Buch003englishArticles01 1015-01-2006researchgate

First Publication
The Superquantum Theory

Candidate for the “Theory of Everything”
Authors
Havva Shevkinaz Bulut & Arno Gorgels
2
Superquantum Theory; Theory of Everything
Imprint
Superquantum Theory
- Research and Development -
Havva Shevkinaz Bulut and Arno Gorgels
BC Märkische Ingenieure GmbH ASPARAGUS-Verlag, Potsdam 2005

ISBN 3-00-016716-1
Potsdam – Köln
Graphics by Havva Shevkinaz Bulut and Arno Gorgels

Photos of scientists are “public domain”
The Superquantum Theory
©2005 Internet Article as part of the Superquantum Theory
Printing on Demand
Berlin
ISBN 3-00-016716-1
First Edition
July 2005
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First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Candidate for “Theory of Everything”
Article 1
The Search for the Universal Concept- Theory of Everything
Contents
Introduction
0 The search for an universal concept
1 Logic and truth
2 History of the search for the Theory of Everything
3 End of the search: Superquantum Theory
4 Summary
This article gives information about:
1) The search for a universal concept

2) History of “Truth and Logic”
3) History of the search for the Grand Unifying Theory
4) List of research results of Superquantum Theory
4
0 The search for an universal concept- the Theory of Everything

„ It has been said that the highest praise of God consists in the denial of Him by the atheist who finds creation so
perfect that he can dispense with a creator.“ Marcel Proust, an intellectual of the 20th century is reported to have
said this phrase. Well, what now precisely is the Creator’s work that astonishes the atheist so much? Theoretical
physicists are predestined due to their profession to go and search for the „design of creation “, but a search for a
design without God…?
We call the concept of creation „nature“. Nature is an entirety in which objects are highly prearranged and
related with each other in a complicated manner. The single elements of nature have a dynamic relationship with
each other. With the “Theory of Everything” scientists wish to discover the laws that rule this dynamic
interrelation. For what reason? What does mankind hope to gain and explain from that Knowledge of
Everything? The answer is hidden in the special position of men within the structure called „Nature“.
From a little heap of cells the greatest miracle of life develops: a baby. With the birth of a child a complicated
but highly organized system comes to earth. The identity of the grown-up human being depends not only on his
biological predisposition but also on his social adaptation (relations with other people) as well as on his
intellectual development.
The human being essentially stands between two worlds: one world that extends to infinitely large objects
(macrocosm) and one world that shrinks to infinitely small objects (=microcosm). With his consciousness the
human being has got the possibility to position himself between these worlds, to search and research and to filter
profitability for himself. Even the Theory of Everything has the task to join macrocosm and microcosm to one
entity in order to enable mankind to find its position and orientation therein.
We have stated that elements in nature appear in shapes and structures. An example is the snow crystal. The
snow crystal is an „uncomplicated” example of organization in nature. Its symmetry with its six beams is the
reason that we perceive the snow crystal as a thing of beauty. It is not accidental that it falls to earth not
shapeless but highly structured. Specifically the formation of symmetry provides stability to the flake. Symmetry
means repetition of patterns following laws of nature. To illustrate the principle of symmetry we do a little
mental experiment:
If we imagine pinning down a flake on the table right in the

middle with a needle and turn it around, than every branch will
cover the next one, such as if we hadn’t turned the flake around at
all. The flake demonstrates stability in appearance. The turning
angle is here 60°. That means after a turn of 60° the pattern is
repeated. (see left: the yellow axes highlight the basic pattern).
6th turn
5th turn 1st turn

x x
x x
x x
4th turn 2nd turn
3rd turn
(Source: Photo: http://www.astronomie.at/ai/ai132/Ai132.html)
This resisting external influence (like being turned around) is called invariance. The crystal by opposing
“mystically” external forces displays invariance.
Obviously symmetry, beauty, invariance and stability seem to be interlinked. This is indeed the case.
Psychologists who study the phenomenon of observation have found out that our perception of beauty relates to
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the symmetrical structure of objects. If an object is not symmetrical, the human mind is instinctively
programmed to search and search again until it recognizes a symmetrical framework. It clearly shows man’s
connection with the elements of nature. Without symmetry nature couldn’t be what it is.
Physicists are inclined to project the symmetrical structure onto the Theory of Everything. They believe that the
concept of the Theory of Everything has to be simple, beautiful and symmetric. The very simplicity of it should
turn the Theory of Everything into an “all-purpose” tool that resolves and explains all phenomena of nature.
So much for the theoretical assumption of what the Theory of Everything should be.
Well, somebody might ask: “If the world theory appears to be that easy, why haven’t those physicists found it
yet? Did they overestimate themselves?
Unfortunately we keep on reading slogans like: „ Physicist xyz is close to find the Theory of Everything” etc. In
some case leading physicists are reported being tired of answering questions. They don’t even care to inform the
public about the results of their scientific work is about, maybe because they feel trapped in a deadlock.
Nowadays theoretical physics lead an almost mystical life; a life indeed far away from normal people.
The next question could be why physicists particularly feel designated to search for the Theory of Everything.
Where are the philosophers, mathematicians or psychologists? In any case - no matter what his background,
religion or profession is - every human being is born with a consciousness that enables him to find his true
origin.
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1 Logic and truth

When the big fireball hides inside its magic coat in a magnificent composition of colors it paints majestically the
sky in intense yellow-orange and mystical red-pink. The sunset indeed has a magical impact on the human
senses. Without sun no life as we know it could exist on earth. The sun rises tireless every morning and sets so in
the evening. Will it again do that tomorrow?
„It probably will rise also tomorrow”. The statement is rather sure if we may draw conclusions from the
innumerable sunrises and sunsets in the past. Man has the mind to look back from presence (here and now) to the
past and to imagine the future. Precisely this capability enables human beings to connect events logically. The
conclusion that the sun will rise tomorrow is an inductive conclusion. Induction is a method of logic to draw
conclusions from single events to a general, yet hypothetical law that allows application of its rules for yet
unseen similar events.
Deduction is exactly the opposite, namely the conclusion from generality to a single case. Deduction for sure
gives more security than induction.
a priori- a posteriori induction - deduction
a priori induction
cause effect single case generality
a posteriori deduction
A further logical route to conclusions, the a priori - a posteriori – procedure (Latin: from earlier), is the process
of seeking the following (effect, result of time or of matter) from the former (cause, origin of time or of matter).
The opposite is called the procedure a posteriori (Latin = from later), being the derivation of the cause from the
effect.
What is logic in essence? Logic (Gr. logos= thought, reason) is in its original meaning the teaching of thinking.
Here thinking is not a process of mind but is based upon aprioristic (not dependent on experience) laws. The
statement “all circles are round” is not based upon observation but on convention (agreement). The logic-
mathematic definition: A circle is the interconnecting line of all points equidistant from a central point. The
logical correctness of a conclusion does not guarantee the reality of observation with the human senses.
Models of science, i.e. the model of the atom, consist of components which have been experienced by scientists
using their senses. The atom has thus a “rigid core” which the electrons surround swirling in orbits that are levels
of energy etc. In order to understand events in nature and in order to reproduce and use such events efficiently,
the curious human being selects features that he can observe in his surroundings and composes them to a new
entity (=Model).
With his senses only (hearing, seeing, tasting etc.) humans can not figure out everything. The daylight, that our
eyes are able to detect, is only a very little portion of the infinite broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
Roentgen- or microwaves are also part of electromagnetic radiation that we however can’t see with our eyes.
What does that mean?
Our study of reality may not be limited to things merely observed by our bodily senses. There is another part of
reality. This part can only be approached by human intelligence and faith.
Knowing that mankind exists in the middle of two worlds, the macro- and the microcosm, already allows an
approach to a manifold truth.
This realization shows man that he is nothing within a great infinity. However at the same time he has received
within his soul’s consciousness the ability to think about himself and about his environment. If the human being
becomes conscious of himself and his surrounding, then he has taken the right direction in his search of a
universal concept (the Theory of Everything).
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Our reality therefore is composed of two parts:
sensory perception (=observable) non sensory perception

(= supersensual, metaphysic)
A model is a structure synthesized from features observed with the senses in order to guide “the common sense”
to understand phenomena of nature. Man is a good observer of nature and of things that happen around him.
With his conscious mind he has the capability to imitate features respectively processes that occur in nature, and
he realizes those for his own good.
Physicists have in the last few centuries taken over the role of philosophers in the search for the truth. The first
great physicist of modern times, Sir Isaac Newton, gave his work the title: “Philosophia Naturalis Principia
Mathematica”... No word about physics☺. The expressions Philosophia and Mathematica are the eye-catchers.
Physics gained importance when its results had increasing impact on society and on the growing population at
the beginning of the industrial revolution. The steam engine and of electricity are obvious examples for the
victory of modern physics. The success of physics in society surpassed that of mathematics and philosophy. At
the beginning of the 20th century the physicist felt ever more obliged to dig into questions of life and death and to
pronounce his opinion about the essence of life. Members of the famous “Quantenrunde” (“quantum round
table”) of the 20th century were Planck, Heisenberg, Bohr and not to forget Einstein who however stood very
skeptical towards Plank’s Quantum Theory. They were discussing theories of everything down to the finest
details. The discussions were that fierce that they often ended in quarrels☺.
Finally we would introduce a very special person, a mathematician, who is

considered the most important logician of the twentieth century. In his
search for logical truth he formulated his famous principle of
incompleteness: non-decidable statements exist in any logical system.
Questions exist that in accordance with the principle of incompleteness

can not be answered finally within one system or within one doctrine. The
search of the Theory of Everything is such a question. It means that the
Theory can not be found by merely studying just one doctrine (say:
physics). Precisely with this in mind the Superquantum Theory has been
conceived.
Kurt Gödel (1906-1978)
The Superquantum Theory clarifies that a fundamental search for truth by physicists can not be limited to the
physics, mathematics, logics, philosophy. The principle called “Theory of Everything”, also called “Great
Unifying Theory” or “World Equation” or the “World System” covers much more than only physics and
mathematics. The “World Equation” suggests the existence of one equation to cover all phenomena. We think it
is more accurate to speak of a “world system” rather than a “world equation”. If anything the expression of the
Set Theory {A} could serve as the “world equation”, as the Superquantum Theory explains.
Pillar of the Superquantum Theory: All doctrines are equivalent for the search for the Theory of Everything.
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2 The history of the search

Modern physics owes its achievements to discoveries made in the first half of the 20th century. Since then the
quantum theory and the theory of relativity form the pillars of physics. Quantum theory describes events of the
micro world. The theory of relativity describes large phenomena including those of astronomy. Scientists try to
unify both theories. The concept of the Theory of Everything was also introduced in the 20th century.
In 1900 the German physicist Max Planck initiated the age of our modern physics.
In Berlin he presented a new equation based on his experiment with „black bodies“: matter appears to emit
radiation in certain „ pieces of energy “- in fixed portions. He called these portions: quanta. Albert Einstein
extended this interpretation for the light. He concluded after corresponding experiments, that light also behaves
like electromechanical waves and at the same time as quanta which he named photons. Gradually the quantum
theory got its mathematical foundation through the work of the “Quantenrunde”.
M. Planck (1858-1947)
W. Heisenberg (1901- 1976) M. Born (1882-1970)
N. Bohr (1885-1962) E. Schrödinger (1887-1961)
Some members of
the “Quantenrunde”
The quantum theory describes the behavior of elementary particles in the microcosm. Elementary particles are
„things “, of which all matter is composed. Even if we can not see the particles with our eyes, they do have a
dynamic lifestyle and a communicative life with their fellow particles. Just like people living together in groups
elementary particles join in families and groups in the same way.
Albert Einstein developed in fact two theories of relativity: in 1905 the special theory
of relativity and in 1915 the general theory of relativity. The former theory explains
the behavior of space, time, mass and energy seen from the standpoint of a moving
observer. The second theory is based on the first one. It is the theory of gravitation.
Einstein’s gravitation is a different interpretation of gravitation of Newton’s:
gravitation is not a force, but a result of the geometric curving of space-time.
Einstein (1879-1955)
Newton considered space as an absolute, unchangeable “quantity”. The general theory of relativity shows that
space participates in the phenomenon of gravity. Matter and space-time have mutual influence. Matter bends the
space and space has influence on the movement of matter.
The theory of relativity goes back to the principle of relativity by Galileo. Galileo’s principle of relativity is
fundamental to physics. It states that for systems, which move uniformly (in relation to each other), follow the
same laws of nature. Therefore in these systems laws of nature stay constant. The theory of relativity deals with
events in the macrocosm. The probably most famous equation of Einstein is the equivalence of energy and mass
E = mc², according to which all mass m equals an amount of energy E and vice versa.
In 2005 we celebrate the Einstein-year: a hundred years after his invention of the special theory of relativity. The
festivities in the world and especially in Berlin motivated people to revive the discussion around the “Theory of
Everything”.
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The reader will notice that the search for the Theory of Everything hasn’t been interrupted. Few interviews with
physicists are being held in which the journalist wouldn’t question the state of affairs around the grand unifying
theory. Indeed, scientists still try to unify Einstein’s gravitation and the quantum theory.
String-theory, supergravitation, quantum-gravity, supersymmetry and similar approaches are the main
ingredients, with which they try to compose the primordial soup that stood at the beginning of the evolution.
Stephen Hawking came to Berlin in order to explain all this in front of a select audience. Where Hawking
expressed his doubting of the string theory as a candidate for the Theory of Everything, other physicists hold on
to the idea that the string will finally lead them to solving the problem. The string theory is the new star of
theoretical physics that should lead to the Theory of Everything. The string theory states everything in the world
(matter as well as non-matter) may exist as variations of the energy wave of a string.
Einstein stood very skeptical towards the quantum theory, formulated by Max Planck. Einstein demanded that
the quantum physicists should prove experimentally the mutual influence of distanced quanta. Only in 1982 a
team of scientists under the French physicist Alain Aspect succeeded in proving experimentally the “ghostly
remote manipulation” of quanta, a phenomenon Einstein had never believed. In a modified manner this
experiment was repeated in 2004 by Antoine Suarez. The mutual influence of distanced quanta means
„communication” between remote particles, a communication that is seemingly without any exchange of signals.
The only connection seems to be mathematical calculation of quantum theory.
The light of a laser is being lead into a crystal. The crystal radiates the received
„photon of origin“ energy in form of photon-twins. In a glass fiber cable each photon flies with the
m Laserlicht speed of light in opposite directions. During their flight they encounter obstacles:
following the principle of chance movable mirrors either get in the way of the
crystal photon and reflect it or are positioned in a way that the photon can continue its
route. At their arrival the particles are accurately counted.
twin photons Because the photons go separate ways and encounter different obstacles, one
could expect that each photon arrives at different times. The experiment however
shows an astonishing result: even if one photon of a pair of photons was reflected
on the way and therefore did not reach its goal, its brother did also not arrive at
its goal! The twins behave like one and the same particle. It must be remembered
c c that each photon moves with the speed of light. The experiment clearly shows
that signals are exchanged with a velocity greater than the speed of light.
speed of light
Without obvious reason the particles are connected to each other. This remote communication which Einstein
rejected is called non-locality. Non-locality is communication between quanta without apparent exchange of
signals.
Einstein however had postulated that all reciprocal influences in the material world are exchanged by signals that
move in space with a velocity smaller than that of light. This is the principle of locality. Since photons in the
experiment move with the speed of light but yet are connected, the locality seems to be eliminated. That means
that the photons „communicate” (seemingly) without signal. The consequences are: the factors causality and
time do evidently not play a role. Causality means the existence of a correlation between cause and effect. One
would expect that between cause and effect some time should pass. However, the photons are continuously in
immediate contact which scientists experience as standstill of time, though they fly each with the speed of light.
Contrary to the theory of relativity the quantum theory allows velocity of signals greater than the speed of light.
In the world of smallest particles a different logic seems to exist than that of scholar common sense. „Is the sun
still there, even if we do not look at it?” Our mind would say yes without hesitation. However the laws of
quantum physics say: no. Objects that are quanta like for example the electron only become a particle (a point)
when we look at it, when we experiment with them. In the world of quanta it depends on the observers whether
the quantum is a particle at a certain location or whether its position is obscured as if in a cloud.
Small particles cause big problems and many enigmas in the minds of physicists. The uncertainty of the quantum
invites to imagine a concept of parallel worlds which develop individually. Human consciousness helps through
observation to choose which world is the real one. Or the consciousness does nothing at all and all and all those
parallel worlds exist around us. Descartes’ duality is said to support this point of view. In 1927 after serious
discussions two interpretations were distilled, one of Heisenberg and one of Bohr.
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■ Bohr: The complementary principle: two opposite behaviors (like wave – particle behavior) of one and the
same quantum are essentially an undividable wholeness. The behaviors are conditional to each other. This is
the so-called „Interpretation of Copenhagen”.
■ Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle: the evaluation of the impulse of a quantum becomes less accurate with an
increasing accuracy of its location and vice versa.
The essence of all these statements has been demonstrated by Erwin Schrödinger. He formulated the “paradox
of the cat”, the half dead cat (known as „Schrödingers cat“): two conditions, no matter how different, exist
without preference at the same time. The human mind (measuring, observing) „decides” which condition
prevails.
Schrödinger would set in a room: a radioactive atom and a Geiger counter as well as a bottle of poison, to
which a hammer is linked. And of course Schrödingers cat is in the chamber too. The chamber is completely
closed and nobody can look into it from outside. If after a certain time (given by probability) the atom decays,
the counter is activated. The counters’ ticking causes the hammer to fall and the bottle to break. Our common
sense tells us now that the cat is either dead immediately or still alive. For the quantum physicist however the
cat is only “half dead”. The conditions “dead” and “alive” exist simultaneously with equal right. They overlap
each other like the qualities of a quantum (wave/ particle). Only at the very moment when the observer opens
the chamber, the decision is made: the cat is dead or lives.
Only by the observers’ “active experiment” one of the possible conditions will become „dominant” and will
appear as real in the observers’ consciousness.
The quantum theory forms the theoretical starting point to continue the technical revolution of the 20th century.
Here is a summary of a few of the achievements of the quantum theory:
● The atomic model, radioactivity, chemical processes, atomic spectra, the effects of electromagnetic fields, the
nuclear structure and nuclear reaction, thermal and electrical characteristics of rigid bodies, supra conductivity,
the production and destruction of elementary particles, existence of antimatter, the stability of stars, the
electron microscope, lasers, transistors all are consequences of the knowledge of the behavior of quanta and
quantons (particles with mass and resonance frequency). The quantum theory hat revolutionized technology.
The theory of relativity however has had its success in more theoretical matters like gravitation, big bang etc..
It is presently exactly hundred years ago that Einstein discovered the theory.
● Energy is being released in „portions“

Loss of accuracy → uncertainty relations of Heisenberg. Location and impulse of a particle can’t be precisely
determined at the same time. The result of the experiment is influenced by the observer who carries out the
experiment.
Complementary principle→ two conditions, no matter how different from each other, exist together with equal
rights
No determinism: → the behavior of a particle can not be determined precisely but only by predictions based
upon probability. The classical, deterministic physics enables man to understand phenomena like the
movement of planets, the eclipse of the moon or the tides and also to predict those. For a certain period these
capabilities ensured the superiority of classical physics. However classical physics is insufficient in explaining
the behavior of quanta. Remote communication of quanta→ particles can according to quantum theory
communicate without exchanging signals. “Without signal” means that particles communicate even though
they fly with the speed of light.
The Superquantum Theory can solve this theoretical dilemma. In the next section we will present the
Superquantum Theory as the only candidate for the Theory of Everything. The theoretical results we have
achieved so far some we have listed on the next page. They prove beyond doubt that the search for the Theory of
Everything with the publication of Superquantum Theory has now come to an end.
Theoretical physics appears only just ready to take off…

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3 The end of the search for the Theory of Everything: The Superquantum Theory
■ The Superquantum Theory is a one-to-one projection of the mathematical Set Theory onto theoretical physics
■ An absolute elementary object exists that we call Superquantum, which is an undividable, mathematical-
physical object. It possesses only one single heuristically discovered physical characteristic (feature, property,
quality), i.e. a one-dimensional extension measured in meters. All other physical characteristics are derivable
from this single characteristic under consideration of the logic of the mathematical Set Theory. This includes
diverse material objects, events and signals such as space, time, matter, speed of light, spin, resonance
frequency of matter, dark matter, background noise etc. etc., as well as the four basic forces (gravitation,
electromagnetic force, weak and strong forces), and also so-called „selfspaces“1
■ The inverse of the order of magnitude of the size of the Superquantum equals the order of magnitude of the
galaxy, known as the Milky Way. This means that every galaxy is a closed mathematical unit.
Every galaxy has its own birth (big bang). Every galaxy has its own Superquantum, the size of which may
differ corresponding to the way the size of the corresponding galaxy differs.
■ Background noise (background radiation) is electromagnetic radiation generated in sphere S3.
■ Selfspace technology: possibility of new technology using “selfspace of matter” for interstellar traveling as
well as the development of new transport systems.
■ Solution to the continuum-problem of Cantor; the amazing calculation of the first two transfinite cardinal
numbers; The discovery of an infinite set with an irrational number of elements.
■ The discovery of seven physical- mathematical spheres (Sn) with defined mathematical characteristics of
which concerning S1 und S2 a few are listed below
▪ Definition of gravitation and mass (Newton) in S1
▪ Definition of the theory of relativity (Einstein) and derivation of the Minkowski- space-time as criterion
of stability in the passage P1 between S1 and S2
▪ Definition of electromechanical wave equations (Maxwell) in S2
▪ The origin of the concept of space in S1
▪ The origin of the concept of time and speed in S2
▪ Physical derivation of the imaginary number i²=-1 in S2 as condition of invariance of the zero-event
■ Unification of the four 4 physical basic forces of nature

▪ Existence of gravitation in S1 due to total order in S1
▪ Existence of electromagnetic forces due to powering the total order to S2
▪ Existence of strong nuclear forces in S3
▪ Existence of weak nuclear forces in S4
■ Explanation of Dark Matter and re-discovery of the Ether
■ Superquantum Theory allows velocity of signals greater than the speed of light
■ Arrangement of all known elementary particles such as the three families leptons and quarks, as well as
antimatter in a (simple) central mathematical symmetry
4 Summary
The Superquantum Theory shows at first sight, that there is no such thing as a single “World Equation”. Instead
it provides us with an entire “World System”, which is a full interconnection of all doctrines of nature as well as
an unlimited junction of all natural events. This World System can be called “World Equation” too, why not? A
theory will probably not be found that is more fundamental than the Superquantum Theory. In the beauty of the
theory the authors recognize God’s unspeakable greatness and His infinite love and mercy.
Superquantum Theory introduces a new era of theoretical physics.
1
„Selfspace“ (German: „Eigenraum“) is a new expression that covers space of matter, space of resonance
frequency, space of dark matter and the impact of further spheres.
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First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Candidate for “Theory of Everything”
Article 2
Introducing a New Era of Theoretical Physics
Contents
1. Small particles - big problems

2. What is the Superquantum Theory
3. Summary
►Chronology of the search for a most elementary particle of nature
► In a list of questions and answers the following questions are discussed:
► What is the Superquantum Theory?
► What is the Superquantum?
► Why do we need the Superquantum?
► What immediate results does the Superquantum Theory offer?

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Introduction
The Superquantum Theory is the theory of the physical image (projection) of the mathematical Set Theory. The
Set Theory offers the entire structure of mathematics. The Superquantum Theory outlines the entire structure of
physics in a similar way. Mathematics and physics appear not only as complementary sciences but even overlay
one another one to one.
The mathematical number is an image of the Superquantum. The Superquantum is the smallest and most
elementary particle of the Milky Way. It deserves the name „atom” („indivisible“) more than the well-known
atom in ancient Greek philosophy.
In this article „Introducing a new Era of theoretical Physics” the logical foundation of the Superquantum
Theory (Superquantum Theory) is being offered. It is a fact that the abstraction of integrally linking mathematics
and physics is an idea to get used to.
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1. Small particles - Big problems

The idea that matter is composed of very small units has fascinated philosophers like Leucippus and Democritus
already more that 2000 years ago. The indivisible particle was called „Atomos”. The atom was seen as a single
homogenous indivisible seed that builds up to matter. Since those days in ancient Greek history the knowledge
about the indivisible particle has been continually modified.
Many generations of scientists have contributed to a more and more refined picture of the atom:
ancient Dalton’s Thompson’s Rutherford’s Bohr’s Orbital Zoo of Superquantum

suggestion model model model model particles model
| | | | | | | |
300 v. C. 1803 1900 1910 1920 1926 since 1932 2004
■ The English scientist Dalton has invented the atom hypothesis starting with the ancient Greek atomic picture.
The atom hypothesis states that material exists which is constructed by one single kind of atoms (such as iron
or gold)
■ Around 1900 Thompson defined Dalton’s atom model more accurately by affirming that the inner structure of
the atom is composed of positively and negatively charged parts.
■ In 1910Rutherford proved, that the atom must possess a small positive center (nucleus). Around this nucleus a
mantle is believed to exist in which the negative parts move like planets around the sun. This model is called
the planet model. Though the small positive nucleus is indeed very small it carries almost the entire mass of
the atom. If for example the cathedral of Cologne would be the atom a stone of a cherry would symbolize the
nucleus and yet have more than 90% of the mass of the cathedral.
■ In 1920 at the climax of the Quantum Theory the Danish physicist Bohr brought the Rutherford’s atom model
a step forward. He assumed several orbits on which electrons circle. Every orbit corresponds to an energy
level of the atom. If an electron jumps into an energetically higher orbit it must first if all absorb energy.
Jumping to a lower orbit it emits energy.
■ In the same decade, around 1926, the famous quantum physicists Heisenberg and Schrödinger have developed
a quantum-mechanical atom model. According to this model the exact locality of the electron which is still
apparent in Bohr’s model can’t be predicted. It is not possible to say whether the electron is at a certain place.
All what can be said is that the electron can be located somewhere in the atom with a certain probability. The
electron forms (is distributed in space more or less like) a cloud. The electron moves around with a certain
probability at a certain place. The electron cloud is called the orbit. The several orbits are considered levels of
energy. The size, form and number of orbits follow certain laws of Quantum Theory (Quantum Numbers).
■ Until 1932 scientist knew about 4 elementary particles, also called the building bricks of matter: the electron
(in the orbits of the atom), the proton and neutron (in the nucleus) and the photon (particles of light). Since
then a great number of elementary particles with diverse properties and several life cycles have been
discovered.
Since the last century particle physicists concentrate in finding find the last indivisible particle. In the meantime
so many particles have been discovered that the researchers speak of a “zoo of particles”. Without arranging the
particles in families we want to mention that the electron and the quarks are considered “really elementary”. A
complete summary of particles and their families you will find in the article „Gravitation“.
Our research using Superquantum Theory resulted in the discovery of a much more elementary particle than the
electron and the quarks ever can be. We called this particle the Superquantum. The Superquantum has the
strange but logical behavior exactly like a mathematical number. From a mathematical point of view the
Superquantum is an integer and from a physical point of view an indivisible particle with one single physical
property: directionless length in meter. This property has been found heuristically. The correctness of the
Superquantum Theory lies in the application of pure logic and mathematics, to be more exact: of the Set Theory.
A excerpt more easily to understand of the Set Theory as needed for the Superquantum Theory can be read in the
articles „Set Theory I“ and „Set Theory II“.
16
Mathematics as a fundamental branch of science is located between physics and

philosophy. Its logic way of expression (language of mathematics) justifies its position in
between. Mathematics is estimated to carry within about 3000 single mathematical
theories. It is surprising that the Set Theory is the real fundamental structure to all these
single theories. The Superquantum Theory plays the same role in physics as the Set
Theory in mathematics. Georg Cantor is known as the architect of the Set Theory (1877).
Georg Cantor (1845-1918)
A set is a group of certain distinct things (objects, elements of our

observation or of our imagination). The expression “distinct”
means that none element may be equal to another. If the group of Europe, Asia, Africa,
continents is the set, then the elements are: Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, America, Antarctica.
Australia, America and Antarctica.
set: continents
6 Elements
2. What is Superquantum Theory?

The Superquantum Theory can only be understood by studying it in depth. It requires mental understanding and
intuition to understand the very abstract principle of the bijektive (one-to-one) projection of mathematics and
theoretical physics. In the following set of questions and answers we present some of the main highlights
(theoretical results) of the Superquantum Theory.
► What is a Theory of Everything?
The English expression “Theory of Everything” is broader than the expression “Grand Unification Theory”. In
the term Grand Unification Theory the examination of a possible “unification” of the four fundamental forces or
a continued attempt to unify the quantum theory of Max Planck with the relativity theory or with wave theories
is reflected. The Superquantum Theory sternly avoids expressions like “World Equation”, “Unifying Theory”
and alike. The Superquantum Theory is not just one equation; it is a system of logic which equals a “World
System”, a “World Constructional Recipe”, or indeed a “Theory of Everything”. Or yet better: the “Theory of
Everything”, TOE in short. It is not a mathematical equation but the perceptive logical realization that
mathematics and physics are bijektiv set-related projections of each other!
► What is the Superquantum Theory?
Superquantum Theory is the bijektive projection (one-to-one image) of the entire mathematics onto the entire
physics transformation of the set with number 0: {0} into the Superquantum with a single property A: {A}.
Subsequently the transformation of the line of integers into the chain of superquanta. All mathematical laws
remain valid for the Superquantum. This is proven logically in three steps: 1) The universe has to be logical,
otherwise it would be instable 2) The purest form of logic is mathematics 3) Thus mathematics must integrally
be applicable to all descriptions of the universe (of nature).
That this statement is true is in fact obvious from the manifold „accidental” mathematical descriptions that have
been found in the course of the centuries. Never ever so far there has been a theory that joints mathematics and
physics as a principle. Mathematics has until now been used to medicate the inability to describe phenomena
with the logic of words (philosophy). The Superquantum Theory has managed to bring mathematics and physics
together. The approach of Superquantum Theory appears to be the most fundamental way to describe theoretical
physics.
► What is a Superquantum?
The Superquantum is the transformation (image, projection) of the mathematical zero into the most elementary
particle that has one single physical property: directionless length in meter. It is the smallest and most
elementary particle that exists. The property meter has heuristically been found.. Heuristics is „the doctrine of
17
the methods to discover new scientific knowledge”. It is opposite to deduction. Using heuristic methods the
solution to a problem is being postulated in the most sensible manner, taking all circumstances into
consideration. The correctness of a heuristically found assumption is proven by checking its applicability under
all practical circumstances. The hypothesis of portions of energy by Max Planck for example was heuristic. Also
the assumption of a single property of the Superquantum being a directionless one-dimensional expansion in
meter was a heuristic assumption. The hypothetical assumption was soon proven to be correct. Heuristic
assumptions are unavoidably looked at with great skepticism.
The Superquantum is denoted as the physical set {A}.
► Why do we need a Superquantum?
Particles that in accordance with modern physics are elementary, i.e. electrons and quarks, can not be
elementary. Set Theory will not accept common properties between several particles and yet call them
elementary. Electrons and quarks possess such common properties as mass, electrical load and volume. The Set
Theory states however that objects of a set are distinct. Based upon this statement there must be something more
elementary that causes for example electrical load to be a property of electrons as well as of quarks. The particle
that has that single property which can truly be considered the most elementary indivisible particle is the
Superquantum. The single physical property of the Superquantum (meter) is being found by heuristic deduction
as mentioned before.
► Which results and consequences has the projection of mathematics onto physics?
We have found that the consequences of the bijektiv projection of mathematics onto physics (the Superquantum
Theory) revolutionize our entire theoretical knowledge of physics. The theory appears to introduce a new era in
physics; it gives theoretical physics a decisive boost. Theoretical physics appears to take off on the wings of the
Superquantum Theory. The set logic of the Superquantum Theory causes at the same time an unexpected
interconnection of all doctrines of science as well as of all events in the universe. We were surprised to realize
that such an interconnection is being predicted in the three great western religions. But to be clear: our object of
research is nothing but mathematics and physics.
To our further surprise we found that within the framework of the logic of Superquantum Theory there is no area
of science that does not enter in dialogue with either mathematics/ and or physics or between each other. That
means the Superquantum Theory is able to explain also non physical themes. It is so fundamental that all events
can be reduced to the logic of superquanta. Even thoughts, signals2 and telepathy or hypnosis could find a
theoretical basis in the Superquantum Theory: thoughts are things…: consisting of superquanta. Also phenomena
in society like the meaning of identity within a culture or the set-related distribution of creative elements (for
example masculine -feminine) can be arranged as being properties of sets and mathematically be dealt with.
We however do not deal with such phenomena. We only want to indicate that the strength of Superquantum
Theory may be sufficient to investigate such events. We decidedly deal only with mathematical and physical
events. Our work is completely based on logic and repetition of experiments. Phenomena that can not be
repeated in experiments are not subject of our research even considering that science has at least an obligation to
be also open for those “mystical happenings”.
Finally we want to list a few of the important mathematical- physical achievements of Superquantum theory that
we have found so far. Further single articles explain the phenomena in detail.
■ There is a mathematical total order in the set of integers that explains gravitation. The field of gravitation
finds its origin in the well-ordering of numbers. The set of real numbers is called sphere 1 or S1 being its
physical projection in Superquantum Theory. The variable time is a property of sphere 2 or S2. This is the
reason why the factor time does not appear in the (experimental) equation of gravitation.
Further fields and forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong nuclear forces) are caused by mathematically
powering the infinite set of reel numbers into power sets. The expression “power set” is explained in the
articles „Set Theory I and II”.
2
recall the proposed experiment by Einstein on the question whether quanta communicate as per the Quantum
Theory with signals faster than the speed of light
18
■ The Superquantum Theory enables a logical arrangement of Cantor’s Continuum in single physical infinities
that are called spheres as set images. Due to the limited (= not zero) size of the Superquantum the number of
infinities is limited. Depending on further detailing it appears that there are at least seven spheres and maybe
a few more. The experiments on cyclotrons reach just a little into sphere S3.
Relating to its size the Superquantum is inversely linked to the size of the Milky Way.
The four forces, all elementary particles and all existing physical theories can be identified in the spheres.
With these results the Superquantum Theory claims the role of the Theory of Everything. The most
important mathematical criterion appears to be the criterion of eternal stability of natural events.
■ The discovery of the “self space of matter” (in short: “selfspace”) by Superquantum Theory clarifies the
mathematical concept of the following phenomena that partly are not yet understood:
(Details are given in the articles „Selfspaces I and II)
- The visible matter

- The dark matter
- The resonance frequency of matter
- The explanation of the “influence on distance” of quanta (Einstein’s doubt concerning the Quantum Theory)
- Selfspace - Teleportation - technology which appears to us so far as science-fiction.
- Superquantum Theory provides the mathematical arguments and possible physical methods for the
development of this innovative technology.
■ Explanation of the background-noise that is said to support the big-bang-theory. Read the details in the
article „Background -Noise”.
Reasons, why the universe is not expanding and why the big bang has never been universal but appears to
occurs for each galaxy.
■ The Superquantum Theory determines the physical reason for the existence of the imaginary unit. Read the
details in the article „Derivation of the Imaginary Unit j”.
Superquantum Theory has solved Cantor’s continuum-problem. Details of the derivation can be found in the
articles „Infinities and the Solution to Cantor’s Dilemma” and „Set Theory 1 and II“.
■ Superquantum Theory shows that mathematics as known to us is a descriptive observation made at this
particular position in creation where human beings exist. It is an observation linked to the human senses and
human consciousness that is able to realize only events and phenomena in what we call the sphere S1.
Mathematics from a standpoint of higher spheres can’t be determined here.
3. Summary
The Superquantum is the most elementary particle of the Milky Way. The Milky Way is one great unfolding of
the line of numbers which equals the chain of superquanta. Other galaxies are other unfoldings of their own line
of numbers and with own chains of superquanta. Everything consists of unfolding superquanta. Every galaxy has
stretched out separately in a blast; there was never a central big bang.
The Superquantum Theory is the theory that shows that mathematics and physics are bijektive images of each
other. The Superquantum Theory becomes by doing so the most fundamental theory of theoretical physics that
can ever be found. The Superquantum Theory can be applied on other doctrines of science, also outside of
physics: it is the genuine Theory of Everything (TOE).
19
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 3
The Straight Line and the Potential Field
Contents
1 Introduction
2 The straight line
3 The Potential Field
4 Summary
► Why 29 minus 25 pages does not equal 4 pages but 5 ☺
► The number, the chain of numbers, the straight line and the distance of numbers
► The history of the knowledge of texture of the straight line since ca. 500 b. C. until now
► The mathematical distance of numbers as a physical potential field
► The origin of the Quantum Theory and the Field Theory

20
0 Introduction
Mathematics and physics are like brother and sister, like monovular twins. They match very well… even
unequivocal, one-to-one☺. Though they express themselves in different ways there is nothing what one has and
the other doesn’t. The reverse is valid too. Mathematically spoken mathematics and physics are bijektive images
of one another. Mathematics and physics have taken different paths throughout the history of mankind. Only
during the last few hundred years they again have become closer friends. Maybe they have only really become
friends since Galileo and Newton.
Today physics can’t be imagined without its buddy mathematics. A great number of good mathematical
descriptions of physical observations exists today. These descriptions are symptomatic or local; accidentally
made physical observations are being treated as symptoms of nature: for every physical symptom a mathematical
remedy or recipe is being sought after.
In some cases “artificial procedures” are applied which now and then meet the requirements. The true origin of
the imaginary number is for example not known though the whole modern electromechanical theory is based
upon it. The Superquantum Theory shows that the imaginary unit j (for which j²=-1) and thus the complex
numbers have a physical - mathematical background. Details can be read the in the article „Derivation of the
Imaginary Unit j“.
The Superquantum Theory states that mathematics and physics not only match locally but along the whole range
of their region of influence. The whole region?? Yes! To be sure: along the whole straight line of numbers…
from 0 to infinity and back through minus infinity to 0. The unfolding of the (straight) line (of numbers, integers)
is the subject of this article.
Theoretical physics starts anew with the Superquantum Theory… the reader will confirm this without hesitation,
once he has understood the Superquantum Theory in its unique logic. Studying the single articles is a
precondition for the proper understanding of the theory.
21
1 The number, the chain of numbers, the straight line

For the sake of bringing order into daily life we need integers (natural numbers Z=1, 2, 3, etc.). Moreover, to a
certain extend we need fractions. For example, when we go shopping: how many ice-creams can I buy for one
Euro assuming one costs 20 cents? To solve this problem we divide 1 € (100 cent) by 20 cent. Since we know
from Set Theory that rational numbers (fractions) contain natural numbers and integers this group is called the
set of natural numbers.3
N= Set of natural numbers (1, 2, 3 …)

Z= Set of integers (...-1,-2, 0, 1, 2 …)
N Z Q
Q= Set of rational numbers
{x | x= p/q with p, q∈Z, q≠0}*
All integers including zero, as well as the positive and negative numbers and the fractions have been categorized
as rational numbers. The group of rational numbers is called the Set of rational numbers Q
(=fractions). Every rational number can be laced up as a certain point of a straight line. The set of rational
numbers is completely closed, i.e. between any two rational points any number of rational points exists. On the
(straight) line an infinite number of points (= numbers) exists.
So we can now arrange all rational numbers on a line. Each rational number represents a single point on the line.
The distance between these points seems unoccupied, empty. By chaining all rational numbers in a line we don’t
yet have a closed line. There appear to be empty spaces or holes between the rational numbers. Our line is a ☺
holy ☺ chain of numbers.
√2 π e
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1/2 11/4
In order to turn this chain into a fully occupied „stretchy line with elasticity “, we require the help of the
irrational numbers. Once we have filled the gaps of the chain of rational numbers with irrational numbers, the
chain becomes a straight line that at any location is closed.
It can be demonstrated that an infinite number of irrational numbers exists and vice versa.
Remark: we have spoken of a „stretchy line with elasticity“: an essential principle of Superquantum Theory
occurs at this stage: The chaining of (rational) numbers is first of all a mathematical procedure. However, once
this chain is filled up with irrational numbers a genuine physical property (feature) comes to light: the
words„stretchy “and „elasticity “ are linguistic equivalents of a principle, that is related to „density”. Density
again reminds us of potential fields and field theories: each very evident quality of physics. The Superquantum
Theory demonstrates that at this particular point of mathematical description the set-related equivalent of the
field of gravitation exists. In the article „Gravitation” this gravitational field is numerically elaborated.
The irrational numbers are responsible for the texture of the line. We bring to the attention some known
properties of the (straight) line (of numbers) that we will simply call a “line”:
► The set of numbers represented by the line has as many elements as the plane of numbers and the space of
numbers.
► Irrational numbers appear as results of algebraic functions (geometry); algebraic functions do not change
the cardinality (Bolzano)
3
*) {x | x= a/b with p, q∈Z, q≠0} :
Every rational number can be written as a fraction of which the numerator is a whole number and the denominator a whole
number (not zero).
22
Every distance between any two numbers represents infinity. Let’s assume we divide the distance between the
two numbers 2 and 3 by two, than divide the obtained result by two and continue this operation by at least
another x- times, whereby we can let x approach infinity. The mathematician calls this nested intervals. To get a
clearer picture it is sufficient to consider rational numbers as a line with gaps. These gaps are filled with
irrational numbers. The distance for example between 2 and 3 is:
… 2 3 …
infinite “distance” (or rather: density) in between 2 and 3
2 .. ….3
2,056.. 2,99999999888777……….
2.1456… 2,999555
1,567888. 2,912
2,714… 2,896….
….
We note:
COMPLEX
z=a+jb
Real
Rational Q (fractions) Algebraic Irrational

{x | x= p/q with p, q∈Z, q≠0} √ 2; x2-2=0
▪ Roots of polynomic
Z {0, ± 1, ± 2...} equations with rational
coefficients
N0 {0,1,2,3...} Imaginary Unit j
NG {0,2,4...} Transcendent Irrational π, e j² = -1

▪ can’t be noted as fractions of
integers
NP {1,3,5...} ▪ Decimal part is not repetitive
i.e. 0,1010010001
The set of rational numbers Q contains the set of whole numbers Z that again contains the set of natural numbers
with zero N0. This can be repeated again and again: N0 contains for example the set of prime numbers NP and
the set of even numbers NG as subsets.
The set of irrational numbers is the set of such numbers that can’t be noted as fractions of whole numbers. The
circle number π =3,14…., the basis of natural logarithms e= 2.71… or also √2 are good examples.
The natural numbers were invented to accommodate addition and subtraction. The irrational and the rational
numbers together are called real numbers. The sets of numbers N, Z, Q, R were invented one by one with the
clear intention to enable certain calculations. However, there are also equations that have roots of negative
numbers like for example x² =-1 as a result. These equations can’t be resolved in the domain of real numbers. In
order to allow the existence of these equations the so called imaginary unit j was introduced. Almost for no
reason at all mathematics uses a “trick” to deal with these “impossible equations”. The imaginary unit and the
complex numbers were later on used by Euler though he never really understood the „origin” of these numbers.
In the article „Origin of the Imaginary Unit j” we will with the help of Superquantum Theory eventually find out
the (mathematical-physical) origin of the imaginary unit.
The imaginary unit is, as already mentioned before, the number for which the square equals -1. The pure
complex number C has a real part (zero) and an imaginary part (one) (0,1)=imaginary unit. In pair notation we
write (0, 1). In order to be able to use the notations, calculations and theorems of real numbers any complex
number is seen as a pair of a real part and an imaginary part.
23
Real part Imaginary part imaginary unit j ●j²= -1 j=√-1

z= (a, 0) + (b, 0) · ( 0, 1)
a + bj jπ
● e =-1
jπ
e +1 = 0
In this equation the most important constants of mathematical analysis are evident: 0, 1, e (basis of the natural
logarithms), π (circle number) and j (imaginary unit). Instead of j the letter i is also often used. This amazingly
simple equation describes the border region of real and imaginary numbers. It has all properties of the real
numbers (0 and 1), the border (e and π ) and finally j as representative of the imaginary section.
A complex number can be depicted two-dimensionally and three-dimensionally:
► Two-dimensionally: • Algebraic (or Cartesian) Form

• Polar form
► Three-dimensionally: as the spheres of Riemann
● Two-dimensional interpretation: the complex number has two parts: the real part (abbreviated as „Re(z)“)
and the imaginary part (abbreviated as „Im (z)“), in which z = a complex number. In the two-dimensional
interpretation they are the vector coordinates in a plane system of coordinates. The horizontal axis is real, the
vertical axis imaginary (plane of Gauß).
● Algebraic (or Cartesian) interpretation: a complex number can be imaged as a point P(z) in the plane of
numbers of Gauß. Often the complex number is illustrated as the hand (of a clock), that is directed from the
zero point (origin O of the axis) towards P. The complex numbers can be algebraically (or Cartesian)
illustrated as follows:
Im(z)
z = a + jb
3j r r is the value of z, so the length of the

2j hand |z |= r = √ (a²+b²)
j b
a Re(z)
-3 -2 -1 -j 1 2 3
z*= the complex conjunct of z, z*
-2j originates in the mirroring of z at the real
axis. z and z* differ in their imaginary
parts. (+ or -)
z*= a – jb
24
● Polar interpretation: from the figure we can recognize that a = cos and b = sin. The hand encloses an angle
φ with the real axis RE(z). That means that a = cosφ and b = sinφ.
Exponential form Trigonometric form
Euler’s equation
e j φ = (cosφ + j sinφ)
z = r e jφ z = r (cosφ +jsinφ)
φ φ
Re(z) Re(z)
φ is the argument (angle) of z,
φ is also called phase angle.
z*= r e – j φ z*= r (cosφ - jsinφ)
perimeter = π The geometrical meaning of Euler’s equation: the equation results

into a circle, whereby φ assumes values 0 and 2π: 0≤ φ < 2π. A half
circle with radius 1 has exactly the perimeter π (corresponds to 180°)
R=1
Calculations with complex numbers can thus be made visible:
Example: φ1 + φ2 = φ3
45° + 60° = 105°
Im(z)
105° 90° (π/2)

60°(=π/3)
135° φ3 45° (=π/4)
φ2
φ1
(π) 180° Re(z)
0°(=360°)
=2π
225° 315°
270°
2/3π
► Three-dimensional interpretation: Riemann’s sphere of numbers
Let’s assume we draw a circle with diameter 1 on the plane of Gauß. Applying a stereographical projection the
circle can be imaged as a sphere. This sphere is called the Riemann’s sphere of numbers. Two-dimensionality
becomes three-dimensionality by this operation. We will see later that projections that can be described by
algebraic functions do not change the property of sets called cardinality.
25
2 Distance of numbers and the potential field

In the last section we have considered numbers to be solid objects, to be precise: as quanta. This can lead to
linguistic confusion. We illustrate this with an example:
Say you want to make a translation and you consider to translate the text of the pages 25 - 29 of a book. So far so
good. In order to find out how many pages you must you simply calculate the way you have learned it in school:
29 minus 25 equals 4. However: that is wrong! When you sit down to make your translation you will find out
that you must translate 5 and not 4 pages. How is that possible? You will have a similar problem when
somebody asks you to copy the pages 25 to 29 of a book. If every copy costs 10 cent, you will end up paying 50
cents in total, not 40!
In daily life we come across numbers that sometimes appear as local points and sometimes as „extended”
objects. Whilst translating or copying pages, the „extended” property prevails, such that 29-25=5 and not as
expected 4.
The quantum feature appears, when you count days of the calendar. The 25th until the 29th of a month makes a
total of 4 days. 4 or 5? It is obvious that projecting the logic of mathematics onto logic of language causes
problems. Our question must be: what is the reason for these problems? The answer to this question is not so
easy. The shown linguistic confusion makes believe that a logical problem of interpretation of the numbers
exists: Numbers can be seen as fixed objects but also as objects with extension.
5
Let us check the state of affairs on the line, why 25 until 29 equals either:
4
1 2 3 4 5 numbers as local objects

(quanta)
(bijektiv (mathematical) projection)
… 25 26 27 28 29 … …
1 plus 1 plus 1 plus 1 equals 4 numbers as extended objects

(Potential field- property)
Bijektiv (physical) image
The distance between 25 and 26 or between 28 and 29 or 27 and 28 etc. or also between 10000001 and
10000000 or even x+1 and x is always equal to one. This one is not the „normal” one (that is to say: an element
of the set of natural numbers {1, 2, 3, …}). In fact this one represents the physical one.
Let’s recall what has been mentioned earlier: the „field property” visualizes a fundamental principle of the
Superquantum Theory: the chaining of (rational) numbers is at first a feature of mathematics. However as and
when the chain is completed with irrational numbers, a real physical property comes to the surface. The words
„stretchy” and „elasticity” are linguistic equivalents of a principle that is related to density. Density has
physically to do with force fields and field theories: each clear physical quality. The Superquantum Theory
demonstrates that at this particular point the set-related mathematical equivalent of the field of gravitation exists.
This is elaborated in detail in the article „Gravitation” resulting in the (hitherto experimental) equation of
gravitation.
26
A property of the distance of numbers 1 that is particularly important is that it occurs everywhere on the line. No
matter what number you choose, 2 or 1000006843 or x, from this number you can add or subtract the distance
one. This means that you can -– without modifying the operation you intend to execute – choose your point of
reference wherever you want to.
To state it differently: you are totally free to choose the starting point of your operations and you may even call
this starting point the zero point of your arithmetical actions. To express it once again differently: one may freely
choose the position of the origin of the co-ordinate system in which one wants to perform any desired operation.
This very property is a quality of any potential field. This quality has greatly appealed to scientists in the past
because due to this quality they could choose their co-ordinate systems in a way that simplified their
calculations.
The property of free choice of the origin allows investigating the effect of the total order of numbers at any
location on the line. It means that - despite the existing total order of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3… etc. all numbers posses
in a way „equal rights! This is an extremely fundamental principle of Superquantum Theory. It penetrates all
natural events. This main principle is present everywhere 4. We remember that mathematics and physics are like
brother and sister who have same rights and duties… ☺
The next property of the distance of numbers on the line is - if possible - even more striking. It concerns the
expressions cardinality and density.
Galileo (ca. 1600) discovered a decisive property of (actual; see Set Theory) infinity.
Based upon a one-to-one projection of all whole numbers and the squares of the whole numbers he concluded
that „there are as many squares as there are numbers”.
Natural number N ↔ square

1↔1
2↔4
3↔9
4 ↔ 16
That means that an infinite set, the set of all whole numbers, has the same number of elements as the set of
squares of whole numbers; they have the same cardinality.
This phenomenon is only true, because both sets are infinite. It is a property of actual infinity, which also is
pillar of Superquantum Theory. An infinite set can have the same cardinality as one of its own smaller subsets.
Bolzano (Prague, 1781- 1848) demonstrated that Galileo’s properties of the infinite set are also true for the dense
numbers of the continuum. By comparing all numbers between 0 and 1 respectively 0 and 2 he showed that those
properties indeed remain valid. He exchanged the square function with another algebraic function like for
example y= f(x) = 2x. Every real number (=rational and irrational numbers) between 0 and 1 becomes a
companion between 0 and 2 or between 0 and 3 or between 20 and 23 or wherever on the line.
In the article „infinities” we have explained that the cardinality (= number of elements = transfinite cardinal
number) of the set of irrational numbers - in contrary to the existing theory - equals the cardinality of the
set of rational numbers and equals the cardinality of the set of real numbers. What does this actually mean
to us? Well, when we define the density in the distance of numbers as the amount of numbers divided by the
distance and we perform this division for the distance of numbers 1, then the density in the distance 1 equals the
cardinality of the set of real numbers. This cardinality is usually noted as Aleph 1 = ℵ1.
If we now look at the distance 2, then we can conclude immediately that the density in the distance of numbers
2 equals ½*ℵ1.
Furthermore it is also not difficult to see that the density of the distance of numbers 3 = 1/3*ℵ1 and finally the
density of the distance of numbers r =1/r*ℵ1 at any location along the straight line of numbers.
Well: freedom of choice of the origin of the co-ordinate systems on the straight line of numbers as well as the
mathematical density of the distance of numbers are the fundamental mathematical properties for the bijektiv
projection of the physical properties of the potential field. In the article „Gravitation” the (hitherto experimental)
equation of gravitation is derived.
4
The theory of relativity too is depending of the free choice of the co-ordinate systems via the Lorenz
transformation.
27
3 Summary
The structure and the texture of the straight line of numbers are fundamental mathematical perceptions (basic
knowledge), leading to the first essential physical bijektiv projections. The knowledge around the line of
numbers has been expanding since Pythagoras up to the Berlin mathematical school of the 19th and 20th century.
On the straight line of numbers (or superquanta), which is the extension of the mathematical set {0} respectively
the physical set {A}, the essence of quanta and strings is given. The distance of numbers leads to the field
theory. The gravitation (a field without the factor time) is the first field; it arises in the region of the real
numbers. Fields with the factor time (electrical and magnetic fields) arise only in the region of complex
numbers, as we will show in further articles.
In order to understand the Superquantum Theory from the very start, it is recommended to study the
mathematical Set Theory. The two articles „Set Theory I and II” are meant to present the Set Theory in a special
way as to accommodate the requirements of the Superquantum Theory.
28
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 4
Set Theory I
CONTENTS
0 Introduction
1 The language of mathematics subject

1.1 Logic and common sense of article 4
1.2 The rose garden; from a rose to the universe (this article)
2. Basic operations of the sets

2.1 Cardinality and relation
2.2 The power set
2.3 The axioms
2.4 Conjunction of sets, intersection of sets, complement of sets,
multiplication of sets subject
2.5 Mathematical projection of article 5
2.6 The set of numbers
3. Resolving the continuity problem of Cantor
4. Evaluation
► The difference between mathematical language and common language
► The philosophical path to Set Theory
► The relation of logic and truth

29
0. Introduction
Superquantum Theory is the bijektiv projection (one-to-one image) of the entire mathematics on the entire
physics the transformation of the set with number 0 into the Superquantum with a single property A. The
corresponding physical set is noted {A}. The line of integers is subsequently transformed into the chain of
superquanta. All mathematical laws remain valid for the Superquantum. Logic demonstrates this in three steps:
1) The universe has to be logical, otherwise it would be instable
2) The purest form of logic is mathematics
3) Thus mathematics must integrally be applicable to all descriptions of the universe (of nature).
That this statement is true is in fact obvious from the manifold „accidental” mathematic descriptions that were
been found in the course of the centuries. A theory that joints mathematics and physics as a logic principle does
not yet exist. The only theory doing this is the new Superquantum Theory.
The particles that are elementary in accordance with modern physics, i.e. electrons and quarks, can not be
elementary. Set Theory will not accept common properties between several particles and call them elementary at
the same time. Electrons and quarks possess common properties like mass, electrical load and volume. The Set
Theory prescribes however that objects of a set must be distinct. Something more elementary must therefore
exist that causes for example electrical load to be a property of the electron as well as of the quark. This
“something” may only have one physical quality. By definition the Superquantum is the particle that has only
one single property. It can therefore be considered to be the most elementary indivisible particle. The single
physical property of the Superquantum (directionless length in meter) is being found by heuristic deduction.
The mathematical Set Theory is the basis of the Superquantum Theory. To learn Set Theory from current books
is often unexciting and difficult due to the specialized language. We would like to offer you here a new
refreshing perspective of Set Theory. We wish you much fun…
30
1 The language of mathematics
1.1 Logic and common sense
When you open your newspaper in the morning your eye will most probably fall upon
the corner with the caricatures. Here the theme of the day is being brought to the
attention of the reader. Often famous persons are being pictured whereby with humor
and wit and a few lines the issue at stake is being branded. The emphasize is on “a few
lines”, because what looks so simple and precise is indeed the very professional
handwork of the caricaturist whose task it is to reduce the issue (or the person) to its
basic characteristics in such a way as to cause laughter and prompt understanding with
the reader who is very well capable to understand the situation and the painters
intention. The method being used by the caricaturist is a method being used in science.
In order to fully understand an issue, specific characteristic features (essential
elements) are being brought to light and other features that are less important are being
deleted from the illustration. The issue is reduced to its essential elements and
simplified. It has become a symbol or a model of its original. The rational reduction to
essentials is called “abstraction” (from Latin abstrahere = reduce).
Models in science like for example the model of the atom are composed of those
elements that lie within the reach of the experimental human senses. The atom has
therefore a “fixed core” (nucleus) around which electrons circle in orbits (conditions of energy) etc. In order to
understand natural processes and in order to reproduce or to use those processes, the scientist selects features that
he can sense or observe. He composes these to a new entity (= a model or an image of the original).
So our reality is composed of two elements:
Understandable by senses (observable) and not comprehensible by senses

(= super sensible, supernatural)
„Understandable by senses” relates to human senses. Some animals can sense electromagnetic radiation. Human
beings do not have tools for doing that.
A model is a structure with features that are being synthesized with the help of human senses. Natural
phenomena are being scrutinized by the human common sense. Human beings are good observers of nature and
of things that happen around him. His capacity of conscious thinking gives him the capability to simulate
features and processes of nature and to realize those in his own interest.
Flying with technical means for example begun by fantasizing about flying birds and than by copying the birds
wings. Realizing the miracle of flying assumed the development and differentiation of certain technologies. For
the process of development and finding corresponding solutions sciences like physics and mathematics occupy
key functions. For example „light” has acquired a key role in all situations of daily life. Optical technologies
covering biochemical as well as physical laws of nature turn light into an universal tool useful for many
functions in society (healthcare, environment, traffic etc. etc.).
All these technological developments are based upon observation and explanation of natural phenomena or
sometimes a result of mere accidental discoveries. In the majority of cases phenomena are not detectable for
human senses. In order to explain the event the scientist designs models composed of known similar
experimental features that can help him to understand it better. Models are however not one-to-one images of
reality.
Reality appears sometimes concrete but then again very abstract, sometimes simple and sometimes complicated,
sometimes sensible and sometimes senseless and sometimes even as simple nonsense. Events in the world and in
the universe happen within a large great “Everything”. They become events when we focus our attention on
parts of them, their shape, their color, their smell or their texture. Whilst we focus on a particular event, all other
processes in the Universe continue happening independent on whether we take notice of them or not. Being
aware that every individual is a part of “Everything” he may observe his own features in self-discovery and in
discovery of the existence of “Everything”. He may even compose the Theory of Everything and the Theory of
31
Self. Superquantum Theory is about the Theory of Everything also called the Unified Theory or the Unifying
Theory.
area of impact
of the
MODELS
Super sensible Reality
Metaphysics (clairvoyance, telepathy, synchronism, etc.)

(Those events of which the impact can be seen but not justified)
Logic (Greek, logos = word, thought, ratio) is very important for the development of models. No matter how
absurd or distorted a model may look it must contain the characteristics that relate to the reality of the original
object. Logic is a resource that assists in bringing the required model as close as possible to the imaged reality.
Human common sense is that state of mind in which the experiencing part of reality fed by human senses is
located. No matter how absurd and directed against common sense mathematical logic sometimes may appear
the importance and usefulness (applicability) of logic does not contradict the experience of sensible reality.
The „absurd“ idea of Cantor5 (1845 - 1918) attaching an absolute quality to the traditional concept of
uncompleted (relative or potential) infinity and to regard infinity as completed (absolute, actual infinity) caused
many opponents up into the highest scientific circles who severely attacked him. We have learned now that with
his “naïve” Set Theory Cantor has laid down the basis for the modern Set Theory. The Set Theory is the idea of
the composition (set) of elements. Elements can be anything: objects (like roses), features (like goodness),
physical phenomena (like electrical charge, mass, force), numbers (like integers, complex numbers, prime
numbers etc.). With his “hierarchy of infinity” Cantor has, as he has said himself, entered the „Secret Garden“.
Cantor however couldn’t find the exit „of his paradise“. His problem was the inability to link the very abstract
actual infinity to reality. This problem and the (unjustified) critical comments by his former teacher Kronecker
set off Cantor’s mental illness. A newly arisen problem in his set theory, i.e. to bring the first both cardinal
figures (Aleph 0 and Aleph 1) into numerical relationship, depressed him in addition. Cantor’s efforts to resolve
this problem had no result. In 1900 David Hilbert (a supporter of Cantor) listed it in Paris as one of the
unresolved mathematical challenges of the next century. SQT is based on the Set Theory. SQT has proven to be
able to resolve Cantor’s dilemma.
SQT is not necessarily limited to physics. SQT underlines the universality of mathematics. Beyond projections
in physics Set Theory can handle also images in social-cultural, psychological and even in linguistic areas. The
statement that nothing exists that Set Theory can not analyze may be justifiable. We want to make you
acquainted with the Set Theory and its special bijektiv image in physics. We will introduce SQT to you step by
step in a number of articles. Only the study of several articles enables a full picture of the theoretical strength of
SQT as the Theory of Everything.
5
Actual infinity is an expression invented in ancient Greece. You can read about both forms of infinity
(potential and actual) in the article „Infinity and the Solution to Cantor's Dilemma“.
32
1.2 Gülhane; the Rose garden; from Rose to Universe
Imagine yourself holding a red rose in your hand. With your eyes you see the
red colour, the long shaft and the harmonically folded leafs of the flowering
rose. With your skin you feel the soft flowers but you can also cut your fingers
on the thorns of the rose plant. As a climax you may smell the sweet sensual
vapour of perfumed honey that escapes from the rose flower. Well, the flower
can be eaten and if you are so lucky to have a good cook you will add taste to
your rose experience. Now having consciously experienced the rose’s features
with all your senses you have made a complete observation of the rose. If you
had only touched the rose but not seen, not smelled, not tasted, you would have
missed the combined intensity of feelings that were available to you. Every
sense for itself can not light the fire of emotional sensation you experienced in
the sum of senses. The magic lays in the synthesis of sensations: the whole is
more as the sum of the parts. Only by merging all senses the rose starts to
bloom in the human mind.
The rose is a special flower. Like the tulip. Both kinds of flowers have many sisters combinable altogether as
elements into a group. This combination can be defined with the expression “flower”. You certainly realize that
for example parsley, though having green leaves, does not fit into the combination “flower”. We desire for the
combination “flower” that the plant has colorful flowers. In generalizing this logic we can say: the condition that
objects can be brought together into a group is that they commonly posses certain features or characteristics. This
principle of association (organization by association; this is the “axiom of subsets”) is given by the mathematical
Set Theory:
Set: flower
....
Element: Tulip
Tulip .... Element: Rose
Rose
The organization of things is in principle arbitrary. The choice of associating characteristics is a completely free
choice. We can choose features, group them together and organize them just as we like. This principle of
organization is not only seen in science but also often in daily life. The groups are called sets. When you write
down your shopping list for the day you are actually bringing Set Theory into praxis.
The idea Set is not only fundamental for mathematics. It is a universal principle. We can extend the principle of
making mathematical group projections with good results to the fields of psychology (organization of
information in a child’s brain), social-cultural structures and the structure of language, the structure of tunes, the
structure of love and even the structure of “existence”. The universality of SQT allows the theory to become the
Theory of Everything. The Set Theory appears to be a really simple and sound basis of organization that with
increasing expansion grows more and more complex up to a point of infinite complexity. It however never loses
its unusual logic simplicity. Only against the background of SQT the set {0} can be understood as the starting
point {A} of the Big Bang. SQT makes plausible that the Big Bang is not referring to the universe but to well
defined portions of the universe (to be precise: to the galaxies).
33
The Superquantum Theory utilizes without exception all knowledge of the Set Theory. It builds up upon the
axioms of the Set Theory. Studying SQT requires in fact knowledge of all results of the Set Theory and in
addition of the doctrine that is called logics. In the two articles at hand we provide summaries of the Set Theory.
The reason that we repeat the Set Theory here is that you may fail to understand the Set Theory by merely
studying it from mathematical books. The doctrine has experienced a formalism in the use of language which is
no longer accessible for non-mathematical students. According to SQT mathematics and physics are what is
called bijektive images of another. They fit 1:1 together. That implicates that there are no mathematical
phenomena without physical image. There are at the other hand no physical phenomena without mathematical
image. This is the most fundamental theorem of the Superquantum Theory.
In order to understand the rules of linguistic communication one must study the grammar of words and
sentences. Contemporary mathematics has in the past two hundred years developed an own language. To
understand this language one must study mathematics and logics. Without deep concentration one could miss the
mathematical essence at any time. The grammar of mathematics is the logics. However logics and common use
of language are often contradictory. An example:
the students of 7th and 8th grade

are free today
mathematical linguistic
false (=untrue) true
This statement is mathematically false, because there are no students who at the same time are in the 7th and in
the 8th grade. The mathematical language is essentially logical. She does not allow double interpretations. With
great care she has been cleaned from unnecessary elements. At the same time this hygiene of mathematics is the
very reason why mathematics can serve as the universal tool for other doctrines especially for physics. This
special position of mathematics helps her to carefully preserve its logics, even though mathematics appears by
doing so to exaggerate and to become over-abstract, sterile and on distance.
Physics is the description of objective human observations of natural events in the broadest sense. Those
descriptions changed from descriptions in words to descriptions in figures, i.e. from philosophy to mathematics.
This evolution has taken place in the last few hundred years. The title of the great physical work of Newton
„Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica” clearly shows the transition in the choice of its words.
A well-known German physicist once said: „Mathematics has today claimed the position of being the only
logical basis of physics. Nevertheless it is a shame that due to linguistic barriers between the doctrines the
overspecialized physicist is required to invent mathematics for his purpose. Often mathematicians can’t help us
simply due to the lack of a common language.”
The man is right. Modern mathematical and logical ways of expressing are so specialized that somebody who is
not specifically taught in the doctrine has little or no chance to make himself acquainted with the mathematical
tools he needs to bring his own research forward. A lot of time for research gets lost. The Set Theory is a typical
example for a particularly great amount of confusion. It is strictly spoken very simple and easy to understand.
The linguistic and notational methods used by mathematicians are characterized by the complex language of
logic. Even simplest arithmetical structures have become most complicated structures of words and notations.
This may make sense in seclusion but the accessibility for “third” parties is extremely limited.
Logic links in SQT both sciences physics and mathematics by these arguments:
1) Nature (described by physics) must necessarily have a logical foundation, otherwise nature would appear
unstable
2) The most accurate logic known on earth is mathematics
It is no secret that physics and mathematics „fit” already here and there sporadically „together “. An example is
electricity and complex numbers. It is an indication that the abovementioned doctrine-linking logics is spot on☺.
The research of the Superquantum Theory has assumed the task to build upon this logics. SQT research showed
consequently that theoretical physics and mathematics not only sporadically fit together, but along their full
radius of action; they are 1-1 images of each other.
34
In the article „Set Theory II” we will dig further into the mathematical methods that are basic to understanding
the results of the Superquantum Theory. We have tried to concentrate initially on those parts of the Set Theory
that are relevant for SQT. We have also tried to explain the theory in the simplest possible terms. Even a
layperson can with some effort make a picture of what Set Theory and SQT is about.
35
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 5
Set Theory II
CONTENTS
1 The language of mathematics

1.1 Logic and common sense
1.2 The rose garden; from a rose to the universe subject
of article 4
2. Basic operations of the sets

2.1 Cardinality and relation
2.2 The power set
2.3 The axioms
2.4 Conjunction of sets, intersection of sets, complement of sets,
multiplication of sets
2.5 Mathematical projection
2.6 The set of numbers subject
of article 5
3. Resolving the continuity problem of Cantor (this article)
4. Evaluation
►Explanation of basic perceptions of the Set Theory
►Basic mathematical operations
► Illustration of the power set
►Principles for solution to Cantor’s continuum problem

36
2. Organization of Sets
2.1 Cardinality and Relation

Cantor called the number of elements of a set cardinality. He made a difference between finite cardinality and
transfinite cardinality. In analogy the set is called a finite set or an infinite set.
summer
autumn winter 0, 1, 2, 3...
spring
seasons: finite set integers: infinite set

(=finite cardinal number) (=transfinite cardinal number)
• Example of a finite set: the seasons of the year. When the seasons of the year make up the set, summer,
autumn, winter and spring are the 4 elements of the set. The number of elements is 4. There are no further
elements. The set “Seasons of the Year” is therefore a finite set.
• Example of an infinite set: the set of integers. 0,1,2,3 etc. are elements of the set of integers. The number of
these elements is open. Open means that one can add 1 to any conceivable greatest number so that an even
greater number is created. The number of elements can increase to infinity. The set of integers therefore is
infinite.
Collection of selected elements with certain common assets (features, characteristics) to a set group is a very
easy and evident principle. This principle easily becomes more complex. For example, when the number of
elements becomes large or even tends to infinity but also if elements of a set have common features and at the
same time are related to elements of other sets. Defining common features between elements is called “putting
them into relationship” or “identification of their common properties”.
A relation causes
• Order of the elements
• Equivalence of elements
We will find a well-known example in the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3,... etc. Here 1<2<3... etc. is valid.
Precisely this „smaller than” - brings order to the elements 1, 2, 3 etc., that is to say: order to the natural
numbers. In addition the relation of order (short: order) is asymmetrical and transitive.
The relation of characters of the alphabet is an ordered relation. In the alphabet a is positioned before b and b
before c etc. Asymmetrical and transitive means: every element has a following element but not necessarily a
foregoing. The number 1 has no foregoing number but all numbers as of 2 do.
The relation of equivalence (short: equivalence) is reflexive, symmetrical and transitive.

An example for equivalence is the relation between brothers and sisters in a family.
Let’s assume the relation G between persons x and y is the relation of siblings. That implicates that x is a sibling
of y and y a sibling of x. We can mathematically say: x G y
This relation is reflexive because x and y are elements of G, x = y

This relation is symmetric since out of x →y (= always follows y) and vice versa: x ↔ y
The relation is also transitive because y follows out of x. The transitive property isn’t very evident for two
elements. Therefore, in order to make this feature clear, we simply add one element, so that we now have x, y
and z. Assuming a relation of siblings we can always conclude y G z from x G y and x G z because all three
elements of course are siblings. But assume that the three x, y and z weren’t siblings but friends. The relation of
friendship may therefore not be transitive. x may be a friend of y and y of z but that doesn’t mean that x and z
also are friends. Even when the common saying is: „Your friends are my friends“☺☺☺.
37
2.2 Power set

The power set of a set is the set of subsets of the set. In other words, the collection of all subsets of a set to one
total is the power set of that set. Every power set has a further power set of his own. Assume that three roses in a
vase form a set. We can count each rose separately from one another. We can also combine the roses as shown.
Mathematically expressed this means that we form subsets from the original set {1, 2, 3}:
{1,2,3}
{1,2,3} {1,2} {1,3} {2,3} {1} {2} {3}
main set subsets with two elements subsets with one element
So in total our logical count results in seven possibilities to combine the elements: seven subsets. By arranging
the subsets in a figure we get an almost symmetrical structure. In order to complete the structure in a
symmetrical way we obviously must add one subset. This subset occupies the last corner of the structure; its
existence is geometrically indispensable. The structure is completed with this 8th element.
{1,2,3}
{1,2} {1,3} {2,3}
{1} {2} {3}
The 8th element of the subset is the empty set ∅.

These 8 subsets are synthesized, i.e. they orderly integrate to become a total. This synthesis is called the power
set P(M).
{1,2,3} P(M) of main set {1,2,3}

{1,2},{1,3},{2,3}
{1},{2},{3} 8 elements of P(M)
∅
Whilst the subset {1} appears in {1,2} or in {1,3}, it is not present in {2,3}.
We say that {1} is in total order with {1,2} or with {1,3}, but with {2,3} in half order. Half order because
subsets always are – no matter how - arranged in order.
38
The Image Set „Superquantum Theory“
The following theorems of sets are of greatest importance for the physical image of Set
Theory, especially since the natural forces are imaged mathematical features according to
SQT. The physical image of these forces is caused by the total order of numbers. Imaging of
physics and mathematics is a bijektiv operation. The image is 1 to 1 and reversible. The
physical image of Set Theory is called Superquantum Theory.
The empty set is a phenomenon on its own, because it contains the number 0 as well as the number 1.
• by definition the empty set ∅ corresponds to the number zero ( ∅:= 0)

• the empty set ∅ corresponds to the number one (1) when it occurs in all subsets of the power set; this
general appearance in all subsets is characteristic to the number 1. We must define a new empty set in order
to complete the power set (that is why we choose a red empty set). We can debate a great deal on whether
this empty set corresponds to the original empty set.∅; the developers of the Superquantum Theory strongly
believe that this is a new empty set with new features. The relation to the original empty set is subject to
investigation but not subject of this article.
Summary
■ Axiom of power set: for each set there exists a power set P(M) with more elements than the original set,
composed of all subsets of the original set
By powering sets with an infinite number of elements infinite cardinal numbers (number of elements in sets)
occur. In the so-called “actual infinity” these transitive cardinal numbers form „Cantor’s Continuum“.
Cantor’s cardinal numbers are united by the continuum hypothesis of Cantor. The corresponding formula is:
ℵa
2 =ℵa+1
in which a = 1,2,3,... a also runs to infinity from a mathematical point of view.
Power sets according to 2ℵa=ℵa+1 play a key role in the Superquantum Theory
■ Every P(M) always contains the empty set (or an empty set) ∅
■ Every P(M) always contains the main set
■ If the main set is made up of n-elements, than P(M) possesses 2n elements in total
3
The exemplary set {a, b, c} has 3 elements, so that for n=3 we calculate P(M) has 2 = 8 elements:
▪ The main set itself................{a, b, c}
▪ 3 subsets with two elements.....{a, b}; {a, c}; {b, c}
▪ 3 subsets with one element.......{a}; {b}; {c}
▪ The empty set........................... ∅
Remark: Every element of the main set is 4 times = 22 times present in the subset! That means: every
Element occupies (is present in) half of the available room. This allows the following SQT-
theorem: the “self space” of an element is exactly half the power set. We refer to “locality” when
elements that join together by (stable) separation occupy so much “self space” that they assume
rigidity; this condition of rigidity is the condition called mass. But also electromagnetic waves (and
finally also thought waves; there is no other means of transport than superquanta!) are considered
to constitute this type of stable conditions of groups of superquanta.
39
2.3 Axioms
The Set Theory invented by Cantor is a bit different from the Set Theory in contemporary mathematics. Cantors
Set Theory has been called the „naïve Set Theory” because it proved to be very general. The “naïve Set Theory”
not only allowed elements such as objects like for example trees or umbrellas but also abstract concepts like for
example freedom. Remark: SQT allows abstract concepts besides concrete objects again The explanation of this
lies beyond the scope of this article. The high degree of generalization in Cantor’s Set Theory brought a number
of contradictions in the theory about. This caused rejection of its broader application.
For example, the naïve Set Theory allowed the existence of the “Set of all Sets”. However a set, containing
everything, a “Set of All” does not exist. The reason is that a wholeness containing all objects (sets) can not be
an element of its own set. This is considered a fundamental contradiction. In the same way, a number of the
original definitions caused contradictions. This was a bit of a “disaster” for mathematics since mathematicians
painfully use to take care to avoid contradictions and ambiguity. Out of pure necessity, Zermelo and Fraenkel
started to formulate axioms in 1912. This modified Set Theory is called the axiomatic Set Theory. The ZF-
System of Axioms is still valid today. These are the axioms used by SQT.
The most important axioms for the present articles on SQT are listed below (not all existing axioms are listed):
1) Axiom of extensionality: two sets are then and only then equal, when they contain the same elements
2) Axiom of subsets: for any set A and for any condition (or feature) E(x) a set B exists, of which the elements
are those x of A, for which E(x) is true
3) Axiom of the unordered pair: for any two sets a set exists, containing the two sets as elements
4) Axiom of the sum set: for any system of sets a set exists, containing all elements, that at least are contained
in one of the sets of the system
5) Axiom of the power set: for any set a system of sets exists, that contains under its elements all subsets of
the set
6) Axiom of infinity: a set exists that contains the empty set and for every set that belongs to the set a follow
up set can be constructed that also belongs to the set.
7) Axiom of replacement: assume that S(x,y) is such a statement, that for any element x of a set A the set {y|
S(x,y)} can be compiled. Then a function F exists with the region of definition A, such that F(x)= {y|
S(x,y)} for any x in A is true
8) Axiom of choice
The axiom of choice is equivalent to the concept of order.
Concept of order = Theorem of order says, that any set can be brought to order. A well-ordered set is well-
ordered, when a “smaller than” relation (transitive feature) exists for his elements:
▪ for a,b of M is true a < b or b < a or a = b
▪ if a < b and b < c, then always a < c
▪ Any subset of M has a smallest (first) element.
In a well-ordered set every Element has an immediate next element, but not necessarily an immediate preceding
element.
The concept of order does not impose a way of construction! The proof of the concept of order being free of
construction rules was given by Zermelo with the help of the axiom of choice in 1908. This constructional
freedom is very important, if not essential, to the Superquantum Theory. It means the following for the
Superquantum Theory: the Freedom of Choice at the point of enforcing the axiom of subsets in the set of
superquanta allows the choice of stability to be the only criterion to influence the result of the choice. Stability
(invariance) is therefore one of the most important features of nature and of the mathematical elaboration of
SQT. Waves are particularly steady appearances of groups of superquanta. Superquantum Theory shows waves
as a necessary solution at the borders respectively passages between the spheres (power sets of superquanta) that
are yet to be developed and discussed in this and other articles.
40
Example:
element
representatives system S subset (by choice) A
element
set M
Let’s assume S is a system of sets. Then a subset A exists, that possesses exactly one chosen element
(representative element) of every set M. M is also called: classification (texture). A well-known example for the
axiom of choice is the election of a political group of representatives. If the single elements (dots) represent the
number of citizens with electoral qualification, then the sets are the several constituencies, that joint in a system.
Out of every constituency (set) a citizen (deputy) is chosen. This citizen is the representative of his/her
constituency. The total of deputies is now the subset in accordance with the axiom of choice.
41
2.4 Conjunction of sets, intersection of sets, complement of sets, multiplication of sets

With the axioms at hand it is easy to carry out simple mathematical set operations. These are generally illustrated
with the help of Venn-diagrams. In order to refresh your memory we hereby repeat the most important diagrams:
1) Conjunction of sets („A conjuncts with B“ A ∪B)
A B A ∪B={x | x ∈A or x ∈B} = {1,2,3,4,5}
1 3 3 1 3 5
2 4 4 5 2 4
Reading of A∪B={x | x∈A or x∈B}={1,2,3,4,5} is as follows:

Read | as „for which is true,“. Behind | the exact condition of the elements is being given. ∈ is the symbol for
element or elements. { and } symbolize that the elements between the brackets are elements of a set. The
mathematical expression A∪B={x | x∈A or x∈B} = {1,2,3,4,5} must thus be read as follows: A conjunct B
exists of elements x for which is true that x is an element of A or x is an element of B, and all elements x equal
(correspond to) 1,2,3,4,5.
2) Intersection of sets („A intersected with B“ A∩B)

A B A ∩ B={x | x∈A and x∈B} = {3,4}
1 3 3 1 3 5
2 4 4 5 2 4
Read: A intersection B exists of elements x, for which is true, that x is an element of A and x is an element of B,
and all elements x equal (correspond to) 3,4.
3) Subtraction of sets („A without B“A/B)
A B A/B={x | x∈A and x∉B}={1,2}
1 3 3 1 3
2 4 4 5 2 4 5
Read: the subtraction of sets A minus B exists of elements x, for which is true, that x is an element of A and x is
not an element of B, and all elements x equal (correspond to) 1,2
Special case of subtraction: complementary set
A B B ⊆ A A/B=B“ other way of showing:
1 3 3 1 3 3 4
2 4 4 2 4 1 3 4
2 B
B“ A
B is the complementary set ⊆ to A, if A minus B
42
A well-known example of the complementary set is as follows: let’s assume the set of human beings to be the
larger set and the set of women the smaller set. Now the set of men is the complementary set to the set of women
in relation to the set of human beings.
women
men
human beings
4) Multiplication of sets: the product set (= Cartesian Product) (A × B) = {(a, b) | a∈A, b∈B}= R
A B pair set
1 3
2 4
■ R is a relation and a real subset of A×B R ⊆ A×B

■ elements to ordered pairs fixed order:
▪ A×B= {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)}
The product set is not commutative, since:
▪B×A= {(3,1), (4,1), (3,2), (4,2)}
43
2.5 Mathematical image (or projection)

The mathematical image is not a pictorial illustration of a “state of affairs” but an unequivocal association
(relation) of elements. Assume two given sets: set X with the elements 1, 2 and 3 and set Y with the elements a,
b and c. We call x and y resp. the content of set X and the content of set Y. Thus we can associate: x∈X and
y∈Y. Now we relate the elements x to the elements y:
association
F
Main set X image set Y
with x∈X with y∈Y
1 a
2 b
3 c
set X set Y
The association F relates the element x to the element y:

▪ x → y= F(x) expression with elements
▪ F: X →Y expression with sets
The shown mathematical image is a one-to-one-image, also called a bijektive image:
Each y is exactly one element of Y. „one” meaning: one and only one; at least one and not more than one. Thus
there is an unequivocal correspondence between the main set and the imaged set. In function analysis the
element y = F(x) is known as the value of the function at the location of the argument x. Through the function
the element x is imaged onto the element y. Or: through the function the element x is unequivocally related to the
element y. The expressions relation, association, image, imaging, transformation, operation, projection are used
as synonyms.
A bijektiv image of a set on itself is called a permutation.

If we project for example the set X={1,2,3} onto itself, then the image may look like this: {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}.
The bijektive image is the sum of a surjektiv and injektiv image:
injektiv surjektiv this is an image; this is not

non-surjektiv and non- injektiv an image
u x u u
1 x 1 1 x 1 x
2 y 2 2 y y
3 3 z 3 2
z
injektiv: („to implant“): several x-values The left illustration is an image, however it is
assume several y-values, this neither surjektiv nor injektiv.
Image is a unequivocal image. The right illustration is not an image at all.
surjektiv: every element of X appears as an
image.
This image is not unequivocal.
The significance of the bijektiv image for the Superquantum Theory is that the entire mathematics of sets is
bijektively transformed (projected) into the physics of the Superquantum Theory.
44
3.1 Numbers as System of Sets

As professor of mathematics Georg Cantor invented the fundaments of Set Theory. It constitutes the structural
body (the structure, the fundament) of modern mathematics. He was greatly fascinated by the concept of actual
infinity (sometimes called „the Secret Garden “). A dilemma however was his inability to relate his extremely
abstract actual infinity to „reality“. Besides the (unjustified) criticism of his former teacher Kronecker this
dilemma has been cause of his mental illness; His research revealed a further technical question since he could
not find the relationship between the first two transfinite cardinal numbers. This problem has finally been
resolved by the Superquantum Theory.
The fundaments of mathematics include mathematical logic and the Set Theory. Early mathematical calculations
that have been passed down to us from the Arabic period (18th century b. C.) are algebraic; the Greek
mathematics (Euclid) has a geometrical character and modern mathematics (starting with Newton, Leibniz) has
an analytical character. The latter features infinitesimal limit-calculations (differential and integral calculus) and
is an essential part of modern applied mathematics. Limit calculus is creative in using potential infinities.
Potential here means: “useful” or applied. Mathematical logic and Set Theory have mainly been formulated in
the 19th century. Especially in Berlin the work of a large group of scientists became extraordinary important for
the development of mathematics. The pioneer work for example of Gauß, Riemann and Cantor was epoch-
making. Because of its importance this chain of research at the Humboldt University in Berlin can be called the
Berlin School of mathematics.
As said before, the Set Theory is the idea of composition (set) of elements. Elements can be anything: objects
(like roses), character traits (like goodness), physical phenomena (like electrical load, mass, force) or numbers
(like integers, imaginary numbers, prime numbers etc.) etc.. Let us investigate how the presently known
mathematical numbers are (pre-) arranged.
The set of natural numbers (including zero) N0 contains for example the set of prime numbers NP or the set of
even numbers NG. N0 is called the higher set. At the next stage N0 becomes a subset itself: a subset of the
integers Z. N0 and Z are at the following stage subsets of the rational numbers Q. The rational numbers, the
algebraic numbers and the transcendent numbers are embedded in the real numbers (as higher set). The set of
complex numbers is the last expansion. The set of real numbers has been left at this point.
Complex
Real Imaginary numbers
Q Rational (Fractions) Algebraic

{x | x= p/q with p, q∈Z, q≠0} x2-2=0
▪roots polynomic
Z {0, ± 1, ±2...} equation with rational
coefficients
N0 {0,1,2,3...}
NG {0,2,4...} Transcendent Irrational π , e

▪ Can not be written as a fraction of
integers
NP {1,3,5...} ▪ The decimal part has no
cyclical pattern
i.e. 0,1010010001
▪ N0 (higher set) contains for example. NP and NG as subsets

▪ N0 is as subset in Z (higher set) „embedded“
▪ Z is as subset in Q (higher set) „ embedded “
▪ Q is as subset in R (higher set) „ embedded “
▪ R is as subset in C (higher set) „ embedded “
45
3. Solution to Cantors continuum problem

In the second half of the 19th century Cantor systematically revolutionized the expression “infinity” that had a
different meaning until then. The traditional expression “infinity” corresponded to „potential infinity“.
To any conceivable integer we are able to add 1. This way an ever growing number is perceived. The symbol
infinity is the horizontal eight „∞“. Let’s assume as an example that we call the set of natural numbers Z with
elements n then we have a set with infinite n- elements:
Z={n1, n2, n3 … nx} with x → ∞
Whereas the index x can become infinitely large we say: x moves toward infinity (x → ∞).
The potential infinity is the „uncompleted” infinity. Cantor reintroduced however the „actual infinity”, that’s to
say: the „completed” infinity. Then Cantor compared the infinite sets.
Here are a few important expressions used to identify the infinities of two sets, set X and set Y. „Card“ is another
term used for the Cardinal number (cardinality or the number of elements):
Set X is called
countable......................if card (X) ≤ card (Y)

countable infinite..........if card (X) = card (Y)
overcountable................if card (X) > card (Y)
■ The set of natural numbers N and the set of rational numbers Q are both countable infinite (compare with the
bijektive image: we can give numbers to all natural numbers). That means N has exactly as many elements as
Q:
card (Q)= card (N) ℵ0
Cantor gave the cardinality of N and Q, i.e. the number of elements of the first infinite set, the name of the first
letter of the Hebraic alphabet: ℵ („Aleph“). Aleph Zero ℵ0 is the first level of infinity, the smallest transfinite
cardinal number.
■ The set of real numbers R is overcountable, i.e. according to Cantor R has more elements than ℵ0. The
cardinal number of R is called ℵ1 or card (R)= ℵ1. Cantor proved the existence of the second cardinal number
through the so-called diagonal procedure according to which the real numbers, both the rational and irrational,
can not all be given a reference number.
Therefore: (according to Cantor): ℵ1 > ℵ0
Cantor couldn’t calculate how much bigger ℵ1 is. This is called the Cantor’s Dilemma. In 1900 it was listed
as one of the problems of mathematics yet to be resolved
So there are two different sets, with higher cardinality than ℵ0
The „normal” power set P(N) of ℵ0 = ℵ1 || the set of real numbers R = ℵ1
■ The problem of continuum (the dilemma of Cantor): his question was whether these two cardinal numbers are
the same? In what level of infinity can R and P(N) be arranged? Does the set of real numbers indeed possess
the same cardinality as ℵ1, just like Cantor suspected? How does the larger cardinal number P(N) compare to
the cardinal number of R? Might they be the same number? Well, Superquantum Theory resolves this old
problem that exists as of the early days of Set Theory. You can read the solution in the article „Infinity and the
Solution to Cantor's Dilemma“.
46
The order of the numbers is shown in the following diagram:
The count of real elements: 1st level of abstraction
1 2 3 Expansion and structuring the numbers: 2nd level of abstraction
N, Z,Q,R,C= sets of numbers

N= natural numbers (1,2,3,…)
Z= whole numbers (..-1,-2,0,1,2…)
Q=fractions /rational numbers
1,2,3... I= irrational numbers
N Z Q I,R R= real numbers
Cantors levels
of infinity 3rd level of abstraction
Cantors continuum
Aleph Null ℵ 0 ℵ1 A
the absolute A
„Cantors Paradise“ in infinity Cantors dilemma: he could not tie
abstraction to reality
Cantor
Solution to Cantor’s dilemma by SQT
Back to earth...1st level of physical infinity defined by SQT
SQT transforms the mathematical levels of infinity into physical Passages and Spheres (as images of
mathematical sets). This way the dilemma is resolved. The exact solution is given in the article mentioned
before.
Physical interpretation of Cantors continuum
Joint planes G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
Mathematical Bodies ℵ1 ↔ ℵ2 ↔ ℵ3 ↔ ℵ4 ↔ ℵ5 ↔ ℵ6 ↔ ℵ7 …
Bijektive imaging
Passages P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6
Physical spheres S1 ↔ S2 ↔ S3 ↔ S4 ↔ S5 ↔ S6 ↔ S7 …
■ Cantor’s efforts to resolve the problem of the first two transfinit cardinal numbers by using mathematical
resources weren’t successful. In 1900 David Hilbert (an admirer of Cantor’s work) listed the problem in Paris
in a list of unresolved mathematical challenges for the new century.
■ In 1938Kurt Gödel came up with a possible solution: his “principle of incompleteness” states that (following
the logic of power sets) in any system statements can always be identified that can’t be decided within the
system. In this respect the problem of continuum is “undecidable” within the framework of the ZF-system of
axioms. Gödel’s principle of incompleteness was proven in 1963 by Paul Cohen. It is one of the pillars of SQT
and of nature.
47
■ With a so-called „argument of levels” Cantor shows that from a mathematical point of view an infinite number
of transfinite cardinal numbers (that means: an infinity of infinity (!)) must exist since every power set can be
“powered” again; at the highest point the highest cardinal number stands; it is called the absolute number A
which symbolized „God” in Cantor’s view. With this argumentation Cantor also claimed that no largest
cardinal number may exist and that the Absolute must be outside of mathematics.
Cantors Dilemma can be seen as an inability to find the way out the Secret Garden in which Cantor strayed with
the problem of cardinal numbers. The true dilemma is as Gödel found: the continuum hypothesis, the principle
of well-ordering, the principle of choice as well as the relation of the two first transitive cardinal numbers are all
in the mathematical region of the Secret Garden. However they can mathematically not be wrapped up. Without
leaving mathematics the Dilemma of Cantor (according Gödel’s incompleteness) is not resolvable.
The Superquantum Theory shows Professor Cantor where the way out the Secret Garden can be found ☺. It
successfully interprets the mathematical abstraction by relating it to the real observation of nature (i.e. physics);
it adds physical sense to a mathematical concept. By doing so Cantor’s levels of infinity become physical
spheres in SQT.
Cantor’s research is about the set of numbers. It deals with the natural numbers and the expansion of these
through algebraic functions, the expansion in plane and space, the expansion with special irrational numbers like
e („natural number“) and л and finally the definition of the first cardinal number. The first cardinal number is the
first infinite number which represents in the set of integers the cardinality at the same time. This first cardinal
number Aleph ℵ0 is being defined by saying that when x equals the last finite number then x+1 = ℵ0 is the first
infinite number. The “space” restricted by Aleph ℵ0, is the space of first infinity. SQT calls it the first sphere.
This is the sphere of real numbers. This (mathematical) infinity is actual. Without further definition it can not get
a meaning for physics. SQT gives this definition so that the mathematical infinity becomes relevant to physics.
This way the desired projection onto physics is secured. The Superquantum Theory assumed the relevant
definition of the Superquantum heuristically. Soon this appeared to be the correct definition. By definition of the
Superquantum the actual mathematical infinity is transformed into a potential physical infinity.
As said before the power sets being the (ever continued) sets of subsets propel the numbers of elements into
infinite infinity… at this point Cantor thought to identify the Creator☺. Essentially the row of cardinal numbers
is (without physical approximation) infinite: ℵ0, ℵ1, ℵ2, ℵ3, ℵ4, ℵ5, …, ℵ∞. The mathematical relation of
cardinal numbers is given by the mathematical formula for powering: 2ℵa=ℵa+1 in the a = 1,2,3,... Every
cardinal number is the upper border of a closed mathematical “body” (physical sphere). The Superquantum
Theory clarifies that in accordance with the theorems of Set Theory these mathematical bodies become physical
Spheres as bijektiv projection in which we are able to identify the origin of all physical laws. By bijektiv
imaging of the entire mathematics and the entire physics onto each other mathematical problems really can be
resolved. For the first time in history SQT is for example able to resolve the dilemma of Cantor with respect to
the equation ruling ℵ0 and ℵ1.
The Superquantum Theory is similarly able to resolve problems of physics. We strongly believe that a futuristic
technical application can be found in a technology that we call “self-spaces” (respectively “selfspaces of
matter”). In the article „Selfspaces” the theoretical foundation of this new technology is outlined.
Classical physics, the theory of relativity, the quantum mechanic and the quantum field theory („Strings“)have
been the pillars of theoretical physics hitherto. Similar to what Set Theory means for mathematics the
Superquantum Theory constitutes the very foundation of theoretical physics. Even more than Set Theory SQT is
of such basic importance that a great number of not-understood physical events are easily analyzed and
explained. Things like Dark Matter for example. Or basic questions like: what is force, what is location, what is
impulse, what is time…? SQT explains the link between the four basic forces of nature. Superquantum Theory
ceaselessly surprises its researchers because of its many-sidedness and amazing descriptive strength.
This strength appears in the border area of mathematics and physics. The mathematical structure of the Set
Theory was essentially invented in the Berliner school. In order to realize how physics turns into an set-based
image of mathematics we must become acquainted with the main axioms and theorems of the Set Theory. At
least we must know the theorems and axioms that we need immediately.
We would like to finish this article with a few remarks concerning the parallelism of mathematics and physics.
With these the reader essentially can have all required information to understand the applied logic of
Superquantum Theory used in the articles we offer here.
48
The Set Theory and SQT turn into mathematical-physical reality through definition of the superquantum as the
most elementary particle of physics possessing a single physical characteristic of “directionless length in
meter”. This particle becomes a one-dimensional line, then a two-dimensional plane and finally a three-
dimensional space by application of algebraic functions. These extensions do not change the cardinality of the
mathematical body or sphere. With the three dimensions and the well-order of the superquanta the first
mathematical body closes at cardinality as the “first mathematical infinite body” which constitutes the first
sphere of physics.
All set-related characteristics of the line of numbers and its physical equivalent are without limitation
transferable onto the space of numbers and onto the physical sphere.
The first decisive step that initiates the unfolding of {A} is as follows:
In accordance with the logic of Peano set {A} respectively {∅, A} equals set {∅,A,A,A,A...}. We allow the
number of A’s to run towards infinity, such as to become the first cardinal number. The subsets of this set are:
{∅,A}, {∅,A,A}, {∅,A,A,A}… and so on. This is the (first) power set: {{∅},{∅,A}, {∅,A,A},
{∅,A,A,A}…}.
This power set corresponds to is the mathematical set of integers: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…}.
Mathematically this is a set of well-ordered numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…}.

Physically this is a set of well ordered superquanta {0, a, b, c, d, e,…}.
All mathematical laws that apply to mathematical numbers apply to superquanta. Every physical even t has its
mathematical image. Every mathematical “event” has a physical image.
49
3. Evaluation
The Superquantum Theory (SQT) is the bijektiv image of the infinite set of integers. It listens to all axioms and
theorems of this set. Sets with an infinite number of elements have special properties. These properties appear to
be essential for SQT. SQT is characterized by the infinity of the power sets and the conditional selection of
subsets contained in those. The condition is: lasting stability of the total system.
All axioms of Set Theory are applicable to the Superquantum Theory. The physical image of numbers is as
simple as shown below:
The Superquantum {A} has only one single physical characteristic: „a one-dimensional extension in meter“. The
Superquantum is indivisible. It corresponds to the mathematical „empty set“: {∅}. In analogy to the expansion
of the mathematical set according to Peano {0} → {1, 2, 3,4…} the physical image becomes: {A} → {a, b, c,
d,…}. In order to highlight the property of extension in meters we write A often as đx.
Original set image set

mathematical physical
1 a
2 b
3 c
... ...
Fundament of the Superquantum Theory
The physical set {A} is a bijektive (1 to 1) image of the mathematical set {∅}. The Superquanta a, b, c etc.
are fully arranged within a total-order similar to the numbers 0, 1, 2 etc..
Under these assumptions
1) The existence of a Superquantum with the only characteristic of a directionless one-dimensional

extension
2) The entire mathematical logic and the entire Set Theory apply to physics without any limitation
we appear to be able to deduce all known physical characteristics and find a few more.
According to this theory physics and mathematics are the parallel but linked unfolding of one single
Superquantum that enables the unfolding of a great number of further doctrines that develop in similar linked
ways. Comparison with an egg or a DNA-molecule is obvious. Gödel’s principle of incompleteness states in fact
that all systems are interconnected. What else should we expect if we accept singularity {A} as the origin?
The Superquantum Theory states that all physical phenomena and hence the structure of physics correspond to
images in the magnificent building of mathematics. The Superquantum Theory delivers the arguments that this
match is not at all accidentally. It is in fact a “conditio sine qua non” because in any other case the universe
could not be stable. Without logic the universe could otherwise collapse at any time.
We consider that SQT has a great future. We see as next task of the research of the Superquantum Theory
1) To continue investigating the set-related match of physics und mathematics; the entire knowledge
physics has to be brought 1 to 1into the structure of mathematics and to be compared with it.
2) To develop new methods of calculation for open questions of physics. An example is the Dark Matter.
3) To identify new technologies as for example: “selfspace technology”
4) To identify and to develop further applications of SQT in other fields of human knowledge.
The Superquantum Theory will establish itself as the new and lasting foundation of theoretical physics.
Astronomy and many other fields of science will strongly be affected by SQT. SQT is expected to be taught in
schools and universities soon.
Theoretical physics is ready to take off…

50
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 6
Infinity and the Solution to Cantor's Dilemma
CONTENTS
0. Introduction
1. Thoughts on infinity
2 From Pythagoras to the Berlin School of mathematics
3. Superquantum Theory solves Cantor’s continuum problem

3.1 Cantor’s Dilemma
3.2 The straight line
3.3 The principle of incompleteness of Gödel
4 Summary
► History of the concept of infinity
► The solution to the continuum problem of the first two cardinal numbers
► The interdisciplinary strength of the Superquantum Theory

51
0 Introduction
„Beam me up, Scotty“. Who doesn’t know this legendary maxim of spaceship captain Kirk. He wishes that a
member of his crew transports him without loss of time from the place where he is to another place. Using
“beam-technology”… This way the crew of the spaceship enjoys adventures in the infinite dimensions of the
universe. Infinity not only inspires the imagination of film makers of our times but it has fascinated mankind at
all times.
Infinity has stirred up human attention incessantly and has been subject to manifold interpretations. It may sound
like a paradox that human beings who get lost in infinity actually find their inner self. Exactly like the genius
researcher Pascal (1623-1662) stated: „What is man in the cosmos after all? Nothing compared to infinity,
everything compared to nothing. He is in the middle of everywhere and nowhere“.
Pascal was an admirable researcher for example in mathematics, physics, philosophy and in theological
questions. His name is linked to the „triangle of Pascal “ which is a unit to measure air pressure. He has proven
the existence of empty space. He designed the first calculator in France. The well-known computer language
PASCAL honors this invention. Pascal – an all round scientist. Well, when he lived, he wasn’t the only all-
rounder. In his epoch there were several scientists who have brought great milestones to science. Here are some
names: Leibniz, Newton, Gauß and last but not least Cantor.
It is not surprising that scientists who investigated infinity were often great inventors at the same time.
Concerning yourself with infinity appears to have a remarkable side effect. Scientists who do this seem to bring
their mind into a centre of interpretation. Questions relating to dignity and freedom, questions related to
existence on earth and in eternity as well as questions related to the Creator seem to become associated sidesteps
of mind within infinity.
Dear readers, Georg Cantor is known today as inventor of the Set Theory. The Set Theory is a foundation of
modern mathematics. We want to inform you in this article, how infinity has been reflected on from the Antics
until modern times. We will reflect a lot on Cantor’s elaboration of several levels of infinities. And we will solve
Cantor’s famous continuum problem.
We wish to emphasize that Cantors efforts to solve his mathematic continuum problem which concerns the first
two cardinal numbers with the methods of mathematics remained unsuccessful. For that reason David Hilbert (a
supporter of Cantor) has listed Cantor’s problem in 1900 in Paris in his list of unsolved mathematical challenges
of the next century.
The Superquantum Theory solves the problem in a simple and elegant manner.
The reason is that cardinal numbers are physically relevant due to the bijektiv projection by Superquantum
Theory into the reality of physics. Gödel’s principle of incompleteness allows (even: obliges) the search for the
solution to the problem through physics. Solving Cantor’s problem via the bypass of physics has, to our own
surprise, made us understand a number of essential perceptions of nature. This fact made to us the Superquantum
Theory to be the first candidate for the „Theory of Everything“.
We wish you much curio and fun diving into the world of infinity…
The authors
52
1 Thoughts on infinity
Nobody can say for sure when exactly the perception of infinity was established. The infinity is limitless,
imperceptible and immeasurable. The opposite of infinite is restricted.
The concept infinity is used in daily language differently from its use in science. Waiting in a cue in the
supermarket can be infinitely long. When we are cuing on the highway distance and time seem to become
infinite.
Infinity appears to be seen as prolonged finiteness in these cases. Is finiteness a part of infinity?
In the article „Theory of Everything” we already have made the point that human beings exist between two
worlds: one world of infinite size (=macrocosm) and one of infinite smallness (= microcosm). With his
consciousness man has received the possibility to position himself between these worlds, to do research and to
filter takings for his own profit. The Theory of Everything has also the task to combine macrocosm and
microcosm to a total. With this knowledge mankind can find its orientation within this total.
Humans have difficulties imagining infinity, because reality appears to have two different appearances:
► receptive for senses (=observable) understandable
► not-receptive for senses (= metaphysical)
Infinity is abstract and rises above „common sense” because the direct daily experience is missing. The
phenomenon of singularity in physics is a good example showing that processes of nature can become infinite.
Singularities are for example black holes or the big bang. Singularity is a state in space-time in which mass is
reduced to a point without any expansion but with infinite density. Black holes can’t be observed directly. Only
the effect they have on their neighborhood can be detected.
We said earlier: Concerning yourself with infinity appears to have a remarkable side effect. Scientists who do
this seem to bring their mind into a centre of interlinked knowledge.
In the correct interpretation of the phenomenon of infinity every system is precisely linked to the next. As you
have learned in the article “Theory of Everything” no fully closed system that leaves no questions left exists
according to the principle of incompleteness of Gödel. Systems or disciplines can only by communicating with
each other find solutions to their (own) problems.
The very junction of systems avoids the claim of absoluteness of certain disciplines. The individual system’s
view of matters is extended to a much more fundamental interpretation it is the mutual fertilization of
disciplines disciplines are no longer closed systems but grow and develop to new splendor hand in hand with
their neighbors.
In the antic philosophy several opinions existed about infinity and finiteness.
► Milet (610-546 b. C.) stated that all finite and definable forms of matter arise from the Apeiron (the
Undefined); the Apeiron is in this respect the infinity and synonym to Being.
► The school of Pythagoras rejects infinity. The number is the thing of all things. Whatever exists can be
described by numbers. The number is synonym to finiteness.
► Anaxagoras (500- 546 b. C.) was supporter of the infinite small things and the infinitely smallness.
► Atomistic: philosophers like Democritus (460- 370 b. C.) thought that it is impossible to infinitely split
matter. The smallest indivisible object is the atom.
► Zenon of Eleate (490- 430 b. C.) demonstrated with his paradox „Achilles and the turtle” that acceptance of
the atomistic standpoint in combination with the acceptance of the concept infinite small entity and of the
infinite large entity cause inconsistency.
► Aristotle (384- 322 b. C.) saw the difference between potential and actual infinity.
53
The concept of infinity used by Plato and Aristotle is the potential infinity. The infinity used by Anaxagoras or
Zenon was more like actual infinity. The difference between actual and potential is that actual is closed and
unchangeable whilst potential describes a procedure that is not closed but always bears the possibility to go
beyond the borders of finiteness. An example is that we can always add one to the largest thinkable number. This
way an even larger number is found.
The concepts of actual and of potential infinity have been under discussion even into the modern age.
54
2 From Pythagoras up to the Berlin School6

Investigation of integers was the subject of the South Italian school of Pythagoras (570 – 496 b. C.). He made
mathematics to an assembly of axioms and logics that has its foundation on evidence. Pythagoras believed in
transmigration of souls. The discovery of irrational numbers was a shock for his teaching. Numbers were
considered Gods and only whole numbers (and the fractions that consist of whole numbers) were accepted. The
discovery of irrational numbers has eventually caused the closure of the school.
The Pythagorean idea of the deist nature of the integers

was replaced by the concept of the continuum that shows
up in geometry (lines, planes, angles). Irrational numbers
fit in a natural way in the concept of geometry. I.e. the
irrational number л can geometrically be constructed
instantly. Arithmetically we would have to write down an
infinitely long number. In this manner infinity sneaked its
way into mathematics.
Plato already studied mathematics and was taught by Philolaos (student on the Pythagorean School). He made
Athens to a midpoint of research. Under Plato the Pythagorean „calculi” were related to sections of lines in
accordance with arithmetical geometry (Euclid, „elements“). Numbers and geometries were seen in mutual
connection. Plato mentions Atlantis in his writings and also a number that he calls the „Lady of the good and the
bad births”.
The mystical Jewish -Christian tradition that is also mirrored in Islam called Kabbalah (tradition) mentions the
first Hebraic letter Aleph (Islam: Elif) as Origin. The region around Aleph is called the secret garden. This is
mathematically the region around the actual infinity. The actual (the „genuine“, the „abstract“) is opposite of the
potential (the „useful “, the „practical“). Only a few men in history could enter the secret garden. Not Newton,
Leibniz, Gauß nor Euler dared to wander from the potential ∞ to the actual (or true) ∞.
Galileo Bolzano
(1564 – 1642) (1781 – 1848)
Galileo (ca. 1600) found an essential property of the actual ∞. The scale, the pendulous movement, an improved
telescope, the earth not being the centre of the universe, the calculation of the orbits of planets (confirmed by
Copernicus) these all are discoveries by Galileo. His statement about the earth resulted in confinement for the
rest of his life (until 1642) to his own house. 7)
In this period he formulated the following theorem by comparing all whole numbers and their squares: „there are
as many squares as whole numbers”. That means: an ∞- set, the set of all whole numbers, equals with reference
to the count of its numbers the set of all squares of whole numbers.
This phenomenon is only true because both sets are ∞. It is a quality of actual ∞. The amazing conclusion is that
an ∞-set can contain an equal number of elements as its (smaller) subset.
This all is about countable infinite sets; that is to say it is about the measurable form of infinity.
6
Literature: „The Mystery of the Aleph, Mathematics, The Kabbalah, and the Search for Infinities“ written by Amir D. Aczel (Four Walls
Eight Windows, New York/London)
7
This sentence was in 1992 actually not revised pope K. Woitila. The church only stated that the experts of 1632 could not have been experts
at the time.
55
Bolzano (Prague, 1781- 1848) wrote „Paradoxes of the Infinity“. In 1824 he was released from his duties with a
pension because he was a pacifist. The last 18 years of his life he spent investigating infinity.
He found out that Galileo’s properties of the countable infinite set are also valid for the dense numbers of the
continuum. He did this by comparing all numbers between 0 and 1 respectively between 0 and 2. Bolzano
replaced the projection using the square function by one using any other function, for example y= f(x)= 2x.
Hereby he linked every real number (=rational and irrational numbers) between 0 and 1 to a “companion”
between 0 and 2. Bolzano’s statement is that algebraic functions do not modify the infinite number of elements of
the set of integers called Cantor’s Aleph Zero or the first transfinite cardinal number ℵ0! This is of essential
importance to the Set Theory and to the Superquantum Theory.
The School of Mathematics in Berlin
Gauß Riemann Cantor
After the students of Gauss in about 1800 moved to Berlin this town became from 1860 (until ca. 1914) the main
of the world of mathematics. Riemann (1826-1866) was one of Gauss’ scholars. He was engaged investigating
infinity. He made the distinction between „unlimited” and „infinite” by calling Euclid’s lines unlimited but not
infinite. For example a circle on a sphere is unlimited but finite.
Riemann discovered the sphere of numbers that was given his name by extending the sphere with an „infinity
point” as its border point. In this manner only an infinite number of numbers can be compacted in a plane and
the room can be closed and limited.
A further mathematician in Berlin was Weierstraß, father of the modern analysis. He studied the infinite lengths
of functions. The idea of infinity becomes meaning because the sum of the functions only then becomes the
desired function if we really reach <∞ >. The convergence of functions showed irrational numbers as border
values of rational rows of numbers.
In Berlin the mathematician Kronecker was the expert of algebra, the mathematics of concrete variables.
Weierstraß was the expert of the analysis, the mathematics of continuous quantities. Continuous functions are
functions which go without discontinuity through all points of a curve.
The integral calculus is a good example of a mathematical method using the potential infinity.
56
3 Superquantum Theory solves Cantor’s Continuum Problem
3.1 What is Cantor’s Dilemma?

In the second half of the 19th century Cantor has modified the usual perception of the potential infinity with the
perception of actual infinity. The hitherto traditional perception of infinity had been a “potential infinity“.
Potential infinity means: the possibility of adding to any thinkable largest number the number 1 such that a next
larger number is found. The symbol of infinity is the laying eight „∞“. If we call the elements of the set Z of
natural numbers n we have a set with an infinite number of n- elements:
Z= {n1, n2, n3 … nx} with x → ∞
Because the index x can become infinite we say: x strives to infinite (x → ∞).
The potential infinity is „uncompleted”. Cantor reintroduced the „actual infinity“, i.e. the „completed” infinity.
For that sake Cantor compared infinite sets with each other. Cantor’s achievement lies in the investigation of
infinite sets. Though an infinite set has an infinite number of elements Cantor has succeeded in comparing
infinite sets by two “arguments”. These arguments are:
■ The first diagonal argument (bijektion): with this procedure he demonstrates by one-to-one listing that there
are as many fractions as integers.
■ The second diagonal argument (contradiction): by the construction of a contradiction concerning irrational
numbers Cantor demonstrates that there are more real numbers than fractions and integers.
First diagonal argument (bijektion)
The set of rational numbers (fractions) has exactly as many elements as the set of natural numbers N.
That means that there are as many fractions as whole numbers. Fractions and whole numbers are countable
infinite.
The argument lists the fractions in such a way that in the 1st line the numerator 1, in the second line 2, in the third
line 3 etc. are written down. Continuing this way all existing fractions are listed. For example the fraction 18/250
is the element in the 18th line and und 250th column.
The fractions are now being counted. To every fraction a natural number is being attached as shown in the
illustration.
1 2 5 6 11
1/ 1 1/ 2 1/ 3 1/ 4 1/ 5 ….
Bijektion
3 (-) 7 (-)
2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 …. 1 ↔ 1/1
2 ↔ 1/2
3 ↔ 2/1
4 8 (-)
3/1 3/2 3/3 … 4 ↔ 3/1
5 ↔ 1/3
9 (-) etc…..
4/1 4/2 …
10
5/1 … …
To ensure that the fractions are not counted twice the fractions that can be shortened are not considered. For
example 3/3 = 2/2 =1/1; because 1/1 already has a whole number attached, 2/2 or 3/3 remain uncounted. This
guarantees that a fraction that repeats for infinite times is counted only one time. In the illustration above these
are earmarked with (-). Every positive number is now attached to exactly one representative fraction. Thus the
desired bijektion is constructed.
57
The set of natural numbers N and the set of rational numbers Q are countable infinite (comparison
through bijektive projection: the natural numbers can be given whole numbers). That means that N has
exactly as many elements as Q.
card (Q)= card (N) ℵ0
Cantor gave the cardinality (card) of N and Q, i.e. the number of elements of the infinite set, the name
of the first letter of the Hebraic alphabets ℵ („Aleph“). Aleph zero (ℵ0) is the 1st level of infinity; it is
the smallest transfinite cardinal number.
Second diagonal argument (contradiction)
For the second diagonal argument Cantor assumed at first that the listing of all numbers contains all real
numbers. He then mentally constructed a new number from a number in the list and checked the list whether the
new number was included in the list or not. If the new number was not in the list a contradiction appears to the
original assumption.
Cantor tried to underpin his continuum hypothesis with this second diagonal argument. It should
prove that the count of real numbers is larger than the (infinite) count of rational numbers. Is indeed
his assumption that the set of real numbers possesses the cardinality ℵ1 correct? Do indeed ℵ0 and
ℵ1 differ? If yes, how do ℵ1 and the power set of the set with the cardinal number ℵ0 (i.e. the set of
whole numbers) relate? Maybe ℵ1 and P(ℵ0) are the same or maybe not? Cantor simply couldn’t
figure out how much larger ℵ1 was compared to ℵ0. This is Cantor’s dilemma.
Two different sets that have larger cardinality than ℵ0 appear to exist:
► The „normal” power set P(N) of the set with cardinality ℵ0 (= ℵ1?)
► The set of real numbers R with cardinality = ℵ1
Cantor concluded basing on the second argument:

ℵ1 > ℵ0 (this expression is the continuum hypothesis)
Superquantum Theory demonstrates that the inequation ℵ1 > ℵ0 is wrong. Superquantum Theory
demonstrates: ℵ1 is not larger but equal to ℵ0. It arrived at this result by leaving mathematics
because the solution to Cantor’s Dilemma can’t solely to be found by mathematical methods. Only
by viewing the problem from a physical angle as done by the Superquantum Theory the correct
approach can be found. The “detour through physics” corresponds to the principle of incompleteness
of Gödel.
58
3.2 The line of numbers

Bringing order into matters of the daily life we make use of natural numbers (Z=1, 2, 3, etc.). In addition we also
use fractions. Fractions are useful when we go shopping. How many candies can we buy with one Euro if they
cost 20 cents each? We simply divide 1 € (100 cents) by 20 cents and have the correct solution all right. From
the Set Theory we already know that rational numbers (fractions) contain the natural numbers and the whole
numbers. The group is called the set of rational numbers.8
N= Set of natural numbers (1,2,3,…)

N Z Q Z= Set of whole numbers (..-1,-2,0,1,2…)
Q= Set of rational numbers
{x | x= p/q with p, q∈Z, q≠0}*
The rational numbers can be arranged (ordered) onto a straight line. Single rational numbers are positioned as
single points (dots) on the line. The sections (distances) between the dots is at first unoccupied. That means that
even if we arrange all rational numbers next to each other we still won’t have a complete line; in between the
points gaps remain. We use for this incomplete line the expression chain of numbers.
√2 π e
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-1/2 11/4
In order to become a fully closed “stretchy line with elasticity☺”, we must bring in play more numbers, i.e. the
irrational numbers. Only by filling the gaps with the irrational numbers the line really becomes a straight line of
numbers that at all locations is not a sieve but closed. It can be demonstrated that in the vicinity of every rational
number an infinite number of irrational numbers exists and vice versa.
Remark: We said „stretchy line with elasticity “: a main principle of Superquantum Theory becomes apparent
here. The chaining of (rational) numbers is essentially a mathematical operation. When the gaps in the
chain are filled with irrational numbers a genuine quality of physic comes to light. Words like stretchy
or elasticity are linguistic equivalents of a principle of nature that has to with density. Density again is
related to fields of force and field theories: unequivocal qualities of physics. The Superquantum Theory
demonstrates that at this point the mathematical equivalent of the field of gravitation exists. In the
article „Gravitation” the force of gravitation is arithmetically elaborated.
The irrational numbers give texture to the line of numbers.
We memorize some well-known properties of the line:
► The straight line has as many elements as the plane of numbers and the space of numbers
► Irrational numbers are the results of algebraic functions (geometry); algebraic functions do not modify the
cardinality (Bolzano)
8
*) {x | x= a/b with p, q∈Z, q≠0} :
Every rational number can be written as a fraction of whole numbers. The denominator however may not be zero.
59
3.3 Principle of Incompleteness of Gödel

Cantor formulated his continuum hypothesis in 1878. Cantor’s efforts to prove it failed at the first two
cardinalities as we showed in the previous section. For that reason David Hilbert (a supporter of Cantor) has
listed Cantor’s problem in 1900 in Paris in his list of 23 unsolved mathematical challenges of the next century.
Cantor Hilbert Gödel
In 1932 Gödel postulated in his dissertation that in any system statements or questions exist that can’t be proven
or resolved within the system. This is the quintessence of Gödel’s principle of incompleteness. The principle is
originally formulated in a less simple manner as follows: every calculus that is without contradictions and that
allows to speak of natural numbers, i.e. that contains the elementary arithmetic, contains an infinite number of
statements that can neither be proven nor contradicted within the calculus.
The conclusion is that theorems (hypotheses) exist in systems that can’t be proven within them. This recognition
was a calamity and devastating for the mathematicians. ☺ ☺
3.4 About how Set Theory und physics work together in the Superquantum Theory
Gödel’s principle implicates that one must leave a system in order to be able to resolve questions that appear not
resolvable within it. Knowledge and arguments of „side systems” must be called for help. This is the very reason
why physicists usually use arguments of mathematics and of philosophy. It is common praxis that physics
utilizes mathematics in order to clarify its observations.
In order to resolve the continuum problem Superquantum Theory utilizes observations of physics to resolve the
mathematical dilemma of Cantor. According to the Superquantum Theory this is fully legitimate since physics
and mathematics are bijektiv projections. The Superquantum Theory has at first assumed the solution in
conjunction with physical observations and than conclusively derived it. The result is the sensational and sound
clarification of the continuum problem. The solution is found almost 105 years after the problem was listed by
Hilbert.
Superquantum Theory is the physical image of the mathematical set of all numbers. According to the principle of
Gödel certain (internally) irresolvable questions for example of mathematics can only be resolved using the
knowledge of other disciplines. These other systems may be the logics, the philosophy but also the experimental
and theoretical physics. These disciplines have their own method of theoretical and experimental observation.
The scientist may, no has to take profit from the knowledge of side systems since these are always
complementary. The mutual fertilization of disciplines is the very foundation of Superquantum Theory.
60
The transfinite cardinal number ℵ0 is according to Cantor the first actual infinite number that is larger than the
last finite number x. ℵ1 contains according to Cantor R (view the picture) N, Z, Q. We remember: Cantor’s
continuum hypothesis stated ℵ1 > ℵ0
R N, Z,Q,R,C= sets of numbers

Z= whole numbers (..-1,-2,0,1,2…)
N Z Q I Q= fractions/rational numbers
I= irrational numbers
R= real numbers
ℵ0
ℵ1
With ℵ1 and ℵ0 two kinds of infinity occur without powering: the infinity of the whole, the rational and the
algebraic numbers and the larger infinity of the irrational numbers. Cantor’s dilemma was that he couldn’t find
an exact equation connecting both infinities.
We have said before and repeat that with his second diagonal argument Cantor tried to underpin his hypothesis
that ℵ1 > ℵ0. It should prove that the count of real numbers is larger than the count of rational numbers. Is his
assumption that the set of real numbers indeed possessed the cardinality ℵ1 correct? Do ℵ0 and ℵ1 indeed
differ? If yes, how do ℵ1 and the power set of the set with the cardinal number ℵ0 (i.e. the set of whole
numbers) relate? Maybe ℵ1 and P(ℵ0) are the same or maybe not? Cantor simply couldn’t calculate how much
larger ℵ1 was compared to ℵ0.
Two different sets that have larger cardinality than ℵ0 appear to exist:
► The „normal” power set P(N) of the set with cardinality ℵ0 (= ℵ1?)
► The set of real numbers R with cardinality = ℵ1
Superquantum Theory demonstrates that the inequation ℵ1 > ℵ0 is false. Superquantum Theory demonstrates:
ℵ1 is not larger but equal to ℵ0.
The complete derivation is as follows:
►Step 1 Cantor’s reflections:
If x is the last finite real number (x+1) is the first transfinite cardinal number (number of elements) of the first
actual infinity (= beginning of the continuum) ℵ0. Also:
ℵ0 = x+1 (equation 1)
Subsets can be formed from a main set M by combining the E elements of the main set. The total number of
subsets is the power set P(M) of the set M.
E
P(M)= 2 (equation 2)
Assume a finite set with three elements. The power set of a set with three elements for example contains
P(M) = 2 3 = 8 elements
61
Since every finite set has its power set Cantor assumed that also the actual infinite set with cardinality ℵ0 has a
general power set with cardinality c:
ℵ0
N =c (equation 3)
He postulated that this can be written exactly in accordance with the standard powering of finite sets (equations 2
and 3), i.e. with N=2 und c= ℵ1, as:
ℵ0
2 = ℵ1 (equation 4)
The cardinal number of the power set P(ℵ0) would equal ℵ1.
The Superquantum Theory shows that this assumption (N=2) is incorrect for the power set of rational and
real numbers. It derives the right value for N as follows.
►Step 2 Superquantum Theory solves Cantors continuum problem:
The fundamental statement of the Superquantum Theory is this: ℵ1 can not be the cardinal number of a standard
power set of the set with cardinal number ℵ0. We are in physics aware only of a link between rational and real
numbers. We are aware only of a coherent line of numbers, not of a line with gaps.
If the set with cardinality ℵ1 isn’t a standard power set of the set with cardinality ℵ0 the assumption N=2 can‘t
be correct. In truth the variable N isn’t yet known to us at this stage. We will have to derive N anew:
Ignoring Cantor’s second diagonal argument that we have to deal with later we now realize that ℵ1 in any case
must be larger or equal to ℵ0. It is definitely not smaller.
Thus we can rewrite the equation 4 as follows:
ℵ0
N ≥ ℵ0 (equation 5)
Or: N x +1 ≥ 1+x (equation 6)
In the section “the straight line” of this article we have in fact arrived at the conclusion that the sets of rational
numbers and of irrational numbers “touch each other”. Only together they form the straight line of.
Both continua ℵ0 and ℵ1 should be considered to represent one entity. One may say that due to the appearance
of irrational numbers the set of integers becomes a physical touch, i.e. geometrical volume. The only elegant
conclusion is that the physical space is to be one set-related image of the mathematical set of real numbers. This
particular physical space we call the first sphere S1. It is the first sphere of infinity.
Our conclusion can now only be that
ℵ0 = ℵ1 and (equation 7)
ℵ0 = ℵ1 ↔ S1 (equation 8)
We can draw the set of reel numbers with this knowledge as follows:
62
R N, Z,Q,R,C= sets of numbers

Z= whole numbers (..-1,-2,0,1,2…)
R= real numbers
ℵ0 = ℵ1
Sphere S1
mathematics physics It is quite clear that to resolve the continuum problem

we have had to leave mathematics and to enter the
ℵ0 = ℵ1 S1 area of physics. We utilized physical knowledge in
order to resolve a mathematical problem!
The recipe prescribed by Superquantum Theory to use a side system in order to medicate problems that can’t be
resolved within a system is an elegant and soundly logical procedure.
Side remark: upon the above solution to Cantor’s problem of the 20th century Superquantum Theory identifies a
number of spheres and demonstrates that all spheres “communicate” with each other. This communication is
ruled by laws of stability. Einstein’s relativity theory offers such rules of stability between the spheres S1 and S2.
In another article Superquantum Theory positions Einstein’s relativity theory at its rightful place between these
two spheres.
Now let us finish our calculation:
ℵ0
Using the equations: ℵ0 = x+1 (equation 1) und N = c (equation 3) we write for ℵ0 = ℵ1:
Nx+1 = 1+x (Equation 9)
In order to find N we use the method that has been used to resolve the equation of Euler and replace x by 1/b and
let b ∞.
The (well-known) calculation goes:

1/ b+1
N = 1 + 1/b (Equation 10)
And thus:
(1+b)/b
N = 1 + 1/b
b / (1+b)
Thus: N = (1+1/b)
1 / (1+b)
And finally: N = (1+1/b) b *(1+1/b) (Equation 11)
For b ∞ the second part of the equation on the right 1 and for the first part Euler’s solution is valid: e, the
„natural basis” or Euler’s number that is irrational and not algebraic and that possess the following value:
2,718281828...... etc.
ℵ0
So: ℵ0 = ℵ1 = e (Equation 12)
This is definitely not the equation of a standard power set! It is a power set with additional (namely the
irrational) elements stemming from algebraic functions. The set with the cardinal number ℵ1 has more elements
63
than the normal power set would have had; e > 2!! This is apparently caused by the extra (algebraic) irrational
ℵ ℵ
elements that appears to have a contribution of (e-2) 0 = ca. 0,718281828… 0 elements.
This is a sensational result. It means that the set of irrational numbers contains an irrational number of
Elements!! We can say: The set of real numbers is an „irrational set”. The mere existence of an „irrational set”
requires tolerant acceptance but from an abstractive point of view it is quite attractive. Is an irrational set not as
amazing as once the irrational number has been?
Remark: ℵ0 and ℵ1 are now fixed. For all other power sets with higher infinities Cantor’s continuum equation
2ℵa=ℵa+1 with 1<a<b (wherein b is limited but equals at least 7) is valid. After 105 years of uncertainty at last
the continuum of Cantor has been decided.
We must still say something about Cantor’s second diagonal argument. We realize that all irrational numbers
are solutions to algebraic functions of rational numbers. These functions do not change the cardinality of the
set of rational numbers. The second diagonal argument is only valid if it is not an algebraic function. This
exactly now appears not to be the case. In truth Cantor’s 2nd diagonal argument is a tricky algebraic function!
It has misled him to believing that something new was discovered. However he actually underestimated the
power of his own invention: the continuum of actual infinities.
4 Summary
This article gave a sensational example of the strength of the Superquantum Theory. Cantor’s mathematical
dilemma that existed more than 100 years and that severely inflicted its inventor’s health was resolved by simply
bypassing mathematics through physics as it has been implicitly recommended by Gödel.
The dilemma of Cantor has been resolved using the axiomatic bijektion of physics and mathematics. The further
development of the Superquantum Theory that is completely based upon the solution given here proves that it is
the correct solution.
In the second diagonal argument Cantor has possibly made the error to consider numbers as dots (quanta) and
not as “stretched” quantities with distances9. Algebraic functions are the cause of the elasticity of the quantum
chain of numbers. They do not change its cardinality.
9
Read the article „The straight line and the Potential Field“
64
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 7
Gravitation
CONTENTS
1 State of affairs of modern research; an overview

1.1 The 4 basic natural forces
1.2 Building stones of matter
1.3 Limits of experimental research
2 Derivation of gravitation by Superquantum Theory

3 Summary
► Science in search of unification of the 4 natural forces
► Limits of the experimental research
► Derivation of gravitation through the Superquantum Theory

65
1 Research; a review
1.1 The four fundamental forces
Physics knows four different forces called the fundamental forces. These forces keep the material together.
Every force is conveyed by means of virtual particles. These particles are called force-carrying particles or
known as gauge bosons. They differ depending on the force they belong to. This table shows the forces and the
binding particles as a summary:
Mass relative Distance of occurrence (example)

Fundamental force Binding particle
[MeV/c²] Strength interaction [m]
Gravitation Graviton ( 0) 0 10-39 infinite Existence not clarified
Weak nuclear force W+(+1) W-(-1), Z0 (0) 80, 80, 91 10-13 10-17 At radioactive decay
Electromagnetic Photon ( 0) 0 10-2 infinite Electrons in atoms
-15
Strong nuclear force 8 Gluons 0 1 10 Binding particles in nuclei of atoms
The gravitation (force of attraction of masses, for example: weight)

Gravitation is the weakest interaction among the four forces
Force-carrying is the graviton that has been assumed to exist but hasn’t ever been identified in experiments
It is active in large-scaled structures of the universe, so in the macrocosm; it interacts at infinite distance; it
pulls matter together; without it the sun, the system of planets, even entire galaxies would fly apart.
The weak force

This is the third strongest force among the fundamental forces; force carrying are the particles W+, W- and Z0
It is related to the electromagnetic force but much weaker; it causes the radioactive beta decay (emitting
electrons) of certain particular atomic nuclei; it has been hiding for science for a long time. Only with the
application of radioactive markers it learned to make use of this force in medicines. All building bricks of
matter possess this force
Very short distance of interaction since the force-carrying particles possess mass
Electromagnetic force
The second strongest force among the fundamental forces
Force-carrying is the photon; all building stones of matter carry electromagnetic force except the neutrino
It is responsible for many common daily phenomena; it binds electrons to the nuclei; television and computer
only function because of this force; colors and radio waves are of electromagnetic nature.
Infinite range of interaction; positive and negative load can balance out at distance
The strong force

This is the strongest force among the fundamental forces as its name indicates; the particles called gluons are
force-carrying
It keeps the nuclei of atoms together; it sets fire to the sun but also is set free by atomic explosions (a-bombs)
It interacts at a very short distance; only quarks possess this force
66
1.2 Building bricks of matter
Air, water, earth and fire…

Apart from these classical conditions of matter like solid, fluid and as a
gas physics knows plasma and condensate. What are the building bricks of
matter? Ancient Greeks assumed: atom („indivisible “). But of what are
atoms made up? The are made of nuclei consisting of protons and
neutrons and an orbit in which electrons vividly move around... What are
electrons, protons and neutrons? Before we answer this question with the
help of SQT we memorize how schematically an atom of helium is
composed.
The Helium-atom has 2 neutrons n and 2 protons p in its nucleus. Whereas the nucleus possesses 2 protons and
the orbit around it allows as many electrons e as there are protons in the nucleus two electrons are indeed found.
The sum of neutrons and protons is called the mass number of the atom; for helium this number is 4. The number
of electrons corresponds to the number of protons; this is called the atomic number. The atomic number of
Helium is 2 (2 electrons or 2 protons)
p
e p nucleus
n n orbit
e
helium-atom
The protons and the neutrons each exist of even smaller parts, the quarks. According current knowledge quarks
are considered to be elementary. Electrons are also considered to be elementary. An elementary particle has no
inner structure with even smaller particles. It exists only „in itself ". The Superquantum Theory mathematically
proves – as a theoretical novelty - that the quark and the electron are „still” not elementary, i.e. quarks and
electrons have an inner structure! This newly discovered structure consists of superquanta.
Experimental physics have in the meantime found so many particles that the literature even mentions a „zoo of
particles”. In four ways particles interact. These four ways are the fundamental forces discussed above.
Interaction means that the particles make contact and communicate in such a way that they bind, repel or decay.
When particles get together and communicate there is electrical force between them. They “tell” each other,
what electrical force they have: positive or negative. If the loads are opposite the particles attract each other. If
they are the same they will repulse each other. The distance between them is significant. Particles are arranged in
families in accordance with their properties and interactions. In the next diagram we show the building bricks of
matter as they are presently known in physics:
67
The „box of bricks” of matter has 12 different interacting building bricks: 6 quarks and 6 leptons.
u c t family 1: quarks
strong force
d s b
e- µ τ family 2: leptons with load

electromagnetic force
family 3: neutral Leptons

νe ντ νµ weak force
I II III
Matter in Matter in energetic
normal condition higher condition
■ The 12 bricks are arranged in 3 families.
Family 1: the 6 quarks that interact through the strong force. The force-carrying particles are called gluons.
u = up- Quark c = charmed- Quark t = top- Quark
d = down- Quark s = strange- Quark b = bottom- Quark
Family 2: the 3 charged leptons that interact via the electromagnetic force. The force-carrying particles are
called photons.
e- = electron µ= myon τ= tauon
- +
(The antimatter of electron e is the positron e )
Family 3: the 3 neutral leptons (= neutrinos) that interact through the weak force. The force-carrying particles
are called W+ , W- und Z0
νe =Neutrino electron ντ =Neutrino tauon νµ =Neutrino myon

■ We can see that members of the families have common properties with members of other families. The
particles of group I are elementary as long as they are in a “normal” condition of low energy. If more energy is
added to them they mutate to particles of group II and III.
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1.3 Limits of experimental research

Elementary particles are being discovered in cyclotrons (accelerators). They become visible if their formation is
destroyed. They can then be measured (observed) separately. The results we have seen above. The four known
fundamental forces of nature are evident in the particles such as mass (so: Gravitation), electric load
(Electromagnetism), weak and strong forces but in different magnitudes. In addition the particles have various
volumes (expansion).
The existing cyclotrons have reached the limits of their capacity. To discover particles in even larger accelerators
which are smaller than the ones listed above is theoretically not certain and economically almost not bearable.
Corresponding proposals for the construction of a grand new high-energetic cyclotron by Prof. Steven Weinberg
(Nobel price physics 1979) were rejected by the State Texas at the time because of the high costs.
The experimental physics hopes to find a fundamental theory in these experiments that will combine the
fundamental forces as well as all other characteristics of matter. It seeks one single formula, the so-called world-
formula (Theory of Everything; TOE) that should describe all physical laws of the universe.
The Superquantum Theory claims this title of TOE. In the article „Theory of Everything” this claim is being
justified.
In the next chapter SQT retraces the mathematical background of the formula of gravitation. It is the first time in
history that the hitherto merely experimental formula of gravitation is explained mathematically.
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2 Derivation of gravitation with Superquantum Theory

The Set Theory appears when elements join together to form a totality (entirety). If we wish to bake a cake for
example we will have need of ingredients like eggs, flour, milk, butter and sugar first of all. We mix them
carefully and bake them in the oven to a solid object, the cake. The ingredients in the ready cake are evenly
distributed.
Main set baking projected or imaged set
eggs, flour, milk eggs, flour, milk

butter, sugar butter, sugar
salt salt
set: set:
ingredients separate ingredients mixed = cake
The process of baking, i.e. the baking itself, is an algebraic function from a mathematical point of view. The
function projects the main set (ingredients separate) into an image set (ingredients mixed: cake).
A set is usually written in brackets as follows: cake = {eggs, flour, milk, butter, sugar, salt}
Generalized we also can write: A = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
Set Theory is also applicable to elementary particles. Let’s for example look at the properties of the electron. The
electron has negative load, mass etc. In conformance with Set Theory we can identify the electron as a set with
elements. If we assume the electron’s properties (mass, load, volume etc.) to be the elements we can say that the
electron is the set:
set: electron
mass
..... Elements (= properties): mass, load etc.
.... volume
load
electron = {mass, load, volume, etc.}
A = {a, b, c, etc.}
Whereas these elements are properties of the quarks also and whereas in addition thereto quarks show up with
even more elements (i.e. gluons) it is obvious that from the point of view of mathematical sets a further inner
structure must be existing in quarks und electrons. We remember: the present physical research says that quarks
and electrons are elementary; that means: they should have no inner structure. The Superquantum Theory based
upon the Set Theory says however: no! Definitely quarks and electrons must have an inner structure!!
That means: beyond any doubt there has to be a more elementary, deeper located element than electrons and
quarks from the mathematical point of view. This element causes mass and load in so diverse particles like
quarks and electrons. Following the same logic it is apparent that we must search for an object (particle, element,
property) that is its own set at the same time. Once we have found this element we have identified the most
elementary particle in the universe. We call this most elementary particle the set {A}; the only physical property
(feature, asset or element) that it possesses is therefore A:
70
set: {A}
A
element: A
“A = {A}”
A now is the only physical property that this set has as element. What property this can be is being found in the
course of the research along the logic of Superquantum Theory. At first view it can be anything like load,
volume, extension or maybe mass?
{A} is a set of physics with a mathematical behavior; it is the Superquantum we have been looking for.
The physical set {A} appears to behave exactly like the mathematical set {∅} that is called the empty set:
mathematics physics
{∅} {A}
empty set Superquantum
The mathematical property of ∅ is 0 (zero). This set {∅} was investigated by the Italian mathematician
Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932). The investigation proves that it expands mathematically into the set of integers
{0,1,2,3…}. The entire Superquantum Theory is based upon the assumption that first of all a physical set {A}
exists and secondly that this set follows all mathematical laws (theorems, operations, calculations) including the
axioms of the Set Theory. Since {A} after all was found by applying Set Theory this assumption has to be true.
The sets {∅} and {A} are bijektiv projections (images) of each other. Bijektiv means: the image is one-to-one:
from the properties of {∅} we can unequivocally conclude onto the properties of {A} and vice versa. The arrow
in the illustration above symbolizes this state of affairs. The arrow we used to illustrate the baking of the cake
however only had one direction. That meant: the ingredients could be mixed but the process was irreversible.
Now we have in the course of our research learned that one property of {A} is sufficient. This property is “one-
dimensional extension in meter”! No other property is necessary or valid. All other physical properties can be
derived from the Superquantum that carries this definition. We must emphasize that the logic used to arrive at
this point of argumentation renders us automatically with a system of physics that is entirely logic and that
guarantees the required stability of matter that we claim to exist in a universe that stays stably for at least billions
of years.
In analogy to the mathematical set {1, 2, 3, 4…} we call its projection in physics: {a, b, c, d,…}.
Main set image set

mathematical physical
1 a
2 b
3 c
... ...
Realizing that the physical set {A} is a bijektiv image of the mathematical set {∅} the superquanta a, b, c etc.
are well-ordered in similarity to the integers 1, 2, 3 etc. “Well-ordered” means 1 < 2 < 3 etc. This is the familiar
mathematical principle of total order of whole numbers.
71
Pillar of the Superquantum Theory: since mathematics in all its axioms and theorems has a projection relevant
for physics the total order of integers in combination with the distance of numbers is the equivalent of the
physical force of attraction. It is the gravitation.
Or expressed differently: gravitation is the force that calls the superquanta back to total order which due to
separation had left the total order causing a disturbed total order. This “return call” is experienced in the
attractive force of mass since all superquanta that make up matter seek the original total order as soon as this
order is disturbed.
Let’s assume we call this force of attraction F then F is first of all effective between single superquanta. In
accordance with the article “The Straight Line and the Potential Field” F grows of course smaller when the
distance between superquanta becomes larger: this is due to the density of numbers between two numbers as
explained in said article
a b c d ... „ chain of superquanta “
- line, on which superquanta are well-ordered
1/2 · g
1/3 · g
The physical force F between a and a is zero and

The physical force F between a and b is g and
The physical force F between a and c is 1/2 · g and
The physical force F between a and d is 1/3 · g etc.
The factors 1/2, 1/3 etc. are a result of the general field quality of numbers. As we already said this is explained
in the previous article „The Straight Line and the Potential Field“.
In general:
The force F between the superquantum a and any other superquantum x on the line of numbers is
F(a,x) = 1/(x-a) ·g.
Since x-a = r: we can also write: F(a,x) = 1/r ·g. A notation using vectors is not necessary in this stage; for the
purpose of this article we can work with scalars.
The total order of Superquantum a with respect to x causes a force F(a,x) in a; the total order of superquantum x
with respect to a causes in turn a force F(x,a) in x.
Assume that a and s are two superquanta being separated independently from the chain of superquanta. Review
the mathematical basis for the separation that in fact is the axiom of subsets in the articles „Set Theory I and II”.
We call this separation a disturbed order. The superquanta are positioned outside their total order on the line of
numbers and are (by yet unknown circumstances) firmly (= unmovable with respect to each other) positioned.
The distance r is the distance of the disturbed order in the physical space.
r
superquantum a superquantum s
F(a,r) F(r,a
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We arrive to the formula of gravitation as follows:
Any superquantum s with linear length x meter becomes “mathematically automatically” by application of the
algebraic function x² + y² + z² in the three-dimensional space in which x, y and z are the measurements length,
width and height of space. x, y and z will be certainly be equal in meter for reasons of symmetry of the space-
dimensions. This (3-dimensional) mathematical space is at the same time the physical space which we may state
because of permissible set-related association. In Superquantum Theory the complementary association of
mathematical and physical observation is always fundamental and essential. It is the crucial understanding of
bijektive images. In this space the (total- order-) force F spreads itself out (covers) over the surface 4 π r² of a
sphere with radius r and with the Superquantum as midpoint. That means: at every position on this sphere the
force is: F/4 π r².
Remark: the spreading out of the force over a surface is in fact the phenomenon pressure (force per m²). Set
Theory copies basic principles of nature down the line!... copying/distribution/ projection/repetition in small and
in large/repetition in other images etc. are very important consequences of SQT; a detailed review will be given
in a forthcoming article “Symbolism”. Well, in the algebraic expansion of the superquantum – line becomes
plane - plane becomes space – and the corresponding projection of well-ordering as the gravitational force in
space the “set original” of the physical phenomenon pressure is found. Force and surface are linked together as a
basic phenomenon of nature. SQT in optima forma!
a) We can thus write:

F(a,r) = F(r,a) = g/ 4 π r²
For a separated and composed group of m1 superquanta at the position of a and another group of m2
superquanta at the position r we can conclusively write:
Fm1m2 = Fm2m1 = g* m1*m2/ 4 π r²
This is the formula of gravitation derived using SQT and the definition of the Superquantum as the most
elementary particle with the single property of length in meter.
3 Summary
Comparing the known properties of gravitation with the derivation of same with the help of
Superquantum Theory it is easy to verify:
• The property of interaction of gravitation being an infinite interaction is confirmed by SQT because
the line of numbers is infinite.
• A gravitation quantum, the so-called graviton, does not exist according to SQT; it does not make
logical sense to regard the superquantum itself as the graviton since not the existence of the
superquantum causes gravitation but the well-ordering of the unfolding of the superquantum along
the line of superquanta and the projection thereof in plane and space. Gravitation is not „quantified“
but uniformly distributed in space.
• We have not used nor did we come across any factors of time whilst deriving the formula of
gravitation! We know gravitation indeed as a force independent of time. The factor time does not
yet exist at this point of the unfolding the line of numbers (line of superquanta)! We explain in
another article that time appears “a bit later☺”.
• Additional gravitation caused by dark matter is explained in the article “Dark Matter”. Dark Matter
can easily be identified in the mathematical framework of physics that is called SQT.
Conclusion: SQT is capable to formulate the equation of gravitation mathematically and to confirm all
known properties of gravitation.
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First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 8
Origin of the Imaginary Unit j² = -1
CONTENTS
1 What are complex numbers?
2 How were complex numbers found?
3 Origin of the imaginary unit j² = -1 discovered by the Superquantum Theory

3.1 Construction of the real axis
3.2 Introduction of the criteria of invariance and stability
3.3 Further consequences of the conditions of stability of the passage P1 between of the spheres S1
and S2: theory of relativity and resonance frequency
4 Summary
5) Summary of the set-related projection of mathematics onto physics

6) Construction of the real axis with the Superquantum as unit vector
7) All events and signals exist of superquanta
8) The derivation of invariance and the stability of events
9) The construction of the orthogonal T-axis perpendicular on the real axis
10) The derivation of the unit vector j = √-1 of the T-axis because of the invariance of the zero-event
11) The recognition of the imaginary unit j being a condition of stability between the spheres S1 and S2
12) The physical meaning of the Gauss plane existing of a real and an imaginary axis
13) Derivation of the theory of relativity and the resonance frequency of quantons from the conditions of
stability between the spheres S1 and S2
14) How the string theory and the M-theory are identified in the Superquantum Theory
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1 What are complex numbers?

The imaginary unit j is the number for which the square is -1. The pure complex number C has a real part (zero)
and an imaginary part (one) (0,1) = imaginary unit. In the pair notation it is written as (0,1). A complex number
that is written in pair notation is separable into a real and into an imaginary part in order to maintain all notations
and rules of calculation that are used in calculating with real numbers
real part imaginary part imaginary unit j ●j²= -1 j=√-1

z= (a, 0) + (b, 0) · ( 0, 1)
a + bj jπ
● e =-1
e jπ + 1 = 0
In this equation the most important numbers used in algebraic analysis are combined: 0, 1, e (basis of the natural
logarithms), π (circular number) and j (imaginary unit). Instead of j the letter i is often used. This remarkably
simple equation describes the border area between real and imaginary numbers. It contains the real numbers 0
and 1, the border numbers e and π and the main representative of the imaginary region j.
A complex number can be written two-dimensionally and three-dimensionally:

►two-dimensionally: • the algebraic (or Cartesian) form
• the polar form
► three-dimensionally: as the Riemann’s sphere of numbers
► two-dimensional notation: The complex number has two parts: the real part (abbreviated as „Re(z)“) and the
imaginary part (abbreviated as „Im (z)“) in which z = the complex number. They can be shown as vector
coordinates in a plane system of coordinates in a two-dimensional notation. The horizontal axis contains the
real numbers, the perpendicular axis the imaginary numbers. This is the Gauss plane.
► Algebraic (or Cartesian) Form: a complex number can be written as a point P(z) of the Gauss plane. Often
the complex number is written as a vector that foots in the zero point of the system of coordinates and that
in directed to P. The complex numbers can algebraically be illustrated as follows:
Im(z)
z = a + jb
3j r r is the value of z, i.e. the length of the

2j vector |z |= r = √ (a²+b²)
j b
a Re(z)
-3 -2 -1 -j 1 2 3
z*= the complex conjunct of z, z* appears
-2j by mirroring z in the real axis, z and z*
differ as to the sign (+ or -) of the
imaginary part
z*= a – jb
Further details can be found in the article „The straight Line and the Potential Field”.
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2 How were imaginary numbers found?
How were imaginary numbers invented? Well, we give the answer straight away: in the middle of the 16th
century imaginary numbers were conceived for mere mathematical reasons.
Roots (with even exponents) of negative numbers didn’t have a meaning in the region of the real numbers. In
order to allow the existence of such roots so-called imaginary numbers were introduced. Euler made good use of
this effective but artificial manipulation a little bit later:
He wrote √-a² = a·√-1 = a·j, in which j² = -1

From now on the notation of the real numbers applied also to the imaginary
numbers.
The Superquantum Theory demonstrates that the mathematical definition of the

imaginary unit has a physical background: it is the mathematical description of
the physical invariance of the zero-event in the border area (Passage P1) between
the spheres S1 and S2. We show how SQT retraces the imaginary unit j as a
physical necessity in this article.
H. Euler
(1707 Basel – 1783 St. Petersburg)
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3 Derivation of the imaginary unit j² = -1

3.1 Construction of the real axis
The Gauß plane has a real and an imaginary axis. The Superquantum Theory constructs the real axis from 0 to
infinity under consideration of the total order of numbers:
Summary of the construction of the positive real axis and the sphere S1…
bijektiv
mathematics ← projection → physics Principle of the Superquantum Theory
main set projection set

Set of numbers set of superquanta
{∅} {đx}
empty set Superquantum
{1,2,3,4,…} {a, b, c, d,…} Extension according to Peano
set set
of all positive numbers of all superquanta
from 0 till [ℵ0 - ℵ1] sphere S1
0 đx
1 a
2 projected b numbers resp. superquanta in total order
3 c 1<2<3 etc. and a before b before c etc.
... ...
▪ numbers (points) ▪ Superquantum

▪ chain of numbers ▪ chain of superquanta
(rational numbers)
▪ straight line ▪ one-dimensional
(rational and
irrational numbers)
▪ plane ▪ two-dimensional algebraic
▪ space ▪ three-dimensional algebraic
1 đx
X-axis real axis
0 numbers a superquanta
all power sets all power sets

of the set of of the set of
all positive numbers all superquanta
from 0 till [ℵ0 - ℵ1] Sphere S1

or (I short) ℵ1 Sphere S1
ℵ2 Sphere S2
ℵ3 Sphere S3
ℵ4 Sphere S4
ℵ5 Sphere S5
ℵ6 Sphere S6
ℵ7 Sphere S7
Etc. … …
Keeping in mind that physics develops as a set-related projection of mathematics we construe first of all the real
axis (of the Gauss plane).
77
Then we will construct the imaginary unit j² = -1. To do so we keep in mind that nature must be stabile and
invariant.
3.2 Introduction of the criteria of invariance and of stability
Our investigations in this article are about the set of the real numbers ℵ1 and its first power set ℵ2 as well as
their projections onto physics (the spheres S1 and S2 and the passages: the „plane” G1 and the „passage” P1. We
will now construct G1 based upon the criterion of invariance of events. In doing so we find out that G1 is indeed
the Gauss plane. We need for this purpose Gödel’s detour and make use of the experimental results in physics.
We combine mathematics and physics and draw conclusions from the combination.
In the Set Theory a set and its power set are by definition two individual sets. By the same definition they are
linked because the power set contains all combinations of the elements of the main set (plus an empty set). If the
set of all real numbers and the power sets should have substantial significance certain physical conditions must
apply. We recall that according to the Superquantum Theory the mathematical-physical projection is bijektiv, i.e.
it is the one-to-one-projection that works in both directions.
The physical projections S1 and S2 of the sets ℵ1 and ℵ2 require that the conditions at the interface between both
are such that events in either sphere S1 or S2 are invariant (= stabile) in time and in space.
We realize that all events and signals in the universe are defined by superquanta because there is no other
existence than that defined by the Superquantum {A}. Every event in S1 is of course an event of space-time.
Mathematically it can always be expressed as a random function of the variable of space x and of the variable of
time t. That means for all events (i.e. for all existing things incl. signals, matter, happenings) U = U(x,t) applies.
Without the influence of external forces on U(x,t) U(x,t) has to be invariant. Here we should make a difference
between internal and external invariance. Internal invariance means that the number that U(x,t) describes
remains constant: the absolute value of the U-vector = constant. This means that the forces between superquanta
participating in the event balance out completely.
External invariance means that U(x,t) does not vary its velocity and position in space-time. This is the case when
all external forces on the group of superquanta participating in the event balance out completely.
We base the derivation of the imaginary unit j upon the condition of the internal invariance.
The following drawing shows our starting point: on the left the mathematic image being the X-axis, on the right
its projection onto physics.
1 Gauß plane a sphere S1

X-axis real axis
0 numbers đx superquanta
The Superquantum is the unit vector of the X-axis of the Gauss plane. It is (by algebraic function) at the same
time the smallest of all real planes and the smallest of all real spaces. The Superquantum is thus the smallest
three-dimensional space-unit, so the smallest cell of the physical sphere S1.
So far we have now constructed the X-axis that represents the set of real numbers. It represents the sphere S1 at
the same time and can be called real axis. Now we need to answer this question: in what physical-mathematical
relationship stands the first power set S2 compared to the set S1? We can safely assume that we can construct an
axis also for S2. To do this we draw an arbitrary line representing S2 as T-axis that has of course again meter as
its unit because we know that the power set is composed of the same elements as the main set. The dimension
thus remains valid throughout the plane which makes physically good sense too.
We now become a picture that could look as shown on the next page. Merely for reasons of discussion we have
drawn the new T-axis initially in a random angle φ with the X-axis.
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T-axis (sphere S2) Discussion: If the T-axis really should possess an

arbitrary angle φ with the x-axis the T-axis will
φ always “be attributing to the x-axis” as the arrow
x-axis (sphere S1) shows. That would mean that the x-axis that in fact
Coordinates under angle φ? Does that make sense? represents the set of real numbers was not filled at
the beginning. The sloping line represents
T-axis (Sphere S2) consequently a continuous fill-up of the x-axis with
“stuff” from the T-axis. As a consequence the T-
axis rises. I.e. the angle increases until it reaches
90°: only at φ = 90° the axes are completely
φ=90° x-axis (Sphere S1) independent: the events between the spheres S1 and
S2 are now stabilized. Only in 0, i.e. in the event
Only perpendicular coordinates enable independent events without location and without time they touch.
in S1 and S2
Now we can confidently draw an orthogonal system of coordinates. The x-axis represents S1 and the T-axis
represents S2. The mathematical unit vector of the x-axis is 1 and the corresponding physical unit vector đx in
meters. The mathematical unit vector of the T-axis is not yet known. We call it j and the corresponding physical
unit vector đT in meters.
Bijektiv images ℵ1/S1 and ℵ2/S2
T-axis mathematical T-Achse physical
Any event-
plane G1 U(x,T) = passage P1 vector U =
constant invariant
j 1² + j² = 0 đT đx + đT = zero-event
X-axis X-axis
1 đx
Numbers -math. real space x· đx
math… material …real x²· đx²
x³· đx3
The smallest event in S1 is the Superquantum {A} that has {đx} as its physical property of extension. The
smallest event is in fact the „zero-event“. The mathematical projection of {đx} is 1. The set-related powering of
the unit of the X-axis đx produces in S2 the unit đT of the T-axis. It Es is obvious that – because of the internal
invariance of all event-vectors –the resulting vector of đx and đT must also be constant (=invariant). Thus, the
absolute value of the unit vector |đx²| + | đT²| must be 0. This is the condition of internal invariance and of the
internal stability of the smallest possible existing event, i.e. of the zero-event.
Looking at the mathematical plane (see illustration above) this means: 1² + j² = 0 because 0 is the mathematical
equivalent of the zero-event.
We can thus note down: 1 + j² = 0 or: j² = -1 and eventually j = √-1
This result is a big achievement for the Superquantum Theory. It shows that the existence of the mathematical
imaginary numbers is unavoidably linked to a physical phenomenon, i.e. the obligatory invariance of matter and
events in the spheres S1 and S2. The plane G1 corresponds with the Gauss plane well-known in the mathematics.
G1 and P1 contain a bit more than the Gauss plane because their X-axis are line, plane and space at the same
time.
The Superquantum Theory demonstrates here that the unit vector j = i = √-1 is a consequence of the stability of
nature.
79
The imaginary unit has suddenly an unexpected existential justification in the Superquantum Theory. Without it
nature would be unstable! The imaginary unit can be traced directly to the criterion of invariance that - as we
will see - also carries the Minkowski space. We will see later that the T-axis being measured in meters is the
multiplication of the speed of light c and the time-variable t. Time and speed of light have therefore their
origin in the space of S1. Electricity that is calculated with complex numbers has its origin in S2.
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4 The passage P1 and the theory of relativity
4.1 Einstein’s Dilemma

Einstein has tried for a long time to deny the quantum theory as a fundamental theory of physics. In 1935 he
proposed an experiment that has been carried out by Alain Aspect in 1982 and once again in 2004. The
experiment confirmed however the quantum behavior of matter.
After 1945 Einstein continued to try to formulate a unified field theory that should link gravitation and
electricity. His aim was to bring all matter and fields of the universe in one equation, called the „unified field
equation”. But even after enduring efforts he was not successful. Since this time all attempts to construe a
unifying theory, also called „World Equation” remained without success. Einstein died on 18th April 1955 at the
age of 76.
Our certainty: The Superquantum Theory is the very theory that Einstein was looking for but did not find
it.
We would like to recollect the association of the Set Theory and the Superquantum Theory in accordance with
the principle of incompleteness of Gödel: The Superquantum Theory is the set-related projection of the
mathematical Set of all integers onto physics. According to one sound interpretation of the principle of
incompleteness unsolvable questions for example of the Set Theory may be resolved with the help of other
doctrines. Examples of such doctrines may be logics, philosophy and also physics. These sciences have their
own methods of experimental observation. Knowledge based upon these “side-systems” must be used to resolve
irresolvable questions in one system. In this article we are investigating the mathematical Gauss plane. We
utilize intensively the Superquantum Theory with regards to the essential theoretical interaction of mathematics
and physics. By doing so we become amazing achievements.
4.2 Theory of relativity

At all times the idea about time and space as well as about infinity has engaged generations of scientists. It is
only known to a certain extent when and by whom ideas were formulated. Important documents have been
elaborated in the ancient world by philosophers like Aristotle (384-322 b. C.), later in the Middle Ages by
Galileo Galileo (1564-1642) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727). The fundament of the classical physics is based
upon the idea that space and time are absolute, i.e. consistent.
Other experiments and theories however existed that could not be related to absolute space and absolute time. An
example is the theory of electrodynamics (Maxwell-equations)
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) developed a more extensive idea about space and time.
He discovered the theory of relativity in two parts: the special theory of relativity in
1905 and the general theory of relativity in 1915. The former one describes the
behavior of space, time and mass from the standpoint of observers who move. The
second theory builds up upon the first one. This is the theory of gravitation. The
gravitation is regarded differently from the way Newton saw it: Gravitation appears
to be the result of the geometric curve of the space-time-continuum.
A. Einstein (1879-1955)
Newton saw space to be an unchangeable entity. The general theory of relativity describes space as a property
that participates in the phenomenon of gravitation. Matter and space-time have mutual impact: Matter curves the
space and space qualifies the movement of matter.
Die theory of relativity bases upon the principle of relativity of Galileo. This is a pillar of physics. It says that for
systems that move uniformly relative to each other the same laws of nature apply. Laws of nature are
consequently invariant in these systems. The theory of relativity describes events in macrocosm.
The special theory of relativity is based upon two fundamental postulates:

► The principle of relativity: All inertial systems are equal with respect to the physical laws. The laws of
nature apply similarly in every inertial system. They are thus invariant in these systems. You remember that
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the Superquantum Theory demonstrates this principle of equality of systems of coordinates in the article
„The Straight Line and the Potential Field“.
► Invariability of the speed of light: The speed of light in vacuum is always the same for all inertial systems. It
is independent from a moving source of light and also from a moving observer who measures it.
Its value is approximately about 300 000 km/s.
Einstein draw another conclusion from the invariability of the speed of light; he concluded that the speed of light
is the border speed of all matter and energy; no signals can thus be transferred faster than the speed of light (as
Einstein wrongly concluded). This conviction caused the theoretical conflict with the quantum mechanics.
4.3 Galileo Transformation and Lorentz Transformation

The principle of relativity invented by Galileo Galileo which is known as the inertial system and the theory of
relativity deal with cinematic (movement) of bodies in coordinate systems. We mention a few properties of the
cinematic that we will need later-on:
The position of a body can be defined by giving it coordinates only if a body of reference is assumed. The choice
of such a reference body is free. Often the earth is chosen.
z
The movement is the change of position of a body in relation to a
body reference body (reference system)
Position and movement are therefore relative and dependent on the
chosen referenced system. That is the reason why we talk about
y relativity of movement: a body is moving with respect to a reference
system if it changes its position in the system. The body is at rest if it
x does not change its position.
referenced body
Illustration: a person sitting in a moving train is resting with the system of the train but is moving in relation to
the system of the earth.
A body is either at rest or in a state of movement if compared to its referenced system. The sum (the resultant) of
all external forces is then zero. Hence the body is uniformly moving and not accelerated. In these non-
accelerated systems among others the law of inertia applies. This is why such a system is called inertial system
(inertia = Latin).
The position (x. y, z), the time t. the path x, the speed v and the acceleration a are variables that describe the
body’s movement.
The movement of a body is given by the Galileo Transformation. It enables the calculation of the change of the
space and time coordinates comparing one inertial system with another.
Let’s assume x, y, and z are the positional coordinates and t the time coordinate in a Cartesian reference system
(for example a railway station). The second system (for example a train) runs with a certain speed vx in the
direction along the (or parallel to) x-axis. Let’s assume also that both coordinate systems have the same 0-point
(origin) at time zero. We can write now the coordinates of the second system as follows:
z
Galileo Transformation
z´
S S´
y x ´ = x - vx· t
x y´ = y
y´ z´ = z
t´ = t
x´= x x + t·vx
+ becomes - if we calculate from S´ to S
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The variables time, length, mass and force are invariant in the case of the Galileo transformation. Path and speed
however can vary.
In the relativistic interpretation the Galileo transformation turns into the Lorentz transformation as we see below.
The Galileo Transformation is to be seen as a special case of the Lorentz transformation.
The Galileo transformation looses its applicability due to the experimental certainty of a constant speed of light
in vacuum. It is therefore replaced by the Lorentz-transformation that contains the extra variable time
“equivalent” to the variables x, y and z. The Lorentz transformation is the description of the space-time. The
fourvector {x, y, z and t} remains invariant during the transformation. Let us now compare the transformation of
events in several inertial systems from the point of view of classical physics (Galileo transformation) and of the
relativistic physics (Lorentz transformation).
At the end of the 19th century a number of experiments proved that the speed of light in vacuum is constant.
Einstein constructed based upon this his famous train-paradox. It states that an observer who stands in the middle
of a train compared to an observer who stands on the platform should see a light beam emitted from either end of
the train at the same time. This contradicts the classical view of movement. Einstein saw therefore the necessity
to calculate movement not in accordance with the Galileo space-transformation x, y, z but in accordance with the
space-time-transformation x, y, z, and t of Lorentz. The corresponding vectors x, y, z, t are called fourvectors.
The space formed by these fourvectors is called Minkowski space.
The Galileo Transformation turns into the Lorentz transformation with the factor k. The Lorentz Transformation
enables the space and the time-coordinates (=space-time) of an inertial system to be carried over to another. If
the speed v is small the Lorentz transformation passes over into the Galileo transformation: the Galileo
transformation is therefore valid at small velocities v. At high velocities in the vicinity of the speed of light c the
Lorentz transformation applies. In equations this looks as follows:
Classical physics relativistic physics
Galileo Transformation 1 Lorentz Transformation

k=
√ 1- v ²/c ²
x ´ = x - vx· t x´= x - vx· t
√ 1- v ²/c ²
y´ = y y´ = y
z´ = z z´ = z
t´ = t t´ = t - (v ²/c ²) · x
√ 1- v ²/c ²
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4.4 Consequences of the conditions of stability of the passage P1 between

the spheres S1 and S2
We can draw the passages as vector planes. The passage P1 and its mathematical image the Gauss plane looks
then as follows:
Plane of Gauss/ passage

G1/P1
T-axis
i·c·t
Event U(x, T) resp. U(x,t)
Stabilized fourvector
(x,y,z,t)- System in the
passage P1
c·đt đx + đt (Vectorsum) =
i Zero-event
X-
đx x· đx x x² x³
1 x²· đx²
x³· đx3
I. The main conditions of stability of nature are:
1) Every event (including the existence of the elementary particles) can be written as an algebraic function
U(x,T). The function is ruled by the conditions of stability in P1. x represents the three space
dimensions x,y,z and T = c·t.
2) Every fraction of matter can be described by algebraic functions of the same kind as mentioned in 1).
3) Every event or fraction of matter is described by the fourvectors, i.e. the fourvector of position, the
fourvector of speed (impulse) and the fourvector of acceleration.
II. The stability of the fourvector of position
1 Each event U(x,t) on which none external „forces “ („influences “) labor is invariant in time and space.
2) That means that possible internal forces between superquanta are in mutual balance and sum up to zero.
(see item IV hereunder)
3) „U(x,t) = invariant“ means that its fourvector X (x,y,z,T) (= fourvector of position) must be invariant
with regards to its size and its direction.
4) The invariance of the size of the fourvector of position results in:
Fourvector position Vector size = scalar product

c·t c·t c·t
x x x
X = = invariant, or · = constant
y y y
z z z
Result:
Elaboration of the scalar products gives: x² + y² + z² - c²t² = constant.
The same result has been achieved by Einstein and Lorentz in 1905 by elaboration of the Lorentz
transformations. The space described by the four-dimensional vector of position was called Minkowski-
space.
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III. The partial stability of the fourvector of speed V = dX/dt (but also V= dX/dx)
fourvector of speed Vector size = scalar product

cvt cvt cvt
vx vx vx
X = = invariant, or….. · = constant
vy vy vy
vz vz vz
The requested invariance of the passage P1 concerning the fourvector of speed is also valid for the
consequential fourvector of impulse p = m·v. Based upon this stability the theory of relativity calculates E
= m·c² with the scalar product of the fourvector of impulse.
You remember that velocity (and time t and speed of light c as well as the imaginary unit j) appeared
because of the condition of stability of the zero-event (resp. of the Superquantum events in general) in P1
i.e. in the Gauss plane. You will realize from the above explanation that according to the Superquantum
Theory subsequently the mass m, the impulse p and the energy E appear of the necessity of the
stability of the fourvector of speed.
The partial expression V= dX/dx will be investigated in a forthcoming article. We mention it because we
need its second partial differential in the next paragraph that deals with acceleration.
IV. Die stability of the fourvector of acceleration
Mutual forces work on single superquanta of an event U(x,t). These forces originated mathematically
from the separation of the superquanta from the total order of the straight line of numbers, i.e. the chain of
superquanta. The condition of stability in P1 requests that these forces are in mutual balance because
U(x,t) does not experience any acceleration due to internal forces! Otherwise U(x,t) would simply fly
off… ☺ …
Acceleration is defined as change of speed in time and in space. The acceleration must be zero in total.
We mean by saying „in total”: with reference to time as well as to space. Now we can write:
∂²U/∂x² + ∂²U/∂T² = 0
And because T = j*c*t this applies after elaboration
c²*∂²U/∂x² - ∂²U/∂t² = 0
The well-known mathematical solution of this partial differential equation is a standing wave that can be
dissolved in two waves running to the left and to the right.
Phenomena like resonance frequencies (discovered by de Broglie 1926) of quantons (and of its
compositions; i.e. matter), of the spins of quantons and many other phenomena of the wave behavior of
quantons are caused by the natural internal superquanta stability of every quanton and every portion of
matter. Even the flight direction of the earth around the sun can probably be traced back to this criterion
of stability.
This condition of stability is in truth the mathematical background of all strings. Even though we have
made the deduction in this article only for the passage P1, we will in a follow-up article demonstrate that
stable passages not only exist between S1and S2 but also between S1and S3 (i.e. P13), S1and S4 (i.e. P14), S1
and S5 (i.e. P15) and so on. The conditions of stability equal qualitatively (with regards to its form) always
the above mentioned partial differential equation; they only differ in the variable T. From the resulting
wave equations (standing waves) originate two opposite waves that are identical with the Strings.
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4 Summary
This article gave two remarkable examples of the impact of the Superquantum Theory. In one case a
mathematical theme was clarified by applying physical knowledge and in the other case a physical theme was
derived in a new way by applying pure mathematics. The theory of relativity has been shown in a completely
new light; it is part of the required stability of matter in the passage between the first two spheres.
A large number well-known phenomena like resonance frequency, the “play” with the coordinate systems as it is
done in the theory of relativity, the dilemma of Einstein, the dilemma von Cantor, the dark matter and many
other appear in a very abstract but sound new light. Unexplained phenomena like dark matter, the association of
the gravitational field and the electromechanical field are clarified possibly for the first time in the history of
mankind using the logical and consequent new interpretation of nature offered by the Superquantum Theory.
86
First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 9
The Background-noise
CONTENTS
1 Theory of the Big Bang
2 Discovery of the background-noise by Arno Penzia and Robert Wilson
3 The Superquantum Theory and the background-noise
4 Summary
In this Article you learn:
► The current Theory of the Big Bang
► The significance of the background-noise for the Big Bang Theory
► The mathematical basis for a new understanding
► Could the background-noise possibly be the electromagnetic radiation from the sphere S3?
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1 Theory of the Big Bang

All matter was concentrated in single point. 15 billion years ago this singularity exploded in an enormous bang
called the big bang. According to what we know the universe is a collection of billions of galaxies. Every Galaxy
contains hundreds of billions of stars. For example our Milky Way has 300 billion stars and a size of ca. 100.000
light years considering only visible matter. It may be a bit larger if the dark matter may be taken into account.
Among physicists and astronomers the actual theory of the origin of the universe is still the Big Bang Theory.
The explosive „originating from one point” is deducted based firstly upon the cosmic microwave-background-
radiation also called background-noise and secondly upon the observed flight (expansion) of galaxies. These are
the main reasons for the theory of the Big bang. Some other possible proofs do not have the significance of these
two. They are the average density of matter in the cosmos, the analysis of the amounts of Helium, Lithium and
Deuterium as well as the definition of the age of the Milky Way with the help of the radioactive decay in
meteors. The microwave theory had a convincing but peculiar history as we will see in the next section.
The expansion of the universe is simply based upon the Doppler principle: this is the wave effect that anybody
knows from the street. It occurs when the noise of a passing vehicle changes its tone. The tone is different
depending on whether the vehicle is approaching us or leaving us. In the former case the tone is higher. What
applies to the sound applies to the light also and more particularly to the light of faraway stars; color and tone
both differ dependent on frequencies.
According to the so called Friedmann-Lemaître-models the universe

starts with a singularity. In 1983 Hawking and Hartle however
proposed a start of a four-dimensional space-like existence without
singularity. This was in fact an extension of Einstein’s proposal of a
three-dimensional starting configuration. This should have existed in
real time. The concept of Hawking/Hartle also suggested real-time
existence. The idea of the singularity is still today the preferred view
since it allows certain starting conditions that can explain the present
interpretation of the first few seconds after the Big bang.
The further we look into the outer borders of the universe galaxies seem to move faster and faster away from us.
Scientists explain this by postulating that the universe is still at the beginning of the big explosion. You realize
that at the beginning of an explosion the parts that fly the quickest must be at the outer skin of the increasing
balloon. Only later their velocity is being reduced by the gravitational forces caused by the mass in the inner
part. According to the prevailing theories we stand therefore at the beginning of the explosion. Scientists do not
like to talk about the problem that the galaxies that are at the remotest places in universe seem to be moving at
speeds close to speed of light… this however contradicts the theory of relativity… the Doppler effect appears to
get into troubles… and the universal expansion with it… Maybe the Superquantum Theory can shed new light
on the true events in the universe? We will see…
In this article we let Superquantum Theory look at the discovery of very special electromagnetic waves, the
microwaves. In the middle of the sixties of the 20th century they were discovered by two American researchers,
Arno Penzia and Robert Wilson. These waves called the background-noise are generally accepted as the main
proof that a universal big bang has taken place.
If one looks far into the sky using telescopes he sees objects of which the light has been millions and even
billions of years underway. One looks into the past. The Big bang-Theory assumes that we can see towards the
very point of explosion. The scientists try diligently to find remnants of this big bang.
Assume that immediately after the big bang the universe prohibited the radiation of light of “our” wavelength
because of its enormous mass. This very small universe must however have acted as a black body because of its
enormous energy density and its corresponding high temperature. According Max Planck it must have emitted
electromechanical radiation. The energy of this electromechanical radiation corresponds to the temperature of
the body. If such a radiation could ever be found the Big bang would be considered proven- according to
scientists at the university of Princeton. In 1965 they went on to prepare for corresponding experiments…
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2 Discovery of the background-noise by Arno Penzia and Robert Wilson

The verification of the theory of the Big bang has a peculiar history. The required theoretical components were
known in 1965. The conformance with the general theory of relativity was guaranteed. The general theory of
relativity explains the attraction of visible light by gravitation, i.e. in the vicinity of bodies with large mass. This
explains the sort of radiation capable to escape the expanding universe at its early stage. Agreement existed also
with the quantum theory formulated by Max Planck in 1900 that was based upon the experimental emission of
electromechanical radiation of black bodies. This very emission was required to proof the big bang. Finally the
universal spreading of helium and hydrogen explain reasonably the early appearance of these elements in the
first period immediately upon the big bang.
These ingredients allow a scenario of the big bang in a sequence that can make the emission of high-energetic
electromagnetic radiation indeed theoretically possible. Immediately upon formulation of this sequence at the
University of Princeton its scientists started to prepare to do the necessary experiments to find the
electromagnetic radiation. According to the calculations it might have a theoretic temperature of ca. 10° Kelvin;
later this has been corrected to 3° Kelvin.
Almost exactly at the same time in 1965 two gentlemen Arno Penzia and Robert Wilson were occupied with
calibrating their new radio-telescope in the Bells Laboratory in New Jersey as they accidentally received a
peculiar interference. The interference was of electromagnetic nature and appeared to come from all directions
at the same time. That means: it didn’t seem to have a particular source. This background-noise corresponded
approximately to the expert’s expectations with regards to its energy content and its pattern of waves. The
radiation corresponded to the emission of a black body with a temperature of 3° Kelvin.
The discovery of this cosmic background-radiation – also called three-Kelvin-radiation – was celebrated as the
final evidence for the correctness of the theory of the big bang and is considered the most important pillar of that
theory.
3 The Superquantum Theory and the background-noise

Superquantum Theory is the logic set-related image of mathematics into physics. Physics develops parallel to
mathematics as “development of the straight line” by mere definition of a single Superquantum with an
extension đx in meters and by the logical exploitation of all mathematical axioms and equations. The Set Theory
of Cantor that contains all numbers starting with 0 and including the infinities of the Cantors continuum is the
basis of the new theoretical physics that we call Superquantum Theory. The several articles explain how the
gravitation, the time, the relativity, the elementary particles, the natural forces and the strings etc. can be retraced
mathematically.
S1 Minkowski-Space-Time-Levels S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 … A
According to Cantor an infinite collection of power sets of the set of integers exists. Please read the articles „Set
Theory I and II“. The number of power sets relevant to physics is limited by the (very small) size of the
Superquantum property {A} which is the bijektiv projection of the number 0. It limits the number of power sets
to about 7 (or a few more) called the 7 spheres (S1 to S7……). The linear size of {A}đx is reckoned to be of an
order of magnitude of ca. 10-23 meters. This order of magnitude was determined by extrapolation of the
experimentally known impact-distances of strong and weak nuclear forces. The opposite of this linear size is a
order of magnitude in meters that corresponds - taking the standpoint of the little Superquantum - to physical
infinity. This is in fact the last finite integer x of Cantor plus one. An investigation of this “infinite” number
shows that it equals the approximate order of magnitude of the Milky Way (i.e. ca. 100.000 light-years)! That
may mean that the Milky Way constitutes a mathematical- physical unit! We may conclude that the Milky Way
and every galaxy are “born” separately. The comparison of figures can certainly be made much more precise
once further necessary measurements and investigations are made. However, this conclusion is quite obvious. No
other measurements in the universe are that clearly linked. The Superquantum and the galaxy appear to fit
89
together quite well. In order to underpin this theoretical hypothesis in future the following two characteristics
should be defined more precisely: 1) the accuracy of the extrapolation and the corresponding size of the
Superquantum 2) the dimensions of the Milky Way
We now turn our attention back to the background-noise. SQT suspects that the several spheres have an impact
that could explain the background-noise. In order to find out how events in the spheres S2 and S3 do influence S1
for an observer in S1 we apply our knowledge of the cardinal numbers of S1, S2 and S3.
According to Cantor the cardinal numbers are as follows:

ℵ1 = ex+1= x+1= c corresponds to S1 resp. the X-axis
ℵ2 = (21)↑c corresponds to S2 resp. the Y-axis = (2c)↑1
ℵ3 = (22)↑c corresponds to S3 resp. the extended Y-axis = (2c)↑2
Comparing (S1 and S2) to (S1 and S3) we see only a quantitative, no qualitative difference. To be precise, for S1
S3 seems to be a sphere comparable to S2 but with a unit y’ that is multiplied with factor c. Under consideration
of S3 the Gauß-plane looks as follows:
imaginary
y
y’ = i*c2*t
y-axis ending/ extended y-axis starts

y= i*c*t
z´= x´ + i*y + i*c2*t + …
φ x real
Because from the point of view of S1 time t and speed of light c are constant S3 behaves like a plane with double
frequency of light. From the viewpoint of S1 the content of energy of S3 is doubled compared to that of S2.
From the theory of (music) strings we learn that S3 is one octave remote of S2! This applies to all following
levels.
c is being multiplied at every following level as follows:

S2:: c S3:: c2 S4:: c4 S5:: c8 S6:: c 16 S7:: c32…etc. and the cardinal numbers increase accordingly.
According to the Superquantum Theory S3 behaves arithmetically like a sphere with increased light frequency
for an observer in S1 (for example: for mass…). An increased speed of light has experimentally not been
observed after all.
If we consider all spheres S1 to S7… we can construct the following graphic (the distances on the y-axis are
chosen as if they are equal in order not to overload the graphic). We have shown the spheres curved around a
point of infinity in order to satisfy the idea of infinity:
90
imaginary axis
cardinal point of infinity
y’’’’’’ = j*c32*t
y’’’’’ = j*c16*t
y’’’’ = j*c8*t
y’’’ = j*c4*t
y’’ = j*c2*t
y’ = j*c1*t
z´= x´ + y´ +j*c2*t + j*c4*t+……
φ
x real
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We look now at the following graphic of the frequencies of the light and of the background-noise (kosmische
Strahlung). This graphic illustrates the complete diagram of all electromagnetic waves inclusive of those
microwaves that are known as background-noise.
10
The following illustration is the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun that acts according the
principle of the radiation of dark bodies:
Y- axis: energy of
the radiation
X-axis: wavelength
of the radiation
µm means 0,000001
Meter
These graphics show that the natural (sun) spectrum (at infrared) starts with ca. 1011 Hertz. According to the
Superquantum Theory this spectrum is the frequency spectrum of S2 at the locality „sun “. The cosmic radiation
starts at 1022 Hertz. Well: 1022=1011 *1011= (1011)↑2. The suspect that the background-radiation not really has to
do something with a possible big bang but with the existence of the sphere S3 becomes unexpectedly
experimental support. The Superquantum Theory offers obviously an elegant hypothetical possibility for this
theoretical thesis:
10
Project by Monika Poch (website)
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We remember the graphic of the spheres and the corresponding passages:
Planes G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
Mathematical bodies ℵ1 ↔ ℵ2 ↔ ℵ3 ↔ ℵ4 ↔ ℵ5 ↔ ℵ6 ↔ ℵ7 …
Bijektiv projection
The sphere S2 is the source of electromagnetic radiation. At certain fixed positions S2 shows up very evidently: at
the positions of the sun and of the stars. The main birthplace of photons is exactly here. Photons are the
electromagnetic radiation of a black body for which the known relation of radiation and temperature applies. We
have shown earlier that P1 contains criteria of stability required for the processes of radiation.
The Superquanta of S1 are of course also present in S3 because S3 is merely the second power set of S1. Because
S2 contains the complete set S1 as well as an empty set the sets S1 and S3 have direct impact to one another. The
following logic thus is applicable:
The sphere S3 can also act as emitting black body for S1. It will emit radiation. Einstein’s equation E = mc²
delivers the energy calculations for S1 and S2. Since we observe S3 as from of S1 as a “level with speed of light
c²” we can write in analogy for the passage S1-S3 (let’s call this passage the Passage P13): E = mc4. A
phenomenon „double speed of light” has however not been observed in nature; this means that the energy E=mc4
(= h * ν; h = constant of Planck) must appear in some other manner. But how? There is only one other manner
in which a wave can oust its higher energy: by higher frequency.
We know: wave-length λ* frequency ν = speed of light c
Thus we can note down: E = m * (λ* ν)4. This corresponds to a photon that has an electromagnetic frequency ν1
in the order of magnitude of ν2.
The Superquantum Theory predicts therefore that the natural frequency spectrum of electromagnetic waves of S3
must begin at ca. 1022 Hertz. This is exactly what the previous diagram shows. We can see that the background-
noise contains electromagnetic waves that probably start at the calculated frequency.
The electromagnetic radiation of visible light is emitted by defined sources like the sun and the stars. If the
background-radiation is emitted similarly from such defined sources as can be expected the background-
radiation can not be distributed as uniformly as has been reported until now. The Superquantum Theory predicts
that “fixed emitting sources” or “hot spots of microwave radiation” should be found . Is this really the case?
Precise experiments should be able to give the required evidence.
4 Summary
The Superquantum Theory gives a possible new source of the background-radiation. In addition it makes
plausible that the mathematical-physical development of the bijektiv projected straight line is a happening that is
linked to each galaxy individually. It is a more or less closed system. The only exception is the spill of radiation
to other galaxies that should be a further field of research.
The Superquantum Theory does not necessarily support a universal big bang. A „birth bang” per each galaxy is
however quite possible and even more likely. The „flight of stars of remote galaxies” is due to the new views a
theme that requires new investigation. The Superquantum Theory severely doubts the validity of the current
routine to extend the Doppler Effect beyond the Milky Way. Much more theoretical investigation is to be done in
order to be able to make such a far-reaching assumption. The formation of other galaxies (i.e. size of their
Superquanta), the position of their straight lines with regards to the Milky Way, the impact of dark matter during
93
the process of escaping of visible or a invisible spheres are basic data that require an answer first. The Doppler
Effect seems to have little impact in this process. SQT concludes: the universe may well be static after all.
Finally the Superquantum Theory may prove that black holes are in fact the concentration of antimatter coming
free automatically at the moment of the birth of the Milky Way (and of every Galaxy). Since galaxies develop
each from his own mathematical straight line every Galaxy must have its own „private” black hole. When matter
is drawn into a black hole it disappears simply by „cancellation”. It is cancelled by its antimatter.
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First Publication
Superquantum Theory
Article 10
Selfspaces or Private Spheres
CONTENTS
1 Explanation and meaning of power sets
2 The real numbers and the levels of the power set of the set of real numbers as physical
spheres
3 Ether-selfspace- resonance frequency- dark matter
4 Summary
In this article you will be informed about:
► Main sets and power sets
► Formation of the physical spheres
► What is selfspace - resonance frequency- dark matter - ether?
► Demonstration of an „example electron” in the first two spheres

95
1 Explanation and impact of the power set
If the elements of a set are combined in such a way that all possible subsets are formed and that these subsets are
combined with an empty set to form a unit we call this new set a power set. Because the power sets play a main
role in the Superquantum Theory we will now focus on the power sets of sets with zero to 5 elements. The
selfspace is the physical image of the set plus its power sets. With the phenomenon selfspace a number of
physical phenomena can elegantly and logically be explained.
The power sets P(M) can be arranged in organized structures. We show hereunder three examples. With an
increasing number of elements the complexity of the structure becomes larger.
{a, b, c}
{a, b}
{a}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c}
{a} {b}
●
∅ {a} {b} {c}
∅
∅ ∅
P(M) of a set P(M) of a set P(M) of a set P(M) of a set

with 0 elements with one element {a} with two elements {a}{b} with three elements {a}{b}{c}
Now follows a listing of the P(M) of the sets with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 elements
► set M with 0 elements, i.e. 0 has in its power set P(M) = 20 = 1 element
Listing of the 1 element of the subsets of P(M):
▪ 1 empty set ∅
The empty set is contained 20= 1 times
► set M with 1 element, i.e. {a} has in its power set P(M) = 21 = 2 elements
Listing of 2 elements of the subsets of P(M):
▪ 1 empty set ∅
▪ the set itself {a}
The empty set is contained 21= 2 times (i.e. in every subset)

Every one-subset is contained 20 = 1 times
Every element of the main set is contained 20 = 1 times
► set M with 2 elements, i.e. {a, b} has in its power set P(M)=22 =4 elements
Listing of the 4 elements of the subsets of P(M):
▪ 1 empty set
▪ 2 one-subset {a}{b}
▪ the set itself {a, b}
The empty set is contained 22 = 4 times (i.e. in every subset)

Every two-subset is contained 20= 1 times

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► set M with 3 elements, i.e. {a, b, c} has in its power set P(M) = 23 =8 elements
▪ 1 empty set
▪ 3 one--subset {a}{b}{c}
▪ 3 two-subset {a, b}{a, c}{b, c}
▪ the set itself {a, b, c}

Every-three-subset is contained 20= 1 times
► set M with 4 elements, i.e. {a, b, c, d}hat in its power set P(M) = 24 =16 elements
▪ 1 empty set
▪ 4 one--subset {a} {b} {c} {d}
▪ 6 two-subsets {a, b} {a, c} {a, d} {b, c} {b, d} {c, d}
▪ 3 three-subsets {a, b, c} {a, b, d} {a, c, d} {b, c, d}
▪ the set itself..........{a, b, c, d}
The empty set i is contained 24 = 16 times (i.e. in every subset)

Every one--subset is contained 23 = 8 times
Every two-subset is contained 22 = 4 times
Every three-subset is contained 21 = 2 times
Every four-subset is contained 20 = 1 times
Every element of the main set contained 23= 8 times
► set M with 5 elements, i.e. {a, b, c, d, e} has in its power set P(M) = 25 = 32 elements
▪ 1 empty set ∅
▪ 5 one-subset {a} {b} {c} {d} {e}
▪ 10 two-subset {a,b} {a,c} {a,d} {a,e} {b,c} {b,d} {b,e} {c,d}{c,e}{d,e}
▪ 10 three-subset {a,b,c} {a,b,d} {a,b,e}{a,c,d}{a,c,e} {a,d,e} {b,c,d} {b,c,e}{b,d,e}{c,d,e}
▪ 5 four-subset {a,b,c,d} {a,b,c,e} {a,b,d,e} {a,c,d,e} {b,c,d,e}
▪ 1 the set itself {a, b, c, d, e}

Every two-subset is contained 23 = 8 times
Every three-subset is contained 22 = 4 times
Every four-subset is contained 21 = 2 times
Every-five-subset is contained 20 = 1 times

97
2 The real numbers and the levels of the power sets of the set of real numbers
as physical spheres
All whole numbers including zero as well as the positive and the negative numbers and the fractions together are
the rational numbers. The group of rational numbers is called the set of rational numbers Q (= fractions). Every
rational number can be shown perceptually as a defined point (dot) on the straight line (= chain of numbers or
chain of points). In this rational chain the irrational numbers are mixed in such a way that a uniformly dense
straight line appears. On the straight line an infinite number of points (numbers) exist. The real numbers are the
sum of rational and irrational numbers.
R N, Z,Q,R,C= Set of numbers

Z= whole numbers (..-1,-2,0,1,2…)
R= real numbers
ℵ0
ℵ1
Cantor called the cardinal number of Q ℵ0 and the cardinal number of the set of R ℵ1
Cantor thought that ℵ1 > ℵ0. We have already proven that this assumption was incorrect.
Superquantum Theory demonstrates that ℵ0 is not the cardinal number of the power set of Q and that ℵ1 = ℵ0
ℵ0
ℵ0 = ℵ1 = e
I.e. the set of irrational numbers has an irrational number of elements!! We can say: The set of the real numbers
it an „Irrational Set“.
Junction planes G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6
Mathematical bodies ℵ1 ↔ ℵ2 ↔ ℵ3 ↔ ℵ4 ↔ ℵ5 ↔ ℵ6 ↔ ℵ7 …
Bijektive projection
Through bijektiv projection any mathematical body ℵ is transformed into a corresponding physical sphere S.
A further peculiarity is that these “bodies” are separated from each other by „passages”. The mathematical body
is separated by Gauß-planes G. I.e. the planes G1-G6… are the passages between the several ℵ’s. The Gauß-
planes are also mathematically projected; they become physical passages. Time and speed are properties of S2.
Because of the association between S1 and S2 the criteria of relativity (among others for example the
invariance of the fourvector) are to be found in the passage P1.
98
Events in S1 can be retraced in S2 - conform to the criteria of stability in P1 -. We want to investigate the simplest
set with the smallest number of elements. Though the Superquantum Theory is based upon infinite sets of Cantor
we must realize that set properties that are valid for small subsets are always transferable to large subsets.
This transferability is meaningful. It means that characteristics that are found valid for a single superquantum or
a limited set of superquanta are also valid for a selected group of superquanta in a set with infinite number of
elements. A selected group of superquanta can be for example an electron. We call this the principle of
transferability. It is a principle based upon infinity.
For every single Superquantum resp. group of Superquanta a selfspace exist

The sum of selfspaces is the ether in a mathematical-physical sense.
3 Selfspace - resonance frequency- dark matter - ether

In the previous section we have seen how complex structures can develop from sets with a very limited number
of elements. It is a fact that simple set principles soon become highly complex structures. You remember the
snowflake in the article „Theory of Everything “.
The ether has always been considered to be hypothetical . It was understood as a carrier medium. The following
is a short history of the use of the word ether:
„In 1690 C. Huygens interpreted the light as phenomenon of waves and introduced the ether as the carrier
comparable to what air is for sound. In his opinion this light ether penetrates the solid matter and also the empty
space of universe. The ether transports in his interpretation not only rays of light but also heat radiation.
This concept has a weak point in so far that on one side the ether must have properties like a solid body in order
to allow transversal oscillation but at the other hand it must have properties like a fluid. In the meantime
investigations gave reason to the assumption hat the ether material should be about 1,5 · 10-11 times lighter than
the air in the atmosphere. In the interference experiment of Michelson/Morley in 1887 it was found that the
speed of the earth (at the surface of the earth) equals zero compared to the hypothetical light ether. This result
raised the first doubts as to the existence of light ether.
At the beginning of the 20th century the light ether-hypothesis was rejected once Albert Einstein’s relativity
theory was accepted commonly. The ether would represent a preferred system of reference. The theory of
relativity does not allow such a system. That is why present supporters of ether theories stand skeptical towards
the relativity and try to develop other mathematical models describing nature.11
Nowadays ether is treated as something mystical. Still no mathematical-physical description exists. In the history
of science SQT has succeeded for the first time to fill the expression ether with these mathematical-physical
properties:
Selfspace = mass (S1) + resonance frequency (S2) + dark matter (S2) + (undefined) impact of added spheres
We want now to turn our attention to the example of a finite set M with 3 elements and its power sets in order to
explain this equation. The detailed elaboration of a set with 3 elements and its first power set P(M) is given
hereunder and additionally listed.
A main set M with only 3 elements is assumed to represent the sphere S1. The first power set P(M) is
consequently the sphere S2. Properties of superquanta that are valid for these sets apply also in the infinite sets of
Cantor according to the principle of transferability. The sets of Cantor are the mathematical projections of the
physical spheres S1 and S2 by definition as we know.
11
Out of Wikipedia
99
► Set M with 3 elements, i.e. {a, b, c} possesses in its power

set P(M) = 23 = 8 elements
Listing of the 8 elements being from the subsets of P(M): {a, b, c}
▪ 1 empty set
▪ 3 one--subset {a}{b}{c}
▪ 3 two-subset {a, b}{a, c}{b, c}
▪ the set itself {a, b, c}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c}
Every-three-subset is contained 20= 1 times {a} {b} {c}
this is the first part of the selfspace of the main set M; further ∅
P(M)s make out the entire selfspace of M.
The electrons are considered to be elementary (without internal structure) according to current knowledge.
However according to the Superquantum Theory electrons are not elementary! They exist of uncountable
superquanta.
Assume that a stable subset {a} is separated successfully from the main set M in accordance with the axiom of
subsets. Let’s call this subset our model-electron. We realize that the real electron possesses millions if not
billions of superquanta. But that does not change its fundamental properties. Now we make following theoretical
observations:
►Due to the separation of {a} the resonance frequency of the electron {a} is construable:
{a}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, b, c} (see the red dotted line below)
►The resonance frequency has two directions that correspond to the spins (see the blue arrows)
:
1st direction of spin 2nd direction of spin
{a}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}, {a, c} {a} {a}, {a, c}, {a, b, c}, {a, b}, {a}
{a, b, c}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c}
{a} {b} {c}
• {a} is active in 4 subsets of a total of 8 subsets: {a}, {a, b}, {a, c} and {a, b, c}. This is the complete
space (marked red) in which {a} exists. This space is determined by the conditions of stability in the
passage P1; not every path leads to stability. Only the path can exist that possesses stability by virtue of
their mathematical structure. The stabilizing mathematical function is given in P1: it is the invariance of
the fourvector(s) as we have seen before. We will look at the criteria of stability in the next section once
more. A stabile path appears to be a path that can be described by a wave function: this wave function
100
represents the resonance frequency of the model-electron. The Superquantum Theory is capable to
show the source of the resonance frequency that De Broglie attached to the electron in 1926.
• The Superquantum Theory makes very clear that „space and matter are linked” as Einstein once
formulated. The link is already established „before“
1) the stabilizing conditions of the passage P1 appear and “before”
2) the properties of S2 have impact: we have construed an electron that – if we consider only S1 -
possesses gravitation and space, i.e. mass and three-dimensional expansion but no time, no movement,
no energy, no impulse, no load etc. The reason is that the latter are results of the conditions and the
properties of P1/S2. The link of mass and space is one of the main elementary properties of the „real”
sphere S1. We say „real” because S1 is the physical image of the infinite mathematical set of real
numbers: the Mathe(mathics) of real numbers… mathe-real… Material ☺
• We can identify an order in the subsets. For example: {a,b} < {a,b,c}. The only relevant order of which
we know that it exists in the set M is the total order of superquanta. We identified it as the reason for the
force gravitation (see article „Gravitation”). This total order is also responsible for the order of the
subsets in the power set. In a forthcoming article we find that the order inside the subsets that is caused
by the total-order of the main set is also the cause of the electrical and the magnetic force. This is
consequently the set-related answer to the dilemma of Einstein who tried to associate gravitation
and electricity.
We recall: ether = selfspace= mass + resonance frequency + dark matter + the impact of further power sets.
The resonance frequency has been clarified here above. Now we go to formulate the qualitative description of
dark matter. In order to identify dark matter (i.e. dark space) we assume our model electron now to be a
separation of {a, b}.
► By separation of the subset {a, b} the following resonance frequency space of {a, b} can be construed:
{a, b}, {a, b, c} (see the red dotted line here below)
► The resonance frequency has two directions that again represent the spin (see the blue arrows):
1st direction of spin 2nd direction of spin
{a, b}, {a, b, c} {a, b, c}, {a, b}
{a, b, c}
{a, b} {a, c} {b, c}
{a} {b} {c}
∅
• If we look at the elements {a,b}, {a} and {b} of our model-electron and the subsets we see that these
appear as follows in P(M):
The model-electron {a,b} has its selfspace in {a,b}{a,b,c}. However the elements a and b of the original
subset {a,b} are also “associated” elsewhere:
{a} in {a} and {a,c}

{b} in {b}und {b,c}
101
The components that we have colored blue here above are evidence for an additional dependence
between the superquanta. This property is neither known in classical physics (Newton, Galileo) nor in
the Quantum Theory (Planck, Heisenberg, Schrödinger etc.) and also not in relativistic theory (Einstein,
Hawking). It becomes only apparent in the Superquantum Theory.
Said components must obviously constitute an additional quality of total order in S1. It must have an
impact similar to gravitation. However –as can easily be seen – its impact is not linked to other masses
but to space as such! The space itself adds a component to gravitation! Obviously it is safe to say that
this is the component of gravitation that has been postulated as dark matter. In the last few years dark
matter was detected by observation of the movement and speed of outer stars of our Milky Way as a
phenomenon of additional gravity. Only the Superquantum Theory gives a qualitative explanation for
the incidence of dark matter. Further mathematical research will identify the quantitative impact.
Conclusion:
The subsets are not only interconnected through the (visible) selfspace but in addition the elements of
the subsets are interconnected by the (invisible) dark space that is part of the selfspace.
Selfspace = mass + resonance frequency + dark matter + impact of further spheres

The sum of all selfspaces is the ether.
All matter has its private sphere☺: its selfspace: from the smallest particle up to the largest celestial body: from
electron up to the star. The property infinity makes that every selfspace can be integrated into a larger space. For
its movement the laws of the greater selfspace apply. This understanding is the mathematical basis for possible
interstellar high-speed- transport-systems. It is first of all important to learn to control the phenomenon of
selfspaces with technical means.
We have seen now the following parts of space of our model-electron {a, b}:
o The physical space S1
o The wave-space S2
o The dark space
o Possible impact of spheres S3 etc.
The model-electron moves firstly as a visible particle in the physical space x, y, z being mass in
accordance with the laws of Newton; secondly it moves in a wave space according to the
transformation of Lorentz, i.e. according to the theory of relativity of Einstein; and finally the particle
moves according the laws of the dark space. Newton’s laws apply at no or at small speed (if v << c);
relativity applies at large speed (if v < c); Dark gravitation was observed at those huge centrifugal
forces that control the movement of stars at the outer border of the Milky Way. The Milky Way is
obviously essentially kept together by the dark gravitation.
We may be allowed to make one other qualitative observation that has to do with the wave space of the
model-electron. According to the principle of transferability all physical qualities that are derivable for
the model-electron apply equally to „real” electrons.
As from the early times of the quanta theory an experiment is well-known that we want to discuss in the
light of the Superquantum Theory. This is the arrangement of the experiment:
102
Double slit experiment

Electrons stream from a source through to relatively close slits in the middle screen A. They expand
until they reach screen B. Their rate of impact at B forms a pattern of changing intensity that equals the
interference of waves.
If the electrons are emitted one by one, the position of arrival appears unsure however at continuing the
emission again the pattern of interference appears.
Source of photons
or electrons
A B
Superquantum Theory: the wave space of the electron causes that the material electron is not
at a definable location in its own selfspace. Probability decides what opening is closest for
the electron to pass through. A large number of electrons make the probability even.
• The theory of special relativity is a theory in which certain (random) events are compared that deal with
systems of coordinates moving relatively to each other. In the beginning the theory was a pure
mathematical exercise that seemed to come from nowhere. Only years later the correctness of it was
experimentally proven. The mathematical operation however is not really substantiated at one point. It
is in fact not clear what origins the several systems of coordinates should have that form the backbone
of the Lorentz- transformation. Only the Superquantum Theory substantiates this. SQT states that every
particle with mass has a „wave supplement” in the sphere S2. The shape of this wave is defined by the
criteria of stability in P1. The freedom of choice of the origin of any system of coordinates is proven in
the article „The straight line and the Potential field”.
We may therefore define that if the selfspace of any particle is fixed by the four coordinates x, y, z, and
t the origin 0 of the corresponding system of coordinates (where x, y, z = 0 and t=0) is exactly there
where the particle “equals itself”; that means in our example of the model-electron: in {a, b}. See for
better understanding the following illustration:
103
The selfspace of the model-electron {a, b}
Dark space {a, b, c} Dark space

{a} {b}
{a,b}
{a} {b}
{a, c} t
{b, c}
x,y,z
The here shown principle of the selfspace of the model-electron is transferable to

all particles and by summing up to all combinations of physical particles. In ● the
equation applies: (x,y,z,t){a, b} = 0 and {a, b} = {a, b}
The number of spins per second in its selfspace is the resonance frequency of the
particle (= De Broglie frequency)
• In accordance with the principle of transferability this rule applies: what is valid for the model-electron
(existing in our model-sphere of only 3 elements), applies to all combinations of superquanta, that
means to all particles and to all combinations of particles. The genuine superquantum sphere S1
possesses not three elements but an infinite number of elements! The variation of and the occupation of
space by matter respond to this infinity. We can hardly imagine what complexity the infinite
environment carries. Even more astonishing is that a remarkable number of fundamental set-related
effects of matter can already be demonstrated in an environment not greater than that of three elements.
We repeat that the selfspace of a body equals the sum of the selfspaces of the particles of which the
body is composed. If the body itself is considered elementary (electrons, quarks) the selfspaces of the
superquanta making up the body are to be added together.
• We look for a last time at the elements {a,b}, {a} and {b} of our model-electron and its subsets. We
choose however this time an environment of a main set of 5 elements {a, b, c, d, e}. It is easy to see that
{a,b} appears in P(M) as follows:
The model-electron{a,b} in {a,b}{a,b,c} {a,b,d} {a,b,e}{a,b,c,d} {a,b,c,e} {a,b,d,e}{a, b, c, d, e}
Additionally {a} in {a}{a,c} {a,d} {a,e}{a,c,d} {a,c,e}{a,d,e} {a,c,d,e}

And {b} in {b}{b,c}{b,d} {b,e}{b,c,d} {b,c,e} {b,d,e}{b,c,d,e}
This allows following illustration:

104
The selfspace of the model-electron
Dark space Dark space

{a} {b}
{a} {b}
{a, b, c, d, e} t {a, b, c, d, e}
{a,c} {b,c}
{a,b,c,d} {a,b,c,d}
{a,d} {b,d}
{a,b,d,e} {a,b,d,e}
{a,e} {b,e}
{a,b,c,e} {a,b,c,e}
{a,c,d} {b,c,d}
{a,b,e} {a,b,e}
{a,c,e} {b,c,e}
{a,b,d} {a,b,d}
{a,d,e} {b,d,e}
{a,b,c} {a,b,c}
{a,c,d,e} {b,c,d,e}
{a,b} O {a,b}
x,y,z
The principle of the selfspace of particles is transferable to all particles

and by addition to all combinations of physical particles. In O this
applies: (x,y,z,t) a,b = 0 and {a,b} = {a,b}
The number of turns in its selfspace per second of the model-electron is the resonance
frequency of the particle (= De Broglie frequency). The direction is the spin.
In the theory of relativity the above shown system of coordinates of the selfspaces are being compared by means
of the Lorentz transformation. It goes without saying that the selfspace of a model-electron can not move faster
in relation to its environment than the unit-speed of the sphere S2 allows. This maximum speed is the speed of
light c.
105
5 Summary
The Superquantum Theory demonstrates that the fundamental principle of linking of mathematics and physics is
the most fundamental tool for understanding nature. The parallelism combined with the mutual explanatory
strength make that both disciplines supplement one another. Superquantum Theory makes clear that this
supplementary behavior is not accidental but fundamental. It applies to the entire range of the descriptive
strength of both disciplines.
In a forthcoming book we will position all elementary particles and forces within the several mathematical
power sets.
We hope that you have become a first and a good impression of the Superquantum Theory with these first ten
articles and want to thank you very much for your attention.
Potsdam Cologne 25 July 2005

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First Publication

The Superquantum Theory

BC Märkische Ingenieure GmbH ASPARAGUS-Verlag, Potsdam 2005

Graphics by Havva Shevkinaz Bulut and Arno Gorgels

The Superquantum Theory

©2005 Internet Article as part of the Superquantum Theory

0 The search for an universal concept

1 Logic and truth

2 History of the search for the Theory of Everything

3 End of the search: Superquantum Theory

This article gives information about:

1) The search for a universal concept

0 The search for an universal concept- the Theory of Everything

If we imagine pinning down a flake on the table right in the

5th turn 1st turn

(Source: Photo: http://www.astronomie.at/ai/ai132/Ai132.html)

1 Logic and truth

a priori- a posteriori induction - deduction

cause effect single case generality

What does that mean?

Our reality therefore is composed of two parts:

sensory perception (=observable) non sensory perception

Finally we would introduce a very special person, a mathematician, who is

Questions exist that in accordance with the principle of incompleteness

2 The history of the search

● Energy is being released in „portions“

Theoretical physics appears only just ready to take off…

■ Background noise (background radiation) is electromagnetic radiation generated in sphere S3.

■ Unification of the four 4 physical basic forces of nature

■ Explanation of Dark Matter and re-discovery of the Ether

1. Small particles - big problems

This article gives information about:

►Chronology of the search for a most elementary particle of nature

► In a list of questions and answers the following questions are discussed:

► What is the Superquantum Theory?

► What is the Superquantum?

► Why do we need the Superquantum?

► What immediate results does the Superquantum Theory offer?

1. Small particles - Big problems

ancient Dalton’s Thompson’s Rutherford’s Bohr’s Orbital Zoo of Superquantum

300 v. C. 1803 1900 1910 1920 1926 since 1932 2004

Mathematics as a fundamental branch of science is located between physics and

A set is a group of certain distinct things (objects, elements of our

2. What is Superquantum Theory?

► What is a Theory of Everything?

► What is the Superquantum Theory?

The Superquantum is denoted as the physical set {A}.

► Why do we need a Superquantum?

- The visible matter

2 The straight line

3 The Potential Field

This article gives information about:

► Why 29 minus 25 pages does not equal 4 pages but 5 ☺

► The mathematical distance of numbers as a physical potential field

► The origin of the Quantum Theory and the Field Theory

1 The number, the chain of numbers, the straight line

N= Set of natural numbers (1, 2, 3 …)

infinite “distance” (or rather: density) in between 2 and 3

Rational Q (fractions) Algebraic Irrational

NG {0,2,4...} Transcendent Irrational π, e j² = -1

Real part Imaginary part imaginary unit j ●j²= -1 j=√-1

A complex number can be depicted two-dimensionally and three-dimensionally:

► Two-dimensionally: • Algebraic (or Cartesian) Form

3j r r is the value of z, so the length of the