E Haich Inicijacija

Song Structure
Contents
1 Song structure 1
1.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Pre-chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Chorus or refrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Conclusion or Outro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.7 Elision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.8 Instrumental solo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.9 Ad lib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 AABA form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Variation on the basic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Introduction (music) 8
2.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Verse–chorus form 9
3.1 Contrasting verse–chorus form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Simple verse–chorus form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Simple verse form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4 Refrain 11
4.1 Usage in history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 In popular music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 In Jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3.1 Arranger’s chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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4.3.2 Shout chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5 Bridge (music) 15
5.1 Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2 Classical music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6 Conclusion (music) 18
6.1 Coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2 Outro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3 Repeat and fade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7 Solo (music) 20
7.1 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.3 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8 Section (music) 22
8.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
9 Melody 24
9.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
9.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
10 Rhythm 28
10.1 Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
10.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
10.2.1 Pulse, beat and measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2.2 Unit and gesture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2.3 Alternation and repetition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10.2.4 Tempo and duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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10.2.5 Metric structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

10.3 Composite rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.4 Rhythm notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.4.1 African music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
10.4.2 Indian music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10.4.3 Western music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10.5 Linguistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
10.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
10.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
10.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
11 Phrase (music) 39
11.1 Musical phrase (theoretical concept) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
11.2 Musical phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
11.3 Intuitive versus analytical approach to phrase/phrasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
11.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
11.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
12 Motif (music) 44
12.1 Head-motif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
13 Musical composition 48
13.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.1.1 Improvisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.1.2 Piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.2 As a musical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
13.2.1 Indian tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.3 Composing music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.3.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
13.3.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.4 Compositional instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.5 Arranging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.6 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13.7 Copyright and legal status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.7.1 In the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.7.2 In the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.7.3 In India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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13.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
14 Harmony 57
14.1 Etymology and definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
14.2 Historical rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
14.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
14.4 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
14.5 Chords and tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
14.6 Perception of harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
14.7 Consonance and dissonance in balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
14.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
14.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
14.9.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
14.9.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
15 Musical form 68
15.1 Levels of organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
15.1.1 Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
15.1.2 Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
15.1.3 Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
15.2 Single forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
15.2.1 Sectional form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
15.2.2 Variational form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.2.3 Developmental form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.3 Cyclical forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
15.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
15.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
15.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Chapter 1
Song structure
For the song structure of classical song, see Art song § Art song formal design.
Song structure or the musical forms of songs in traditional music and popular music are typically sectional, re-
peating forms used in songs, such as strophic form and is a part of the songwriting process. Other common forms
include thirty-two-bar form, verse-chorus form, and the twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs traditionally use the
same music for each verse of stanza of lyrics (as opposed to songs that are "through-composed", an approach used in
classical music). Pop and traditional forms can be used even with songs that have structural differences in melodies.
The most common format is intro, verse, pre-chorus, chorus (or refrain), verse, pre-chorus, chorus, bridge (“middle
eight”), verse, chorus and outro.
The formal sections found in songs have been identified as the verse, chorus, bridge, hook, and refrain: “All songs are
put together with some or all of these parts in a particular pattern.”[1] The foundation of popular music is the “verse”
and "chorus" structure. “Pop and rock songs nearly always have both a verse and a chorus. The primary difference
between the two is that when the music of the verse returns, it is almost always given a new set of lyrics, whereas the
chorus usually retains the same set of lyrics every time its music appears.”[2] Both are essential elements, with the
verse usually played first. Exceptions abound, with "She Loves You" by The Beatles being an early example in the
rock music genre. Each verse usually employs the same melody (possibly with some slight modifications), while the
lyrics usually change for each verse. The chorus (or “refrain”) usually consists of a melodic and lyrical phrase which
is repeated. Pop songs may have an introduction and coda (“tag”), but these elements are not essential to the identity
of most songs. Pop songs often connect the verse and chorus via a bridge, which as its name suggests, is a section
which connects the verse and chorus at one or more points in the song.
The verse and chorus are usually repeated throughout a song though the bridge, intro, and coda (also called an “outro”)
are usually only used once. Some pop songs may have a solo section, particularly in rock or blues influenced pop.
During the solo section one or more instruments play a melodic line which may be the melody used by the singer, or,
in blues or jazz influenced pop, the solo may be improvised based on the chord progression or the verse played.
1.1 Elements
1.1.1 Introduction
Main article: Introduction (music)
The introduction is a unique section that comes at the beginning of the piece. Generally speaking, an introduction
will contain just music and no words. It usually builds up suspense for the listener so when the downbeat drops in,
it creates a release or surprise. In some songs, the intro is one or more bars of the tonic chord (the “home” key
of the song). The introduction may also be based around the chords used in the verse, chorus, or bridge, or a stock
"turnaround" progression may be played, such as the I–vi–ii–V progression (particularly in jazz influenced pop songs).
In some cases, an introduction contains only drums or percussion parts which set the rhythm and “groove” for the
song. Alternately the introduction may consist of a solo sung by the lead singer (or a group of backup singers), or
played by an instrumentalist.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. SONG STRUCTURE
"Jingle Bells"'s introduction Play intro or full song Structure: Intro, Verse I, Chorus, Verse II, Chorus, Verse III, Chorus, Verse IV,
Chorus, Outro.
1.1.2 Verse
Main article: Verse–chorus form
In popular music, a verse roughly corresponds to a poetic stanza because it consists of rhyming lyrics most often with
an AABB or ABAB rhyme scheme. When two or more sections of the song have almost identical music and different
lyrics, each section is considered one verse. It is not to be confused with a pre-verse, which is an interlude between
the introduction of a song and its opening verse. Although less common now, the pre-verse technique was popular
with the surf music of the 1960s.
Musically, “the verse is to be understood as a unit that prolongs the tonic....The musical structure of the verse nearly
always recurs at least once with a different set of lyrics”.[3] Lyrically, “the verse contains the details of the song: the
story, the events, images and emotions that the writer wishes to express....Each verse will have different lyrics from
the others.”[1] “A verse exists primarily to support the chorus or refrain...both musically and lyrically.”[4]
1.1.3 Pre-chorus
An optional section that may occur after the verse is the “pre-chorus.” Also referred to as a “build”, “channel,” or
“transitional bridge,” the pre-chorus functions to connect the verse to the chorus with intermediary material, typically
using subdominant or similar transitional harmonies. “Often, a two-phrase verse containing basic chords is followed
by a passage, often harmonically probing, that leads to the full chorus.”[5] Often when the verse and chorus involve
the same harmonic structure, the pre-chorus will introduce a new harmonic pattern in order to make the harmony
reappearance of the verse harmonies in the chorus seem fresh.
1.1.4 Chorus or refrain
Main article: Refrain
“The difference between refrain and chorus is not always cut-and-dried; both refer to passages of unchanging music
and text providing a periodic sense of return.”[6] “At times, the term 'refrain' has been used interchangeably with
'chorus.' Technically, the refrain may be considered anything that’s not the verse....a song part that contains the hook
or title and appears more than once in a song is usually called 'a chorus.'"[7] “The chorus contains the main idea, or
big picture, of what is being expressed lyrically and musically. It is repeated throughout the song, and the melody
and lyric rarely vary.”[1] A refrain is, “a repeated line or musical phrase that ties a song together...A refrain is only
a phrase, or a word, while a chorus contains many more words.”[8] A refrain may be defined as a repetitive phrase
or phrases that serve the function of a chorus lyrically but are not placed in a separate section and/or long enough so
as to be considered a chorus.[4] For example, refrains are found in AC/DC's "You Shook Me All Night Long", Paul
Simon's "The Sound of Silence", and "Deck the Halls" (“fa la la la la”).[8]
The chorus or refrain is the element of the song that repeats at least once both musically and lyrically. It is almost
always of greater musical and emotional intensity than the verse. “The chorus, which gets its name from a usual
thickening of texture from the addition of backing vocals, is always a discrete section that nearly always prolongs the
tonic and carries an unvaried poetic text.”[9] In terms of narrative, the chorus conveys the main message or theme of
the song. Normally the most memorable element of the song for listeners, the chorus usually contains the hook.
1.1. ELEMENTS 3
“Jingle Bells"'s verse Play verse or full song
1.1.5 Bridge
Main article: Bridge (music)
A bridge may be “a transition", but more often in popular music is “a section that contrasts with the verse...[,] usually
ends on the dominant...[, and] often culminates in a strong re-transitional”.[9] “The bridge is a device that is used to
break up the repetitive pattern of the song and keep the listener’s attention....In a bridge, the pattern of the words and
music change.”[8] For example, John Denver's "Country Roads" is a song with a bridge while Stevie Wonder's "You
Are the Sunshine of My Life" is a song without one.[8]
In music theory, "middle eight" (a common type of bridge) refers to the section of a song which has a significantly
different melody and lyrics, which helps the song develop itself in a natural way by creating a contrast to the previously
“Jingle Bells"'s chorus Play chorus or full song
played, usually placed after the second chorus in a song. (Typically, a song consists of first verse, pre-chorus, chorus,
second verse, pre-chorus, chorus, middle eight, chorus). Such sections often consist of new chords, but also frequently
just alternate between two chords. It is called a middle 8 because it happens in the middle of the song and the length
is generally 8 bars. Jazz players also call this “the release”.
A typical song structure employing a middle 8 is:
.... .... .... .... ........ .... .... Intro-{Verse-Chorus}{Verse-Chorus}-Middle 8-{Chorus}-{Chorus}-(Outro)
Middle 8s are often quieter than the remainder of the song, in contrast with the solo, which is generally more energetic.
In slower songs, however, a middle 8 can be used to generate energy. By adding a powerful upbeat middle 8, musicians
can then end the song with a hook in the end chorus and finale.
1.2. AABA FORM 5
1.1.6 Conclusion or Outro
“Jingle Bells"'s outro Play outro or full song
Main article: Outro (music)
The conclusion or outro of a song is a way of ending or completing the song. For example, through a fade-out or
instrumental tag.
1.1.7 Elision
An Elision is a section of music where different parts overlap one another, usually for a short period. It is mostly used
in fast-paced music, and it is designed to create tension and drama. For example, during a chorus later in the song,
the composer may interject musical elements from the bridge.
1.1.8 Instrumental solo

Main article: Solo (music)
A solo is a section designed to showcase an instrumentalist (e.g. a guitarist or a harmonica player) or less commonly,
more than one instrumentalist (e.g., a trumpeter and a sax player). Guitar solos are common in rock music, particularly
heavy metal and in the blues. The solo section may take place over the chords from the verse, chorus, or bridge, or
over a standard solo backing progression, such as the 12-bar blues progression. In some pop songs, the solo performer
plays the same melodies that were performed by the lead singer, often with flourishes and embellishments, such as
riffs, scale runs, and arpeggios. In blues- or jazz-influenced pop songs, the solo performers may improvise a solo.
1.1.9 Ad lib
In Latin, ad libitum means “at will"; this is often shortened to ad lib. An ad lib section of a song (usually in the coda or
outro) occurs when the main lead vocal or a second lead vocal breaks away from the already established lyric and/or
melody to add melodic interest and intensity to the end of the song. Often, the ad lib repeats the previously sung line
using variations on phrasing, melodic shape, and/or lyric, but the vocalist may also use entirely new lyrics or a lyric
from an earlier section of the song. During an ad lib section, the rhythm may become freer (with the rhythm section
following the vocalist), or the rhythm section may stop entirely, giving the vocalist the freedom to use whichever
tempo he or she wishes. During live performances, singers sometimes include ad libs not originally in the song, such
as making a reference to the town of the audience or customizing the lyrics to the current events of the era.
There is a distinction between ad lib as a song section and ad lib as a general term. Ad lib as a general term can be
applied to any free interpretation of the musical material.
1.2 AABA form

Main article: Thirty-two-bar form
Thirty-two-bar form uses four sections, most often eight measures long each (4×8=32), two verses or A sections, a
contrasting B section (the bridge or “middle-eight”) and a return of the verse in one last A section (AABA).
Examples include "Deck the Halls":
A: Deck the hall with boughs of holly,

A: 'Tis the season to be jolly.
B: Don we now our gay apparel,
A: Troll the ancient Yuletide carol.
1.3 Variation on the basic structure

Verse-chorus form or ABA form may be combined with AABA form, in compound AABA forms. Variations such
as a1 and a2 can also be used.
AAA format may be found in Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'", "The House of the Rising Sun", and
"Clementine".[10] Also "Old MacDonald", "Amazing Grace", "The Thrill Is Gone", and Gordon Lightfoot's "The
Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald".[11]
AABA may be found in Crystal Gayle's "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue", Billy Joel's "Just the Way You Are",
and The Beatles' "Yesterday".[12]
ABA (verse/chorus or chorus/verse) format may be found in Pete Seeger's "Turn! Turn! Turn!" (chorus first) and
The Rolling Stones's "Honky Tonk Woman" (verse first).[10] ABAB may be found in AC/DC’s "Back in Black",
Jimmy Buffett's "Margaritaville", The Archies's "Sugar, Sugar", and The Eagles's "Hotel California".[13]
ABABCB format may be found in Smokey Robinson's "My Guy" and The Beatles's "Ticket to Ride".[10] Also John
Cougar Mellencamp's "Hurts So Good", Tina Turner's "What’s Love Got to Do with It?", and ZZ Top's "Sharp
Dressed Man".[13] Variations include The Pretenders's "Back on the Chain Gang" (ABABCAB), Poison's "Every
Rose Has Its Thorn" (ABABCBAB), and Billy Joel’s "It’s Still Rock and Roll to Me" (ABABCABCAB).[13]
1.4 See also

• Earworm
• Lick
• Ostinato
• Theme
• Vamp
1.5 Sources
[1] Davidson, Miriam; Heartwood, Kiya (1996). Songwriting for Beginners, p.6. Alfred Music Publishing. ISBN 0739020005.
[2] Everett, Walter (2008). The Foundations of Rock : From “Blue Suede Shoes” to “Suite: Judy Blue Eyes": From “Blue Suede
Shoes” to “Suite: Judy Blue Eyes”, p.145. ISBN 9780199718702.
[3] Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology, p.15. Oxford University Press. ISBN
9780195129410.
[4] Cope (2009), p.68.
[5] Everett (2008), p.146.
[6] Whitesell, Lloyd (2008). The Music of Joni Mitchell, p.151. ISBN 9780199719099.
[7] Watson, C. J. (2003). The Everything Songwriting Book: All You Need to Create and Market Hit Songs, p.86. Adams Media.
ISBN 9781440522666.
[8] Davidson & Heartwood (1996), p.7.

1.6. FURTHER READING 7
[9] Everett (1999), p.16.
[10] Davidson & Heartwood (1996), p.8.
[11] Watson (2003), p.87-8.
[12] Watson (2003), p.89.
[13] Watson (2003), p.90.
1.6 Further reading

• Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus “AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms
and their Historical Development”. In: Samples. Online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusik-
forschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e.V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas
Phleps. Vol. 13 (2015).
• Covach, John. “Form in Rock Music: A Primer”, in Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music
Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517010-5.
• Covach, John and Boone, Graham, eds. Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis. Cited in Covach
(2005).
• Everett, Walter, ed. Rock Music: Critical Essays on Composition, Performance, Analysis, and Reception. Cited
in Covach (2005).
• Forte, Allan The American Popular Ballad of the Golden Era, 1924-1950: A Study in Musical Design, Princeton
University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-691-04399-9.
• Kaiser, Ulrich “Babylonian confusion. Zur Terminologie der Formanalyse von Pop- und Rockmusik”. In:
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Musiktheorie 8/1 (2011) – ISSN 1862-6742.
• Richard Middleton. “Form”, in Horner, Bruce and Swiss, Thomas, eds. (1999) Key Terms in Popular Music
and Culture. Malden, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-631-21263-9.
Chapter 2
Introduction (music)
In music, the introduction is a passage or section which opens a movement or a separate piece, preceding the theme
or lyrics. In popular music this is often abbreviated as intro. The introduction establishes melodic, harmonic or
rhythmic material related to the main body of a piece.[1]
Introductions may consist of an ostinato that is used in the following music, an important chord or progression that
establishes the tonality and groove for the following music, or they may be important but disguised or out-of-context
motivic or thematic material.[1] As such the introduction may be the first statement of primary or other important
material, may be related to but different from the primary or other important material, or may bear little relation to
any other material.
A common introduction to a rubato ballad is a dominant seventh chord with fermata,[2] Play an introduction that
works for many songs is the last four or eight measures of the song,[3] Play while a common introduction to the
twelve-bar blues is a single chorus.[4] Play
If a movement in sonata form starts with an introductory section, this introduction is not usually analyzed as being
part of the movement’s exposition.
2.1 See also

• Fanfare
• Dominant (music) and secondary dominant
• Leading tone
• Turnaround (music)
2.2 References
[1] Pease, Ted (2003), p.172. Jazz Composition : Theory and Practice. ISBN 0-87639-001-7.
[2] Weir, Michele (2005). Jazz singer’s handbook: the artistry and mastery of singing jazz, p.53. Alfred Music. ISBN
9780739033876.
[3] Weir (2005), p.57.
[4] Weir (2005), p.55.
8
Chapter 3
Verse–chorus form
Verse–chorus form is a musical form common in popular music, used in blues and rock and roll since the 1950s,[1]
and predominant in rock music since the 1960s. In contrast to thirty-two-bar form, which is focused on the verse
(contrasted and prepared by the B section), in verse–chorus form the chorus is highlighted (prepared and contrasted
with the verse).[2] “Many popular songs, particularly from early in the 20th century, are in a verse and a chorus
(refrain) form. Most popular songs from the middle of the [20th] century consist only of a chorus.”[3]
“Musically, most Civil War songs were cast in the verse–chorus patterns that had been popularized by Foster and
widely imitated by his peers and successors, with their choruses set in four-part harmony.” http://www.oxfordmusiconline.
com/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2259148
Thus, while in both forms A is the verse and B is the chorus, in AABA the verse takes up most of the time and
the chorus exists to contrast and lead back into the return of the verse, in verse–chorus form the chorus often takes
much more time proportionally and the verse exists to lead into it. For example: ABABB(B) [approximates: "Be My
Baby"], rather than thirty-two-bar form’s AABA.
The chorus often sharply contrasts the verse melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically, and assumes a higher
level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation. This is referred to as a “breakout chorus.”[4] See:
arrangement.
3.1 Contrasting verse–chorus form

Songs that use different music for the verse and chorus are in contrasting verse–chorus form. Examples include:
• "That'll Be the Day" by Buddy Holly (1957)[5]
• "Be My Baby" by The Ronettes (1963)[5]
• "California Girls" by The Beach Boys (1965)[5]
• "Penny Lane" & "All You Need Is Love" by The Beatles (1967)[5]
• "Foxy Lady" by Jimi Hendrix (1967)[5]
• "Smoke on the Water" by Deep Purple (1973)[5]
• "Can't Get Enough" by Bad Company (1974)[5]
3.2 Simple verse–chorus form

Songs that use the same harmony (chords) for the verse and chorus, such as the twelve bar blues, though the melody
is different and the lyrics feature different verses and a repeated chorus, are in simple verse–chorus form. Examples
include:
9
10 CHAPTER 3. VERSE–CHORUS FORM
• "Shake, Rattle, and Roll" by Big Joe Turner (1954)[5]
• "Louie, Louie" by The Kingsmen (1963 cover), example not using blues form[5]
• "La Bamba" by Ritchie Valens (1959)[5]
3.3 Simple verse form

Songs which feature only a repeated verse are in simple verse form (verse–chorus form without the chorus). Exam-
ples include:
• "Evil Ways" by Santana (1969)[5]
• Blues-based songs which are not simple verse–chorus form (above), such as "Heartbreak Hotel", "Jailhouse
Rock", "Hound Dog", and "Lucille"[5]
and with a contrasting bridge:
• "Eight Miles High" by The Byrds (1966)[5]

• "Tomorrow Never Knows" by The Beatles (1966)[5]
• "Purple Haze" by Jimi Hendrix (1967).[5]
Both simple verse–chorus form and simple verse form are strophic forms.
3.4 Sources
[1] Michael Campbell & James Brody (2007), Rock and Roll: An Introduction, page 117
[2] Covach, John. “Form in Rock Music: A Primer”, p.71, in Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music
Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517010-5.
[3] Benward & Saker (2003). Music: In Theory and Practice, Vol. I, p.317. Seventh Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-294262-0.
[4] Doll, Christopher. “Rockin' Out: Expressive Modulation in Verse–Chorus Form”, Music Theory Online 17/3 (2011), § 2.
[5] Covach (2005), p.71–72
3.5 See also

• Song structure (popular music)
Chapter 4
Refrain
For other uses, see Refrain (disambiguation).

A refrain (from Vulgar Latin refringere, “to repeat”, and later from Old French refraindre) is the line or lines that are
Musical notation for the chorus of “Jingle Bells” Play
repeated in music or in verse; the "chorus" of a song. Poetic fixed forms that feature refrains include the villanelle,
the virelay, and the sestina.
The use of refrains is particularly associated with where the verse-chorus-verse song structure typically places a
refrain in almost every song. The refrain or chorus often sharply contrasts the verse melodically, rhythmically, and
harmonically, and assumes a higher level of dynamics and activity, often with added instrumentation. Chorus form,
or strophic form, is a sectional and/or additive way of structuring a piece of music based on the repetition of one
formal section or block played repeatedly.
11
12 CHAPTER 4. REFRAIN
4.1 Usage in history

In music, a refrain has two parts: the lyrics of the song, and the melody. Sometimes refrains vary their words slightly
when repeated; recognisability is given to the refrain by the fact that it is always sung to the same tune, and the rhymes,
if present, are preserved despite the variations of the words. Such a refrain is featured in "The Star-Spangled Banner,”
which contains a refrain which is introduced by a different phrase in each verse, but which always ends:
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave.
A similar refrain is found in the "Battle Hymn of the Republic,” which affirms in successive verses that “Our God,”
or “His Truth,” is “marching on.”
Refrains usually, but not always, come at the end of the verse. Some songs, especially ballads, incorporate refrains
into each verse. For example, one version of the traditional ballad "The Cruel Sister" includes a refrain mid-verse:
There lived a lady by the North Sea shore,

Lay the bent to the bonny broom
Two daughters were the babes she bore.
Fa la la la la la la la la.
As one grew bright as is the sun,

Lay the bent to the bonny broom
So coal black grew the other one.
Fa la la la la la la la.
...
(Note: the refrain of 'Lay the Bent to the Bonny Broom' is not traditionally associated with the ballad of The Cruel
Sister (Child #10). This was the work of 'pop-folk' group Pentangle on their 1970 LP 'Cruel Sister' which has
subsequently been picked up by many folk singers as being traditional. Both the melody and the refrain come from
the ballad known as Riddles Wisely Expounded (Child #1).)
Here, the refrain is syntactically independent of the narrative poem in the song, and has no obvious relationship to its
subject, and indeed little inherent meaning at all. The device can also convey material which relates to the subject of
the poem. Such a refrain is found in Dante Gabriel Rossetti's “Troy Town":[1]
Heavenborn Helen, Sparta’s queen,

O Troy Town!
Had two breasts of heavenly sheen,
The sun and moon of the heart’s desire:
All Love’s lordship lay between,
A sheen on the breasts I Love.
O Troy’s down,
Tall Troy’s on fire!
...
Phrases of apparent nonsense in refrains (Lay the bent to the bonny broom?), and solfege syllables such as fa la la,
familiar from the Christmas carol "Deck the Halls with Boughs of Holly”, have given rise to much speculation. Some
believe that the traditional refrain Hob a derry down O encountered in some English folksongs is in fact an ancient
Celtic phrase meaning “dance around the oak tree.” These suggestions remain controversial.
4.2. IN POPULAR MUSIC 13
4.2 In popular music

There are two distinct uses of the word “chorus.” In the thirty-two bar song form that was most common in the earlier
twentieth-century popular music (especially the Tin Pan Alley tradition), “chorus” referred to the entire main section
of the song (which was in a thirty-two bar AABA form). Beginning in the rock music of the 1950s, another form
became more common in commercial pop music, which was based in an open-ended cycle of verses instead of a fixed
32-bar form. In this form (which is more common than thirty-two bar form in later-twentieth century pop music),
“choruses” with fixed lyrics are alternated with “verses” in which the lyrics are different with each repetition. In this
use of the word, chorus contrasts with the verse, which usually has a sense of leading up to the chorus. “Many popular
songs, particularly from early in this century, are in a verse and a chorus (refrain) form. Most popular songs from the
middle of the century consist only of a chorus.”[2]
While the terms 'refrain' and 'chorus’ often are used synonymously, it has been suggested to use 'refrain' exclusively
for a recurring line of identical text and melody which is part of a formal section—an A section in an AABA form
(as in I Got Rhythm: "...who could ask for anything more?") or a verse (as in Blowing in the Wind: "...the answer my
friend is blowing in the wind”)—whereas 'chorus’ shall refer to a discrete form part (as in Yellow Submarine: “We all
live in a...”). According to the musicologists Ralf von Appen and Markus Frei-Hauenschild,
In German, the term, “Refrain,” is used synonymously with “chorus” when referring to a chorus
within the verse/chorus form. At least one English-language author, Richard Middleton, uses the term
in the same way. In English usage, however, the term, »refrain« typically refers to what in German is
more precisely called the »Refrainzeile« (refrain line): a lyric at the beginning or end of a section that is
repeated in every iteration. In this usage, the refrain does not constitute a discrete, independent section
within the form. [3]
4.3 In Jazz
A large number of Tin-Pan Alley songs using thirty-two bar form are central to the traditional jazz repertoire. In
jazz arrangements the word “chorus” refers to the same unit of music as in the Tin Pan Alley tradition, but unlike
the Tin Pan Alley tradition a single song can have more than one chorus. Von Appen and Frei-Hauenschild explain,
“The term, “chorus” can also refer to a single iteration of the entire 32 bars of the AABA form, especially among
jazz musicians, who improvise over multiple repetitions of such choruses.” [4]
4.3.1 Arranger’s chorus

In jazz, an arranger’s chorus is where the arranger uses particularly elaborate techniques to exhibit his or her skill
and to impress the listener. This may include use of counterpoint, reharmonization, tone color, or any other arranging
device. The arranger’s chorus is generally not the first or the last chorus of a jazz performance.
4.3.2 Shout chorus

In jazz, a shout chorus (occasionally: out chorus) is usually the last chorus of a Big Band arrangement, and is
characterized by being the most energetic, lively, and exciting and by containing the musical climax of the piece. A
shout chorus characteristically employs extreme ranges, loud dynamics, and a re-arrangement of melodic motives into
short, accented riffs. Shout choruses often feature tutti or concerted writing, but may also use contrapuntal writing or
call and response between the brass and saxophones, or between the ensemble and the drummer. Additionally, brass
players frequently use extended techniques such as falls, doits, turns, and shakes to add excitement.
4.4 See also

• Bridge (music)
• Burden (music)
• Hook (music)
14 CHAPTER 4. REFRAIN
4.5 References
[1] Poems of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, inc. “Troy Town” at the Wayback Machine (archived February 25, 2004)
[3] Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus “AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms and their His-
torical Development”. In: Samples. Online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusikforschung/German Society for
Popular Music Studies e.V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas Phleps. Vol. 13 (2015), p. 5.
[4] Appen and Frei-Hauenschild 2015, p. 4.

Chapter 5
Bridge (music)
This article is about bridges in musical composition. For the component of a musical instrument, see Bridge (instru-
ment). For the benefit concerts organized by Neil Young and his wife, see Bridge School Benefit. For the bridge in
the thirty-two-bar form, see Thirty-two-bar form § Middle eight.
In music, especially western popular music, a bridge is a contrasting section that prepares for the return of the
The ragtime progression (E7-A7-D7-G7) often appears in the bridge of jazz standards ( Play ).[1] The III7-VI7-II7-V7 (or V7/V/V/V
- V7/V/V - V7/V - V7) circle progression leads back to C major (I) but is itself indefinite in key.
original material section. The bridge may be the third eight-bar phrase in a thirty-two-bar form (the B in AABA), or
may be used more loosely in verse-chorus form, or, in a compound AABA form, used as a contrast to a full AABA
section.
The term comes from a German word for bridge, Steg, used by the Meistersingers of the 15th to the 18th century to
describe a transitional section in medieval bar form.[2] The German term became widely known in 1920s Germany
through musicologist Alfred Lorenz[3] and his exhaustive studies of Richard Wagner's adaptations of bar form in his
popular 19th-century neo-medieval operas. The term entered the English lexicon in the 1930s—translated as bridge—
via composers fleeing Nazi Germany who, working in Hollywood and on Broadway, used the term to describe similar
transitional sections in the American popular music they were writing.
5.1 Role
The bridge is often used to contrast with and prepare for the return of the verse and the chorus. “The b section
of the popular song chorus is often called the bridge or release.”[4] For example, the B of AABA in thirty-two-bar
form, with the verse surrounding the whole. While the bridge in verse-chorus and other forms is C, for example:
ABABCAB. Lyrically, the bridge is typically used to pause and reflect on the earlier portions of the song or to
prepare the listener for the climax. The term may also refer to the section between the verse and the chorus, though
this is more commonly called the pre-chorus or link. The lyrics of the theme, "The Song That Goes Like This", from
the musical play Spamalot spoofs the abuse of the bridge in romantic songwriting: “Now we can go straight / into
the middle eight / a bridge that is too far for me”. Similarly, in the Axis of Awesome song “This Is How You Write
a Love Song”, the lyrics humorously map the movement of the song from chorus to chorus using bridges. In the
song "Get Up (I Feel Like Being a) Sex Machine", James Brown asks if he can “take the band to the bridge”. Led
15
16 CHAPTER 5. BRIDGE (MUSIC)
Zeppelin makes an in-joke regarding the use of bridges in popular music in their song "The Crunge", asking, at the
end, “Where’s the confounded bridge?" The song, humorously, does not have a bridge.
5.2 Classical music
A bridge in J.S. Bach’s Fugue in G major BWV 860, mm. 17-19. Play
Bridges are common in classical music, and are known as a specific Sequence form—also known as transitions.
Formally called a bridge-passage, they delineate separate sections of an extended work, or smooth what would
otherwise be an abrupt modulation, such as the transition between the two themes of a sonata form. In the latter
context, this transition between two musical subjects is often referred to as the “transition theme";[5] indeed, in later
Romantic symphonies such as Dvořák's New World Symphony or César Franck's Symphony in D minor, the transition
theme becomes almost a third subject in itself.[6]
The latter work also provides several good examples of a short bridge to smooth a modulation. Instead of simply
repeating the whole exposition in the original key, as would be done in a symphony of the classical period, Franck
repeats the first subject a minor third higher in F minor. A two-bar bridge achieves this transition with Frank’s
characteristic combination of enharmonic and chromatic modulation. After the repeat of the first subject, another
bridge of four bars leads into the transition theme in F major, the key of the true second subject.
In a fugue, a bridge is, "...a short passage at the end of the first entrance of the answer and the beginning of the second
entrance of the subject. Its purpose is to modulate back to the tonic key (subject) from the answer (which is in the
dominant key). Not all fugues include a bridge.”[7]
An example of a bridge-passage that separates two sections of a more loosely organized work occurs in George
Gershwin's An American in Paris. As Deems Taylor described it in the program notes for the first performance:
“Having safely eluded the taxis ... the American’s itinerary becomes somewhat obscured. ... However, since what
immediately ensues is technically known as a bridge-passage, one is reasonably justified in assuming that the Gershwin
pen ... has perpetrated a musical pun and that ... our American has crossed the Seine, and is somewhere on the Left
Bank.”[8]
5.3 See also

• Break (music)
• Montgomery-Ward bridge
• Sears Roebuck bridge
• Song structure
5.4 References
[1] Boyd, Bill (1997). Jazz Chord Progressions, p.56. ISBN 0-7935-7038-7.
[2] Horst, Brunner (2000). “Bar Form”. New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[3] Lorenz, Alfred (1924). Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner. Berlin.
5.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 17
Emphasis original.
[5] Songstuff Music Glossary
[6] Collins Music Encyclopedia, London 1959, article “Symphony”
[7] Benward & Saker (2009). Music in Theory and Practice: Volume II, p.51. Eighth Edition. ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
[8] An American in Paris & "george gershwin’s an american in paris piano solo" [sic], Warner Bros. Publications Inc., 1929
(renewed), p. 36
5.5 External links

• Appen, Ralf von / Frei-Hauenschild, Markus “AABA, Refrain, Chorus, Bridge, Prechorus — Song Forms
and their Historical Development”. In: Samples. Online Publikationen der Gesellschaft für Popularmusik-
forschung/German Society for Popular Music Studies e.V. Ed. by Ralf von Appen, André Doehring and Thomas
Phleps. Vol. 13 (2015).
• Rich, Scott. “Bridge Construction”, Money Chords.
Chapter 6
Conclusion (music)
"Jingle Bells"'s outro Play
In music, the conclusion is the ending of a composition and may take the form of a coda or outro.
Pieces using sonata form typically use the recapitulation to conclude a piece, providing closure through the repetition
of thematic material from the exposition in the tonic key. In all musical forms other techniques include “altogether
unexpected digressions just as a work is drawing to its close, followed by a return...to a consequently more emphatic
confirmation of the structural relations implied in the body of the work.”[1]
For example:
• The slow movement of Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 2, where a “diminished-7th chord progression inter-
rupts the final cadence.”[1]
• The slow movement of Symphony No. 5 by Beethoven, where, “echoing afterthoughts”, follow the initial
statements of the first theme and only return expanded in the coda.[1]
• Varèse's Density 21.5, where partitioning of the chromatic scale into (two) whole tone scales provides the
missing tritone of b implied in the previously exclusive partitioning by (three) diminished seventh chords.[1]
6.1 Coda
Main article: Coda (music)
Coda (Italian for “tail”, plural code) is a term used in music in a number of different senses, primarily to designate a
passage which brings a piece (or one movement thereof) to a conclusion.
6.2 Outro
An outro (sometimes “outtro”, also “extro”) is the opposite of an intro. “Outro” is a blend or portmanteau as it
replaces the element “in” of the “intro” with its opposite, to create a new word.
The term is typically used only in the realm of pop music. It can refer to the concluding track of an album or to an
outro-solo, an instrumental solo (usually a guitar solo) played as the song fades out or until it stops.
18
6.3. REPEAT AND FADE 19
6.2.1 Example
• "Jeremy" as recorded by Pearl Jam.
• “Outro” - The final track of the M83 album "Hurry Up, We're Dreaming".
6.3 Repeat and fade

Repeat and fade is a musical direction used in sheet music when more than one repeat of the last few measures or
so of a piece is desired with a fade-out (like something traveling into the distance and disappearing) as the manner
in which to end the music. It originated as a sound effect made possible by the volume controls on sound recording
equipment and on the sound controls for speaker output. No equivalent Italian term was in the standard lexicon of
musical terms, so it was written in English, the language of the musician(s) who developed the technique. It is very
difficult to approximate this effect on an instrument such as the piano, but instrumentalists can simulate it by thinning
the musical texture while applying diminuendo within the limits of their instruments, and by taking advantage of
the open-ended feeling of an unresolved harmony or melodic tone at the end. It is in the family of terms and signs
that indicate repeated material, but it does not substitute for any of them, and it would be incorrect to describe it as a
“shortcut” to any of the other repeat signs (such as Dal Segno).[2] The direction is to be taken literally: while repeating
the music contained within the section annotated "repeat and fade", the player(s) should continue to play/repeat, and
the mixer or player(s) should fade the volume while the player(s) repeat the appropriate musical segments, until the
song has been faded out (usually by faders on the mixing board).
6.3.1 Examples
Repeat and fade endings are rarely found in live performances, but are often used in studio recordings.[2] Examples
include:
• "Hey Jude" as recorded by The Beatles
• "Time and a Word" as recorded by Yes[3]
6.4 See also

• Da capo
• Epilogue
6.5 Sources
[1] Perle, George (1990). The Listening Composer. California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06991-9.
[2] Perricone, Jack (2000). Melody in Songwriting: Tools and Techniques for Writing Hit Songs. Berklee Press. p. 6. ISBN
0-634-00638-X.
[3] Anderson, Jon; Foster, David (1975). Yes Yesterdays (Music score) (Paperback ed.). Warner Music. p. 22. ASIN:
B000CS2YT0.
Chapter 7
Solo (music)
Trumpeter, bandleader and singer Louis Armstrong: as soloist.
In music, a solo (from the Italian: solo, meaning alone) is a piece or a section of a piece played or sung by a single
performer. Performing a solo is “to solo”, and the performer is known as a soloist.
The plural is soli or the anglicised form solos. In some context these are interchangeable, but soli tends to be restricted
to classical music, and tends to refer to either the solo performers or the solo passages in a single piece: it would not
often be used to refer to several pieces that happen to be for single performers. Furthermore, the word soli can be
used to refer to a small number of simultaneous parts assigned to single players in an orchestral composition. In the
Baroque concerto grosso, the term for such a group of soloists was concertino.
20
7.1. 18TH CENTURY 21
7.1 18th century

In the Baroque and Classical periods, the word solo was virtually equivalent to sonata, and could refer either to a piece
for one melody instrument with (continuo) accompaniment, or to a sonata for an unaccompanied melody instrument,
such as Johann Sebastian Bach’s sonatas for violin alone.[1]
7.2 See also

• Cadenza
• Concerto
• Drum solo
• Guitar solo
• Piano solo
• Tutti
• Virtuoso
7.3 Sources
[1] David Fuller, “Solo”, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001).
Chapter 8
Section (music)
This article is about musical form. For groups of like instruments, see Musical ensemble § Larger ensembles.
In music, a section is “a complete, but not independent musical idea".[1] Types of sections include the introduction
Rhythm changes bridge (B section of an AABA form) in the key of C. Play
or intro, exposition, recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, conclusion, coda or outro, fadeout, bridge or interlude.
In sectional forms such as binary, the larger unit (form) is built from various smaller clear-cut units (sections) in
combination, analogous to stanzas in poetry or somewhat like stacking legos.
Some well known songs consist of only one or two sections, for example "Jingle Bells" commonly contains verses
(“Dashing through the snow...”) and choruses (“Oh, jingle bells...”). It may contain “auxiliary members”[2] such as
an introduction and/or outro, especially when accompanied by instruments (the piano starts and then: “Dashing...”).
A section is, “a major structural unit perceived as the result of the coincidence of relatively large numbers of structural
phenomena.”[3] An episode may also refer to a section.
A passage is a musical idea that may or may not be complete or independent. For example, fill, riff, and all sections.
Musical material is any musical idea, complete or not, independent or not, including motifs.
8.1 See also

• Song structure (popular music)
• Period (music)
• Phrase (music)
• Repetition (music) and repeat sign
22
8.2. SOURCES 23
8.2 Sources
[1] Bye, L. Dean (1993). Mel Bay Presents Student’s Musical Dictionary, p.51. ISBN 0-87166-313-9.
[3] Spencer & Temko (1988). Form in Music, p.31. ISBN 0-88133-806-0.
Chapter 9
Melody
This article is about melody in music. For other senses of this word, see Melody (disambiguation).
“Melodic” redirects here. For other uses, see Melodic (disambiguation).
“Foreground (music)" redirects here. For more specific musical uses, see Structural level.
A melody (from Greek μελῳδία, melōidía, “singing, chanting”),[1] also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of
A bar from J. S. Bach's Fugue No. 17 in A-flat, BWV 862, from The Well-Tempered Clavier (Part I), an example of counterpoint.
Play The two voices (melodies) on each staff can be distinguished by the direction of the beams.
Voice 4 , Voice 3 ,
Voice 2 , Voice 1
musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch
and rhythm, while more figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical elements such as tonal color.
24
9.1. ELEMENTS 25
It may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground
melody.
Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition
in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between
pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunct or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity
and coherence, cadence, and shape.
The true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their ul-
timate purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the more significant, melody
or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end.
— Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1771)[2]
9.1 Elements
Given the many and varied elements and styles of melody “many extant explanations [of melody] confine us to specific
stylistic models, and they are too exclusive.”[3] Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of
melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.[4]
The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music throughout the 20th
century, featured “fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns", recurring “events, often periodic, at all structural
levels” and “recurrence of durations and patterns of durations”.[3]
Melodies in the 20th century “utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha[d] been the custom in any other
historical period of Western music.” While the diatonic scale was still used, the chromatic scale became “widely
employed.”[3] Composers also allotted a structural role to “the qualitative dimensions” that previously had been “al-
most exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm”. Kliewer states, “The essential elements of any melody are duration,
pitch, and quality (timbre), texture, and loudness.[3] Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with
a wide variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an “element of linear ordering”[3]
9.2 Examples
"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody Play
Melody from Anton Webern's Variations for orchestra, Op. 30 (pp. 23–24)[5] Play
Different musical styles use melody in different ways. For example:
• Jazz musicians use the term “lead” or “head” to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for
improvisation.
• Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick one or two melodies
(verse and chorus) and stick with them; much variety may occur in the phrasing and lyrics.
26 CHAPTER 9. MELODY
• Indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains
no chord changes.
• Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a single melody played simulta-
neously, called heterophony.
• In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, and then create varia-
tions. Classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of
counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, such as the opening
of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony. Richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif: a motif or melody
associated with a certain idea, person or place.
• While in both most popular music and classical music of the common practice period pitch and duration are
of primary importance in melodies, the contemporary music of the 20th and 21st centuries pitch and duration
have lessened in importance and quality has gained importance, often primary. Examples include musique
concrète, klangfarbenmelodie, Elliott Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy (which contains a movement with
only one note), the third movement of Ruth Crawford-Seeger's String Quartet 1931 (later re-orchestrated as
Andante for string orchestra), which creates the melody from an unchanging set of pitches through “dissonant
dynamics” alone, and György Ligeti's Aventures, in which recurring phonetics create the linear form.
9.3 See also

• Appropriation (music)
• Hocket
• Parsons code, a simple notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the
pitch up and down.
• Sequence (music)
• Unified field
9.4 References
[1] Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott. "μελῳδ-ία". Melodia. A Greek–English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts
University.
[2] Forte, Allen (1979). Tonal Harmony in Concept & Practice, p. 203. ISBN 0-03-020756-8.
[3] Kliewer, Vernon (1975). “Melody: Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music”, Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, pp.
270–301. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
[4] Narveson, Paul (1984). Theory of Melody. ISBN 0-8191-3834-7.
[5] Marquis, G. Weston (1964). Twentieth Century Music Idioms, p. 2. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Inglewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
9.5 Further reading

• Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., p. 517–19.
• Edwards, Arthur C. The Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx.
• Holst, Imogen (1962/2008). Tune, Faber and Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-24198-0.
• Smits van Waesberghe, Joseph (1955). A Textbook of Melody: A course in functional melodic analysis, Amer-
ican Institute of Musicology.
• Szabolcsi, Bence (1965). A History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London.
• Trippett, David (2013). Wagner’s Melodies. Cambridge University Press.
9.6 External links

• The dictionary definition of melody at Wiktionary
• Quotations related to Melody at Wikiquote

• Carry A Tune Week, list of tunes
• Creating and orchestrating a coherent and balanced melody

Chapter 10
Rhythm
For other uses, see Rhythm (disambiguation).

Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός, rhythmos, “any regular recurring motion, symmetry" (Liddell and Scott 1996))
Rhythm, a sequence in time repeated, featured in dance: an early moving picture demonstrates the waltz.
generally means a "movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or
28
10.1. ANTHROPOLOGY 29
different conditions” (Anon. 1971, 2537). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time can apply
to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of anything from microseconds to
several minutes or hours, or, at the most extreme, even over many years.
In the performance arts rhythm is the timing of events on a human scale; of musical sounds and silences, of the steps
of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may also refer to visual presentation, as “timed
movement through space” (Jirousek 1995, ) and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry. In
recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research among music scholars. Recent work
in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston (1976), Fred Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff (Lerdahl and Jackendoff
1983), Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty (1997), Godfried Toussaint (2005), William Rothstein (1989), and Joel
Lester (Lester 1986).
In Thinking and Destiny, Harold W. Percival defined rhythm as the character and meaning of thought expressed
through the measure or movement in sound or form, or by written signs or words (Percival 1946, 1006).
10.1 Anthropology
Percussion instruments have clearly defined dynamics that aid the creation and perception of complex rhythms
In his television series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity
with which we walk and the heartbeat (Goodall 2006, ). Other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat
directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that
since certain features of human music are widespread, it is reasonable to suspect that beat-based rhythmic processing
has ancient evolutionary roots (Patel 2014, ). Justin London writes that musical metre “involves our initial perception
as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it
unfolds in time” (London 2004, 4). The “perception” and “abstraction” of rhythmic measure is the foundation of
human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into “tick-tock-tick-tock”
(Scholes 1977b; Scholes 1977c).
Joseph Jordania recently suggested that the sense of rhythm was developed in the early stages of hominid evolution
by the forces of natural selection (Jordania 2011, ). Plenty of animals walk rhythmically and hear the sounds of the
heartbeat in the womb, but only humans have the ability to be engaged (entrained) in a rhythmically coordinated
vocalizations and other activities. According to Jordania, development of the sense of rhythm was central for the
30 CHAPTER 10. RHYTHM
Simple [quadr]duple drum pattern, against which duration is measured in much popular music: Play .
achievement of the specific neurological state of the battle trance, crucial for the development of the effective defense
system of early hominids. Rhythmic war cry, rhythmic drumming by shamans, rhythmic drilling of the soldiers and
contemporary professional combat forces listening to the heavy rhythmic rock music (Pieslak 2009, ) all use the
ability of rhythm to unite human individuals into a shared collective identity where group members put the interests
of the group above their individual interests and safety.
Some types of parrots can know rhythm (Anon. 2009). Neurologist Oliver Sacks states that chimpanzees and other
animals show no similar appreciation of rhythm yet posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so that a
person’s sense of rhythm cannot be lost (e.g. by stroke). “There is not a single report of an animal being trained to
tap, peck, or move in synchrony with an auditory beat” (Patel 2006, cited in Sacks 2007, 239–40, who adds, “No
doubt many pet lovers will dispute this notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish
Riding School of Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are
doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them.”) Human rhythmic arts are
possibly to some extent rooted in courtship ritual (Mithen 2005, ).
Compound triple drum pattern: divides three beats into three. Play Contains repetition on three levels.
The establishment of a basic beat requires the perception of a regular sequence of distinct short-duration pulses
and, as subjective perception of loudness is relative to background noise levels, a pulse must decay to silence before
the next occurs if it is to be really distinct. For this reason the fast-transient sounds of percussion instruments lend
themselves to the definition of rhythm. Musical cultures that rely upon such instruments may develop multi-layered
polyrhythm and simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature, called polymeter. Such are the cross-rhythms
of Sub-Saharan Africa and the interlocking kotekan rhythms of the gamelan.
For information on rhythm in Indian music see Tala (music). For other Asian approaches to rhythm see Rhythm in
Persian music, Rhythm in Arabian music and Usul—Rhythm in Turkish music and Dumbek rhythms.
10.2 Terminology
10.2. TERMINOLOGY 31
10.2.1 Pulse, beat and measure
(See main articles; Pulse (music), Beat (music))
Metric levels: beat level shown in middle with division levels above and multiple levels below.
Most music, dance and oral poetry establishes and maintains an underlying “metric level”, a basic unit of time that
may be audible or implied, the pulse or tactus of the mensural level (Berry 1987, 349; Lerdahl and Jackendoff 1983;
Fitch and Rosenfeld 2007, 44), or beat level, sometimes simply called the beat. This consists of a (repeating) series of
identical yet distinct periodic short-duration stimuli perceived as points in time (Winold 1975, 213). The “beat” pulse
is not necessarily the fastest or the slowest component of the rhythm but the one that is perceived as fundamental: it
has a tempo to which listeners entrain as they tap their foot or dance to a piece of music (Handel 1989). It is currently
most often designated as a crotchet or quarter note in western notation (see time signature). Faster levels are division
levels, and slower levels are multiple levels (Winold 1975, 213). “Rhythms of recurrence” arise from the interaction of
two levels of motion, the faster providing the pulse and the slower organizing the beats into repetitive groups (Yeston
1976, 50–52). “Once a metric hierarchy has been established, we, as listeners, will maintain that organization as long
as minimal evidence is present” (Lester 1986, 77).
10.2.2 Unit and gesture
A durational pattern that synchronises with a pulse or pulses on the underlying metric level may be called a rhyth-
mic unit. These may be classified as; metric—even patterns, such as steady eighth notes or pulses—intrametric—
confirming patterns, such as dotted eighth-sixteenth note and swing patterns—contrametric—non-confirming, or
syncopated patterns and extrametric—irregular patterns, such as tuplets.
A rhythmic gesture is any durational pattern that, in contrast to the rhythmic unit, does not occupy a period of time
equivalent to a pulse or pulses on an underlying metric level. It may be described according to its beginning and
ending or by the rhythmic units it contains. Beginnings on a strong pulse are thetic, a weak pulse, anacrustic and those
beginning after a rest or tied-over note are called initial rest. Endings on a strong pulse are strong, a weak pulse, weak
and those that end on a strong or weak upbeat are upbeat (Winold 1975, 239).
10.2.3 Alternation and repetition
Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements, the dynamics of the strong and weak beat, the
played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, the long and short note. As well as perceiving rhythm we must
be able to anticipate it. This depends on repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.
The alternation of the strong and weak beat is fundamental to the ancient language of poetry, dance and music.
The common poetic term “foot” refers, as in dance, to the lifting and tapping of the foot in time. In a similar way
musicians speak of an upbeat and a downbeat and of the “on” and “off” beat. These contrasts naturally facilitate a
Rhythmic units: division level shown above and rhythmic units shown below Play .
dual hierarchy of rhythm and depend on repeating patterns of duration, accent and rest forming a “pulse-group” that
corresponds to the poetic foot. Normally such pulse-groups are defined by taking the most accented beat as the first
and counting the pulses until the next accent (MacPherson 1930, 5; Scholes 1977b). A rhythm that accents another
beat and de-emphasises the down beat as established or assumed from the melody or from a preceding rhythm is
called syncopated rhythm.
Normally, even the most complex of meters may be broken down into a chain of duple and triple pulses (MacPherson
1930, 5; Scholes 1977b) either by addition or division. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four, in
western music, are “simply not natural” (Slatkin n.d., at 5:05).
10.2.4 Tempo and duration

(See main articles; Duration (music), Tempo)
The tempo of the piece is the speed or frequency of the tactus, a measure of how quickly the beat flows. This is
often measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm): 60 bpm means a speed of one beat per second, a frequency of 1 Hz. A
rhythmic unit is a durational pattern that has a period equivalent to a pulse or several pulses (Winold 1975, 237). The
duration of any such unit is inversely related to its tempo.
Musical sound may be analyzed on five different time scales, which Moravscik has arranged in order of increasing
duration (Moravcsik 2002, 114).
• Supershort: a single cycle of an audible wave, approximately 1 ⁄30 –1 ⁄₁₀,₀₀₀ second (30–10,000 Hz or more than
1,800 bpm). These, though rhythmic in nature, are not perceived as separate events but as continuous musical
pitch.
• Short: of the order of one second (1 Hz, 60 bpm, 10–100,000 audio cycles). Musical tempo is generally
specified in the range 40 to 240 beats per minute. A continuous pulse cannot be perceived as a musical beat
if it is faster than 8–10 per second (8–10 Hz, 480–600 bpm) or slower than 1 per 1.5–2 seconds (0.6–0.5 Hz,
40–30 bpm). Too fast a beat becomes a drone, too slow a succession of sounds seems unconnected (Fraisse
1956; Woodrow 1951, both quoted in Covaciu-Pogorilowski n.d.). This time-frame roughly corresponds to
the human heart rate and to the duration of a single step, syllable or rhythmic gesture.
• Medium: ≥ few seconds, This median durational level “defines rhythm in music” (Moravcsik 2002, 114) as it
allows the definition of a rhythmic unit, the arrangement of an entire sequence of accented, unaccented and
10.2. TERMINOLOGY 33
silent or "rest" pulses into the cells of a measure that may give rise to the “briefest intelligible and self-existent
musical unit” (Scholes 1977c), a motif or figure. This may be further organized, by repetition and variation,
into a definite phrase that may characterise an entire genre of music, dance or poetry and that may be regarded
as the fundamental formal unit of music (MacPherson 1930, ).
• Long: ≥ many seconds or a minute, corresponding to a durational unit that “consists of musical phrases”
(Moravcsik 2002, 114)—which may make up a melody, a formal section, a poetic stanza or a characteristic
sequence of dance moves and steps. Thus the temporal regularity of musical organisation includes the most
elementary levels of musical form (MacPherson 1930, 3).
• Very long: ≥ minutes or many hours, musical compositions or subdivisions of compositions.
Curtis Roads (Roads 2001) takes a wider view by distinguishing nine time scales, this time in order of decreasing
duration. The first two, the infinite and the supramusical, encompass natural periodicities of months, years, decades,
centuries, and greater, while the last three, the sample and subsample, which take account of digital and electronic
rates “too brief to be properly recorded or perceived”, measured in millionths of seconds (microseconds), and finally
the infinitesimal or infinitely brief, are again in the extra-musical domain. Roads’ Macro level, encompassing “overall
musical architecture or form" roughly corresponds to Moravcsik’s “very long” division while his Meso level, the
level of “divisions of form” including movements, sections, phrases taking seconds or minutes, is likewise similar
to Moravcsik’s “long” category. Roads’ Sound object (Schaeffer 1959; Schaeffer 1977): “a basic unit of musical
structure” and a generalization of note (Xenakis’ ministructural time scale); fraction of a second to several seconds,
and his Microsound (see granular synthesis) down to the threshold of audible perception; thousands to millionths of
seconds, are similarly comparable to Moravcsik’s “short” and “supershort” levels of duration.
10.2.5 Metric structure

(See main articles; Metre (music), Bar (music), Metre (poetry))
Notation of a clave rhythm pattern? Each cell of the grid corresponds to a fixed duration of time with a resolution fine enough to
capture the timing of the pattern, which may be counted as two bars of four beats in divisive (metrical or symmetrical) rhythm, each
beat divided into two cells. The first bar of the pattern may also usefully be counted additively (in measured or asymmetrical rhythm)
as 3 + 3 + 2
The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody: it is a topic in linguistics and poetics, where it
means the number of lines in a verse, the number of syllables in each line and the arrangement of those syllables as
long or short, accented or unaccented. Music inherited the term "meter or metre" from the terminology of poetry
(Scholes 1977b; Scholes 1977c; Latham 2002).
The metric structure of music includes meter, tempo and all other rhythmic aspects that produce temporal regularity
against which the foreground details or durational patterns of the music are projected (Winold 1975, ). The terminol-
ogy of western music is notoriously imprecise in this area (Scholes 1977b). MacPherson 1930, 3 preferred to speak
of “time” and “rhythmic shape”, Imogen Holst (Holst 1963, 17) of “measured rhythm”.
Dance music has instantly recognizable patterns of beats built upon a characteristic tempo and measure. The Imperial
Society of Teachers of Dancing defines the tango, for example, as to be danced in 2
4 time at approximately 66 beats per minute. The basic slow step forwards or backwards, lasting for one beat, is
called a “slow”, so that a full “right–left” step is equal to one 2
4 measure (Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing 1977, ) (See Rhythm and dance).
The general classifications of metrical rhythm, measured rhythm, and free rhythm may be distinguished (Cooper 1973,
30). Metrical or divisive rhythm, by far the most common in Western music calculates each time value as a multiple
or fraction of the beat. Normal accents re-occur regularly providing systematical grouping (measures). Measured
Notation of three measures of a clave pattern preceded by one measure of steady quarter notes. This pattern is noted in double time
relative to the one above, in one instead of two four-beat measures Four beats followed by three Clave patterns .
rhythm (additive rhythm) also calculates each time value as a multiple or fraction of a specified time unit but the
accents do not recur regularly within the cycle. Free rhythm is where there is neither (Cooper 1973, 30), such as
in Christian chant, which has a basic pulse but a freer rhythm, like the rhythm of prose compared to that of verse
(Scholes 1977c). See Free time (music).
Finally some music, such as some graphically scored works since the 1950s and non-European music such as Honkyoku
repertoire for shakuhachi, may be considered ametric (Karpinski 2000, 19). Senza misura is an Italian musical term
for “without meter”, meaning to play without a beat, using time to measure how long it will take to play the bar
(Forney and Machlis 2007).
10.3 Composite rhythm
Bach's Sinfonia in F minor BWV 795, mm. 1-3 Play original Play with composite .
A composite rhythm is the durations and patterns (rhythm) produced by amalgamating all sounding parts of a musical
texture. In music of the common practice period, the composite rhythm usually confirms the meter, often in metric or
even-note patterns identical to the pulse on a specific metric level. White defines composite rhythm as, “the resultant
overall rhythmic articulation among all the voices of a contrapuntal texture” (White 1976, 136.).
10.4 Rhythm notation

Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as they exist in traditional
music, from generation to generation.
10.4.1 African music

In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde Olatunji (1927–
2003) developed a simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand-drum, using six vocal sounds,
“Goon, Doon, Go, Do, Pa, Ta”, for three basic sounds on the drum, each played with either the left or the right hand.
The debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a subject of particular interest to outsiders
while African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo have, for the most part, accepted the conventions and limitations
of staff notation, and produced transcriptions to inform and enable discussion and debate (Agawu 2003, 52)
John Miller Chernoff 1979 has argued that West African music is based on tension between rhythms, polyrhythms
created by the simultaneous sounding of two or more different rhythms, generally one dominant rhythm interacting
10.5. LINGUISTICS 35
with one or more independent competing rhythms. These often oppose or complement each other and the dominant
rhythm.
Moral values underpin a musical system based on repetition of relatively simple patterns that meet at distant cross-
rhythmic intervals and on call-and-response form. Collective utterances such as proverbs or lineages appear either in
phrases translated into “drum talk” or in the words of songs. People expect musicians to stimulate participation by
reacting to people dancing. Appreciation of musicians is related to the effectiveness of their upholding community
values (Chernoff 1979).
10.4.2 Indian music
Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm patterns and phrases
before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of Indian descent, made performances based
on her singing these patterns. In Indian Classical music, the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which
the whole piece is structured.
10.4.3 Western music
In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Philip Glass, and Steve Reich wrote more rhyth-
mically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive rhythm. At the same time,
modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat,
leading eventually to the widespread use of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explained by a
comment of John Cage's where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than indi-
vidually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would otherwise be subsumed
into irrelevant rhythmic groupings (Sandow 2004, 257). LaMonte Young also wrote music in which the sense of a
regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones (drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowell
wrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms and collaborated with Léon Thérémin to invent the
Rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm machine, in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for
the player piano.
10.5 Linguistics
Main article: Isochrony
In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the three aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation. Lan-
guages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed, mora-timed, or stress-timed. Speakers of
syllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal time on each syllable; in contrast, speak-
ers of stressed-timed languages such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags between stressed
syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them being adjusted to accommodate the stress
timing.
Narmour 1977 (cited in Winold 1975, ) describes three categories of prosodic rules that create rhythmic successions
that are additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is
associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension, while additive rhythms are open-
ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests the
concept of transformation (Middleton 1990, ).
10.6 In popular culture

In day-to-day, non-music related use the concept of “rhythm” is often confused with the concept of "tempo", with
people erroneously referring to a certain rhythm as being “slow” or “fast”. Speed (tempo) cannot be a specification for
a certain rhythm, as the same rhythm can occur at any tempo. A certain tempo compares to other tempi by difference
in speed, whereas a certain rhythm compares to other rhythms by difference in structure.
10.7 See also

• Meter (music)
• Drumming
• Polyrhythm
• Cross-beat
10.8 References
• Agawu, Kofi. 2003. Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York: Routledge.
• Anon. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary II. Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press, 1971.
• April 30, 2009. "Parrots have got rhythm, studies find", World-Science.net.
• Berry, Wallace (1987). Structural Functions in Music, second edition. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN
978-0-486-25384-8.
• Chernoff, John Miller (1979). African Rhythm and African Sensibility: Aesthetic and Social Action in African
Musical Idioms. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Cooper, Paul (1973). Perspectives in Music Theory: An Historical-Analytical Approach. New York: Dodd,
Mead. ISBN 0-396-06752-2.
• Covaciu-Pogorilowski, Andrei. n.d. "Musical Time Theory and A Manifesto". Self-published online (accessed
1 August 2014).
• Fitch, W. Tecumseh, and Andrew J. Rosenfeld (2007). “Perception and Production of Syncopated Rhythms”.
Music Perception, Vol. 25, Issue 1, pp. 43–58. ISSN 0730-7829.
• Fraisse, Paul (1956). Les Structures Rhythmiques, with a preface by A. Michotte. Studia Psychologica. Lou-
vain: Publications Universitaires; Paris and Brussels: Édition Erasme; Antwerp and Amsterdam: Standaard
Boekhandel.
• Forney, Kristine, and Joseph Machlis. 2007. The Enjoyment of Music, tenth edition. New York: W. W. Norton
& Company. ISBN 978-0-393-17423-6.
• Goodall, Howard (presenter). 2006. How Music Works with Howard Goodall, produced by David Jeffcock.
Television series, 4 episodes. Episode 2: “Rhythm” (Saturday 25 November, 6:20–7:20pm). Tiger Aspect
Productions for Channel 4 Television Corporation.
• Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510066-2.
• Holst, Imogen. An ABC of Music: A Short Practical Guide to the Basic Essentials of Rudiments, Harmony, and
Form. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1963.
• The Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (1977). Ballroom Dancing. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and
Stoughton; New York: David McKay Co.
• Jirousek, Charlotte. 1995. "Rhythm". In An Interactive Textbook, Ithaca: Cornell University website (accessed
24 July 2014).
• Jordania, Joseph. 2011. Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Tbilisi: Logos, International
Research Center for Traditional Polyphony; Melbourne: The University of Melbourne, Institute of Classical
Philology, Bizantyne [sic] and Modern Greek Studies.
• Karpinski, Gary S. Aural Skills Acquisition: The Development of Listening, Reading, and Performing Skills in
College-Level Musicians. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-511785-1.
10.8. REFERENCES 37
• Latham, Alison. 2002. “Metre”, The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.
• Lerdahl, Fred, and Ray Jackendoff. 1983. A Generative Theory of Tonal Music. The MIT Press Series on
Cognitive Theory and Mental Representation. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-12094-4; ISBN 978-
0-262-62107-6; ISBN 978-0-262-62049-9.
• Lester, Joel. The Rhythms of Tonal Music. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0-8093-1282-5.
• Liddell, Henry George, and Robert Scott. "ῥυθμός", in A Greek-English Lexicon, revised edition, combining
the text of the ninth edition with an extensively revised and expanded Supplement. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1996. Online, Perseus Project
• London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516081-9.
• MacPherson, Stewart, Form in Music, London: Joseph Williams, 1930.
• Middleton, Richard (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-
15275-9.
• Mithen, Steven (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body. (PDF).
London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-64317-7.
• Moravcsik, Michael J. (2002). Musical Sound: An Introduction to the Physics of Music. New York: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers. ISBN 978-0-306-46710-3.
• Narmour, Eugene. Beyond Schenkerism: The Need for Alternatives in Music Analysis. Chicago and London:
University of Chicago Press, 1977. Phoenix paperback edition 1980. ISBN 978-0-226-56847-8 (cloth); ISBN
978-0-226-56848-5 (paperback).
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006). “Musical Rhythm, Linguistic Rhythm, and Human Evolution”. Music Perception.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press. 1 (24): 99–104. ISSN 0730-7829.
• Patel, Aniruddh D. (2014). “The Evolutionary Biology of Musical Rhythm: Was Darwin Wrong?". PLoS Biol.
12 (3 (25 March )). doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001821.
• Percival, Harold W. (1946). Thinking and Destiny. The Word Foundation, Inc. ISBN 978-0-911650-06-8.
• Pieslak, Jonathan (2009). Sound Targets: American Soldiers and Music in the Iraq War. Bloomington and
London: Indiana University Press.
• Roads, Curtis (2001). Microsound. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-18215-7; ISBN 978-0-
262-68154-4
• Rothstein, William (1989). Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 9780028721910.
• Sacks, Oliver (2007). “Keeping Time: Rhythm and Movement”. Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain.
New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-4081-0.
• Sandow, Greg (2004). “A Fine Madness”. In The Pleasure of Modernist Music: Listening, Meaning, Intention,
Ideology, edited by Arved Mark Ashby, 253–58. ISBN 1-58046-143-3. Reprinted from The Village Voice (16
March 1982).
• Scholes, Percy (1977a). “Form”, in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed.
(1970), revised and reset, edited by John Owen Ward. London and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-311306-6.
• Scholes, Percy (1977b). “Metre”, in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed.
0-19-311306-6.
• Scholes, Percy (1977c). “Rhythm”, in The Oxford Companion to Music, 6th corrected reprint of the 10th ed.
0-19-311306-6.
• Slatkin, Leonard. n.d. "Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin".
• Toussaint, Godfried T., “The Geometry of Musical Rhythm,” In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan, editors,
Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol. 3742, Lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198–212.
• White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
• Winold, Allen (1975). “Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music”. In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited
by Gary Wittlich, Chapter 3. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
• Woodrow, Herbert. “Time Perception”. In A Handbook of Experimental Psychology, edited by Stanley Smith
Stevens,. New York: Wiley, 1951.
• Yeston, Maury. 1976. The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-01884-3.
10.9 Further reading

• Honing, H. (2002). “Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing.” Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie [Dutch
Journal of Music Theory] 7(3): 227–232.
• Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music, MA dissertation,
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
• Lewis, Andrew (2005). Rhythm—What it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San Francisco: RhythmSource
Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.
• Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library Collection—Music),
Cambridge University Press; first edition, 2009.
10.10 External links

• 'Rhythm of Prose', William Morrison Patterson ,Columbia University Press 1917
• Melodyhound has a “Query by Tapping” search that allows users to identify music based on rhythm
• Louis Hébert, “A Little Semiotics of Rhythm. Elements of Rhythmology”, in Signo

Chapter 11
Phrase (music)
Phrase-group of three four bar phrases in Mozart's Piano Sonata in F, K. 332, first movement.[1] Play
Period built of two five bar phrases in Haydn's Feldpartita.[2] Play
In music and music theory, phrase and phrasing are concepts and practices related to grouping consecutive melodic
notes, both in their composition and performance. A musical work is typically made up of a melody that consists of
39
40 CHAPTER 11. PHRASE (MUSIC)
numerous consecutive phrases. The notation used is similar to a tie and a slur. Even when no phrase markings are
included in the notation, experienced instrumentalists and singers will add phrasing to melodic lines.
11.1 Musical phrase (theoretical concept)
Diagram of a typical period consisting of two phrases[3][4][5]
A musical phrase (Greek: φράση “sentence, expression"; see also strophe) is a unit of musical meter that has a
complete musical sense of its own,[6] built from figures, motifs, and cells and combining to form melodies, periods
and larger sections;[7] or the length in which a singer or instrumentalist can play in one breath.
The terms, like sentence, verse etc., have been adopted into the vocabulary of music from linguistic syntax.[8] Though
the analogy between the musical and the linguistic phrase is often made, still the term “is one of the most ambiguous
in music....there is no consistency in applying these terms nor can there be...only with melodies of a very simple type,
especially those of some dances, can the terms be used with some consistency.”[9]
John D. White defines a phrase as, “the smallest musical unit that conveys a more or less complete musical thought.
Phrases vary in length and are terminated at a point of full or partial repose, which is called a cadence.”[10] Edward
Cone analyses the “typical musical phrase” as consisting of an “initial downbeat, a period of motion, and a point of
arrival marked by a cadential downbeat”.[11] Charles Burkhart defines a phrase as “Any group of measures (including
a group of one, or possibly even a fraction of one) that has some degree of structural completeness. What counts is
the sense of completeness we hear in the pitches not the notation on the page. To be complete such a group must
have an ending of some kind … . Phrases are delineated by the tonal functions of pitch. They are not created by slur
or by legato performance … . A phrase is not pitches only but also has a rhythmic dimension, and further, each phrase
in a work contributes to that work’s large rhythmic organization.”[12]
In common practice phrases are often four bars or measures long[13] culminating in a more or less definite cadence.[14]
A phrase will end with a weaker or stronger cadence, depending on whether it is an antecedent phrase or a conse-
quent phrase, the first or second half of a period.
However, the absolute span of the phrase (the term in today’s use is coined by the German theorist Hugo Riemann[15] )
is as contestable as its pendant in language, where there can be even one-word-phrases (like “Stop!" or “Hi!"). Thus
no strict line can be drawn between the terms of the 'phrase', the 'motiv' or even the separate tone (as a one-tone-,
one-chord- or one-noise-expression).
Thus, in views of the Gestalt theory the term of the phrase is rather enveloping any musical expression which is
perceived as a consistent gestalt separate from others, however few or many beats, i. e. distinct musical events like
tones, chords or noises, it may contain.
A phrase-group is, “a group of three or more phrases linked together without the two-part feeling of a period,” or,
“a pair of consecutive phrases in which the first is a repetition of the second or in which, for whatever reason, the
antecedent-consequent relationship is absent.”[16]
Phrase rhythm is the rhythmic aspect of phrase construction and the relationships between phrases, and “is not
at all a cut-and-dried affair, but the very lifeblood of music and capable of infinite variety. Discovering a work’s
phrase rhythm is a gateway to its understanding and to effective performance.” The term was popularized by William
Rothstein’s Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. Techniques include overlap, lead-in, extension, expansion, reinterpretation
and elision.
A phrase member is one of the parts in a phrase separated into two by a pause or long note value, the second of
11.2. MUSICAL PHRASING 41
Phrase consisting of two phrase members in Haydn’s Trio no. 1 in G Major[17] Play
which may repeat, sequence, or contrast with the first.[17]

The act of interpreting a notated phrase during performance is called musical phrasing and considered an art.
11.2 Musical phrasing
Bar-line shift's effect on metric accent: first two lines vs. second two lines[18] Play or play with percussion marking the measures .
Phrasing refers to an expressive shaping of music, and relates to the shaping of notes in time, tone colour, dynamics,
and other variables. Phrasing relates to the manner of playing the individual notes of a particular group of consecutive
notes and the way they are weighted and shaped relative to one another. It does not refer solely to the idealized note
values/durations as represented in sheet music, but to the multitude of deviations that the performer needs to make
from sheet music if it is to be expressive in a particular style and culturally aware. An example may be an acceleration
of a group of notes, but there are many more. A sequence of notes could also be slowed down (ritardando). This
shaping of notes is creatively performed by the musician or singer with the aim of expressing (feelings), and can be
distinguished by the listener.
Being an expressive activity of creative musicians, the question of how to shape a group of notes cannot be (and is
not) exactly specified. Giuseppe Cambini had this to say about violin playing:
The bow can express the affections of the soul: but besides there being no signs that indicate them,
such signs, even were one to invent them, would become so numerous that the music, already too full of
42 CHAPTER 11. PHRASE (MUSIC)
indications, would become a formless mass to the eyes, almost impossible to decipher. I should consider
myself fortunate if I could only get a student to hear, through a small number of examples, the difference
between bad and mediocre, mediocre and good, and good and excellent, in the diversity of expressions
that one may give to the same passage.[19]
— “Nouvelle Méthode théorique et pratique pour le violon”. Paris, Naderman (c. 1803). by Giuseppe
Cambini
Usually, the shaping of notes in time is such that meaning (“affections of the soul”) is expressed. In general, par-
ticular musical thoughts appear in a group of notes following each other, forming a phrase: a particular part of a
melody. These notes belong together and the melodic phrase is then shaped expressively: tension can be built up by
accelerating; particular expressive pivot points or emphasis can shaped by holding notes longer (fermata); slowing
down can be used to end phrases; rubato, etc.
Phrasing is sometimes also taken to include aspects of musical shaping, other than the timing of melodies, such as
articulation and dynamics, etc.
It can also be influenced by lyrics on the song in relation to the piece of musical phrase in sheet music.
11.3 Intuitive versus analytical approach to phrase/phrasing

There are two ways/manners in which phrase/phrasing can be approached: intuitive, or analytical.
There are two schools of thought on phrasing, one more intuitive, the other more analytical. The
intuitive school uses a verbal model, equating the function of phrasing with that of punctuation in lan-
guage. Thus, said Chopin to a student, “he who phrases incorrectly is like a man who does not understand
the language he speaks.”
— Nancy Toff[20]
The question how far the analytical and critical study of a work of art aids or hinders the appreciation
of its more emotional and spiritual factors is one that has been asked over and over[...]
— Stewart Macpherson[21]
Often the analytical method is more theoretical and related to the term phrase (analysing a phrase), while the intuitive
approach is more related to the term phrasing.
Problems linked with an analytical approach to phrase, occur particularly when the analytical approach is based only
on the search for objective information, or (as is often the case) only concerned with the score:
The reliance on the score for information about temporal structures reflects a more profound an-
alytical difficulty. Structural information gleaned from the score is visually apprehended and as such
is predisposed to visualist models of structure. These models are premised on symmetry and balance
and on a timeless notion of “objective” structure. [...] Temporal and aurally-apprehended structures are
denied reality because they cannot be said to “exist” in the way that spatial and visually apprehended
structures do. [...] Musical investigations exhibit the Western prejudice toward visualism in the depen-
dence on visual symmetry and balance. Information about structure from listening experience is suspect
because it is considered “subjective” and is opposed to “objective” information from the score.
— F. Joseph Smith[22]
11.4 See also

• Hypermeter
• Rubato
• Period
11.5. SOURCES 43
11.5 Sources
[1] White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music, p.43-44. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
[2] White (1976), p.44.
[3] Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; and Nelson, Robert (2003). Techniques and Materials of Music, p.252. 7th edition.
Thomson Schirmer. ISBN 0495500542.
[4] Cooper, Paul (1973). Perspectives in Music Theory, p.48. Dodd, Mead, and Co. ISBN 0396067522.
[5] Kostka, Stefan and Payne, Dorothy (1995). Tonal Harmony, p.162. Third edition. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0073000566.
[6] Falk (1958), page 11, Larousse cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music
(Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0-691-02714-5.
[7] 1980 New Grove cited in Nattiez 1990.
[8] 1958 Encyclopédie Fasquelle cited in Nattiez 1990.
[9] Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
517010-5.
[10] White (1976), p.34. Italics original.
[11] Winold, Allen (1975). “Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music”, Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music. Wittlich, Gary (ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
[12] Burkhart, Charles. “The Phrase Rhythm of Chopin’s A-flat Major Mazurka, Op. 59, No. 2” cited in Stein 2005.
[13] Larousse, Davie 1966, 19 cited in Nattiez 1990.
[14] Larousse cited in Nattiez 1990.
[15] System der musikalischen Rhythmik und Metrik (Leipzig, 1903)
[16] White (1976), p.46.
[18] Newman, William S. (1995). Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way, p.170-71. ISBN 0-393-30719-0.
[19] "Nouvelle Méthode théorique et pratique pour le violon" by Giuseppe Cambini (ref)
[20] Toff, Nancy (1996). The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers, p.150. Second edition. ISBN 978-0-
19-510502-5.
[21] Macpherson, Stewart (1908). Form in Music quoted in Dale, Catherine (2003). Music Analysis in Britain in the Nineteenth
and Early Twentieth Centuries, p.123. ISBN 978-1-84014-273-0.
[22] Smith, F. Joseph (1989). Understanding the Musical Experience, p.121-124. ISBN 978-2-88124-204-5.
11.6 External links

• How to Understand Music: A Concise Course in Musical Intelligence and Taste (1881) by William Smythe
Babcock Mathews
• What we hear in music; a course of study in music history and appreciation (c. 1921) by Anne Shaw Faulkner
• Aspects of phrasing in the context of singing (The American history and encyclopedia of music; 1908; William
Lines Hubbard)
• The Art of Phrasing (Dwight’s Journal of Music; 1878) (altern.: 1, 2)
• Phrasing from Lessons in vocal expression by Samuel Silas Curry

Chapter 12
Motif (music)
For other uses, see Motif (disambiguation) and Motive (disambiguation).

In music, a motif (pronunciation) or motive is a short musical idea,[5] a salient recurring figure, musical
A phrase originally presented as a motif may become a figure which accompanies another melody, as in the second movement of
Claude Debussy's String Quartet (1893).[1] Play White would classify the accompaniment as motivic material since it was, “derived
from an important motive stated earlier”.[2]
In Beethoven's Fifth Symphony a four-note figure becomes the most important motif of the work, extended melodically and harmon-
ically to provide the main theme of the first movement. Play
fragment or succession of notes that has some special importance in or is characteristic of a composition: “The
motive is the smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity”.[3]
The Encyclopédie de la Pléiade regards it as a "melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic cell", whereas the 1958 Encyclopédie
44
45
Two note opening motive from Jean Sibelius's Finlandia.[3] Play
Motive from Machaut's Mass, notable for its length of seven notes.[3] Play
Fasquelle maintains that it may contain one or more cells, though it remains the smallest analyzable element or phrase
within a subject.[6] It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still maintains its
identity as a musical idea. “The smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity”.[3] Grove and Larousse[7] also
agree that the motif may have harmonic, melodic and/or rhythmic aspects, Grove adding that it “is most often thought
of in melodic terms, and it is this aspect of the motif that is connoted by the term 'figure'.”
A harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or rhythm. A
melodic motif is a melodic formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic motif is the term desig-
nating a characteristic rhythmic formula, an abstraction drawn from the rhythmic values of a melody.
A motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a motif is a
musical cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif (German: Kopfmotiv) is a musical idea at the opening of a
set of movements which serves to unite those movements.
Scruton, however, suggests that a motif is distinguished from a figure in that a motif is foreground while a figure is
background: “A figure resembles a moulding in architecture: it is 'open at both ends’, so as to be endlessly repeatable.
In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the same time placing it in the background, even if it
is...strong and melodious”.[1]
Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces. Musical development uses a distinct
musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced throughout a piece or section of a piece of music,
guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic development has its roots in the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and
46 CHAPTER 12. MOTIF (MUSIC)
Motive from many of Bach's works including the first movements of the third and sixth Brandenburg Concertos and the third viol da
gamba sonata.[4] Play
Motive from Ravel's String Quartet, first movement.[4] Play
“Curse” motif from film scores, associated with villains and ominous situations. Play
the sonata form of Haydn and Mozart’s age. Arguably Beethoven achieved the highest elaboration of this technique;
the famous “fate motif” —the pattern of three short notes followed by one long one—that opens his Fifth Symphony
and reappears throughout the work in surprising and refreshing permutations is a classic example.
Motivic saturation is the “immersion of a musical motive in a composition”, i.e., keeping motifs and themes below
the surface or playing with their identity, and has been used by composers including Miriam Gideon, as in “Night is
my Sister” (1952) and “Fantasy on a Javanese Motif” (1958), and Donald Erb. The use of motives is discussed in
Adolph Weiss’ “The Lyceum of Schönberg”.[8]
Hugo Riemann defines a motif as, “the concrete content of a rhythmically basic time-unit.”[9]
Anton Webern defines a motif as, “the smallest independent particle in a musical idea”, which are recognizable through
their repetition.[10]
Arnold Schoenberg defines a motif as, “a unit which contains one or more features of interval and rhythm [whose]
12.1. HEAD-MOTIF 47
presence is maintained in constant use throughout a piece”.[11]
12.1 Head-motif
Head-motif (German: Kopfmotiv) refers to an opening musical idea of a set of movements which serves to unite
those movements. It may also be called a motto, and is a frequent device in cyclic masses.[12]
12.2 See also

• Motif (art)
• Motif (literature)
• Riff
12.3 References
[1] Scruton, Roger (1997). The Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-816638-9.
[2] White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music, p.31-34. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
[3] White (1976), p.26-27.
[4] White (1976), p.30.
[5] New Grove (1980). cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musi-
cologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN
0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
[6] Both cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie générale et
sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN
0691027145.
[7] 1957 Encyclopédie Larousse cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music
(Musicologie générale et sémiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
[8] Hisama, Ellie M. (2001). Gendering Musical Modernism: The Music of Ruth Crawford, Marion Bauer, and Miriam Gideon,
p.146 and 152. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64030-X.
[9] Jonas, Oswald (1982). Introduction to the Theory of Heinrich Schenker (1934: Das Wesen des musikalischen Kunstwerks:
Eine Einführung in Die Lehre Heinrich Schenkers), p.12. Trans. John Rothgeb. ISBN 0-582-28227-6.
[10] Webern (1963), p.25-6. Cited in Campbell, Edward (2010). Boulez, Music and Philosophy, p.157. ISBN 978-0-521-
86242-4.
[11] Neff (1999), p.59. Cited in Campbell (2010), p.157.
[12] David Fallows. “Head-motif”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
(subscription required)
Chapter 13
Musical composition
Scherzo in A flat by the Russian Romantic era composer Alexander Borodin (1833–1887) Play
Musical composition can refer to an original piece of music, the structure of a musical piece, or the process of
creating a new piece of music. People who practice composition are called composers. “Composition” is the act or
practice of creating a song or other piece of music. In many cultures, including Western classical music, the act of
composing may include the creation of music notation, such as a sheet music “score”, which is then performed by the
composer or other musicians. In popular music and traditional music, the act of composing, which is typically called
songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody,
lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, orchestration is typically done by the composer, but in musical theatre
and in pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a songwriter may not use
notation at all, and instead compose the song mentally and then play or record it from memory. In jazz and popular
48
49
Jazz, rock and pop songwriters typically write out newly composed songs in a lead sheet, which notates the melody, the chord
progression, and the tempo or style of the song (e.g., “slow blues”).
Chord symbols
7
C F
Rhythm notation
Jazz and rock genre musicians may memorize the melodies for a new song, which means that they only need to provide a chord chart
to guide improvising musicians. Play
music, notable recordings by influential performers are given the weight that written scores play in classical music.
Although a musical composition often uses musical notation and has a single author, this is not always the case. A
work of music can have multiple composers, which often occurs in popular music when a band collaborates to write
a song, or in musical theatre, when one person writes the melodies, a second person writes the lyrics, and a third
person orchestrates the songs. A piece of music can also be composed with words, images, or computer programs
that explain or notate how the singer or musician should create musical sounds. Examples range from avant-garde
music that uses graphic notation, to text compositions such as Aus den sieben Tagen, to computer programs that select
sounds for musical pieces. Music that makes heavy use of randomness and chance is called aleatoric music, and is
associated with contemporary composers active in the 20th century, such as John Cage, Morton Feldman, and Witold
Lutosławski. A more commonly known example of chance-based music is the sound of wind chimes jingling in a
breeze.
The study of composition has traditionally been dominated by examination of methods and practice of Western
classical music, but the definition of composition is broad enough the creation of popular music and traditional music
songs and instrumental pieces and to include spontaneously improvised works like those of free jazz performers and
African percussionists such as Ewe drummers.
Although in the 2000s, composition is considered to consist of the manipulation of each aspect of music (harmony,
melody, form, rhythm, and timbre), according to Jean-Benjamin de Laborde (1780, 2:12):
50 CHAPTER 13. MUSICAL COMPOSITION
Composition consists in two things only. The first is the ordering and disposing of several sounds...in
such a manner that their succession pleases the ear. This is what the Ancients called melody. The second
is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is
pleasant. This is what we call harmony, and it alone merits the name of composition.[1]
13.1 Terminology
In classical music, a piece of music exists in the form of a composition in musical notation or as a single acoustic
event (a live performance or recorded track). If composed before being performed, music can be performed from
memory, by reading written musical notation, or through a combination of both. Compositions comprise a huge
variety of musical elements, which vary widely from between genres and cultures. Popular music genres after about
1960 make extensive use of electric and electronic instruments, which are less often used in classical concerts. For
example, most classical music written up until the 19th century uses only acoustic and mechanical instruments such as
strings, brass, woodwinds and percussion, whereas a 2000s era pop band may use electric guitar played with electronic
effects through a guitar amplifier, a digital synthesizer keyboard and electronic drums.
13.1.1 Improvisation
Different musical styles permit singers or performers to use various amounts of musical improvisation during the
performance of a composed song or piece. Improvisation is the act of composing musical elements spontaneously
during the performance.[2] Improvisation was an important skill during the Baroque music era (1600–1750); instru-
mentalists and singers were expected to be able to improvise ornaments and add them to a simple melody. As well,
chord-playing instrumentalists, such as harpsichord players or pipe organists were expected to be able to improvise
chords from a figured bass part. During the classical period (1760–1820), solo instrumentalists were expected to be
able to improvise virtuostic cadenzas during a concerto. During the Romantic music era (1820–1910), composers
began writing out ornaments and cadenzas, and so classical musicians were not expected to improvise very much. In
contemporary classical music (1975–2016), some composers began writing pieces which indicate that the performer
should improvise during certain sections.
In Western popular music styles such as rock music and traditional music styles such as blues, jazz and bluegrass
music, improvisation is an expected skill for all performers. In most popular and traditional music, the rhythm section
musicians improvise accompaniment parts, often based on a chord progression that is known to the performers (e.g.,
the twelve bar blues) or which is notated on sheet music using chord symbols (e.g., D minor, G7, C major), Roman
numerals (e.g., ii-V7-I), or, in country music, using the Nashville number system. Lead instrument players in rock
and traditional music are expected to be able to improvise a solo (e.g., the guitar solo, which is a key section of rock,
metal and blues songs).
13.1.2 Piece
Piece is a “general, non-technical term [that began to be] applied mainly to instrumental compositions from the 17th
century onwards....other than when they are taken individually 'piece' and its equivalents are rarely used of movements
in sonatas or symphonies....composers have used all these terms [in their different languages] frequently in compound
forms [e.g. Klavierstück]....In vocal music...the term is most frequently used for operatic ensembles...”[3]
13.2 As a musical form

Main article: Musical form
In discussing the structure (or organization) of a musical work, the composition of that work is generally called its
musical form. These techniques draw parallels from visual art’s formal elements. Sometimes, the entire form of a
piece is through-composed, meaning that each part is different, with no repetition of sections; other forms include
strophic, rondo, verse-chorus, or other parts. Some pieces are composed around a set scale, where the composi-
tional technique might be considered the usage of a particular scale. Others are composed during performance (see
13.3. COMPOSING MUSIC 51
improvisation), where a variety of techniques are also sometimes used. Some are used from particular songs which
are familiar.
The scale for the notes used, including the mode and tonic note, is important in tonal musical composition. In music
using twelve-tone technique, the tone row is even more comprehensive a factor than a scale. Similarly, music of the
Middle East employs compositions that are rigidly based on a specific mode (maqam) often within improvisational
contexts, as does Indian classical music in both the Hindustani and the Carnatic system.
13.2.1 Indian tradition
In the music tradition of India there are many forms of musical composition. To some degree this is on account
of there being many musical styles prevalent in different regions of the country, such as Hindustani music, Carnatic
music, Bengali music, and so forth. Another important influence in composition is its link with folk music, both
indigenous and also from musical culture of Arabia, Persia, and Bengal.[4]
In the Hindustani musical tradition, Drupad (originally in Sanskrit and later adaptations in Hindi and Braj Bhasha) is
among one of the ancient compositions and had formed the base for other forms in this music tradition such as khyal,
thumri and raga. In the Karnatak music tradition the compositions are in the form of Kriti, varanam and padam.[4]
13.3 Composing music

People who practice composition are called composers. In popular music and traditional music, the act of compos-
ing, which is typically called songwriting, may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song, called the lead
sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. Composition techniques are the methods used to
create music. Skills in composition include thinking of melodies, creating a chord progression to support the melody,
writing countermelodies, writing musical notation, music theory, instrumentation, and handling musical ensembles
(orchestration). Other skills include extended techniques such as improvisation, musical montage, preparing instru-
ments, using non-traditional instruments, and other methods of sound production.
The composition of music in a classical music context requires the ability read and write musical notation in musical
clefs (treble clef, the bass clef, the alto clef, and the tenor clef.). Composers must also understand dynamics (loudness
of a note or phrase) and effect notations such as pizzicato.
13.3.1 Methods
One method of composing music is starting with a chord progression. There are many “stock” chord progressions
used in music, such as ii-V7-I (in the key of C major, the chords D minor, G7 and C major) and I-vi-ii-V7 (in the
key of C major, this would be the chords C major, A minor, D minor and G7). A songwriter can use one of these
“stock” progressions, or modify one to create a different effect. For example, secondary dominant and dominant
seventh chords could be added, which could transform ii-V-I (in the key of C major, D minor-G major-C major) into
V7/ii-V7/V-V7-I (in the key of C major, A7-D7-G7-C major).
The chords could also be selected to reflect the tone of the emotion being conveyed in a song. For example, selecting
a minor key, but with mostly major chords (i.e. III, VI, VII) might convey a “hopeful” feeling. As well, to indicate a
“darker” mood, a composer could use unusual chords such as moving from I-♭II (in the key of C major, this would be
the chords C major and D♭ major; D♭ is not a note from the key of C major, so the use of this chord has a dramatic
effect. Another way to create dramatic effects with a chord progression is to introduce a modulation to a new key.
Modulation to a closely related key (e.g., for a song in the key of C major, modulating to the dominant, G major).
Modulating to a closely related key such as G major has been a common practice since at least the 1700s, so while this
could heighten the drama of a piece, it would not create a significant emotional effect. On the other hand, modulating
to a key that is not related to the tonic key, such as modulating from the key of C major (the tonic) to A♭ major or
G♭ major.
Once the series of chords is selected, additional lines are added to the piece. The most important part is a lead melody
line. This melody may be supported by one or more harmony lines. Songs often have a bassline which adds to the
identify of the piece. Popular music is often written this way (see: Song structure) where a selected series of chords
forms the structure of each of a particular section of the song (ex. Verse, Chorus). The melody line is often dependent
on the writer’s chosen lyrics and can vary somewhat from verse to verse.
People composing music
Another way to compose music is to start by creating a melody. Once the melody has been created, the composer
can then add suitable chords which will support this melody. The same melody can be supported with many different
chord progressions. For example, if a songwriter has a song in the key of C major in which the melody begins with a
long “G”, this melody note could be supported with a tonic chord (C major), a dominant chord (G major) or a mediant
chord (E minor). If the song is written in a jazz style, where harmony can be more adventurous, this held “G” note
could even be supported with a secondary dominant chord (e.g., an A7 chord, in which the “G” is the dominant
seventh of the chord, which could then resolve to a D minor chord).
Another method involves free playing of an instrument. For example, a pianist might simply sit and start playing
chords, melodies, or notes that come to mind in order to find some inspiration, then build on the discovered lines to
add depth. Free playing is also used by guitar players, who explore different riffs and licks on the instrument.
As technology evolves, new and inventive methods of music composition come about. One such method involves
using computer algorithms contained in samplers to directly translate the phonetics of speech into digital sound.
EEG headsets have also been used to create music by interpreting the brainwaves of musicians.[5] This method has
been used for Project Mindtunes,[6] which collaborating disabled musicians with DJ Fresh, and also by artists Lisa
Park and Masaki Batoh.
13.4. COMPOSITIONAL INSTRUMENTATION 53
13.3.2 Structure
Main article: Musical form
Composers may decide to divide their music into sections. In classical music, one common form used in pieces is
sonata form. This form involves an exposition, development, and recapitulation. The end speaks to the beginning,
concluding things, while the development allows for deviations from the norm of the exposition.
Many contemporary songs are organized into sections as well. These sections are usually alternating verse and chorus,
often with a bridge before the last chorus. The differing verses will share chord progressions while the chorus is often
exactly the same throughout.
13.4 Compositional instrumentation

Main articles: Instrumentation (music) and Arrangement (music)
The task of adapting a composition for musical instruments/ensembles, called arranging or orchestrating, may be
undertaken by the composer or separately by an arranger based on the composer’s core composition. A composition
may have multiple arrangements based on such factors as intended audience type and breadth, musical genre or
stylistic treatment, recorded or live performance considerations, available musicians and instruments, commercial
goals and economic constraints.
Based on such factors, composers or arrangers must decide upon the instrumentation of the original work. Today, the
contemporary composer can virtually write for almost any combination of instruments. Some common group settings
include music for full orchestra (consisting of just about every instrument group), concert band (which consists of
larger sections and greater diversity of woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments than are usually found in the
orchestra), or a chamber group (a small number of instruments, but at least two). The composer may also choose to
write for only one instrument, in which case this is called a solo.
Composers are not limited to writing only for instruments, they may also decide to write for voice (including choral
works, operas, and musicals) or percussion instruments or electronic instruments. Alternatively, as is the case with
musique concrète, the composer can work with many sounds often not associated with the creation of music, such as
typewriters, sirens, and so forth.
In Elizabeth Swados' Listening Out Loud, she explains how a composer must know the full capabilities of each instru-
ment and how they must complement each other, not compete. She gives an example of how in an earlier composition
of hers, she had the tuba above the piccolo. This would clearly drown the piccolo out, thus giving it no purpose in
the composition. Each instrument chosen to be in a piece must have a reason for being there that adds to what the
composer is trying to convey within the work.[7]
13.5 Arranging
Main article: Arrangement
Arranging is composition which employs prior material so as to comment upon it such as in mash-ups and various
contemporary classical works.[8] The process first requires analysis of existing music, and then rewriting (and often
transcription) for an instrumentation other than that for which it was originally intended. It often (but not always)
involves new supporting material injected by the arranger. Different versions of a composed piece of music is referred
to as an arrangement.
13.6 Interpretation
Even when music is notated relatively precisely, as in Western classical music from the 1750s onwards, there are
many decisions that a performer and/or conductor has to make, because notation does not specify all of the elements
of musical performance. The process of deciding how to perform music that has been previously composed and
notated is termed “interpretation”. Different performers’ or conductor’s interpretations of the same work of music
can vary widely, in terms of the tempos that are chosen and the playing or singing style or phrasing of the melodies.
Composers and songwriters who present their own music in a concert are interpreting their songs, just as much as
those who perform the music of others. The standard body of choices and techniques present at a given time and
a given place is referred to as performance practice, whereas interpretation is generally used to mean the individual
choices of a performer.
13.7 Copyright and legal status
Copyright is a government-granted monopoly which, for a limited time, gives a composition’s owner—such as a
composer or a composer’s employer, in the case of work for hire—a set of exclusive rights to the composition, such
as the exclusive right to publish sheet music describing the composition and how it should be performed. Copyright
requires anyone else wanting to use the composition in the same ways to obtain a license (permission) from the owner.
In some jurisdictions, the composer can assign copyright, in part, to another party. Often, composers who aren't
doing business as publishing companies themselves will temporarily assign their copyright interests to formal pub-
lishing companies, granting those companies a license to control both the publication and the further licensing of the
composer’s work. Contract law, not copyright law, governs these composer–publisher contracts, which ordinarily in-
volve an agreement on how profits from the publisher’s activities related to the work will be shared with the composer
in the form of royalties.
The scope of copyright in general is defined by various international treaties and their implementations, which take
the form of national statutes, and in common law jurisdictions, case law. These agreements and corresponding body
of law distinguish between the rights applicable to sound recordings and the rights applicable to compositions. For
example, Beethoven's 9th Symphony is in the public domain, but in most of the world, recordings of particular
performances of that composition usually are not.
For copyright purposes, song lyrics and other performed words are considered part of the composition, even though
they may have different authors and copyright owners than the non-lyrical elements.
Many jurisdictions allow for compulsory licensing of certain uses of compositions. For example, copyright law may
allow a record company to pay a modest fee to a copyright collective to which the composer or publisher belongs,
in exchange for the right to make and distribute CDs containing a cover band's performance of the composer or
publisher’s compositions. The license is “compulsory” because the copyright owner cannot refuse or set terms for the
license. Copyright collectives also typically manage the licensing of public performances of compositions, whether
by live musicians or by transmitting sound recordings over radio or the Internet.
13.7.1 In the U.S.
Even though the first US copyright laws did not include musical compositions, they were added as part of the Copyright
Act of 1831.
According to the circular issued by United States Copy Right Office on Copy Right Registration of Musical Com-
positions and Sound Recordings, a musical composition is defined as “A musical composition consists of music,
including any accompanying words, and is normally registered as a work of the performing arts. The author of a
musical composition is generally the composer, and the lyricists if any. A musical composition may be in the form
of a notated copy (for example sheet music) ir in the form of a phon record (for example cassette tape, LP, or CD).
Sending a musical composition in the form of a phonorecord does not necessarily mean that there is a claim to copy
right in the sound recording.”[9]
13.7.2 In the UK
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 defines a musical work to mean “a work consisting of music, exclusive of
any words or action intended to be sung, spoken or performed with the music.”[10]
13.8. SEE ALSO 55
13.7.3 In India
In India The Copy Right Act, 1957 prevailed for original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic work till the Copyright
(Amendment) Act, 1984 was introduced. Under the amended act, a new definition has been provided for musical
work which states “musical works means a work consisting of music and included any graphi notation of such work
but does not included any words or any action intended to be sung, spoken or performed with the music.”[11]
13.8 See also

• BCM Classification
• Developing variation
• Dickinson classification
• MIDI composition
• Music manuscript
• Music publisher (popular music)
• Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM)
• Songwriting
13.9 References
[1] Translation from Allen Forte, Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice, third edition (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win-
ston, 1979), p.1. ISBN 0-03-020756-8.
[2] Sfetcu 2014, p. 16.
[3] Tilmouth, Michael. 1980. “Piece”. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, first edition, 20 vols., edited by
Stanley Sadie, Vol. 14: 735. London: Macmillan Publishers; New York: Grove’s Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-174-2.
[4] Emmie Te Nijenhuis (1974). Indian Music: History and Structure. BRILL. p. 80. ISBN 90-04-03978-3.
[5] “Making Music With EEG Technology: Translate Brainwaves Into Sonic Soundscapes”. FAMEMAGAZINE. 19 May 2015.
Retrieved 5 June 2015.
[6] DJ Fresh & Mindtunes: A track created only by the mind (Documentary), retrieved 5 June 2015
[7] Swados, Elizabeth (1988). Listening Out Loud: Becoming a Composer (first ed.). New York: Harper & Row. pp. 25–26.
ISBN 0-06-015992-8. Retrieved 9 October 2015.
[8] BaileyShea, Matt (2007), "Filleted Mignon: A New Recipe for Analysis and Recomposition", Music Theory Online Volume
13, Number 4, December 2007.
[9] “Copy Right Registration of Musical Compositions and Sound Recordings” (PDF). United States Copy Right Office. Re-
trieved 6 October 2015.
[10] Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1988.
[11] JATINDRA KUMAR DAS (1 May 2015). LAW OF COPYRIGHT. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 163–64. ISBN 978-81-
203-5090-8.
13.10 Sources
• Sfetcu, Nicolae (7 May 2014). The Music Sound. Nicolae Sfetcu. GGKEY:Y8SWYSZWLE1.

• Laborde, Jean-Benjamin de. 1780. Essai sur la musique Ancienne et moderne, 4 vols. Paris: Ph.D. Pierres &
Eugène Onfroy.

• How to Compose Music – artofcomposing.com
• Composition Today – news, competitions, interviews and other resources for composers.
• Internet Concert Project: Album for the Young Student New Music – an online performance and documentary
feature from Bloomingdale School of Music (January 2010)
• A Beginner’s Guide to Composing – an online feature from Bloomingdale School of Music (February 2008)
• Gems of compositional wisdom
• A Practical Guide to Musical Composition

• ComposersNewPencil – Information, articles and music composition resources.
• How to compose music

• How to compose Music (Wikihow)
• Répertoire International des Sources Musicales – online database to locations of musical manuscripts from
around the world
• How to Compose for New Age Piano

• Composing Music
Chapter 14
Harmony
This article is about musical harmony and harmonies. For other uses of the term, see Harmony (disambiguation).
“Disharmony” redirects here. For the episode of Angel, see Disharmony (Angel).
In music, harmony is the use of simultaneous pitches (tones, notes), or chords.[1] The study of harmony involves
Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the lead) and 3 harmony
parts.
chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them.[2] Harmony
is often said to refer to the “vertical” aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line, or the “horizontal” aspect.[3]
Counterpoint, which refers to the interweaving of melodic lines, and polyphony, which refers to the relationship of
separate independent voices, are thus sometimes distinguished from harmony.
In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms and characters indicating their
qualities. In many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with
“tensions”. A tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass.
Typically, in the classical common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) “resolves” to a consonant
57
58 CHAPTER 14. HARMONY
chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant
sounds. In simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between “tense” and “relaxed” moments.
14.1 Etymology and definitions

The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία (harmonía), meaning “joint, agreement, concord”,[4] from the
verb ἁρμόζω (harmozo), “to fit together, to join”.[5] The term was often used for the whole field of music, while
“music” referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements:
a higher and lower note.[6] Nevertheless, it is unclear whether the simultaneous sounding of notes was part of ancient
Greek musical practice; “harmonía” may have merely provided a system of classification of the relationships between
different pitches. In the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in
the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together.[6] Aristoxenus wrote a work
entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony.[7]
It was not until the publication of Rameau's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) in 1722 that any text
discussing musical practice made use of the term in the title, though that work is not the earliest record of theoretical
discussion of the topic. The underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness (sounds
that 'please') by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles.[8]
Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the
term in modern use. Ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations (for example the view that only
“pleasing” concords may be harmonious) or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between “har-
monic” (simultaneously sounding pitches) and “contrapuntal” (successively sounding tones).[8] In the words of Arnold
Whittall:
While the entire history of music theory appears to depend on just such a distinction between har-
mony and counterpoint, it is no less evident that developments in the nature of musical composition down
the centuries have presumed the interdependence—at times amounting to integration, at other times a
source of sustained tension—between the vertical and horizontal dimensions of musical space.
— [8]
The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory. This
is usually accounted for by the 'replacement' of horizontal (of contrapuntal) writing, common in the music of the
Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the 'vertical' element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to
see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation. As Carl Dahlhaus puts it:
It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony (Bach’s tonal counterpoint is surely no less
polyphonic than Palestrina’s modal writing) but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical
technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the (‘vertical’) structure of
chords but also their (‘horizontal’) movement. Like music as a whole, harmony is a process.
— [9][10]
Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European (or Western) musical
traditions. For example, South Asian art music (Hindustani and Carnatic music) is frequently cited as placing little
emphasis on what is perceived in western practice as conventional 'harmony'; the underlying 'harmonic' foundation
for most South Asian music is the drone, a held open fifth (or fourth) that does not alter in pitch throughout the
course of a composition.[11] Pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, many other
considerations of pitch are relevant to the music, its theory and its structure, such as the complex system of Rāgas,
which combines both melodic and modal considerations and codifications within it.[12]
So, intricate pitch combinations that sound simultaneously do occur in Indian classical music—but they are rarely
studied as teleological harmonic or contrapuntal progressions—as with notated Western music. This contrasting
emphasis (with regard to Indian music in particular) manifests itself in the different methods of performance adopted:
in Indian Music improvisation takes a major role in the structural framework of a piece,[13] whereas in Western Music
improvisation has been uncommon since the end of the 19th century.[14] Where it does occur in Western music (or
14.1. ETYMOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS 59
Rameau's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) from 1722.
has in the past), the improvisation either embellishes pre-notated music or draws from musical models previously
established in notated compositions, and therefore uses familiar harmonic schemes.[15]
Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows
considerable cultural bias. The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Oxford University Press) identifies this
clearly:
In Western culture the musics that are most dependent on improvisation, such as jazz, have tradi-
tionally been regarded as inferior to art music, in which pre-composition is considered paramount. The
conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory
techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation.
— [16]
Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process
of prior composition (which permitted the study and analysis by theorists and composers alike of individual pre-
constructed works in which pitches (and to some extent rhythms) remained unchanged regardless of the nature of the
performance).[17]
14.2 Historical rules

Some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. These rules
are often described as based on natural properties such as Pythagorean tuning's law whole number ratios (“harmo-
niousness” being inherent in the ratios either perceptually or in themselves) or harmonics and resonances (“harmo-
niousness” being inherent in the quality of sound), with the allowable pitches and harmonies gaining their beauty or
simplicity from their closeness to those properties. This model provides that the minor seventh and (major) ninth
are not dissonant (i.e., are consonant). While Pythagorean ratios can provide a rough approximation of perceptual
harmonicity, they cannot account for cultural factors.
Early Western religious music often features parallel perfect intervals; these intervals would preserve the clarity of
the original plainsong. These works were created and performed in cathedrals, and made use of the resonant modes
of their respective cathedrals to create harmonies. As polyphony developed, however, the use of parallel intervals
was slowly replaced by the English style of consonance that used thirds and sixths. The English style was considered
to have a sweeter sound, and was better suited to polyphony in that it offered greater linear flexibility in part-writing.
Early music also forbade usage of the tritone, due to its dissonance, and composers often went to considerable lengths,
via musica ficta, to avoid using it. In the newer triadic harmonic system, however, the tritone became permissible, as
the standardization of functional dissonance made its use in dominant chords desirable.
Most harmony comes from two or more notes sounding simultaneously—but a work can imply harmony with only one
melodic line by using arpeggios or hocket. Many pieces from the baroque period for solo string instruments—such
as Bach’s Sonatas and partitas for solo violin and cello—convey subtle harmony through inference rather than full
chordal structures. These works create a sense of harmonies by using arpeggiated chords and implied basslines. The
implied basslines are created with low notes of short duration that many listeners perceive as being the bass note of
a chord. (See below):
Example of implied harmonies in J.S. Bach’s Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bars 1-2. Play or Play harmony
14.3 Types
Carl Dahlhaus (1990) distinguishes between coordinate and subordinate harmony. Subordinate harmony is the
hierarchical tonality or tonal harmony well known today. Coordinate harmony is the older Medieval and Renaissance
tonalité ancienne, “The term is meant to signify that sonorities are linked one after the other without giving rise to the
impression of a goal-directed development. A first chord forms a 'progression' with a second chord, and a second with
a third. But the former chord progression is independent of the later one and vice versa.” Coordinate harmony follows
14.4. INTERVALS 61
Close position C major triad. Play
direct (adjacent) relationships rather than indirect as in subordinate. Interval cycles create symmetrical harmonies,
which have been extensively used by the composers Alban Berg, George Perle, Arnold Schoenberg, Béla Bartók, and
Edgard Varèse's Density 21.5.
Close harmony and open harmony use close position and open position chords, respectively. See: voicing (music)
and close and open harmony.
Other types of harmony are based upon the intervals of the chords used in that harmony. Most chords in western
music are based on “tertian” harmony, or chords built with the interval of thirds. In the chord C Major7, C-E is a
major third; E-G is a minor third; and G to B is a major third. Other types of harmony consist of quartal and quintal
harmony.
A unison is considered a harmonic interval, just like a fifth or a third, but is unique in that it is two identical notes
produced together. Many people say harmony must involve intervals like thirds, fifths, and sevenths—but unison
counts as harmony and is important, especially in orchestration. In Pop music, unison singing is usually called dou-
bling, a technique The Beatles used in many of their earlier recordings. As a type of harmony, singing in unison or
playing the same notes, often using different musical instruments, at the same time is commonly called monophonic
harmonization.
14.4 Intervals
An interval is the relationship between two separate musical pitches. For example, in the melody Twinkle Twinkle
Little Star, the first two notes (the first “twinkle”) and the second two notes (the second “twinkle”) are at the interval
of one fifth. What this means is that if the first two notes were the pitch C, the second two notes would be the pitch
“G”—four scale notes, or seven chromatic notes (a perfect fifth), above it.
Open position C major triad. Play
The following are common intervals:

Therefore, the combination of notes with their specific intervals —a chord— creates harmony. For example, in a C
chord, there are three notes: C, E, and G. The note C is the root. The notes E and G provide harmony, and in a G7
(G dominant 7th) chord, the root G with each subsequent note (in this case B, D and F) provide the harmony.
In the musical scale, there are twelve pitches. Each pitch is referred to as a “degree” of the scale. The names A, B,
C, D, E, F, and G are insignificant. The intervals, however, are not. Here is an example:
As can be seen, no note always corresponds to a certain degree of the scale. The tonic, or 1st-degree note, can be
any of the 12 notes (pitch classes) of the chromatic scale. All the other notes fall into place. For example, when C is
the tonic, the fourth degree or subdominant is F. When D is the tonic, the fourth degree is G. While the note names
remain constant, they may refer to different scale degrees, implying different intervals with respect to the tonic. The
great power of this fact is that any musical work can be played or sung in any key. It is the same piece of music,
as long as the intervals are the same—thus transposing the melody into the corresponding key. When the intervals
surpass the perfect Octave (12 semitones), these intervals are called compound intervals, which include particularly
the 9th, 11th, and 13th Intervals—widely used in jazz and blues Music.
Compound Intervals are formed and named as follows:
• 2nd + Octave = 9th

• 3rd + octave = 10th
• 4th + Octave = 11th
• 5th + octave = 12th
• 6th + Octave = 13th
14.5. CHORDS AND TENSION 63
• 7th + octave = 14th
The reason the two numbers don't “add” correctly is that one note is counted twice. Apart from this categorization,
intervals can also be divided into consonant and dissonant. As explained in the following paragraphs, consonant
intervals produce a sensation of relaxation and dissonant intervals a sensation of tension. In tonal music, the term
consonant also means “brings resolution” (to some degree at least, whereas dissonance “requires resolution”).
The consonant intervals are considered the perfect unison, octave, fifth, fourth and major and minor third and sixth,
and their compound forms. An interval is referred to as “perfect” when the harmonic relationship is found in the
natural overtone series (namely, the unison 1:1, octave 2:1, fifth 3:2, and fourth 4:3). The other basic intervals (second,
third, sixth, and seventh) are called “imperfect” because the harmonic relationships are not found mathematically
exact in the overtone series. In classical music the perfect fourth above the bass may be considered dissonant when
its function is contrapuntal. Other intervals, the second and the seventh (and their compound forms) are considered
Dissonant and require resolution (of the produced tension) and usually preparation (depending on the music style).
Note that the effect of dissonance is perceived relatively within musical context: for example, a major seventh interval
alone (i.e., C up to B) may be perceived as dissonant, but the same interval as part of a major seventh chord may
sound relatively consonant. A tritone (the interval of the fourth step to the seventh step of the major scale, i.e., F to B)
sounds very dissonant alone, but less so within the context of a dominant seventh chord (G7 or D♭7 in that example).
14.5 Chords and tension

Main articles: Chord (music) and Consonance and dissonance
In the Western tradition, in music after the seventeenth century, harmony is manipulated using chords, which are
combinations of pitch classes. In tertian harmony, so named after the interval of a third, the members of chords are
found and named by stacking intervals of the third, starting with the “root”, then the “third” above the root, and the
“fifth” above the root (which is a third above the third), etc. (Note that chord members are named after their interval
above the root.) Dyads, the simplest chords, contain only two members (see power chords).
A chord with three members is called a triad because it has three members, not because it is necessarily built in thirds
(see Quartal and quintal harmony for chords built with other intervals). Depending on the size of the intervals being
stacked, different qualities of chords are formed. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus
various terms and characters indicating their qualities. To keep the nomenclature as simple as possible, some defaults
are accepted (not tabulated here). For example, the chord members C, E, and G, form a C Major triad, called by
default simply a C chord. In an A♭ chord (pronounced A-flat), the members are A♭, C, and E♭.
In many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern and jazz, chords are often augmented with “tensions”.
A tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Following
the tertian practice of building chords by stacking thirds, the simplest first tension is added to a triad by stacking on
top of the existing root, third, and fifth, another third above the fifth, giving a new, potentially dissonant member the
interval of a seventh away from the root and therefore called the “seventh” of the chord, and producing a four-note
chord, called a "seventh chord".
Depending on the widths of the individual thirds stacked to build the chord, the interval between the root and the
seventh of the chord may be major, minor, or diminished. (The interval of an augmented seventh reproduces the
root, and is therefore left out of the chordal nomenclature.) The nomenclature allows that, by default, “C7” indicates
a chord with a root, third, fifth, and seventh spelled C, E, G, and B♭. Other types of seventh chords must be named
more explicitly, such as “C Major 7” (spelled C, E, G, B), “C augmented 7” (here the word augmented applies to
the fifth, not the seventh, spelled C, E, G♯, B♭), etc. (For a more complete exposition of nomenclature see Chord
(music).)
Continuing to stack thirds on top of a seventh chord produces extensions, and brings in the “extended tensions”
or “upper tensions” (those more than an octave above the root when stacked in thirds), the ninths, elevenths, and
thirteenths. This creates the chords named after them. (Note that except for dyads and triads, tertian chord types are
named for the interval of the largest size and magnitude in use in the stack, not for the number of chord members :
thus a ninth chord has five members [tonic, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th], not nine.) Extensions beyond the thirteenth reproduce
existing chord members and are (usually) left out of the nomenclature. Complex harmonies based on extended chords
are found in abundance in jazz, late-romantic music, modern orchestral works, film music, etc.
Typically, in the classical Common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) resolves to a consonant
chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant
sounds. In simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between “tense” and “relaxed” moments. For this reason,
usually tension is 'prepared' and then 'resolved'.[18]
Preparing tension means to place a series of consonant chords that lead smoothly to the dissonant chord. In this way
the composer ensures introducing tension smoothly, without disturbing the listener. Once the piece reaches its sub-
climax, the listener needs a moment of relaxation to clear up the tension, which is obtained by playing a consonant
chord that resolves the tension of the previous chords. The clearing of this tension usually sounds pleasant to the
listener, though this is not always the case in late-nineteenth century music, such as Tristan und Isolde by Richard
Wagner.[18]
14.6 Perception of harmony
Harmony is based on consonance, a concept whose definition has changed various times during the history of Western
music. In a psychological approach, consonance is a continuous variable. Consonance can vary across a wide range.
A chord may sound consonant for various reasons.
One is lack of perceptual roughness. Roughness happens when partials (frequency components) lie within a critical
bandwidth, which is a measure of the ear’s ability to separate different frequencies. Critical bandwidth lies between
2 and 3 semitones at high frequencies and becomes larger at lower frequencies. The roughness of two simultaneous
harmonic complex tones depends on the amplitudes of the harmonics and the interval between the tones. The roughest
interval in the chromatic scale is the minor second and its inversion the major seventh. For typical spectral envelopes
in the central range, the second roughest interval is the major second and minor seventh, followed by the tritone, the
minor third (major sixth), the major third (minor sixth) and the perfect fourth (fifth).
The second reason is perceptual fusion. A chord fuses in perception if its overall spectrum is similar to a harmonic
series. According to this definition a major triad fuses better than a minor triad and a major-minor seventh chord
fuses better than a major-major seventh or minor-minor seventh. These differences may not be readily apparent in
tempered contexts but can explain why major triads are generally more prevalent than minor triads and major-minor
sevenths generally more prevalent than other sevenths (in spite of the dissonance of the tritone interval) in mainstream
tonal music. Of course these comparisons depend on style.
The third reason is familiarity. Chords that have often been heard in musical contexts tend to sound more consonant.
This principle explains the gradual historical increase in harmonic complexity of Western music. For example, around
1600 unprepared seventh chords gradually became familiar and were therefore gradually perceived as more consonant.
Western music is based on major and minor triads. The reason why these chords are so central is that they are
consonant in terms of both fusion and lack of roughness. they fuse because they include the perfect fourth/fifth
interval. They lack roughness because they lack major and minor second intervals. No other combination of three
tones in the chromatic scale satisfies these criteria.
14.7 Consonance and dissonance in balance
Post-nineteenth century music has evolved in the way that tension may be less often prepared and less formally struc-
tured than in Baroque or Classical periods, thus producing new styles such as post-romantic harmony, impressionism,
pantonality, Jazz and Blues, where dissonance may not be prepared in the way seen in 'common practice' harmony.
In a jazz or blues song, the tonic chord may be a dominant seventh chord.
The creation and destruction of harmonic and 'statistical' tensions is essential to the maintenance
of compositional drama. Any composition (or improvisation) which remains consistent and 'regular'
throughout is, for me, equivalent to watching a movie with only 'good guys’ in it, or eating cottage
cheese.
— Frank Zappa, “The Real Frank Zappa Book” page 181, Frank Zappa and Peter Occhiogrosso, 1990
14.8. SEE ALSO 65
The harmonious major triad is composed of three tones. Their frequency ratio corresponds approximately 6:5:4. In real perfor-
mances, however, the third is often larger than 5:4. The ratio 5:4 corresponds to an interval of 386 cents, but an equally tempered
major third is 400 cents and a Pythagorean third with a ratio of 81:64 is 408 cents. Measurements of frequencies in good perfor-
mances confirm that the size of the major third varies across this range and can even lie outside it without sounding out of tune.
Thus, there is no simple connection between frequency ratios and harmonic function.
14.8 See also

• Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony
• Chromatic chord
• Chromatic mediant
• Homophony (music)
• List of musical terminology
• Mathematics of musical scales
• Musica universalis
• Organum (polyphonic chant)
• Peter Westergaard’s tonal theory
• Prolongation
• Physics of music
• Tonality
• Unified field
• Voice leading
14.9 References
14.9.1 Footnotes
[1] Malm, William P. (1996). Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia, p.15. ISBN 0-13-182387-6. Third
edition. “Homophonic texture...is more common in Western music, where tunes are often built on chords (harmonies)
that move in progressions. Indeed this harmonic orientation is one of the major differences between Western and much
non-Western music.”
[2] Dahlhaus, Car. “Harmony”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (sub-
scription required)
[3] Jamini, Deborah (2005). Harmony and Composition: Basics to Intermediate, p.147. ISBN 1-4120-3333-0.
[4] '1. Harmony' The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology in English Language Reference accessed via Oxford
Reference Online (24 February 2007)
[5] Harmonia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, “A Greek-English Lexicon”, at Perseus
[6] Dahlhaus, Carl. “Harmony”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press.
(subscription required)
[7] Aristoxenus, Henry Stewart Macran. Harmonika Stoicheia (The Harmonics of Aristoxenus). Georg Olms Verlag 1902
ISBN 3487405105. Retrieved 2015-05-04.(and World Cat)
[8] Arnold Whittall, The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham, (Oxford University Press, 2002) (accessed via
[Oxford Reference Online], 16 November 2007 is gayubview=Main&entry=t114.e3144 )
[9] Harmony, §3: Historical development. “Carl Dahlhaus”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[10] see also Whittall 'Harmony: 4. Practice and Principle', Oxford Companion to Music
[11] Regula Qureshi. “India, §I, 2(ii): Music and musicians: Art music”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music
Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required) and Catherine Schmidt Jones, 'Listening to Indian Classical
Music', Connexions, (accessed 16 November 2007)
[12] Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. “India, §III, 2: Theory and practice of classical music: Rāga”. In Macy, Laura. Grove
Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[13] Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. “India, §III, 3(ii): Theory and practice of classical music: Melodic elaboration”. In
Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[14] Rob C. Wegman. “Improvisation, §II: Western art music”. In Macy, Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[15] Robert D Levin. “Improvisation, §II, 4(i): The Classical period in Western art music: Instrumental music”. In Macy,
Laura. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[16] Bruno Nettl. “Improvisation, §I, 2: Concepts and practices: Improvisation in musical cultures”. In Macy, Laura. Grove
Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
[17] see Whittall, 'Harmony'
[18] Schejtman, Rod (2008). The Piano Encyclopedia’s “Music Fundamentals eBook”, p.20-43 (accessed 10 March 2009).
PianoEncyclopedia.com
14.9.2 Notations
• Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, p. 141.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.
• van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular
Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-316121-4.
• Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmony. Advance Music, ISBN
3-89221-056-X

• Chord Geometry - Graphical Analysis of Harmony Tool
• Harmonic Progressions with demos and how to harmonize a melody

• General Principles of Harmony by Alan Belkin
• Morphogenesis of chords and scales Chords and scales classification

• A Beginner’s Guide to Modal Harmony
• Posts about traditional and jazz harmony

• Sonantometry as Natural Harmony Algebra
• Chord Harmonization Tool Online tool that automates chord progression analysis to identify underlying scales
and related chords

• Prout, Ebenezer, Harmony, its Theory and Practice (1889, revised 1901)
Chapter 15
Musical form
The term musical form (or musical architecture) refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music,[1] and
it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections.[2] In the tenth edition of The Oxford Companion to
Music, Percy Scholes defines musical form as “a series of strategies designed to find a successful mean between the
opposite extremes of unrelieved repetition and unrelieved alteration.”[3]
According to Richard Middleton, musical form is “the shape or structure of the work.” He describes it through
difference: the distance moved from a repeat; the latter being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and
qualitative: how far, and of what type, different. In many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity
and variety, and contrast and connection.[4]
15.1 Levels of organisation

The founding level of musical form can be divided into two parts:
• The arrangement of the pulse into unaccented and accented beats, the cells of a measure that, when harmonized,
may give rise to a motif or figure.
• The further organization of such a measure, by repetition and variation, into a true musical phrase having a
definite rhythm and duration that may be implied in melody and harmony, defined, for example, by a long final
note and a breathing space. This “phrase” may be regarded as the fundamental unit of musical form: it may be
broken down into measures of two or three beats, but its distinctive nature will then be lost. Even at this level,
the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, can be seen.[5]
(See also: Meter (music)) Thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of
this exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece, and cycle.
15.1.1 Passage
The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and “para-
graphs” such as the verse of a song. This may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse form or meter of
the words or the steps of a dance.
For example, the twelve bar blues is a specific verse form, while common meter is found in many hymns and ballads
and, again, the Elizabethan galliard, like many dances, requires a certain rhythm, pace and length of melody to fit its
repeating pattern of steps. Simpler styles of music may be more or less wholly defined at this level of form, which
therefore does not differ greatly from the loose sense first mentioned and which may carry with it rhythmic, harmonic,
timbral, occasional and melodic conventions.
Notation
In the analysis of musical form, any components that can be defined on the time axis (such as sections and units) are
conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters
68
15.1. LEVELS OF ORGANISATION 69
Thought-form of the Music of Gounod, according to Annie Besant and C.W. Leadbeater in Thought Forms (1901)
are used for sub-divisions. If one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate
number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used
on larger timescales. For example, consider the analogy with rhyme schemes;
The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets (AABB), and thus its organization is binary or
“twofold”.
70 CHAPTER 15. MUSICAL FORM
Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are.
Up above the world so high,
like a diamond in the sky.
Contrast with the following verse, were the rhyme is repeated in the second line, followed by a variant in the third
line – two half-lines sharing a new rhyme – and a return to the first arrangement in the last line (AABA), and thus its
organization is song form. Ternary form or “threefold” is (ABA).
There once was a fellow from Leeds

Who swallowed a packet of seeds.
In less than an hour he burst into flower
And he died trying to pull up the weeds.
However, as music educator Stewart Macpherson stated, there is a preference at all levels of musical organization for
groupings of two, four, eight over other divisions, so that even a ternary form is often extended by repetition of the
first subject into a “fourfold” structure so that composers must guard against excessive “squareness”.[6]
15.1.2 Pieces
The next level concerns the entire structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or
dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic
form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instru-
mentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If two distinctly different themes are alternated indefinitely, as
in a song alternating verse and chorus or in the alternating slow and fast sections of the Hungarian czardas, then this
gives rise to a simple binary form. If the theme is played (perhaps twice), then a new theme is introduced, the piece
then closing with a return to the first theme, we have a simple ternary form.
Great arguments and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as 'ternary' and 'binary', as a complex piece
may have elements of both at different organizational levels. A minuet, like any Baroque dance, generally had simple
binary structure (AABB), however, this was frequently extended by the introduction of another minuet arranged
for solo instruments (called the trio), after which the first was repeated again and the piece ended—this is a ternary
form—ABA: the piece is binary on the lower compositional level but ternary on the higher. Organisational levels
are not clearly and universally defined in western musicology, while words like “section” and “passage” are used at
different levels by different scholars whose definitions, as Schlanker points out, cannot keep pace with the myriad
innovations and variations devised by musicians.
15.1.3 Cycle
The grandest level of organization may be referred to as "cyclical form". It concerns the arrangement of several self-
contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a related theme may be presented
as a song-cycle, whereas a set of Baroque dances were presented as a suite. The opera and ballet may organize song
and dance into even larger forms. This level of musical form, though it again applies and gives rise to different genres,
takes more account of the methods of musical organisation used. For example: a symphony, a concerto and a sonata
differ in scale and aim, yet generally resemble one another in the manner of their organization. The individual pieces
which make up the larger form may be called movements.
15.2 Single forms

Scholes suggested that European classical music had only six stand-alone forms: simple binary, simple ternary, com-
pound binary, rondo, air with variations, and fugue (although musicologist Alfred Mann emphasized that the fugue
is primarily a method of composition that has sometimes taken on certain structural conventions.[7] )
Where a piece cannot readily be broken down into sectional units (though it might borrow some form from a poem,
story or programme), it is said to be through-composed. Such is often the case with a fantasia, prelude, rhapsody,
etude (or study), symphonic poem, Bagatelle, impromptu, etc. Charles Keil classified forms and formal detail as
“sectional, developmental, or variational.”[8]
15.2. SINGLE FORMS 71
15.2.1 Sectional form
This form is built from a sequence of clear-cut units[9] that may be referred to by letters but also often have generic
names such as introduction and coda, exposition, development and recapitulation, verse, chorus or refrain, and bridge.
Introductions and codas, when they are no more than that, are frequently excluded from formal analysis. All such
units may typically be eight measures long. Sectional forms include:
Strophic form
Main article: Strophic form
This form is defined by its “unrelieved repetition” (AAAA...).
Medley or “chain” form
Medley, potpourri or chain form is the extreme opposite, that of “unrelieved variation": it is simply an indefinite
sequence of self-contained sections (ABCD...), sometimes with repeats (AABBCCDD...). Examples include or-
chestral overtures, which are sometimes no more than a string of the best tunes of the show to come.
Binary form
Main article: Binary form

This form uses two sections (AB...), each often repeated (AABB...). In 18th-century western classical music, “simple
Binary form in major and minor keys. Each section must be at least three phrases long.[10]
binary” form was often used for dances and carried with it the convention that the two sections should be in different
musical keys but same rhythm, duration and tone. The alternation of two tunes gives enough variety to permit a dance
to be extended for as long as desired.
Ternary form
Main article: Ternary form
This form has three parts. In Western classical music a simple ternary form has a third section that is a recapitulation
of the first (ABA). Often, the first section is repeated (AABA). This approach was called da capo (i.e. “repeat from
the top”) form. Later, it gave rise to the 32-bar song, with the B section then often referred to as the “middle eight”.
A song has more need than a dance of a self-contained form with a beginning and an end of course.
Rondo form
Main article: Rondo form

This form has a recurring theme alternating with different (usually contrasting) sections called “episodes”. It may
be asymmetrical (ABACADAEA) or symmetrical (ABACABA). A recurring section, especially the main theme,
is sometimes more thoroughly varied, or else one episode may be a “development” of it. A similar arrangement is
the ritornello form of the Baroque concerto grosso. Arch form (ABCBA) resembles a symmetrical rondo without
intermediate repetitions of the main theme. It is normally used in a round.
15.2.2 Variational form
Main article: Variation (music)
Variational forms are those in which variation is an important formative element.

Theme and Variations: a theme, which in itself can be of any shorter form (binary, ternary, etc.), forms the only
“section” and is repeated indefinitely (as in strophic form) but is varied each time (A,B,A,F,Z,A), so as to make a sort
of sectional chain form. An important variant of this, much used in 17th-century British music and in the Passacaglia
and Chaconne, was that of the ground bass—a repeating bass theme or basso ostinato over and around which the rest
of the structure unfolds, often, but not always, spinning polyphonic or contrapuntal threads, or improvising divisions
and descants. This is said by Scholes (1977) to be the form par excellence of unaccompanied or accompanied solo
instrumental music. The Rondo is often found with sections varied (AA1 BA2 CA3 BA4 ) or (ABA1 CA2 B1 A).
15.2.3 Developmental form
Main article: Musical development
Developmental forms are built directly from smaller units, such as motifs, combined and worked out in different ways,
perhaps having a symmetrical or arch-like underpinning and a progressive development from beginning to end. By
far the most important in Western classical music is:
Sonata-allegro form
Main article: Sonata form
This form, also known as sonata form, first movement form, compound binary, ternary and a variety of other names,
developed from the binary-formed dance movement described above but is almost always cast in a greater ternary
form having the nominal subdivisions of Exposition, Development and Recapitulation. Usually, but not always, the
“A” parts (Exposition and Recapitulation, respectively) may be subdivided into two or three themes or theme groups
which are taken asunder and recombined to form the “B” part (the development)—thus e. g. (AabB[dev. of a and/or
b]A1 ab1 +coda). This developmental form is generally confined to certain sections of the piece, as to the middle
section of the first movement of a sonata, though 19th-century composers such as Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner made
valiant efforts to derive large-scale works purely or mainly from the motif.
Chester (1970) distinguished this as “extensional music”, that “produced by starting with small components—rhythmic
or melodic motifs, perhaps—and then 'developing' these through techniques of modification and combination.” “In-
tensional music”, meanwhile, “starts with a framework—a chord sequence, a melodic outline, a rhythmic pattern—
and then extends itself by repeating the framework with perpetually varied inflections to the details filling it in.”
15.3 Cyclical forms

Opera was originally modelled upon classical drama and takes much of its form from its libretto and narrative. For
many years, ballet was a component of opera, not in itself narrative, but having the form of a suite of set dances
included at some appropriate moment in the story such as a festival or wedding. It emerged as a separate form,
supplying its own narrative or representation, during the 19th century. At the same time, the song cycle emerged,
which is a set of related songs (as the suite is a set of related dances). The oratorio took shape as a narrative, often
religious, recounted—rather than acted—by the singers.
15.4. SEE ALSO 73
The sonata, symphony, and concerto were all developed by major composers of the Viennese school (Haydn, Mozart
and Beethoven primarily) along the same formal lines into distinctively musical forms limited little by the forms of
song, dance or ceremony. Other forms of music, such as the Catholic mass and requiem, are largely shaped by, and
subordinated to, their texts and ceremonial functions.
15.4 See also

• Developing variation
• List of musical forms by era
• Song structure
15.5 References
[1] Schmidt-Jones, Catherine (11 March 2011). “Form in Music”. Connexions. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
[2] Brandt, Anthony (11 January 2007). “Musical Form”. Connexions. Retrieved 11 September 2011.
[3] Scholes, Percy A. (1977). “Form”. The Oxford Companion to Music (10 ed.). Oxford University Press.
[4] Middleton, Richard (1999). “Form”. In Horner, Bruce; Swiss, Thomas. Key Terms in Popular Music and Culture. Malden,
Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21263-9.
[5] Macpherson, Stewart (1930). “Form”. Form in Music (New and Revised ed.). London: Joseph Williams.
[6] Macpherson, Stewart (1930). “Form”. Form in Music (New and Revised ed.). London: Joseph Williams.
[7] Mann, Alfred (1958). The Study of Fugue. W.W.Norton and Co. Inc.
[8] Keil, Charles (1966). Urban blues. ISBN 0-226-42960-1.
[9] Wennerstrom, Mary (1975). “Form in Twentieth Century Music”. In Wittlich, Gary. Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
[10] White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music, p.50. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
15.6 External links

• Lessons in Music Form by Percy Goetschius, 1904
• Study Guide for Musical Form: A Complete Outline of Standardized Formal Categories and Concepts by
Robert T. Kelley
• A Practical Guide to Musical Composition by Alan Belkin

• Morphopoiesis: A General Procedure for Structuring Form by Panayiotis Kokoras
• Klorman, Edward. 2014. “Musical Form: Mapping the Territories” in Music Theory Online 20.2.
15.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.7.1 Text
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Postdlf, Flauto Dolce, Db48x, Gadfium, Karol Langner, Kesac, JimWae, Mkilly, Safety Cap, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Art
LaPella, Mark R Johnson, Brainy J, Nsaa, Gary, Arthena, Laug, WadeSimMiser, Mandarax, Alloy, Cuchullain, Drbogdan, Wahoofive,
Chipuni, Pleiotrop3, MZMcBride, ThatDamnDave, Bensin, RobertG, Nihiltres, Jriddy, RexNL, Gwernol, Pigman, M3c4n0~enwiki,
Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Korny O'Near, ONEder Boy, Thiseye, CPColin, Moe Epsilon, Closedmouth, Purple Sheep, Smack-
Bot, Edgar181, Gilliam, KevM, NapoleonB, J 1982, Minna Sora no Shita, Stealth cat, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent, CmdrObot, Mr-
Fizyx, Ward3001, Epbr123, FromanylanD, Daniel Newman, Demetri69, GordonRoss, Guy Macon, Jayron32, Kaobear, Y2kcrazyjoker4,
VoABot II, Jerome Kohl, Error792, DerHexer, Danleary25, J.delanoy, NewEnglandYankee, Bonadea, 28bytes, SpiritOf2Dragons, Vipin-
hari, Pwnage8, Martin451, Tpk5010, TravelingCat, Brianga, Praefectorian, Gorpik, Saltywood, Flyer22 Reborn, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83,
Steven Crossin, KathrynLybarger, Mezmerizer, ClueBot, Arakunem, Niceguyedc, MiharuAikou, 7, SoxBot III, Antti29, Helixweb,
Nathan Johnson, Bes2224, Addbot, Semaj3, Jafeluv, SunDragon34, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Cst17, Download, Redheylin, ScitechBoy,
SilverWeb, Tide rolls, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Addihockey10, Nasnema, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Wireless Keyboard,
Gothica36, Das Ansehnlisch, I dream of horses, SpaceFlight89, Willybyrd, DC, Weedwhacker128, Smartiger, In ictu oculi, Going-
Batty, RA0808, Tommy2010, K6ka, The Golden Circle, Fæ, Qqq3123, Can You Prove That You're Human, Augurar, 28bot, Petrb,
ClueBot NG, Cjprindle, Jack Greenmaven, Johnshaw511, Jononie, Evan916, Fatpuppyie, Widr, , Helpful Pixie Bot, TotalFailure,
Calabe1992, LTHewitt, Flax5, Devin.chaloux, Aaronmeier2881, Achowat, ~riley, Mrt3366, Aschibanoff, Jimi Joplin, Everymorning,
Ginsuloft, Gonnagle, JaconaFrere, Musikisum, ColRad85, Deflexula, Amortias, HMSLavender, Esquivalience, KristianPrifti, Tiger7890,
Ulsig and Anonymous: 324
• Introduction (music) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_(music)?oldid=718502976 Contributors: KF, Dwo, Hyacinth,
Fredrik, Zandperl, Kkilian72~enwiki, JamesTeterenko, BRW, Bsadowski1, Teknic, Wahoofive, Roivas, Celestianpower, DVdm, M3c4n0~enwiki,
Sintonak.X, SmackBot, Riisikuppi~enwiki, Rigadoun, Stealth cat, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Lajsikonik, Danleary25, STBotD, TXiKiBoT,
Pwnage8, Shanata, Michael Frind, SieBot, Capitalismojo, Muro Bot, Redheylin, Karatorian, Yobot, Rubinbot, Eco DJ, ESSch, Tbhotch,
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Mark Foskey, Hyacinth, Jmabel, Flauto Dolce, Phthoggos, TrbleClef, Spundun, Florian Blaschke, JPX7, CanisRufus, Arcadian, Shard-
Phoenix, Gpvos, Graham87, Wahoofive, Koavf, Missmarple, RayC, Jw21, Robert Nagle, Wiki alf, Elkman, SmackBot, Hraefen, Scwlong,
General Ization, E-Kartoffel, Ewulp, SerenadeOp24, MFlet1, ShelfSkewed, Gegorg, Zzzronnyzzz, JGHowes, A4bot, Mterrell85, Insanity
Incarnate, Daniil Maslyuk, Lightmouse, ClueBot, Nymf, Alexbot, Addbot, Willking1979, Redheylin, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Isamit,
Sabrebd, DrilBot, Patrick Lockwood, Jazzaim, Weedwhacker128, Born2bgratis, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Etrader, Qqq3123, AManWithNo-
Plan, ClueBot NG, Jazzycomposer, Widr, Frosty, Ilovetopaint, AceKidd1337, 7ff, Mr Funk, Arielp7 and Anonymous: 31
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Topbanana, Chealer, SableSynthesis, Ikari, Neutrality, MementoVivere, Rich Farmbrough, Mani1, Brian0918, Smalljim, Acjelen, Wik-
iLeon, Mpulier, Bathrobe, SteinbDJ, Woohookitty, Hughcharlesparker, Ash211, Missmarple, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Algebraist,
Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Koveras, Huw Powell, Mlouns, AdelaMae, Teiladnam, SmackBot, Jrockley, Eskimbot, Keegan, MalafayaBot,
Jerome Charles Potts, Nbarth, 16@r, Eurodog, OnBeyondZebrax, Cydebot, Khatru2, Thijs!bot, Poorleno, Epbr123, Barticus88, Andyj-
smith, LCamara, JAnDbot, .anacondabot, Theresa123123123, MartinBot, Danleary25, Nmp9, J.delanoy, Funkster99, Sedayne, Luke-
bishop, Secleinteer, Synthebot, Dogah, SieBot, Nite-Sirk, ClueBot, Excentrifuge, Bokan, DragonBot, Iner22, Estirabot, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, Redheylin, Blaylockjam10, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, MauritsBot, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Cekli829, Prari, Pinethicket,
Tinton5, FoxBot, Mean as custard, Ceilidhcaller, EmausBot, Super48paul, Unreal7, Markiewp, ClueBot NG, Movses-bot, Oddbodz, Li-
onhead99, Justincheng12345-bot, Jimi Joplin, Shugurim, Some Gadget Geek, KasparBot, NewYorkActuary, Kmalhotra612 and Anony-
mous: 69
• Bridge (music) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_(music)?oldid=736984199 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Mulad, RodC,
Andrewman327, Hyacinth, UninvitedCompany, MilkMiruku, DocWatson42, Ulmanor, Thorwald, Florian Blaschke, Hydriotaphia, Hu,
Sleigh, Woohookitty, SDC, Rjwilmsi, Wahoofive, Bensin, FlaBot, RobertG, Gurch, YurikBot, RussBot, Journalist, AdelaMae, Deeday-
UK, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Wikipedia brown, Rigadoun, JohnI, Eurodog, Rainwarrior, OnBeyondZebrax, Paul
Foxworthy, Blehfu, Gegorg, Cydebot, Grayshi, Alex holden, MikeLynch, ZZninepluralZalpha, JamesBWatson, Nyttend, Theresa123123123,
Sectori, Danleary25, STBotD, Meiskam, VolkovBot, D A Patriarche, BuickCenturyDriver, MichaelProcton, Melsaran, Nite-Sirk, Rd-
hettinger, ClueBot, Elephant Talk, RafaAzevedo, Auntof6, Bde1982, Sir Bradfordshire, TheRedPenOfDoom, Trout Ice Cream, Ad-
dbot, Redheylin, OlEnglish, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Isamit, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Bossanoven, Panzak7, Puffin,
Spicemix, ClueBot NG, Drg149, TotalFailure, Graham11, GoShow, Jimi Joplin, Spicyitalianmeatball, Progrockdude, TwilightSeptakkord
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Roivas, Crystallina, Kleinzach, Rrburke, SMasters, Eurodog, Levineps, Cls14, Cydebot, DavidRF, Christian75, JAnDbot, Adavidb, Nite-
Sirk, ClueBot, MystBot, Addbot, Redheylin, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Materialscientist, GoingBatty, CharlieEchoTango, Fowl Footed, Do-
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SoP, EdH, Hyacinth, Bearcat, Robbot, Romanm, Cyrius, Icairns, Pavel Vozenilek, Stesmo, Longhair, Haham hanuka, Grutness, Ricky81682,
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15.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 75
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bercobra, SashatoBot, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Michael Bednarek, Ryulong, Manifestation, Iridescent, TwistOfCain, Joseph Solis in Aus-
tralia, Blehfu, CmdrObot, Smoove Z, Cydebot, Cahk, H1es-, Gogo Dodo, Kimyu12, Tawkerbot4, Robert.Allen, Tumble-Weed, Escarbot,
AntiVandalBot, Jhsounds, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, MER-C, Dsp13, RebelRobot, VoABot II, Allstarecho, MartinBot, Kamaki, Glennobrien,
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mouth, GraemeL, LeonardoRob0t, Whobot, ArielGold, Allens, J Lorraine, DVD R W, SmackBot, DCGeist, Hydrogen Iodide, Jab843,
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gineer III, Andy120, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, JohnCD, MrFizyx, Mmorse@ca.inter.net, Cydebot, BeatlesSpong, Gogo Dodo, Dusty relic,
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carbot, Prince Godfather, Atavi, Lprcycle, Malcolm, Handicapper, Sluzzelin, Deadbeef, JAnDbot, Musanim, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior,
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Useight, Marko Kovacic~enwiki, Idioma-bot, TreasuryTag, Macedonian, Articrono, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Realbach, Anna Lincoln,
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pondo, Avoided, Jhoveson, MystBot, Airplaneman, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Cxz111, StalkingLaugh, Ronhjones, Seahorse321, BepBot,
Redheylin, Favonian, Barak Sh, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Lightbot, WikiDreamer Bot, Meisam, Legobot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, II MusLiM
HyBRiD II, KamikazeBot, Neptune5000, PiracyFundsTerrorism, ImperatorExercitus, RagaBhakta, OllieFury, Maxis ftw, Roux-HG,
Frankenpuppy, ManningBartlett, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Arnfieldroad, Wmcg2, Iddoanything!, Erik9, Rachiibaby1, Thehelpfulbot,
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Toussaint, LcawteHuggle, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Murphy4709, NotAnonymous0, Jangmabi, K6ka, Mz7, ZéroBot, Misty MH, Dr
clave, Leadtrumpetman, Wayne Slam, Staszek Lem, Donner60, Polbrian, Mwmorse, Snubcube, Numuse37, Cmurr011, ClueBot NG,
Movses-bot, MBC2011, Rezabot, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Snowboarder616, BG19bot, Cubana bomba, Civeel, Gorthian,
Snow Blizzard, Kcferguson, MrDKing, EditorE, AK456, Mother Earth 145, JakobSteenberg, Godfried12345, , Polyclaupticus, Nju-
bianyuan, Ginsuloft, Croatgoat, StevenD99, Fixuture, Whatrwe2do, Dsprc, Kinetic37, Lebron James 7777, Ivory123, Bobiscool707,
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Bobo192, Mote, Dbeardsl, Bluemoose, SCEhardt, Wahoofive, Moskvax, Nuge, N8cantor, YurikBot, Chris Capoccia, Caerwine, Yonidebest,
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Song Structure

4.3.2 Shout chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

10.2.5 Metric structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

13.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Main article: Introduction (music)

Main article: Verse–chorus form

1.1.4 Chorus or refrain

Main article: Refrain

“Jingle Bells"'s verse Play verse or full song

Main article: Bridge (music)

“Jingle Bells"'s chorus Play chorus or full song

1.1.6 Conclusion or Outro

“Jingle Bells"'s outro Play outro or full song

Main article: Outro (music)

1.1.8 Instrumental solo

1.2 AABA form

Examples include "Deck the Halls":

A: Deck the hall with boughs of holly,

1.3 Variation on the basic structure

1.4 See also

[4] Cope (2009), p.68.

[5] Everett (2008), p.146.

[8] Davidson & Heartwood (1996), p.7.

[9] Everett (1999), p.16.

[10] Davidson & Heartwood (1996), p.8.

[11] Watson (2003), p.87-8.

[12] Watson (2003), p.89.

[13] Watson (2003), p.90.

1.6 Further reading

2.1 See also

[3] Weir (2005), p.57.

[4] Weir (2005), p.55.

3.1 Contrasting verse–chorus form

• "That'll Be the Day" by Buddy Holly (1957)[5]

• "Be My Baby" by The Ronettes (1963)[5]

• "California Girls" by The Beach Boys (1965)[5]

• "Foxy Lady" by Jimi Hendrix (1967)[5]

• "Smoke on the Water" by Deep Purple (1973)[5]

• "Can't Get Enough" by Bad Company (1974)[5]

3.2 Simple verse–chorus form

• "Shake, Rattle, and Roll" by Big Joe Turner (1954)[5]

3.3 Simple verse form

• "Evil Ways" by Santana (1969)[5]

and with a contrasting bridge:

• "Eight Miles High" by The Byrds (1966)[5]

• "Purple Haze" by Jimi Hendrix (1967).[5]

[5] Covach (2005), p.71–72

3.5 See also

For other uses, see Refrain (disambiguation).

Musical notation for the chorus of “Jingle Bells” Play

4.1 Usage in history

There lived a lady by the North Sea shore,

As one grew bright as is the sun,

Heavenborn Helen, Sparta’s queen,

4.2 In popular music

4.3.1 Arranger’s chorus

4.3.2 Shout chorus

4.4 See also

[4] Appen and Frei-Hauenschild 2015, p. 4.

5.2 Classical music

5.3 See also

• Sears Roebuck bridge

[5] Songstuﬀ Music Glossary

[6] Collins Music Encyclopedia, London 1959, article “Symphony”