraulic spring constant Kh (see eq 6-17)
increases, the variation in amplitude and phase shift according to the mechanical
structure will be reduced. This situation is shown in Figure 6-11. From equation (6-14)
it can also be seen that, if the structural resonances (GLX(s)) are dominant, the transfer
function from valve opening to piston speed approaches
GHL(s) = sXp/Xv ≈ Kq/Ap (6-18)
101
Amplitude
100
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
100
0
Phase
-100
-200
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-11: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (6-14). Solid line: Kh = Kh0.
Dashed line: Kh = 5.Kh0. M1 = M2/2 for both curves
Another situation where ωh increases and makes the hydraulic system stiffer will arise
if the mass M1 is reduced. Figure 6-12 shows how the frequency response develops
when M1 is reduced from M1 = M10 to M1 = 0,2.M10. Since M1 also influences the
mechanical resonances this rise of ωh will not cause a reduction of the structural
resonances as in the case of increased hydraulic stiffness.
69
______________________________________________________________________
101
Amplitude 100
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
100
0
Phase
-100
-200
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-12: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (6-14). Solid line: M1 = M10.
Dashed line: M1 = 0.2.M10. Kh and KL are the same for both curves
The conclusion to be drawn from these examples is that the structural resonance’s are
reduced by a stiff hydraulic system if ωh is always higher than the mechanical
Thefrequencies.
conclusion This
to bestiffness can these
drawn from be achieved byislow
examples thathydraulic capacitance
the structural for the
resonanceKs arevalve
reduced
cylinder combination and/or feedback control.
by a stiff hydraulic system if h is always higher than the mechanical frequencies. This
stiffness can be achieved by low hydraulic capacitance for the valve cylinder combination
and/or feedback control.
b) Two-mass system with mechanical flexibility in the rear mounting end
b) ATwo-mass
further example of a mechanical
system with hydraulic cylinder loaded
flexibility in thebyrear
a two-mass
mountingsystem
end is shown in
Figure 6-13.
A further example of a hydraulic cylinder loaded by a two-mass system is shown in Figure 17.
+" !" #$ #$
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Figure6-13:
Figure 17: Hydraulic
Hydrauliccylinder
cylinderwith
withflexible
flexiblerear
rearflange
flangeand
andaaload
loadwith
withtwo
twodegrees
degreesofoffreedom
freedom
The transfer function for this mechanical system is

The transfer function for this mechanical system is
2 2 a
s
s 1
QL A2p 2
a
a
Gm s (22)
PL M2 s s2 2 1
2
s70 1
1
1
______________________________________________________________________
⎛ s2 2δa ⎞
⎜⎜ + s + 1⎟⎟
QL Ap
2
⎝ ω2a ωa ⎠
G m(s ) = = (6-19)
P L M2 s ⎛ s2 2δ1 ⎞
⎜⎜ + s + 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ ω21 ω1 ⎠
K1 K1 M2
where ωa = , ω1 = = ωa 1+
M1 + M2 M1 M1
B1 1 B1 1 M2
δa = , δ1 = = δa 1+
2 K1 (M1 + M2 ) 2 K1 M1 M1
According to equation (6-14) a valve controlled cylinder yields
sXp Kq GLX(s)
GHL(s) = = (6-20)
Xv Ap s2 2 δh
+ s + GLX(s)
ω2h ωh
2 2 δa
s
+ s+1
ωa
2 ωa 4β eAp
2
Kce β eM2
where G LX(s) = ; ωh = ; δh =
s2 2 δ1 Vt M2 Ap Vt
+ s+1
2
ω1 ω1
The Bode diagram for equation (6-20) is shown in Figure 6-14. In this figure the
hydraulic resonance ωh is the dominant frequency, lower than ωa. If the hydraulic
spring rate Kh is changed, the value of ωh will also be changed which is illustrated in
the figure.
71
______________________________________________________________________
101
Amplitude
10-3
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
0
Phase
-100
-200
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-14: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (6-20). Solid line: Kh = 0,04 KL.
Dashed line: Kh = 0,1 KL. M1 = 1, M2 = 2 and KL = 1000 (same for both curves)
If the hydraulic cylinder is stiffer than the mechanical structure (Kh > KL), the system
behaviour will be similar to that described in Figure 6-11. An increase of Kh is shown
in Figure 6-15 and it can be seen that the structural resonances are reduced by the large
value of ωh.
101
Amplitude
100
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
100
0
Phase
-100
-200
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-15: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (6-20). Solid line: Kh = 4 KL.
Dashed line: Kh = 10 KL. M1 = 1, M2 = 2 and KL = 100 (same for both curves)
72
______________________________________________________________________
With this stiff hydraulic system, the real hydraulic frequency and damping, ω´h and δ´h ,
are changed from the original expression (compare with eq. 6-17) to,
2
M2 4βeAp (M1 + M2 )
ω,h = ωh 1+ =
M1 Vt M1 M2
(6-21)
M2 Kce βeM1 M2
δ,h = δh / 1+ =
M1 Ap Vt (M1 + M2 )
Figure 6-16 shows the frequency response when the mass M2 is increased five times.
Note that the reduction of ωh increases the variation in amplitude and phase shift for the
mechanical structure, which can also be seen from the expression of ωa and δa (eq. 6-
19).
101
Amplitude
100
10-1
10-2
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
100
0
Phase
-100
-200
100 101 102
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 6-16: Frequency response for GHL(s) according to equation (6-20). Solid line: M1 = M2 = 1.
Dashed line: M1 = 1, M2 = 5. Kh = 4 KL (= 100) for both curves.
73
IEI ______________________________________________________________________
Linköpings universitet
/ FluMeS, K-E Rydberg 2008-10-13 15
c) c) Hydraulic
Hydraulic motor
motor with
with mechanical
mechanical flexibility
flexibility between
between twotwo inertia
inertia loads
loads
c) Hydraulic motor with mechanical flexibility between two inertia loads
&'
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θ' &% θ%
θ' &% θ%
Figure 21: Hydraulic motor with a load with two degrees of freedom
Figure
Figure6-17: Hydraulicmotor
21: Hydraulic motorwith
withaaload
loadwith
withtwo
twodegrees
degreesofoffreedom
freedom
ThisThis hydraulic
hydraulic motormotor system
system with with two inertia
two inertia loads isloads is identical
identical with thewith the application
cylinder cylinder
This hydraulic motor system with two inertia loads is identical with the cylinder application
application
illustrated illustrated
in Figure 9. in Figure 6-5.
illustrated in Figure 9.
Consider
Consider thethe system
system shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 216-17
and and let motor
let the the motor be controlled
be controlled by aby4-port
a 4-port
servo
Consider
servo the
valve system
with shown
the in Figure
coefficients K 21 and
and K let
. the
The motor
block be
diagram controlled
of the by a
overall 4-port servo
system
valve with the coefficients Kq and Kc. The block diagram of the overall system will be
q c
valve with the coefficients Kq and Kc. The block diagram of the overall system will be
will be developed
developed as in Figureas22.
in Figure 6-18.
developed as in Figure 22.
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9 %):2;
9 %):2; ,7
(' 8
45 +++$*
$*
++++++++++
('
++++++++++ 6 % 8 ,,,,,,,,,"
++++++++, θ,7'
45 +++ ,,,,,,,,-.
,+++ 6 (
% ' ,,,,,,,,,"
++++++++, 9 %θ:2 θ'
;
(' 1 $ ,,,,,,,,
,1, - ,2 ( ' 1 : ! ,1,! # , 9 %θ:2
; , 2 ;
(' 1 8 $/0,1,,+++/0
3β
.
,2 1 : !"
" ,1,!# ; 2
8 ,,,,,,,, 3β00
,,,,,,,,
Figure
Figure6-18: Blockdiagram
22: Block diagramfor
fora avalve-controlled
valve-controlledmotor
motorwith
withtwo
twoinertia
inertialoads
loadsand
anda aload
loadtorque
torque(T(T
L)L)
Figure 22: Block diagram for a valve-controlled motor with two inertia loads and a load torque (TL)
From Figure 6-18 it can be seen that the mechanical structure has influence on the
From Figure
torque 22 it can be
disturbance seen
) by that the mechanical
functionstructure
GLT(s). has
Theinfluence on the torque
From Figure 22 it can (T beLseen the transfer
that the mechanical structure has transfer function
influence GLθ(s) is
on the torque
disturbance (T )
GLLLX
similar to(T by the
(s) the transfer
in Figure function
6-5. These G GLT (s).
transfer The transfer function
functions can be expressedGL (s) is
as similar to
disturbance ) by transfer function LT(s). The transfer function GL (s) is similar to
GLX(s) in Figure 9. These transfer functions can be expressed as
GLX(s) in Figure 9. These transfer functions can be expressedsas 2 2δa
s + s+1
1+ 2 2 ωa
2δ1 ω1 s2 2 ω
a
GLT1(s) = ss ; G Lθ s (s) =2 a as 1 (25)
2 2 2s 12δ
1 2 1s 1 2δ a2
a
as +
GLT s 2 1 1+ a; s +G1L s a
1
s+1 (25)
GLT s 2 2 ω ; G s 2 2 ω (25)
s 2 22 ω a a a L s 2 22 1ω1 1
s as 1 s 1 s 1
2
2 a s 1 2
2 1 s 1
a a 1 1
a 1
KL KL(J1 + J2 ) J2
where ωa = , ω1 = = ωa 1+
KL J2 KL J1 JJ12J2 J2 J1
where a
KL , 1
K L J1 J 2 a 1 J2
where J , J J 1 J1
a BJL22 1 1 BL J11 J22 J1 + J 2 a J1 J2
δa = , δ1 = = δa 1+
BL 2 1 KLJ2 BL 2 J 1 K J 2LJ1 J2 J2 J1
a
BL 1 , 1
BL J1 J2 a 1 J2
a 2 KLJ 2 , 1 2 KLJ 1 J 2 a 1 J1
2 KLJ 2 2 KLJ 1 J 2 J1
74
K-E Rydberg Feedbacks in Electro-Hydraulic Servo Systems
______________________________________________________________________ 1
K-E Rydberg Feedbacks in Electro-Hydraulic Servo Systems 1
7 Feedbacks
FEEDBACKS in Electro-HydraulicSERVO
IN ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC Servo SYSTEMS
Systems
FEEDBACKS IN ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SERVO SYSTEMS
7.1 Linearvalve
1. Linear valve controlled
controlled position
position servo
servo
1. Linear valve controlled position servo
A
A linear
linear valve
valve controlled
controlledposition
positionservo
servoisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure7-1. Leakage flow
1. Leakage flow over
over the
the
A linear
piston valve
with thecontrolled position
flow-pressure servo
coefficientisCshown
and ain Figure
viscous 1. Leakage
friction flow
coefficient
piston with the flow-pressure coefficient Cp and a viscous friction coefficient Bp are
p over
B p the
are
piston
included
includedwith
in themodel.
in the
the flow-pressure
model. The
The servocoefficient
servo amplifier C
amplifier p and a viscous
(controller) is friction with
is proportional
proportional coefficient
with the gainBK
the gain Kare
p sa .
(controller) sa.
included in the model. The servo amplifier (controller) is proportional with the gain Ksa.
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=-
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.567"'"&%
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0) ? " 8'
@ 8,.
0' @ 8,. *,$1$)+(,-2
0' *,$1$)+(,-2
Figure 1: Valve controlled position servo
Figure
Figure7-1: Valvecontrolled
1: Valve controlledposition
positionservo
servo
The transfer
The transfer functions
functions (in(in the
the frequency
frequency domain)
domain) ofof the
the components
components in in the
the position
position
The
servotransfer
are functionsin(in
illustrated the frequency
Figure 2. domain)
Threshold and ofsaturation
the components
in the in the
servo position
valve are
servo are
servo are illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 7-2.
2. Threshold and
Threshold and saturation
saturation in
in the
the servo
servo valve
valve are
are
included.
included.
included.
!>
!>
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8)&:'%%%9 " H "(&' ,*(((
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<6: %& H "% ' $% ()
FG%&,G+7/ 3.-0%.-"+(
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0) "% "4 ""5.# 8B" 9 @ 9 2 6 9 #6
$#
0)? 8,. "% "4 5.# 8B" 9 ! ? ! : :9$" #6 9, #6
8,. &"( $<6 9 " !:: "" :#$"" !! "" 9
? @ $<6 9 " !! # ? # 9 ,
@ &"( !# #"": #"
<0D,E
<0D,E
8'
8'
Figure 2: Block-diagram of a linear position servo including valve dynamics and non-linearityLs
Figure7-2:
Figure 2: Block-diagram
Block-diagramofofa alinear
linearposition
positionservo
servoincluding
includingvalve
valvedynamics
dynamicsand
andnon-linearityLs
non-linearities
The transfer function of the valve is G ( s) 1 . The hydraulic resonance frequency
The transfer function of the valve is 1 . The hydraulic resonance frequency
1
The transfer function of the valve is G v
Gv ((ss)) = s . The hydraulic resonance frequency
1 ss
v
11 + v
2
ω vv
4 A 2p2 K ce eMt
Bp Vt
and damping is expressed as: h 44 βee A
A and pp
h K M BB
Kce β eeVM tt 4 App V
VMt .
and
and damping
damping isis expressed
expressed as:as: ω hh = M etV and and δ hh = Acep
t t + 4A p e
t .
t .
MM tVV t A
A p V
V t 4 App βe M
Mt
The parameter values of the system are as follows:
t t p t e t
The parameter. values
-3 2of the system are as follows: 9
The parameter values
Ap = 2,5. 10-3 m2 of the system are as follows: e = 1,0·109 Pa
Ap = 2,5.10-3 m2 e = 1,0·10 9 Pa
A 0 10 m
Bp = 2,5 βKf == 1,0·10
25 V/m Pa
Bpp = 0 -11 5 Kef = 25 V/m 3
BKce==01,0·10 m5 /Ns Kfqi==25 0,02
V/mm /As
Kpce = 1,0·10-11
-11 m 5/Ns Kqi = 0,02 m33/As
Kce 0,1 A/V m /Ns
sa = 1,0·10 KMt == 1500
0,02 mkg/As
Ksa = 0,1 A/V
-3 3 Mqit = 1500 kg
Vt = 1,0·10 m v = 1/ v = 0,005 s
Vt = 1,0·10-3 m3 v = 1/ v = 0,005 s
75
______________________________________________________________________

Ksa = 0,1 A/V Mt = 1500 kg
Vt = 1,0·10-3 m3 τv = 1/ωv = 0,005 s
These parameter values gives ωhh = 129 rad/s and δhh == 0.155.
0.155.
The
The open
open loop
loop gain
gain (A
(Auu(s)) of the
(s)) of the position
position servo
servo with
with K Kvv =
= δhhωhh == 20
20 1/s
1/s(A(Amm==66dB)
dB)isis
shown in Figure
Figure3.7-3. Observe
Observe thatthat
the the bandwidth
bandwidth of the
of the valvevalve
v= ω1v =v 1=/τ200
v = 200
rad/srad/s
is is
higher
higher than
than the
the hydraulic
hydraulic resonance
resonance frequency
frequency ωhh..
;<
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!"#$%&'()*+(,-
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Figure 3: Bode-diagram of the open loop gain of the position servo depicted in Figure 2
Figure 7-3: Bode-diagram of the open loop gain of the position servo depicted in Figure 7-2
when the servo valve is assumed to be very fast
when the servo valve is assumed to be very fast
Influence of valve dynamics

7.1.1 Influence of valve dynamics
To really make use of the actuator capability of controlling the load it is very important
To
thatreally makevalve
the servo use ofisthe
fastactuator
enough.capability
Normallyofthe
controlling the load
selected valve willit have
is very important
a bandwidth
that the servo valve is fast enough. Normally the selected valve will have a bandwidth
( v) of at least twice as high as the hydraulic resonance frequency ( h). Figure 4 shows
(ω
thev)open
of atloop
leastgain
twice
of as
thehigh as theservo
position hydraulic resonance
depicted in Figurefrequency
2, with an(ωhordinary
). Figurevalve
7-4
shows
( v=200the open loop gain of the position servo depicted in Figure 7-2, with an ordinary
rad/s) and a valve with slow response ( v = 20 rad/s).
valve (ωv=200 rad/s) and a valve with slow response (ωv = 20 rad/s).
2
10
2
10
0 0
Amplitude
Amplitude
10 10
−2 −2
10 10
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [rad/s] Frequency [rad/s]
−50 −50
−100 −100
−150
−150
−200
Phase
Phase
−200
−250
−250
−300
−300 −350
−350 −400
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
a) Normal valve bandwidth, v = 200 rad/s b) Valve with low bandwidth, v = 20 rad/s
Figure 4: Bode-diagram
a) Normal of the open
valve bandwidth, ωv = loop gain of a position
200 rad/s servo
b) Valve with
with a) bandwidth,
low fast valve and
ωv b) slow
= 20 valve
rad/s
FigureFigure
From 7-4: Bode-diagram
4 it can beof recognised
the open loop that
gain of
thea position
open loopservogain
with and
a) fastthereby
valve and b) slow
the valve
amplitude
margin will be change because of the valve dynamics. For a slow valve ( v < h) the
open loop gain can be approximated as
Kv
Au , which gives Kvmax = v for a reasonable stability margin.
1 s/ v s 76
______________________________________________________________________
From Figure 7-4 it can be recognised that the open loop gain and thereby the amplitude
margin will be change because of the valve dynamics. For a slow valve (ωv < ωh) the
open loop gain can be approximated as
Kv
Au
K-E Rydberg ≈ , whichingives Kvmax = ω v Servo
for a Systems
reasonable stability margin.3
(1+ s / ω v )Feedbacks
s
Electro-Hydraulic
Closed loop stiffness

7.1.2 Closed loop stiffness
The most important characteristic of the servo system is the closed loop stiffness. The
stiffness of the closed loop system describes the controlled signal deflection ΔXXpp due to
variations in the disturbance force ΔF
FLL. By setting Ucc = 0 in the block-diagram in Figure
27-2
thethe new
new block-diagram
block-diagram becomes
becomes as as
in in Figure
Figure 5. 7-5.
:
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=
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% ##= ##
7(892(8.3/ 012-'1345
&;. : .6(,
*<$ : " " &'( &)
!! -./
Figure7-5:
Block-diagramdescribing
describingthe
thestiffness
stiffnessofofa aclosed
closedloop
loopposition
positionservo
servo
FLL
− ΔF
The stiffness of
of the
the closed
closed loop
loop servo
servoisisdefined
definedasas SScc = .. If
If the valve dynamics
ΔX pp
and the threshold are neglected the stiffness
stiffness becomes
becomes
s 33 2δ hh 22 s ⎛ s ⎞ ⎛ ss22 22δhh ⎞
+ s + + 1 ⎜ + 1
1 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ + s
s +11⎟
22
A pp K vvωhh22 K vvωhh K vv A pp ⎜⎝ K vv
2 2 ⎟ ⎜ω 2 ω
⎠ ⎝ h
2
h h
h
⎟
⎠
S cc = K vv ⋅ ≈ K vv ⋅
K cece Vtt K cece ⎛ ss ⎞
1+ s ⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
4 βee K cece
⎝ 22δ hhωhh ⎠
where the steady state loop gain gain K
Kvv = Ksa
saKqi
qiKf/Ap. The closed loop stiffness including
valve dynamics is shownshown in in Figure
Figure 7-6.
6. The
The amplitude
amplitude curve
curve isis normalised
normalised as
22
S cc A
App
, where
where K ss = K
Kvv ⋅
K ss K
Kcece
2 2
10 10
Amplitude, (Sc/Ks)
Amplitude, (Sc/Ks)
1 1
10 10
0 0
10 10
−1 −1
10 10
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
200 200
150
150
100
Phase
Phase
100
50
50
0
0
10
0 1
10
2
10
3
10
77 −50
10
0 1
10
2
10
3
10
a) Normal valve bandwidth, v = 200 rad/s b) Valve with low bandwidth, v = 20 rad/s
Figure 6: Bode-diagram of the closed loop stiffness with a) fast valve and b) slow valve
1 s 1
4 e K ce 2 h h
where the steady state loop gain Kv = KsaKqiKf/Ap. The closed loop stiffness including
valve
K-E dynamics
Rydberg isHydraulic
shownServo
in Systems
Figure – 6. The Properties
Dynamic amplitude and curve
Control is normalised as
Sc A p2
______________________________________________________________________
, where K s K v
Ks K ce
2 2
10 10
Amplitude, (Sc/Ks)
Amplitude, (Sc/Ks)
1 1
10 10
0 0
10 10
−1 −1
10 10
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
200 200
150
150
100
Phase
Phase
100
50
50
0
0 −50
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
a) Normal
a) Normal valve
valve bandwidth,
bandwidth, ωvv =
= 200
200 rad/s
rad/s b) Valve
b) Valve with
with low
low bandwidth,
bandwidth, ωvv == 20
20 rad/s
rad/s
Figure 6: Bode-diagram of the closed loop stiffness with a) fast valve and b) slow valve
Figure 7-6: Bode-diagram of the closed loop stiffness with a) fast valve and b) slow valve
In Figure
In Figure 7-6b)
6b) it itcan
canbebeseen
seen that
that thethe valve
valve dynamics
dynamics reduce
reduce the
the stiffness
stiffness just at
just at
frequencies around the bandwidth of
frequencies the
the valve
valve ((ωvv = 20
20 rad/s).
K-E Rydberg around the bandwidth ofElectro-Hydraulic
Feedbacks in =Servorad/s).
Systems 4
The threshold of the servo valve will also cause a position error ΔXp . If the threshold is ε
ε ⋅ in
ε⋅in the position error is ΔX pε = , where in is nominal valve input current.
K sa Kalso
The threshold of the servo valve will f cause a position error Xp . If the threshold is
in
in the position error is X p , where in is nominal valve input current.
K sa K f
7.2 Valve controlled position servo with load pressure
feedback
2. Valve controlled position servo with load pressure feedback
The load pressure feedback is used to increase the hydraulic damping in the system. A
The load pressure feedback is used to increase the hydraulic damping in the system. A
negative load pressure signal acts in the same way as a Kc-value (flow-pressure
negative load pressure signal acts in the same way as a Kc-value (flow-pressure
coefficient)
coefficient) of
of the
the servo
servo valve.
valve. Load
Load pressure
pressure feedback can be
feedback can be of
of proportional
proportional or
or
dynamic type. Proportional pressure feedback is shown in Figure 7-7.
dynamic type. Proportional pressure feedback is shown in Figure 7.
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Figure7-7:
linearposition
positionservo
servowith
withproportional
proportionalpressure
pressurefeedback
feedback(B(B
p ==0)0)
p
Load pressure
Load feedback will
pressure feedback will mainly
mainly increase
increase the
the hydraulic
hydraulic damping.
damping. It
It works
works just
just as
as aa
Kcc-value.
K -value. In
In the
the above
above block
block diagram
diagram the
the proportional
proportional pressure
pressure feedback
feedback will
will increase
increase
'
the effective
the effective KKcc-value
-value as follows, KKcece = KKcece + KKpfpf KKsasaG
as follows, ' GvK
K qi.. The
v qi
The resulting
resulting bode
bode
diagram of
diagram the open
of the open loop
loop gain
gain (A
(Auu(s))
(s)) and
and the
the closed
closed loop
loop stiffness
stiffness (S
(Scc(s))
(s)) for
for aa
hydraulic damping of h = 0,46 is shown in Figure 8. One negative effect of
proportional pressure feedback is that the steady state stiffness will be reduced.
2
10 78 10
2
litude, (Sc/Ks)
1
0 10
Amplitude
10
0
Figure 7: Block-diagram of a linear position servo with proportional pressure feedback (Bp = 0)
Load pressure feedback will mainly increase the hydraulic damping. It works just as a
K c-value. In the above block diagram the proportional pressure feedback will increase
the effective Kc-value as follows, K ce'
______________________________________________________________________
K ce K pf K sa Gv K qi . The resulting bode
diagram of the open loop gain (Au(s)) and the closed loop stiffness (Sc(s)) for a
hydraulic damping of δ hh == 0,46
0,46 isis shown
shown inin Figure
Figure7-8.
8. One
One negative
negative effect of
proportional pressure feedback is that the steady state stiffness will be reduced.
2 2
10 10
Amplitude, (Sc/Ks)
1
0 10
Amplitude
10
0
10
−2
10
−1
0 1 2 3
10
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
−50 200
−100
−150 150
−200
Phase
Phase
100
−250
−300
50
−350
−400 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Figure7-8:
Figure 8: Open
Openloop
loopgain
gain(to
(tothe
theleft)
left)and
andclosed
closedloop
loopstiffness
stiffnessofofa aposition
positionservo
servo
with
with load
load pressure
pressure feedback
feedback
Dynamic
Rydbergpressure
Dynamic
K-E pressurefeedback
feedback isisshown
Feedbacks inshownin Figure 9.Servo
in Figure
Electro-Hydraulic The idea
Theof idea
7-9.Systems usingofdynamic pressure
5
using dynamic
feedback is that the feedback signal shall reach its maximum value
pressure feedback is that the feedback signal shall reach its maximum value at a at a frequency,
which has to
frequency, be damped
which has to (the hydraulic(the
be damped frequency
hydraulich).frequency
Therefore,ωthe pressure signal
h). Therefore, the
will be high-pass
pressure filtered.
signal will At low frequencies
be high-pass filtered. At the
lowpressure feedback
frequencies signal is feedback
the pressure low and
the reduction
signal of the reduction
is low and steady state stiffness
of the steadywill
statebestiffness
very low
willcompared to compared
be very low proportional
to
pressure feedback.
proportional pressure feedback.
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Figure7-9:
linearposition
positionservo
servowith
withdynamic
dynamicpressure
pressurefeedback
feedback(B(B
p ==0)0)
p
3. Valve controlled angular position servo with acc. feedback

7.3 Valve controlled angular position servo with acc. feedback
Acceleration feedback works in principal as dynamic pressure feedback. When the load
Acceleration
starts oscillatefeedback works
there will be ainfeedback
principal signal,
as dynamic
whichpressure
increasefeedback. Whendamping
the hydraulic the load
startsatoscillate
just there will
the resonance be a feedback
frequency. The goodsignal,
thingwhich increase thefeedback
with acceleration hydraulicisdamping
that the
just at the resonance frequency. The good thing with acceleration feedback
steady state stiffness will not be affected. An angular position servo with acceleration is that the
steady state
feedback stiffnessinwill
is shown not 10
Figure be affected. An angular position
and the corresponding servo with
block-diagram acceleration
is expressed in
feedback
Figure 11. is shown in Figure 7-10 and the corresponding block-diagram is expressed in
Figure 7-11.
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Acceleration feedback works in principal as dynamic pressure feedback. When the load
starts oscillate there will be a feedback signal, which increase the hydraulic damping
just at the resonance frequency. The good thing with acceleration feedback is that the
steady state stiffness will not be affected. An angular position servo with acceleration
______________________________________________________________________
feedback is shown in Figure 10 and the corresponding block-diagram is expressed in
Figure 11.
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Figure 10: An angular position servo with acceleration feedback (Bm = 0)

Figure 7-10: An angular position servo with acceleration feedback (Bm = 0)
From Figure 11 the effect of the acceleration feedback can be expressed as a change in
From Figure 7-11 the effect of the acceleration feedback can be expressed as a1 change
the second order transfer function of the hydraulic system, Gh ( s ) 2 1 .
in the second order transfer function of the hydraulic system, Gh ( s) = s2 2 h .
s 2 2δ h s 1
2h
+ h s +1
1 ωh ωh
This transfer function will now change to Gh ( s ) 1 .
This transfer function will
K-E Rydberg now change
Feedbacks to Gh ( s) = sServo Systems
in Electro-Hydraulic
2
2 h K qi 6 .
s 22 ⎛ 2δ h K ac K sa KDqi Gv ( s )⎞ s 1
h +⎜ h + K ac K sa m Gv ( s ) ⎟ s + 1
ω h2 ⎜⎝ ω h Dm ⎟
⎠
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Figure 11a: Block-diagram of an angular position servo with acceleration feedback (Bm = 0)
Figure 7-11a: Block-diagram of an angular position servo with acceleration feedback (Bm = 0)
4 e Dm22
With h 4 β D , Gv(s) = 1,0 and Bm = 0 the effective hydraulic damping (including
With ωh = J tVe t m , Gv(s) = 1,0 and Bm = 0 the effective hydraulic damping
J tVt
K ce eJt
acceleration feedback)
(including will followfeedback)
acceleration the equation: will
*
h follow K ac Kthe
sa K qi
e
.
equation:
Dm Vt Vt J t
K βe J t βe
δ h* = ce + K ac K sa K qi .
Constant
Dm acceleration
Vt feedbackVt J tgain (Kac) means that the total damping ( h* ) varies
according to variations in the inertia load J , as shown in Figure 11b.
Constant acceleration feedback gain (Kac)t means that the total damping ( δ h* ) varies
according to variations in the inertia load Jt, as shown in Figure 11b.
80
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 7-11b: Damping in an angular position servo with acceleration feedback (Bm = 0)
7.4 Velocity feedback in position control servos

Pressure and acceleration feedback is used to increase the hydraulic damping and this
makes it possible to increase the steady state loop gain Kv and the closed loop stiffness
K-E Rydberg
will Feedbacks
increase. Another way in Electro-Hydraulic
to increase the stiffnessServo 7 a
Systems servo is to introduce
of a position
velocity feedback. A block-diagram of a linear position servo with velocity feedback is
shown in Figure 7-12.
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Figure7-12:
Figure 12: AAlinear
linearvalve
valvecontrolled
controlledposition
positionservo
servowith
withvelocity
velocityfeedback
feedback
If the
If the bandwidth
bandwidth of
of the
the valve
valve is
is relatively
relatively high
high and
and threshold
threshold and
and saturation
saturation is
is neglected
neglected
the velocity
the velocity feedback
feedback will
will give
give the
the effect
effect on
on the
the hydraulic
hydraulic resonance
resonance frequency
frequency and
and
damping as
damping as shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 13.
7-13.
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81
Figure 13: A linear position servo with velocity feedback included
From Figure 13 the new resonance frequency and damping ( hv and hv) caused by the
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Figure 12: A linear valve controlled position servo with velocity feedback
If the bandwidth of the valve is relatively high and threshold and saturation is neglected
______________________________________________________________________
the velocity feedback will give the effect on the hydraulic resonance frequency and
damping as shown in Figure 13.
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Figure7-13:
Figure 13: AAlinear
linearposition
positionservo
servowith
withvelocity
velocityfeedback
feedbackincluded
included
From Figure
From Figure 13 13 the
the new
new resonance
resonance frequency
frequency and
and damping
damping (ω( hv and δhv
hv and hv)) caused
caused by by thethe
velocity feedback can be evaluated
velocity feedback can be evaluated as as
K
K qiqi .
K , 11 ,, where
where the
the velocity
velocity loop
loop gain
gain is
is K
K = 1
1 + K
K K
K .
ω hvhv = ω hh K vfv
vfv , δ hv = δ h vfv
vfv
fv
fv
sav
sav A
hv h K vfv
K A p
p
vfv
Designing the
Designing the position
position control
control loop
loop for
for the
the same
same amplitude
amplitude margin
margin as as without
without velocity
velocity
feedback gives
feedback gives the
the following
following relations:
relations:
K
K qiqi
Steady state
Steady state loop
loop gain
gain without
without velocity
velocity feedback:
feedback: K
K vv = K
K sasa K
K ff
A
App
K
K qiqi
Steady state
Steady state loop
loop gain
gain with
with velocity
velocity feedback:
feedback: K
K vvvv = K
K sav K
K ff
sav A
Ap K
Kvfv
p vfv
A certain
A certain amplitude
amplitude margin
margin means
means that
that KK v ∝ ω hδ h .. In
In this
this case
case ω hδ h = ω hvδ hv ,, which
which
v h h h h hv hv
implies that
implies that KK v = KK vv andandthereby
therebythetheservo-amplifier
servo amplifier gain
gain is, K K K . With
v vv K sav
sav = Ksa vfv . With
sa Kvfv
velocity feedback,
velocity feedback, the
the servo
servo amplifier
amplifier gain
gain (K
(Ksav)) can
can bebe increased
increased inin proportion
proportion to to the
the
sav
velocity loop gain Kvfv and the servo amplifier gain without velocity feedback, Ksa.
velocity loop gain Kvfv and the servo amplifier gain without velocity feedback, Ksa.
TheRydberg
K-E open loop gain (AuFeedbacks
(s)) for ain position servo without
Electro-Hydraulic (Kv = 20) and with velocity
Servo Systems 8
The open loop gain (A
feefback (Kvfv = 10 and K u (s)) for a position servo
vv =20) is shown in Figure 14.
without (K v = 20) and with velocity
feedback (Kvfv = 10 and Kvv =20) is shown in Figure 7-14.
2
10
0
Amplitude
10
−2
10
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
Frequency [rad/s]
−50
−100
−150
Phase
−200
−250
−300
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure7-14:
Figure 14: Open
Openloop
loopgain
gainfor
foraaposition
positionservo
servowithout
withoutand
andwith
withvelocity
velocityfeefback
feedback(K(K
v ==Kvv
K)vv)
v
5. Valve controlled velocity servo

82
If an integrating amplifier is used in a velocity servo the loop gain Au(s) will be in
principle the same as for a position servo with proportional control. Such a velocity
servo is shown in Figure 15.
10 10 10 10
Frequency [rad/s]
−50
−50
−100
−100
−150
PhasePhase
−150
K-E Rydberg −200
−200
−250
______________________________________________________________________
−250
−300
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
−300 Frequency [rad/s]
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10
Figure 14: Open loop gain for a position servo without and with velocity feefback (Kv = Kvv)
Frequency [rad/s]
Figure 14: Open loop gain for a position servo without and with velocity feefback (Kv = Kvv)
7.5 Valve controlled velocity servo
5. Valve controlled velocity servo
5.
If an Valve controlled
integrating amplifier velocity
is used inservo
a velocity servo the loop gain Au(s) will be in
If an integrating amplifier is used in a velocity servo the loop gain Au(s) will be in
principle
If the same
an integrating as for aisposition
amplifier used inservo with proportional
a velocity control. Such a velocity
principle the same as for a position servo with servo the loop
proportional gain A
control. u(s) will
Such be in
a velocity
servo is
principle shown in
the same Figure 7-15.
as for 15.
a position servo with proportional control. Such a velocity
servo is shown in Figure
servo is shown in Figure 15.
57
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Figure7-15:
Figure 15: AAlinear
linearvalve
valvecontrolled
controlledvelocity
velocityservo
servo
Figure 15: A linear valve controlled velocity servo
AAblock
block diagram
diagram of
of the
the velocity
velocity servo
servo is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 7-16.
16.
A block diagram of the velocity servo is shown in Figure 16. ;<
;<
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Figure 16: Block-diagram of a linear valve controlled velocity servo
Figure7-16:
linearvalve
valvecontrolled
controlledvelocity
velocityservo
servo
1 Vt 1
Gv ( s) = , G1 ( s) = 1 + s , Gh ( s ) =
s 4 β e K ce s 2
2δ h
+1 + s +1
ωv ω h2 ωh
An integrating amplifier means that the control error will be integrated and the steady
state control error becomes zero.
83
1 Vt 1
Gv ( s ) , G1 ( s ) 1 s , Gh ( s)
s 4 e K ce s 2
2
1 2
h
s 1
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic
v Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control
h h
An integrating amplifier means that the control error will be integrated and the steady
______________________________________________________________________
state control error becomes zero.
7.6 Proportional valves with integrated position and pressure

6. Proportional valves with integrated position and pressure
transducers
transducers
In all fluid power applications a load has to be controlled by an actuator in respect of
In all fluid power applications a load has to be controlled by an actuator in respect of
speeds and forces. A new dimension of the ways to look upon these control aspects is to
speeds and forces. A new dimension of the ways to look upon these control aspects is to
useusea acontrol
controlvalve
valve(proportional
(proportional or
or servo
servo valve), which isis capable
valve), which capableofofcontrolling
controllingboth
both
flow
flowandandpressure
pressureininthe
theactuator
actuatorports
ports (two
(two ports for aa double
ports for double cylinder
cylinderorormotor).
motor).Such
Such
a proportional
a proportionalvalve
valvehashasbeen
beendeveloped
developed by by Ultronics. The principle
Ultronics. The principledesign
designofofthe
thevalve
valve
is is
shown
shownininFigure
Figure7-17.
17.
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Figure 17: Application
7-17: Applicationwith
withUltronics
Ultronicsproportional
proportionalvalve
valve
FromFigure
From Figure7-17
17 itit can
can be
be seen
seen the
the valve
valve has
has two
two spools,
spools,which
whichmake
makeititpossible
possibletoto
controlmeter-in
control meter-inand
andmeter-out
meter-outflow
flow ofof any
any actuator
actuator independently.
independently. This
Thisfacility
facilitygives
gives
the opportunity of smooth acceleration and deceleration control of the load byby
the opportunity of smooth acceleration and deceleration control of the load
individualpressure
individual pressurecontrol
controlinineach
eachcylinder
cylinder chamber.
chamber. The
The pressure
pressuretransducers
transducerscan canalso
also
be used for load pressure feedback to increase the hydraulic damping. By measurement
be used for load pressure feedback to increase the hydraulic damping. By measurement
of the pressure drop ( p) over a spool the load flow (q ) can be controlled by
of the pressure drop (Δp) over a spool the load flow (qLL) can be controlled by
calculation of the spool displacement (xv) from the flow equation of the valve, which
calculation of the spool displacement (xv) from the flow equation of the valve, which
gives
gives
qL
xv
q
xv = C q w L2 p
2
Cq w Δp
ρ
7.7 Electro-hydraulic servo actuators

Today electro-hydraulic actuators are normally manufactured as integrated units. The
servo valve is connected to the actuator (cylinder or motor) and all the transducers
needed for close loop control are integrated in the valve and actuator. An industrial
actuator for linear position control is depicted in Figure 7-18. The control card for this
actuator includes connectors for all feedback signals and the controller is implemented
84
______________________________________________________________________
in a microprocessor. The input signals to the control card are electric power supply and
a set point signal and than the card deliver a current signal (i) to the servo valve. The
hydraulic part of the actuator system has two connectors, one hydraulic supply line and
one return flow line.
In many industrial applications there is a need for multiple degrees of freedom control
of the load. One application, which requires advanced control, is motion simulator
platforms. This type of platform is often used for dynamic simulation of aircrafts and
cars. A common way to design a platform, which can be moved in a 3D-space, is to use
6 electro-hydraulic linear actuators as shown in Figure 7-19.
Figure 7-18: Industrial electro-hydraulic linear position control actuator, MOOG
Figure 7-19: Electro-hydraulic motion platform with 6 degrees of freedom, Rexroth
85
______________________________________________________________________
For low powerFigureapplications (low load

19: Electro-hydraulic motionweights) the6 platform
platform with shown Rexroth
degrees of freedom, in Figure 7-19 is
often
For realised
low power byapplications
using electro-mechanical actuators
(low load weights) (electricshown
the platform motorinand a ball19screw).
Figure is often
realised by using electro-mechanical actuators (electric motor and a ball screw).
A similar control strategy as for the 6 DOF plat-form can be used for crane (or
A similarrobot)
industrial controltip
strategy as for
control. the 6 DOF platform
Electro-hydraulic can beofused
control for crane
a lorry crane(oris industrial
shown in
robot) tip
Figure 7-20. control. Electro-hydraulic control of a lorry crane is shown in Figure 20.
!"#$%&'#%()*+,-".
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/0-12&'#
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X3
Figure
Figure 20: Crane
7-20: Crane tip
tip control
control with
withoptronic
optronicsensor
sensorfor
forvertical
verticalposition measurement
position measurement
The strategy for 2 DOF crane tip control is shown in Figure 7-21. A range camera
The strategy for 2 DOF crane tip control is shown in Figure 21. A range camera
(optronic sensor) is used to measure the vertical distance (h) between the camera and
(optronic sensor) is used to measure the vertical distance (h) between the camera and
the object. Z3 is the vertical co-ordinate from the base line of the crane to the crane tip.
the object. Z3 is the vertical co-ordinate from the base line of the crane to the crane tip.
The
Thereference
referencevalue
valuefor
forthe
the vertical
vertical crane
crane tip position isis calculated
tip position calculatedasasZZ3ref==ZZ+h 3+href –h.
3ref 3 refMh.
The
Thekinematics
kinematicsofofthe
thecrane
crane structure
structure isis calculated
calculated byby using
using the
thesignals
signalsfromfromposition
position
transducers
transducersininthe
thehydraulic
hydrauliccylinders
cylinders and
and aa geometric
geometric description
descriptionofofthethecrane
cranestructure.
structure.
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8. Design examples
86
Hydraulically operated boom with lumped masses
The figure shows a valve controlled cylinder used for operation of a mechanical arm.
(
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______________________________________________________________________
Figure 21: Control strategy for crane tip positioning
8.
7.8 Designexamples
Design examples
Hydraulically
Hydraulically operated
operated boom boomwith with
lumped masses
lumped masses
The
The figure
figure shows
shows aa valve controlled cylinder
valve controlled cylinder used
used for
for operation of aa mechanical
operation of mechanical arm. arm.
The
The total mass of the moving arm is ML. The distance from the gravity centre of the
total mass of the moving arm is M L. The distance from the gravity centre of the
mass
mass to
to the joint (0)
the joint (0) is is L.
L. The
The lever
lever length
length forfor the
the hydraulic
hydraulic cylinder
cylinder is
is e,
e, which
which will will
vary
vary according
according to
to xxpp.. The
The piston
piston area
area is
is AApp and
and its
its pressurised
pressurised volume
volume is is VVLL and
and this
this
volume varies according to the piston position. The effective bulk modulus
volume varies according to the piston position. The effective bulk modulus is βee. The is . The
pressure on the piston rod side is assumed as constant, pRR = constant. The mass of the
cylinder housing is M00 and the mechanical spring coefficient for the connection connection is is K
KLL..
7
@
67
"
$
2;<=<)./>0?/0
42
82
: 7 27
6@
97
45
Figure7-22:
Figure 22: Application
Applicationwith
withvariable
variablemechanical
mechanicalgearing
gearingbetween
betweencylinder
cylinderand
andload
load
Equivalent cylinder mass

The equivalent mass loading the piston rod is found from the torque equation for the
joint (0).
..
Inertia : J t = M L L2 .. Xp ⎛ L ⎞ ..
2
.. With θ = ⇒ p L Ap = M L ⎜ ⎟ X p .
Torque : Tθ = M L L2 θ = p L Ap e e ⎝e⎠
L
Introducing the mechanical gear U = , the equivalent cylinder mass can be expressed
e
as, M t = M LU 2
Hydraulic resonance frequency and damping

Assuming ML as the dominant mass the resonance frequency can be calculated as,
Ke 1 Ke 2
M0 << ML gives ωh = = where 1 = VL + 1 ⇒ K e = K L β e Ap
Mt U ML K e β e Ap2 K L K LVL + β e Ap2
K ce βM
Low mechanical friction gives the hydraulic damping: δ h = U e L
2 Ap VL
87
______________________________________________________________________
According to the gear U it can be observed that an increase of the gear gives a reduced
ωh but an increased δh. Studying the product δh·ωh the expression is,
2
K ce β e M L 1 β e Ap K βe
δ h ωh ≈ U ⇒ δ hω h ≈ ce , for KL >> Kh
2 Ap VL U VL M L 2 VL 0 + A p x p
Cylinder design according to max pressure level

This example is aimed to demonstrate how the cylinder design will influence the
hydraulic frequency and damping. Figure 7-23 shows a system with a stiff mechanical
structure and the cylinder is loaded by one mass (ML).
Figure 7-23: Cylinder controlled mass with mechanical gear
M Lg
As in Fig. 22 the mechanical gear U = L/e. The piston area is selected as, Ap = U .
pL
XL
The cylinder volume depends of the load displacement (XL) as, V0 = Ap . For the
U
β e Ap2
hydraulic resonance frequency the basic equation is, ωh = . If the cylinder is
V0 M LU 2
designed for some maximum load pressure (pLmax), with Ap and V0 as described above,
the hydraulic frequency will follow the expression:
βe ⋅ g
ωh = .
X L ⋅ pL max
The hydraulic damping is described as, δ h = K ce β e M LU 2 or δ = K ce ⋅ U β e ⋅ pL max

,
h
2 Ap V0 2 Ap XL ⋅g
where the flow/pressure coefficient (Kce) is assumed to be constant.
K ce β e K ce β e ⋅ p L max
The product δh·ωh is expressed as, δ hωh = = .
2 V0 2 Mt ⋅ g ⋅ X L
88
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 7-24 shows how the frequency, damping and the product varies according to the
design parameter max load pressure, pLmax.
Figure 7-24: Hydraulic resonance frequency and damping versus max load pressure
From the equations it can be noticed that the hydraulic damping will be proportional to
p L3 /max
2
and the product δ hωh ∝ p L max . This indicates that the cylinder-load response will
show less oscillations when the max load pressure is increased. The system response for
different pLmax is illustrated in Figure 7-25.
Figure 7-25: Response of the cylinder-load dynamics with cylinder design for max load pressure of 100,
200 and 300 bar respectively
89
______________________________________________________________________
7.9 Summary of servo system design criterions

The most important design criterions for servo systems are stability, accuracy,
repeatability, reliability and robustness. Stability and control accuracy has to be
analysed using standard control theory and critical nonlinearities must be included (see
Chapter 8).
The robustness and reliability criterions belong to each component as well as the supply
unit. The simplest way to improve robustness reliability of the hydraulic hardware is to
use a supply unit with high-quality filtering and cooling systems. Finally, the use of a
high-quality hydraulic fluid is of great importance to reduce wear and increase service
life of the system.
7.9.1 Control loop dynamics – possible improvements
Figure 7-26 illustrates a block diagram for an electro-hydraulic position servo with a
symmetric servo valve and cylinder, loaded by the mass Mt. The controller has three
different gains, one proportional gain KP of the position error, the gain KD for the
negative velocity feedback and KAC for the negative acceleration feedback. Servo valve
bandwidth is much higher than ω h.
Figure 7-26: Response of the cylinder-load dynamics
The velocity and acceleration feedbacks shown in Figure 7-26 will influence the second
order transfer function (resonance frequency and damping) as follows:
1 / K vfv 1 / K vfv
= , where Kvfv = 1+ Kfv·KD·Kqi/Ap
⎛ s2 ⎛ 2δ h K fAC ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ s 2 2δ h' ⎞
⎜ + ⎜ + ⎟ s + 1⎟ ⎜⎜ ' 2 + ' s + 1⎟⎟
⎜ ωh2 K vfv ⎜ ωh K vfv K vfv ⎟ ⎟ ⎝ ωh ωh ⎠
⎝ ⎝ ⎠ ⎠
ωh' ⎛⎜ 2δ h K fAC ⎞
and KfAC = Kfv·KAC·Kqi/Ap. → ωh' = ωh Kvfv and δ h' = + ⎟.
2 ⎜⎝ ωh K vfv K vfv ⎟⎠
With the following figures, Kvfv = 6, KfAC = 8,0·10-3 s, ωh = 100 rad/s and δh = 0,15, the
new frequency and damping became as:
' ωh' ⎛⎜ 2δ h
'
K fAC ⎞
ω = ωh Kvfv
h
= 245 rad/s and δ = h + ⎟ = 0,225.
2 ⎜⎝ ωh K vfv K vfv ⎟⎠
90
______________________________________________________________________
The velocity and acceleration feedback gives the steady state loop gain as:
K qi K f
K v' = K P' ⋅ ⋅ .
Ap K vfv
K qi
With position feedback only, the steady state loop gain is, K v = K P ⋅ ⋅Kf .
Ap
Designing for a specific amplitude margin (Am), for example, K v = δ hωh ⇒ Am = 6dB
and K v' = δ h' ωh' ⇒ Am = 6dB , means that the use of velocity and acceleration feedbacks
results in a much higher Kv-value. The difference is Kv = δ hωh = 15 1/s and
K v' = δ h' ωh' = 55 1/s, which gives an increasing factor of 3,67 and accordingly the
system bandwidth (ωb) will increase with the same factor.
When it comes to steady state stiffness of the closed loop system (|Sc|s->0) the difference
is much higher.
− ΔFL ' Ap2

Velocity and acceleration feedbacks gives: Sc = = K K vfv
v , resulting in
ΔX p K ce
s→0
'
Sc , va K K vfv
v 55 ⋅ 6
the ratio: = = = 22. The steady state stiffness increases 22 times.
Sc s →0
Kv 15
The full state feedbacks, shown in Figure 7-26 gives the possibility to improve system
dynamics to meet requirements on control accuracy, bandwidth and stiffness. However,
a successful control performance requires accurate feedback signals and a high response
servo-valve with low hysteresis and threshold.
Instead of acceleration feedback a dynamic load pressure feedback can be used in order
to improve the hydraulic damping. However, the load pressure signal has to be properly
filtered and the feedback gain has to be adjusted according to the actual resonance
frequency, otherwise the damping and stiffness will be affected.
91
______________________________________________________________________
8 Nonlinearities in Hydraulic Servo Systems

All real systems contain nonlinear elements to some extent. Mechanical mechanisms
have nonlinear friction in all contacts with relative motion between surfaces. Saturation
is another nonlinear phenomena, which set a limit for max output velocity/speed in all
kind of systems. Hydraulic systems have saturation in flow and pressure and electrical
systems in current and voltage.
Analysis of nonlinear system is a quite complex task. The major problem is to
determine the effect on performance of the nonlinear elements. By using digital
computer simulation most kind of nonlinearities can be handled sufficiently.
Commercial simulation program package usually contains tool-boxes with functions
which can handle the most common nonlinearities.
However, nonlinear systems are very difficult to analyse, because they have no unique
equilibrium point and it is difficult to quantify the stability criteria for these systems. In
opposite to nonlinear systems a linear system has only one unique equilibrium point and
the stability criteria are well defined.
Nonlinearities in hydraulic systems
From control engineering point of view, there is a great advantage of using linear
system descriptions. Linear differential equations have unique solutions and all aspects
of system performance, such as response and stability are predictable. By using a
method to linearize the existing nonlinearities the full system can be treated as a linear
one. That makes the control system design much more understandable and easier to
perform.
8.1 How to handle nonlinear properties in linear models?

As mentioned above, hydraulic servo system includes a number of nonlinear functions.
M0see Figure 8-1.
The servo valve has nonlinear flow gain, threshold and flow saturation,
The mechanical part of the system contains nonlinear friction and maybe, also backlash.
Figure 8-1: Block-diagram of a linear position servo including valve nonlinearities
Describing Functions
There are different ways to implement nonlinearities in a control loop with linear
transfer functions. One common method is to use Describing Functions. A describing
function is derived as a quasi-linearization of a nonlinear function. Introducing a
describing function in a control loop means that a nonlinear element is replaced by a
linear function except for a dependence on the amplitude of the input waveform. A
control loop including nonlinearities as a describing function (Gdf(α,β)) can be depicted
as illustrated in Figure 8-2.
92
Describing function – G (#)
df
______________________________________________________________________
Control loop containing nonlinearities
Control error Nonlinearities
U E M sin(!t ) f ("t + ! ) Y
+ G1 (s) Gdf (!, " ) G2 (s)
-
Feedback signal
G1 ( sa )nonlinear
Y including
Figure 8-2: Block-diagram of a control loop ! Gdf ("function
) ! G2 (Gsdf)(α,β)
Closed loop transfer function: =
The transfer function (output over input signal)1of
U +G the1 (closed
s ) ! Gdfloop
(" ) servo
! G2 ( ssystem,
) with
unit feedback, is derived as,
Characteristic equation: G (i! ) = 1 + G (i! ) # G (" ) # G (i! )
ch 1 df 2
Y G (s)⋅ Gdf (α, β )⋅ G2 (s)
= 1 (8-1)
1
U 1+G
Roots of char. equation: Gch (i"G) df=(α0,%
1 (s)⋅ β )⋅G
G12((s)
i" ) $ G2 (i" ) = #
Gdf (! )
Linear differential equations can be solved from the characteristic equation of the
system. The requirement on linearity also means that the nonlinearities must be
linearized, which is the case when describing functions are used. Since the describing
function only is defined for sine-wave signals, the Laplace-operator s has to be
substituted by iω. The characteristic equation of the closed loop system, shown in
Figure 8-2, can directly be derived from the transfer function as the denominator in (8-
1),
Gce (iω ) = 1+ G1 (iω )⋅ Gdf (α, β )⋅ G2 (iω ) (8-2)
The roots of the characteristic equation, addresses the stability of the system. The
characteristic equation equated to zero ( Gce (iω ) = 0 ) gives the roots and the relation
between the describing function and the other transfer functions as,
1
G1 (iω )⋅ G2 (iω ) = − (8-3)
Gdf (α, β )
The solutions to equation (8-3) are easily found by plotting the left and right side in a
Nyquist diagram (amplitude-phase plane). If intersections, of the two loci exists a limit
cycle will occur, with a frequency given by the left side of eq. (8-3) and amplitude
given by the right side.
8.2 Common Nonlinearities in Hydraulic Systems
8.2.1 Saturation and its effect on system performance
Saturation is the most common nonlinearity in servo system, since it exists in all types
of systems. The saturation level (S) and its impact on a sine-wave signal (M.sin ωt) are
demonstrated in Figure 8-3. It can be noted that the saturation element just will cut the
top of the sine-wave signal when S < M. In practice, saturation in a control system
means a reduction of the steady state loop gain (Kv) and the saturation level gives a
limit for the actuator velocity/speed.
93
K-E Rydberg
Saturation gives gain redu
______________________________________________________________________
Reference: Merritt H E, ”Hydraulic Control System
Gdf
Figure
Fourier8-3: Saturation
analysisof a sine-wave signal, [1]
gives
Fourier analysis of the output signal from the 2 1/ 2 $
2'! 41 S S saturation
- 3 S element gives the following
0 * ! S/M = 1,0 => Gdf = 1,0
describing function,
Gdf (6 ) = &sin + 1
+ 14 . ( #
5 ! M M + 2M / (
% ( , ) ! " S/M = 0,4 => Gdf = 0,5
" S % ,*
2
2 * −1 S S
Gdf = )sin + 1− $ ' - (8-4)
π *+ M M # M & *.
Numerical values of S and M in eq. (8-3) gives Gdf = 1.0 for S = M. Reduction of the
saturation level increases Gdf, which gives the range 0 < Gdf <= 1. From equation (8-3)
it can now be stated that the highest value of the right side is -1 and reduced saturation
level gives lower values (only real numbers), which gives the criteria,
1
− ≤ −1 (8-5)
Gdf (α )
In the above equation the describing function is expressed as Gdf(α) because, the
saturation element just includes one variable (with real number), the amplitude ratio
S/M.
Saturation and its impact on system dynamics, such as oscillation frequency and
amplitude, depend upon the system loop gain characteristics. Looking at a hydraulic
linear position servo with proportional control and a servo valve with quite high
Control loop for position servo
response the control system can be described as in Figure 8-4.
Control error Saturation

function
1
U E Y
+ Kv Gdf (! ) ' s 2 2) h
%% 2 +
$
s + 1"" ! s
-
& (h (h #
Feedback signal
Figure 8-4: Block diagram of a hydraulic position servo with proportional control and saturation
Loop gain included
Kv = 40 1/s
Kv
Au ( s) = 2
Kv = 20 1/s
' s 2 ! 0.2 $
%% 2
+ s + 1"" ! s
& 100h 100 #
94
Gdf (! ) = 1.0
K K
______________________________________________________________________
Nyquist diagram for position servo with
saturation
Plotting the left and in the
right side of equation (8-3) control
for this systemloop
in a Nyquist diagram
gives the result as shown in Figure 8-5.
Intersection
Loop gain
-1
Kv
Au ( s ) =
' s 2
2 ! 0 .2 $ 1
%% + s + 1"" ! s "
2 Gdf (! ) ! =$
& 100 100 # phase shift
! =100 rad/s
Saturation char. ! = 50
!1 !
" !1.0
Gdf (# )
Kv = 40 1/s Kv = 20 1/s
Saturation in position servo

Figure 8-5: Nyquist diagram of a hydraulic position servo with proportional control and saturation
characteristics
From the open loop gain plotted in Figure 8-5 it can be noted that Kv = 20 1/s is equal
to the product, ωh.δh = 20 1/s, which gives a stability-margin/amplitude-margin of Am =
6 dB for the control loop. Kv = 40 1/s gives Am = 0 dB, which is the border between
stability and instability. For normal setting of Kv (20 1/s) the real number of the loop
gain in bigger than -1 and no intersection with the saturation characteristics can occur.
K = $ " # = 20 ! A = 6 dB
In other words, saturation can’t provide limit cycle oscillations in this system.
v h h m
Kv = 20
(no sat.)
Position [m]
Step
Kv = 40 (no sat.)
Kv = 40, sat. = 0.5
Time [s]
Figure 8-6: Step response of a hydraulic position servo with proportional control and saturation
From Figure 8-6 it can be observed, that the highest steady state gain, Kv = 40 1/s and
no saturation results in on-going oscillations after that the final position has been
reached. When a saturation element is included in the control loop the oscillation
amplitude will be drastically reduced. Compared to the amplitude without saturation,
95
______________________________________________________________________
the saturation ratio is S/M ≈ 0.33 which gives this high suppression of the oscillation
amplitude. However, the saturation element will not change the stability criteria, so the
oscillations will still continue.
Compensation of deadband
q
8.2.2 Dead-band
Dead-band: In a servo valve dead-band is caused by friction and overlap of valve ports.
Ex: Valve
Valve overlap causes a dead-band characteristic
around neutral spool position (position -at zero input
D D+
signal). The dead-band impact on the valve flow gain and how dead-band can i be
sation of deadband
compensated for is demonstrated in Figure 8-7.
q q
i
D+
aracteristic %
D- D+ i D- iref iref
Figure 8-7:
q Step response of a hydraulic position servo with
+ proportional control and saturation
iref > 0 " i = iref + D iref < 0 " i = iref + D-
A dead-band in a servo valve means that the valve flow gain is zero inside the dead-
band region. By adjusting the valve command signal it is simple to compensate for
iref
% dead-band. Figure 8-7 shows that a negative reference signal, iref < 0 gives the
i
command signal as i=refiref + D- (where D- has negative sign) and a positive reference
signal, iref > 0 gives the command signal as i = iref + D+. In practical applications it is
very important to implement a small threshold around zero, otherwise the dead-band
compensator can start to oscillate because of noise on the reference signal.
+ D+ iref < 0 "compensation
Dead-band i = iref + D-is easy to implement in a digital controller. However, it has to
be remembered that a dead-band will not remains constant. The range of a valve dead-
band varies according to supply pressure and temperature. Also the valve response has
to be quite fast, otherwise the dead-band compensation will cause a significant time
delay in the control loop.
8.2.3 Threshold and Hysteresis
Threshold: The increment of input current required to produce a change in valve

output is named as valve threshold. Valve threshold is usually expressed in percent of
rated current. In opposite to dead-band the threshold level must be passed in the full
operation range to change the valve output. To overcome a threshold value in a control
loop the absolute value of the control signal must be bigger than zero. Therefore, the
threshold will cause a control error in a servo system with only proportional control, see
page 72.
The threshold effect on the valve spool displacement (xv) versus input current (i) is
96
Hysteresis
______________________________________________________________________
!iTH
xv
Figure 8-8: Threshold effect valve spool displacement
The figure demonstrates that the threshold characteristic is similar to backlash and as
well as backlash it creates a hysteresis profile. This kind of nonlinearity is multivalued,
since it has impact on both amplitude and phase. However, in a servo valve a typical
threshold value is ΔiTH = 1 % of rated current iN, which give a phase shift less than 2
degrees. Karl-Erik Rydberg, IEI/Linköping University
8.3.4 Nonlinear friction
In practice mechanical friction has always a nonlinear velocity dependency. At zero

velocity the friction force belongs to dry friction effects and at higher velocities the
friction is developed to full viscous nature. Real characteristics of friction forces are
often defined as a “StribeckNon-linear friction
curve”, which is illustrated in Figure 8-8.
Ff [N]
Bf < 0 Bf > 0
v [m/s]
Bf > 0 Bf < 0
Figure 8-8: Friction force versus velocity,KStribeck

!M characteristics
VtB
Hydraulic damping in position servo – ce fe t
Valve controlled symmetric cylinder:
"h = +
In the figure, Bf in [Ns/m] represents the viscous Ap friction
Vt coefficient,
4 Ap ! e Mwhich
t is the
gradient of the force-velocity profile. Using Bf to define the slope of the force curve it
can be seen that the numerical value of Bf will be negative at low velocities. This effect
has to be taken into account at design of servo systems with relatively high friction
forces in actuator and load.
Friction can have a great impact on the damping of oscillations in servo systems. This
can be demonstrated by looking at the expression of the relative hydraulic damping for
a system with a symmetric cylinder controlled by a four-port symmetric valve, see
equation (8-7).
97
______________________________________________________________________
K ce βe M t B f Vt
δh = + (8-7)
Ap Vt 4Ap βe M t
Fully developed viscous friction, Bf > 0, will just increase the effective damping, but in
the low velocity range, Bf < 0, friction will cause lower damping. Analysing the two
terms on the right side of eq. (8-7) it can be observed that increased effective bulk
modulus (βe) and reduced volume (Vt) will increase the first term and reduce the
second.
Improvements of the hydraulic stiffness (low hydraulic capacitance, Ch = Vt/βe) will
reduce the control problem caused by nonlinear friction in actuators and loads.
Therefore, a safe way to handle nonlinear friction is to make sure that the first term in
eq. (8-7) is dominant for all output velocities/speeds.
98
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9 Controller Design for Hydraulic Servo Systems
9.1 General structure of the controller

The most general controller of conventional type is the PID-controller. However, even
with this controller there can still be a need of more dynamic compensations in the
control loop. In a hydraulic system the relative damping is often quite low. A
stabilisation feedback (load pressure or acceleration feedback) can be used to increase
the damping. Depending of the variation of the command signal there will be a delay
between the derivative of the command signal and the output signal. This delay can be
reduced to a minimum by use of a feed forward gain.
The action of the PID-controller means that the derivative gain increases proportionally
to the frequency. In spite of this behaviour it is important to reduce the gain of the D-
action at high frequencies. Otherwise, the high frequency disturbances on the signals
will be amplified to a level, which can mainly influence the function of the system. A
forward loop filter is used to reduce the derivative gain at high frequencies.
From the above discussion the general structure of the controller will be as shown in
Figure 9-1.
Figure 9-1: Structure of a PID controller with feed forward gain and stabilisation feedback.
99
______________________________________________________________________
9.2 Feed forward gain for reduction of velocity error in

position servos
Assume a linear position servo with valve-controlled piston. In this case a plain
proportional controller is suitable to use and easy to adjust for stability. However, if the
command signal is changed there will be a phase lag from input to output signal in the
servo. In the position servo the phase lag cause a position error proportional to time
derivative of the command signal (velocity).
If the feed forward gain introduces a derivative of the command signal it will be
possible to more or less eliminate the phase lag. This feed forward gain helps the servo
control loop (servo valve) to react quickly to a change in the command signal.
Implementation of a feed forward gain in a position servo is shown in the “simulink-
model” in Figure 9-2. The feed forward gain is represented by the transfer function
Gff(s) = s/Kv, where Kv is the steady state gain in the control loop from feed forward
input to system output signal. In this case Kv = 20 sec-1 and 1/Kv = 0.05 sec. The feed
forward gain also includes a low-pass filter with a break frequency of 1000 rad/s
(compare with the forward loop filter in Figure 9-1).
Figure 9-2: Simulink-model of a valve controlled cylinder with position feedback and feed forward gain.
The command signal in Figure 9-2 is a sine wave. The simulation results in Figure 9-3
shows that the output signal can follow the command signal with a very small phase
lag. The oscillations at start, depends on the relatively low hydraulic damping (δh =
0.155) in the system.
Figure 9-3: Command and output signal with feed forward gain.
100
______________________________________________________________________
The effect of the feed forward gain can preferable be studied by plotting the output
signal (Y) versus command signal (X), as illustrated in Figure 9-4.
Figure 9-4: Output versus command signal without (to the left) and with feed forward gain in
a position servo with proportional control.
A notable behaviour of the feed forward gain is that its action is like a pre-filter, which
not affect the control loop gain and the stability margins.
9.3 PID Controller

The Proportional–Integral–Derivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop
feedback mechanism widely used in industrial control system. A PID controller
attempts to correct the error between a measured system variable and a desired
command signal by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust
the process accordingly. A PID controller and its control algorithm are shown in Figure
9-5.
P_action
k={1}
Output_Y
Input_U I_action Sum Saturation
+1
+1 +
I
+1
startTime={0.2} k={3} uMax={2}
D_action
DT1
k={0}
t
1 dU (t )
Y (t ) = K P ⋅U (t ) + ∫ U (τ )dτ + TD
TI t0 dt
Figure 9-5: PID Controller.
101
______________________________________________________________________
9.3.1 Proportional
K-E Rydberg
K-E Rydberg
gain Controller design
Controller design
4
4
Proportional gain is used for all tuning situations. It introduces a control signal that is
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
proportional to the error signal. As proportional gain increases, the error decreases and
the feedback signal tracks the command signal more closely, see Figure 9-6.
Proportional gain by
system response
system response increases system
by boosting
boosting the response
the effect ofbythe
effect of theboosting
error the effect
signal.
error signal. of the error
However,
However, too signal.
too much
much
However, toogain
proportional much
canproportional gain can
cause the system cause the
to become system to become unstable.
unstable.
proportional gain can cause the system to become unstable.
!"##$%&'()*%$+ ,-./-.'()*%$+
!"##$%&'()*%$+ ,-./-.'()*%$+
0""'+"1'*$)% ,/.)#$+'*$)% 0""'2)*2'*$)%

0""'+"1'*$)% ,/.)#$+'*$)% 0""'2)*2'*$)%
Figure 6: Effects
Figure ofofproportional gain.
Figure 9-6: Effectsof
6: Effects proportionalgain.
proportional gain.
Integral gain
Integral gain gain
9.3.2 Integral
With an integral control mode the error signal will be integrated over time, which
With
With an
an integral
integral control
control mode the
the error
modeduring error signal
signal will
will be integrated
be Integral
integrated over time, which
improves mean level response dynamic operation. gainover time, system
increases which
improves
improves mean
mean level
level response
response during
during dynamic
dynamic operation.
operation. Integral
The gain
integralincreases
gains, system
increases
response during steady state or low-frequency operation and maintain the mean value at
response
system during steady
response duringstate or low-frequency
steady state oradjustmentoperationoperation
low-frequency and maintainmaintain
the mean value at
high-frequency operation. The I-gain determines howand much time itthe mean
takes to
high-frequency
value operation.
at high-frequency The I-gain
operation. adjustment
TheHigher determines
I-gain adjustment how much
determines time it takes to
improve the mean level accuracy. integral gain settings how much system
increase time it
takes to improve
improve the mean the mean
level level accuracy.
accuracy. HigherHigher integral
integral gainsettings
gain settingsincrease
increase system
system
response, but too much gain can cause slow oscillations, as shown in Figure 7.
response, but
response, but too
too much
much gain
gain can
can cause
cause slow
slow oscillations,
oscillations, as
as shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 7. 9-7.
!"##$%&'()*%$+ ,-./-.'()*%$+
!"##$%&'()*%$+ ,-./-.'()*%$+
,/.)#$+'*$)%
,/.)#$+'*$)% 3)*2'*$)%
3)*2'*$)% 0""'2)*2'*$)%
0""'2)*2'*$)%
Figure 7: Effects of integral gain.
Figure 9-7:
Figure 7: Effects
Effectsofofintegral
integralgain.
gain.
The integrator output signal depends upon the I-gain and the input signal level, see
The integrator output signalsignal, depends
depends upon the
uponfor I-gain
thethe
I-gain and
and the
the input
input signal
signalinlevel,
level, see
Figure 8. It is very important to set a limit output signal, as shown Figuresee
8,
Figure
Figure 8. It is
9-8. very important
It integrator
is very importantto to
setset
a limit forfor
a limit thethe
output signal,
output as as
signal, shown
shownin Figure 8,
in Figure
to
to
prevent
prevent
the
the integrator
for “windup”.
for “windup”.
9-8, to prevent the integrator for “windup”.
Figure 9-8: Integrator action with different input signals.

Figure 8: Integrator action with different input signals.
Figure 8: Integrator action with different input signals.
An “Anti-windup”
An “Anti-windup” implementation
implementation for
for aa PID
PID controller is
102controller is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 9.
9.
______________________________________________________________________
An “Anti-windup” implementation for a PID controller is shown in Figure 9-9.

K-E Rydberg Controller design 5
______________________________________________________________________
Figure 9-9: “Anti-windup” implementation for I-action in a PID controller.
The anti-windup implementation shown in Figure 8-9 is using the saturation level for
the system to adjust the integrator gain so that the control signal stays inside the
saturation margins.
Figure 9: “Anti-windup” implementation for I-action in a PID controller.
9.3.3 Derivative gain

Derivative gain
With a derivative control mode the feedback signal means it anticipates the rate of
With a of
change derivative control and
the feedback mode the feedback
slows the system signal meansatit high
response anticipates thechange.
rates of rate of
change of the feedback and slows the system response at high rates of
Derivative gain provides stability and reduces noise at higher proportional gain settings. change.
Derivative
The D-gaingain
tendsprovides stability
to amplify noiseandfromreduces noise
sensors andattohigher proportional
decrease gain settings.
system response when
TheisD-gain
set tends
too high, seetoFigure
amplify noise
9-10. Too from
muchsensors and togain
derivative decrease system
can create responseatwhen
instability high
frequencies.
set is too high. Too much derivative gain can create instability at high frequencies.
!"#$%&''(
1*23*23
4'5-$.(# !)(*+,+-$.(# /''-+,0&-$.(#

Figure
Figure9-10: Effectsofofderivative
10: Effects derivativegain
gain
9.3.4 Implementation and tuning of PID-controllers

I literature there is a number of “thumb-rules” which can be used for tuning of PID-
controllers. However, most of them are based on conventional control theory with the
assumption that the system dynamics is linear. In all practical hydraulic applications,
the system dynamics includes a number of non-linear properties such as, saturation,
hysteresis, non-linear flow gain and non-linear friction characteristics.
Before tuning of a PID-controller the implementation of the controller must be checked.
One common controller implementation, described in the frequency domain is,
103
______________________________________________________________________
1 1 T s
Y (s) = K P ⋅ e(s) + ⋅ ⋅ e(s)⋅ f (aw) + D ⋅ u fb (s)
TI s T
1+ D s
N
The above equation shows that the integrator gain is multiplied with the control error
e(s) and an anti-windup function f(aw). Derivative action is only used on the feedback
signal ufb(s) and then a low-pass filter is added where the time constant TD/N has to be
adjusted to suitable limit of the derivative gain at high frequencies.
As pointed out before, the tuning of a PID-controller for a hydraulic system is not a
simple task. A first attempt for tuning a digital can be to use a method developed by
Takahashi et al. [3].
Start to run the system with a simple P-controller and increase the gain until self-
oscillation occurs. At this point the proportional gain is KC and the periodic time of
oscillation TC. Now the parameters in the PID-controller can be tuned as follows,
TD = 0.075⋅ K C ⋅ TC
1 K
= 1.2 ⋅ C
TI TC
Ts
K P = 0.60 ⋅ K C − 0.50 ⋅
TI
where Ts = sampling time in [s].
9.4 A commercial digital controller

M3000 – A Motion-Control Toolbox for Hydraulic Axes
There are several advancedBy digital
Dr.-Ing. C.controllers on the
Boes and Dipl.-Ing. market. One digital controller
J. Weiblen
Moog GmbH, Böblingen, Germany
especially developed for hydraulic multi-axes control is Moog M3000, described in ref.
[4]. When compared to analog control systems, the implementation of nonlinear control
structures is relatively easy in digital systems. Figure 3 contrasts the frequency
In [4], the M3000 system is summarized as a system that is optimally configured for
responses
automation of control
tasks valves with
in hydraulic andanalog and digital
electrical driveelectronics.
engineering. The M3000 system is
designed to handle a number of transducer signals from each axis. The connection of
one servo valve controlled
3.1 Hardware axis structure
& software to the M3000-system is illustrated in Figure 9-11.
CAN / SSI / Encoder
M12 x 5 D
S
4
U
M8 x 4 P
4
11+PE M8 x 4 U
Signale P
11+PE
+ Supply
4 A B
U
S
5 2
P T
CANopen M12 x 5
DDV
4
M8 x 4 U
P
Elektronik
Figure 9-11:
Figure 4: Axis-control valveM3000 connected to a valve-controlled axis, [4]
The axis-control valve's interfaces were configured in such a way that all major axis-
control functions familiar from servohydraulics
104 can be realized. As shown in Figure 4,
the hydraulic axis can read-in the position and pressure signals of the cylinder chambers
as well as the valve's supply pressure.
M3000 – A Motion-Control Toolbox for Hydraulic Axes
K-E Rydberg Hydraulic
ByServo Systems
Dr.-Ing. – Dynamic
C. Boes Properties
and Dipl.-Ing. and Control
J. Weiblen
Moog GmbH, Böblingen, Germany
______________________________________________________________________
"acceleration". The integrated feedback is activated only under certain conditions that
the user must parameterize. It is possible to parameterize yielding and a delaying
A controller design is based on block diagram form. The implementation of a position
feedbackfor
controller of the controller fault for
a valve-controlled high-frequency
axis drives. 9-12.
is shown in Figure
Kra
Acceleration
Krv
Velocity
Kp, Tp
Kd, Td
X1 X0 Ki Uimax, Uimin
Kx Kpos, Kneg Umax, Umin

Position Trajectory
Reference Generator
Position Valve
Reference
1, Tfilt Tdiff Kv
Position
Feedback
Tdiff Ka
Figure 6: Structure of the

Figure 9-12: implemented
Structure of positionposition
controllercontroller
for a valve-controlled axis, [4]
A major
This figurecomponent of the
illustrate that position
M3000 controller
has all is the needed
the facilities trajectory generator. aThis
to implement block
controller
structure like
conditions thetheincoming
module position
shown insetFigure
points9-1.
in such a way that a smooth path with limited
speed and acceleration values will be specified.
3.2.2 Example "Pressure-control closed loop"

As shown in Figure 7, the pressure controller exhibits the structure /1//2/, as known from
common sources. The controller consists of a PI core with a nonlinear anti-wind-up
function and yielding feedback of the actual pressure value.
Although the controller structure shown here may appear to be very simple, in practical
situations there are often difficulties achieving the optimal setting of the Ki, Kd, and Td
controller parameters.
Prepared for the 4th International Fluidpower Conference Dresden, Germany on 25-26 March 2004. 6
105
______________________________________________________________________
References
[1] Herbert E. Merritt: Hydraulic Control Systems. ISBN: 978-0-471-59617-2.
368 pages. Wiley. January 1991.
[2] MOOG: Electrohydraulic Valves – A Technical Look. MOOG Industrial
Controls Division. East Aurora, NY, US
[3] Y. Takahashi, C. S. Chan, D. M Auslander: Parametereinstellung bie
Linearen DDC-Algorithmen. Regelungstchnik und Process-Daten-
verarbeitung, Vol. 19, No. 6, 1971, pp. 237-284.
[4] C. Boes, J. Weiblen: M3000 – A Motion-Control Toolbox for Hydraulic
Axes. Moog GmbH, Böblingen, Germany. Technical paper, March 2004.
106
______________________________________________________________________
Appendix 1
Design of hydraulic position servo
Design of a linear position servo
Parameter values:
FLmax = 28 kN, Mt = 900 kg, vmax = 0,75 m/s, ps = 21 MPa, "e = 1000 MPa,
Cylinder stroke = 1,0 m, Position accuracy !Xp = 2,0 mm / 10 kN,
Amplitud e margin: Am = 6,0 dB, Servo bandwidth: #b = 12 rad/s
5
a) Piston area and servo-valve size?

Piston area? Assume steady state load conditions.
FL max
Ap pL max = FL max " Ap = pLmax = ?
pL max
28 ! 103
Select pLmax = 2/3 ps = 14 MPa " Ap = = 0,002 m2
6
14 ! 10
Valve size – flow capacity?
The servo valve nominal flow qN is given at !pv = (ps - pL) = 70 bar
1 Ap ! vmax
qL = Cq wxv ( ps ! p L ) qL = qN = K qiN iN = Ap ! vmax K qiN =
" iN
0, 002 ! 0, 75
Nominal valve input current, iN = 50 mA " K qiN = = 0,03 m3/As
0, 050
Nominal valve flow qN = 0,002.0,75 = 0,0015 m3/s = 90 litre/min
ps 210
Max flow gain? pL = 0: K qi0 = K qiN" = 0, 03 = 0,052 m3/As
70 70
6
107
______________________________________________________________________
b1) Control loop stability and bandwidth

Required amplitude margin, Am = 6 dB. This requirement has
to be compared with the req. on bandwidth, #b = 12 rad/s.
Valve bandwidth,
#v >> #h
Kv
Definition of Am: Am = #2010 log
# 2" h!h
Am gives the req. on K

Kv max = K sa # qi 0 K f = 10 $ Am / 20 # 2 # " h min # !h min
steady state loop gain: Ap
7

Am = 6 dB $ Kv max = " h min # !h min
!b max = Kv max ! !b max = " h min # !h min where
4 ! e Ap2 Kce min !e M t Bp min Vt

"h min = " h min = +
M tVt Ap Vt 4 Ap !e M t
!e
Bp = 0 and Kcemin = Kc0 gives: "b max = 2 # K c 0 #
Vt
Required Kc0-value:
! b max !Vt
Kc 0 =
2 "e
12 ! 0, 002 5 Gives a leakage flow of
"11 m
Kc 0 = = 1, 2 !10 0,00025 m3/s at 21 MPa,
2 !1000 !10 6 Ns a quite high value.
8
108
______________________________________________________________________

Bp = 0 and Kcemin = Kc0 gives min resonance frequency and
damping as:
4 !1, 0 !10 9 ! 0, 002 2 rad 1, 2 !10 "11 1, 0 !10 9 ! 900

! h min = = 94, 3 ! h min = = 0,127
900 ! 0, 002 s 0, 002 0, 002
1
and ! h min ! "h min = 94, 3! 0,127 =12 (as stated)
s
The control loop is stable with these values, but the damping, $hmin =
0,127 is very low, which gives a quite oscillative step response.
Calculation of controller gain:
K sa ! K qi0 K !A
K v max = K f " K sa = v max p
Ap K qi0 ! K f
Ap = 0,002 m2, Kvmax = 12 1/s, 12 " 0, 002

! K sa = = 0,046 A/V
Kqi0 = 0,052 m3/As, Kf = 10 V/m 0, 052 "10
c1) Steady state stiffness
Closed loop stiffness (including position feedback)!
Requirement: Max pos. error !Xp = 2 mm / !FL = 10 kN
" !FL Ap2 # "FL K sa ! K qi 0 Ap2

Sc s#0 = = Kv " = Kf ! = K sa ! K p 0 ! K f ! Ap
!X p K ce "X p Ap K ce
s #0 s $0
!pL Kq
Where the valve pressure gain is: K p0 = =
!xv qL =0
Kc
!i
9
109
______________________________________________________________________

K sa ! K qi 0 K v max ! Ap
K v max = K f " K sa = and
Ap K qi 0 ! K f
Steady state stiffness for Kce = Kc0
# "FL
"X p !"FL Ap2 0, 002 2
K p0 = s $0 = Kv = 12 = 4 $10 6 N / m
[Pa/m] "X p K c0 1, 2 $10 !11
K sa ! K f ! Ap s#0
Required stiffness is at least, 10000/0,002 = 5.106 N/m
Since the required stiffness is higher than the calculated

value the system design has to be improved to fulfilled the
requirement on position accuracy.
The problem can be solved by introducing a dynamic load
pressure feedback ,))'(-./0$12$#3).4*5"6&'*-731.$8)*95$8&04):0
!"#$%&'()*+$
signal into the controller, $
see figure
;$
on
next slide.
<133$ ()$ =1+=">-00$ ?134)*)'@$ A4$ 35<$ ?*)B7)2.1)0$ 4=)$ >*)007*)$ ?))'(-./$ 01+2-3$ 10$ 35<$ -2'$
4=)$ *)'7.4152$ 5?$ 4=)$ 04)-'&$ 04-4)$ 041??2)00$ <133$ ()$ 9)*&$ 35<$ .5:>-*)'$ 45$ >*5>5*4152-3$ 10
>*)007*)$?))'(-./@$
<=>#?(-&2@9"",@9&)99AB#-C
&&&"D")
!2)
"D")&/&0
*+
. . 8
&
,- ( &&0 72 0
1 72
/ !"# $%&!'( /
&&&&&&&0 32 /
: 45&" "
. . !-9&/& 5&&&" 6+
&&&&&&&&&&;!9
32
!)
$
The pressure feedback provides a frequency dependent Kc-value. At
,1+7*)$CD$E35./"'1-+*-:$5?$-$312)-*$>5014152$0)*95$<14=$'&2-:1.$>*)007*)$?))'(-./$FE>$G$HI$
$
low frequencies
!"#$%&'()*+$ Kce = ,))'(-./0$12$#3).4*5"6&'*-731.$8)*95$8&04):0
Kc0 and for high # Kce > Kc0 $ . ;$
!"# !"#$%&'()*+(##%,&")-.#"+&/(01*1()&0%+$(&21*3&"''4&5%%,6"'7&
By using a valve with Kc0 = 0,6.10-11 m5/Ns the steady state stiffness
A..)3)*-4152$?))'(-./$<5*/0$12$>*12.1>-3$-0$'&2-:1.$>*)007*)$?))'(-./@$J=)2$4=)$35-'$
will increase to 84=)*)$
04-*40$ 50.133-4)$ .106<133$
N/m, which 01+2-3K$
()$ -$ ?))'(-./$ also<=1.=$
give space
!" 12.*)-0)$ 4=)$to handle
=&'*-731.$ threshold.
'-:>12+$
L704$ -4$ 4=)$ *)052-2.)$ ?*)B7)2.&@$ M=)$ +55'$ 4=12+$ <14=$ -..)3)*-4152$ ?))'(-./$ 10$ 4=-4$ 4=)$
$A2$ ) , 0)*95$ <14=$ -..)3)*-4152$
*)>5014152$
The stiffness requirement can also be satisfied by using
04)-'&$ 04-4)$ 041??2)00$ <133$ 254$ ()$ -??).4)'@$ %& ' -2+73-*$
. '-
! (**
?))'(-./$ 10$ 0=5<2$ 12$ !"#$%&' ()$ -2'$ 4=)$' ? "
.5**)0>52'12+$ $ (35./"'1-+*-:$ 10$ )N>*)00)'$ 12$
acceleration feedback:
!"#$%&'((@$
( ( & %& +
% %&•
#$ +, '!/+
K )
- - $mp
X - $Xmp
'() qi
!!#- ! . ! . #" ! !
& & 0 & (
% %. A1p - ! ! # "". $$ ""
-
. $@9I #m #?
H- / :0
/ 2" ')$2( 3$$4546)7+89:*44;<)$=
2+ E5 F+
>8(+7+89:*44;<)$=
'*
:G
$
$
,1+7*)$<<-=$>35./"'1-+*-:$5?$-2$-2+73-*$@5014152$0)*95$A14B$-..)3)*-4152$?))'(-./$C>:$D$EF$ 12
,1+7*)$OHD$A2$-2+73-*$>5014152$0)*95$<14=$-..)3)*-4152$?))'(-./$FE
Karl-Erik Rydberg, IEI/Linköping University :$G$HI$
H
I '
,*5:$,1+7*)$OO$4=)$)??).4$5?$4=)$-..)3)*-4152$?))'(-./$.-2$()$)N>*)00)'$-0$-$.=-2+)$12$
# "
G14B$ $ ) J$( *+,-.-/01$-2'$2 -.-1$4B)$)??).419)$B&'*-731.$'-:@12+$C12.37'12+$
"
&% O
4=)$ 0).52'$ 5*')*$
! ! 4*-20?)*$ ?72.4152$ 5?$ 4=)$ =&'*-731.$ 0&04):K$ " # F ! I @$
!P P
110 7 6# &! P
! O #
-..)3)*-4152$?))'(-./F$A133$?5335A$4B)$)K7-4152=$ L
$
#
7 56 7#+5 7 34 # # M$
'" %! O %! & !
M=10$4*-20?)*$?72.4152$<133$25<$.=-2+)$45$ "# F ! I @$
!P P #
% ()
N5204-24$ -..)3)*-4152$ ?))'(-./$ +-12$ C756F$ :)-20$P 4B-4$ 4B)$ %454-3$ "& F ! I C! L OF$ 9-*1)0$
*+ % !*'-:@12+$
$ $
______________________________________________________________________
c4) Steady state stiffness and threshold

Position error (!Xp) according to valve threshold:
Threshold: #iTH = % of iN to change !iTH = K f K sa !X p
the main spool position
Accept a position error caused by threshold to !Xp = 0,0005 m:

! "iTH = 10 # 0, 046 # 0, 0005 = 0, 00023 A
!iTH = 0,00023 A is 0,0046.iN or 0,5 % of iN.
!iTH = 0,5 % of iN is a typical value for an advanced servo valve, so
it is acceptable.
Total position error (!Xp,tot) is the sum of disturbance force
(FL) error and threshold error: !X p ,tot = !X p , FL + !X p ,TH
Kc0 = 0,6.10-11 m5/Ns gives: !X p,tot = 0,00125+ 0,0005 = 0,00175 m = 1,75 mm
111

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Hydraulic Servo Systems

Dynamic Properties and Control

s s2 2 h Steady state loop gain [1/s]

)&6 &$ (& )

Closed loop stiffness for a position servo)- with D;*.?.;70-66=B+&C

Figure 13: A linear position servo with velocity feedback

Linköping November 6, 2014

Department of Management and Engineering

Hydraulic Servo Systems – Dynamic Properties and Control

2 Configuration of electro-hydraulic servos ..................................... 12

3 Servo valves and their characteristics ............................................ 15

4 Position servos with valve-controlled cylinders ......................... 36

5.4 Pump controlled motor with variable displacement ........................................... 58

6 Hydraulic systems with complex load dynamics ......................... 61

7 Feedbacks in Electro-Hydraulic Servo Systems ........................... 75

8 Nonlinearities in Hydraulic Servo Systems ................................... 92

9 Controller Design for Hydraulic Servo Systems ........................... 99

References .................................................................................................... 106

1.3 Capabilities of electro-hydraulic servos

1.4 Different electro-hydraulic concepts

-./, " 0"*1'#*' "

Overall efficiency [-]

1.5.1 Servo valve efficiency Feedback

Servo valve efficiency

Figure 1-6: Servo valve with supply unit and corresponding

Nominal load flow gives a valve efficiency of η sv = 0,67.

Overall efficiency [-]

2 Configuration of electro-hydraulic servos

Figure 2-2: Symbol circuit of a position servo

3.1 Number of lands and ports

K-E Rydberg Figure 2-3:

!" !" !"

#$%&'()*+ ,&'-()*+ ."&'()*+

Figure 3-4: Main spool and bushing of a servo valve

Figure 3-4: Main spool and bushing of a servo valve, (MOOG)

., /0-!1!02"34456%78 ., ,0%5"+94--:94"34456%78 ., ,0%5"3;0<"34456%78

+,#+- ()* +,#+- ()* +,#+- ()*

characteristic of a position feedback valve at low frequencies and characteristics of a

3.3.2 Number of stages

Figure 3-8: Two-stage servo valve (MOOG)

The load flow through the valve is expressed by the equation

ΔQL = K q ΔX v − K c ΔPL (3-7)

or ΔQL = K qi Δiv − K ci ΔPL (3-8)

3.5 Critical center four-way valve

3.5.1 Practical null coefficients for a critical center valve

3.5.3 Blocked line pressure sensitivity curve

Figure 3-20: Four-way open center spool valve with underlap U

The subscripts of the area refer to Hydraulic

This is the equation for the pressure-flow

3.7 Three-way spool valve analysis

Figure 3-22: Three-way spool valve with differential piston

3.8 Dynamic response of servo valves

Servo valve dynamics

Valve transfer functi

Phase shift [o]

Fast valve ( sv > 50 H

Servo valve efficiency

Valve bandwidth lower than 50 Hz:

4 Position servos with valve-controlled cylinders

transformed continuity equations for the volumes V V1 and V2 as

Example: Variation in resonance frequency for an asymmetric cylinder with line

Figure 4-3: A double acting hydraulic cylinder with line volumes

4.2 Valve controlled symmetric cylinder

Ap (ΔP1 − ΔP2 ) = Ap ΔPL = M t s 2 ΔX p + B p sΔX p + ΔFL (4-21)

-./, " 0"1'#' "

#$%&'()+ ,&'-()+ ."&'()*+