Introduction
Retailing and the
Internet: a review of
ethical issues
Paul Whysall
The author
Paul Whysall is Professor of Retailing at Nottingham
Business School, Nottingham Trent University,
Nottingham, UK.
Keywords
Retailing, Ethics, Internet, Privacy
Abstract
The Internet has important ethical connotations for
retailing. This paper briefly provides examples of retailers'
difficulties in this respect, before considering use of the
Internet for ethical scrutiny of retailers by a spectrum of
activists and agencies. Positive use of the Internet to
publicise retailers' social responsibility contrasts with
questionable exploitation of the Web's anonymity. The
Net not only offers freedom of speech, but also widens
opportunities for irresponsible activity, with low barriers
to entry. Thus tensions exist between rights and
freedoms, on the one hand, and abuses of freedoms,
provoking calls for regulation, on the other. Ethical issues
relating to e-commerce are identified, and privacy is
highlighted both as central to the ethics of e-retailing and
as a critical factor in its development. While retail interest
in the Internet thus far has focused around e-commerce,
impacts on retailer image ± both positive and negative ±
should also be recognised.
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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 11 . 2000 . pp. 481±489
# MCB University Press . ISSN 0959-0552
481
This paper addresses ethical aspects of the
impact of the Internet on retail activities.
Initially, examples of The Gap and Body
Shop are used to show how a retailer's ethical
status and reputation can increasingly be
influenced by various actors' activities on the
Internet, which leads to a discussion of the
use of the Internet by those who seek to
expose, criticise or influence retailers'
practices. Subsequently there is consideration
of the use of the Internet by retailers in ways
that may be seen as having ethical
implications, both positive and negative.
Specific ethical issues relating to Internet
retailing and e-commerce are briefly
identified, and the key issue of privacy and e-
commerce examined in more depth.
Example 1: The Gap
The clothing retailer The Gap demonstrates
something of the range of Internet-related
problems that a retailer perceived as acting
unethically may come up against. The Clean
Clothes Campaign Web site has contained a
number of references critical of The Gap's
sourcing policy, including the text for a letter
of protest to be sent to the company's CEO,
and a sample of the response from the
company. Similarly critical materials have
appeared on the Corporate Watch, LaborNet
and Sweatshop Watch Web sites, as well as
more anarchic sites such as ``cynical.com''.
The ``global exchange'' site has included a
review of The Gap's annual shareholder
meeting which was seen as avoiding protests
by being held in rural Tennessee, and also
calls to demonstrate against The Gap in
Oakland, California over its alleged
exploitation of workers in Mexico and Saipan.
More balanced evaluations of the company's
overall ethical performance also exist, such as
at the Students for Informed Career
Decisions (SIDC) site at Stanford University,
which both lists positive aspects of the
company and notes areas for improvement.
Then there was a hoax chain e-mail ± which
came to take on several forms (http://
www.stiller.com/gap.htm) suggesting that
The Gap would give free clothing to everyone
receiving the e-mail in order to ``beta test'' an
e-mail tracking device. Users were to e-mail
The Gap's PR rep to take up the offer. Copies
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
of the hoax e-mail are still to be found across
the Internet, even if often now intended to
expose the hoax. However, the initial hoax
was obviously intended to embarrass and
``punish'' the company.
And do such campaigns work? Well, The
Gap's own Web pages contain a lot of
information about the company's social
responsibility, including information about its
environmental policies, its community
relations programme in such areas as AIDS
prevention, substance abuse, and
homelessness, as well as the Gap Foundation,
its charitable arm. It also hosts a page on
stopping sweatshops. The significance of
these public statements is, however, perhaps
likely to be a matter of individual opinion.
Example 2: Jon Entine and The Body
Shop
In 1994, the investigative journalist Jon
Entine published an article which made many
criticisms of The Body Shop in a relatively
obscure American journal (Entine, 1994).
Attempts were made by the company to
prevent the accusations being published in the
UK, although several newspaper articles
subsequently appeared which summarised
many of Entine's main criticisms (Whysall,
1998).
However, legal attempts to prevent Entine's
criticisms spreading across conventional print
media were soon outflanked by developments
on the World Wide Web, as a Web search for
``Entine'' is still likely to reveal. Entine himself
was a major contributor here, with variations
on his criticisms appearing on sites such as the
Utne reader (``Green Washing''), Brazzil
(``The Queen of Bubble Bath''), BWZine
(``The Messy Reality of Socially Responsible
Business''), and the Electronic Journal of
Radical Organization Theory (``The Curse of
Good Intentions''). Entine's claims also
generated widespread comment which again
spread quickly across the Web, including
articles carrying titles such as ``Body Shop
scrutinized'', ``What's wrong with the Body
Shop?'', and ``Can the Body Shop shape up?''
Entine's criticisms further provided inputs for
Web-published papers on, for example,
corporate governance (``Taming the
corporate beast'') and animal rights
(``Controversial remarks by AR Journalist'') as
well as Web-published student essays (``The
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International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management
Volume 28 . Number 11 . 2000 . 481±489
Body Shop in need of repair''), conference
papers (Quinn and Petrick, 1996) and
academic journal articles (Russo and Fouts,
1997). And, perhaps inevitably, the Body
Shop was forced to reply through similar Web
media (``A matter of faith''). Appropriately,
Kirk Hanson's social evaluation of the Body
Shop, which represents the company's
response to criticisms through an
independent external audit, is also accessible
on the Web.
Another major area of related activity was
on e-mail discussion lists, where Entine's
contributions sparked heated debate over an
invitation to Anita Roddick (founder and then
CEO of Body Shop) to address the Academy
of Management Conference. In discussion
groups such as the BUSETH-L list and the
Socially Responsible Business Mailing List,
Entine's criticisms reverberated. On the
Organizations and the Natural Environment
(ONE-L) list interventions by Entine and
others resulted in new citations of ``Body
Shop'' peaking several times such as in May/
June 1995 (106 mentions) and November
1995 (77 mentions). That the Body Shop
came under widespread ethical scrutiny and
criticism was substantially a result of
exploitation of the Internet's capabilities to
transcend boundaries with low barriers to
entry.
Ethical scrutiny via the Internet
Badaracco and Useem (1997) introduced the
concept of ``Internet vigilantes'' in an analysis
of Intel and the Pentium chip, and that idea is
mirrored in growing ethical scrutiny of
retailers via the medium of the Net. A major
change has occurred in the ways in which
ethical standards and performance of retailers
can be scrutinised and publicised as a result of
the Internet. Increased access to global
audiences through the World Wide Web
means that widespread exposure for criticisms
of corporate performance is achievable using
relatively modest computing resources. In the
area of retailing, this has increased
significance, given that it also coincides with
an era in which it is widely argued that there
has been a shift of power to consumers. The
combination of ethically aware consumers,
with increased power to influence retailers,
and the Internet's capability and traditions for
global campaigning represents a major threat
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
to any retailer perceived to be acting
unethically.
Internet campaigns against retailers'
ethical performance
While Entine perhaps represents an example
of an individual campaigning against what he
sees as corporate misbehaviour, other
campaigns against retailers on the Internet
have been group activities. An example of co-
ordinated Internet activity focused around the
McDonald's trial ± frequently termed the
``McLibel'' trial. The McSpotlight page
fronted a well-organised network of sites.
Internet magazines (e.g. Albion Monitor) made
further materials available, while the
Envirolink site offered some 300 press
cuttings relating to McDonald's activities
from around the world (Whysall, 1997).
Nor is it only individual activists that have
realised this potential of the Internet. Oxfam,
the leading charity and also a retailer in its
own right, also developed an impressive Web
resource focusing attention on its ``Clothes
Code Campaign'' which aimed to raise
awareness of the production conditions, often
in the Developing World, in which garments
being sold on the high street are frequently
produced. In fact this is but one of a number
of similar campaigns which have had a
presence on the Web, including a site
sponsored by Christian Aid attacking UK
supermarkets' Third World sourcing policies.
The Netherlands-based ``Clean Clothes
Campaign'' is a particularly interesting case.
CCC has developed pan-European activities,
specifically targeting major clothing
manufacturers and retailers through the
Internet. That there may be dangers or
difficulties here has been recognised on the
Campaign's own pages, where this reflection
on an earlier campaign which targeted C&A
in The Netherlands has appeared:
Though we succeeded in showing the public the
way the garment industry is organised by using
C&A as an example, the public seemed to think
that C&A was the only ``wrong'' garment retailer
in Holland.
Nevertheless, the CCC Web site has
continued to target both manufacturers (e.g.
Nike) and retailers, particularly through
challenging the claims of such as Esprit, The
Gap and Levi Strauss to be ``socially
responsible''. Other sites addressing related
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Volume 28 . Number 11 . 2000 . 481±489
themes include those of Co-op America and
Sweatshop Watch.
Another focus for campaigning sites on the
Internet is the fair trade movement, which
broadly aims to generate more equitable
returns to producers in the developing world.
This area of activity on the Internet manifests
itself in several forms, such as promoting
``ethical'' retail outlets selling fair traded
produce (e.g. Out of this World) and using
the Internet to sell fair traded products (e.g.
Traidcraft), as well as promoting the wider
issues of fair trade (e.g. IFAT, TransFair
USA). A similar area of activity is that of the
Green movement. Environmental themes are
raised on the Internet by many activist groups
(e.g. Envirolink), while the London Animal
Action Group's pages have attacked The
Boots Company for involvement in animal
testing (which may or may not be interpreted
as a Green issue, of course). Major retailers
have also come under co-ordinated attack
across a number of issues, such as Wal*Mart,
criticised inter alia for its effects on traditional
retail locations, environmental impacts,
employment practices and overseas sourcing.
A spectrum of Internet vigilantes?
What seems to emerge from the examples
above is a spectrum of attempts to publicise
retailers' perceived ethical lapses, by targeting
them, their customers and other stakeholders
and policy makers through Internet
campaigns. The spectrum stretches from
``lone voices'', to co-ordinated campaigns, to
new initiatives by well-established groups:
. First, there are individuals using the
Internet to expose perceived
shortcomings of retailers. Jon Entine's
widely reported criticisms of The Body
Shop, Ben & Jerry's and others are good
examples here. However, Entine's
background in investigative journalism
contrasts with some other individuals
whose motives in attacking retailers may
be more personal and even vindictive.
. Campaigns with a specific Internet-focus,
such as the ``Clean Clothes Campaign'',
have developed in recent years.
. Then there is use of the Net as a co-
ordinative forum, as with the ``McLibel''
case in the UK or anti-Wal*Mart
campaigns in the USA. The Corpwatch
site fulfils a similar role. The Sprawl
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
Busters page co-ordinates contributions
around a particular issue of concern.
. Other established areas of political
activism have seen campaigners quick to
add the Internet to their avenues for
harassing prominent retail companies on
issues like animal rights or
environmentalism.
. Extension to the Internet of the activities
of established campaigning groups such
as major charities (e.g. Oxfam) and
religious organisations (e.g. Christian
Aid) represents a welding of new
technology to well established practices in
the mainstream of social concern.
The Internet offers greatly increased potential
for ethical scrutiny of retailers, and for that
scrutiny increasingly to be communicated to
articulate and informed consumer segments.
However, it also has a potential for
irresponsible use and, should that be seen to
be occurring, then calls for tighter regulation
and legal intervention are likely to increase.
Retailing on the Internet
For retailers, the Internet presents new,
widely debated ± and perhaps even
over-hyped ± opportunities (Rowley, 1996;
Doherty et al., 1999). For some, it threatens
fundamental changes in retailing's role
(Alsop, 1999); for others, implications extend
far beyond the Web itself (Gurley, 1999).
This next part of this paper addresses ethical
considerations of retailers' use of the Internet.
Several examples of major retailers
publicising their ``good works'' and ``good
intentions'' through Web sites were identified
in 1997 (Whysall, 1997). Corporate
environmental awareness has been publicised
on the Internet by major retail companies
(e.g. McDonald's, Wal*Mart). Then there
were retailers specifically providing
employment for disadvantaged groups (e.g.
Goodwill Industries International).
J C Penney's pages highlighted that
company's ``partnership program'' which
develops links with suppliers in order to
increase opportunities for minority- and
women-owned businesses. A feature of
several retailer sites was a focus on children
and young people and educational themes.
While this is a reasonable reflection of
Internet users, perhaps, for some it may
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reinforce the view that responsible activity is
to be demanded, and if that is not perceived
then there are likely to be calls for regulation
and intervention. Clearly, though, many
retailers see the Net as a medium for the
promotion of a socially responsible image. In
the earlier example, it was seen that The Gap
also engages in such activity, but in that case
perhaps it is partly at least as a response to
Internet attacks and criticisms.
Conversely, for some businesses, the
placeless nature of a virtual mall may offer
advantages of anonymity, and amidst the 41
outlets in iMALL's clothing pavilion in 1997
were five selling ``exotic'' items such as
lingerie and leatherwear. Other pavilions were
less like mainstream retail locations, such as
the Home and Personal Security area where
alongside more typical security products (e.g.
fire precautions, safes, home security)
customers could also buy bullets, stun guns,
and pepper blasters (Whysall, 1997). The
scale of activity of pornographic businesses on
the Web is generally accepted as proven and
problematical, although attempts to control
have, as yet, proven ineffectual (McLeod,
1995; Orlowski, 1996; Studeman, 1996).
Nonetheless, the reach, scope, and user-
profile of the Internet, together with the
anonymity of retail cyberspace, create ethical
challenges and attract activities that are likely
to continue to promote calls to restrict and
regulate its content and activity.
Several issues of an ethical nature continue
to cast a shadow across the development of
e-commerce, issues which may take on an
enhanced significance if, as has been
suggested (Donthu and Garcia, 1999),
Internet shoppers are less risk averse than
non-Internet shoppers. Among these,
mention may be made of:
. Continuing consumer concerns about the
security of Internet transactions (Fram
and Grady, 1997; Industry Canada,
1998; Rowley, 1998).
. Conversely, companies need to protect
themselves in areas of data integrity,
confidentiality, and authenticity of data
(Forcht and Wex, 1996).
. Concerns for the apparent lack of a
legal framework for e-commerce
(Richards, 1997), especially in an
international perspective. Thus the idea
of pan-European Internet-based retailing,
which might seem highly compatible with
the idea of a single European market,
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
requires reconciliation between
consumers' rights to seek legal redress
within their own country regardless of the
geographical base of the vending
company, on the one hand, and fears that
such a provision would imply heavy costs
for e-traders, especially smaller
businesses, and thus act to deter the
growth of electronic retailing, on the
other. Then there is the question of
whether a company launching a
pan-European Web site should need to
comply with defamation, advertising, and
competition laws in each member
country, with potential threats such
that any EU-based site accessible in
Germany could not offer lifetime
guarantees on products or make
two-for-the price-of-one style offers
(Hargreaves, 1999a, 1999b). Similar
concerns about compatibility with laws in
other countries have been expressed in
North America, where it has been
suggested that transactions need not have
a monetary element to raise such
concerns, and merely information
collection exercises may represent
material concerns (Chain Store Age,
1999).
. The use of Internet cookies, whereby
visitors to a site have electronic data
placed on their computers which record
the user's e-mail address, which parts of a
site were visited, and so forth. While
companies may argue that this assists
them to understand their customers
better, and is thus a step towards better
service, for others it represents a threat to
individual privacy (McCune, 1999). A
major controversy developed after it was
revealed that Doubleclick, a leading
Internet advertising network, launched a
service to trace individuals across some
11,500 Web sites (Kehoe, 2000).
. Worries that the ease by which a user may
``subscribe'' to an offer on the Internet
may make it easier for personal details to
be collected, and potentially exploited in
unwelcome and intrusive ways (Warner,
1999). Linked to this may be cost
reductions arising from Internet
communications, and the potential to use
database information for purposes other
than its intended application (Morris-
Lee, 1996).
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. The need for clear distinctions on Web
pages between ``editorial'' content and
advertising content (Berry, 1997).
. Concerns that some segments of
consumers may be disadvantaged by
relatively lower levels of Net access; an
example of concern of this type has been
the suggestion that consumers in rural
areas of the USA may suffer from a lack
of affordable access to high-speed, or
broadband, networks (Lerner, 2000).
. Particular sectoral concerns, for example,
in relation to pharmacy retailing on the
Internet (Gallanis, 1999), or traditional
stores generally (Grande, 1999).
. Worries that apparently unbiased Net
searches may in fact be dominated by
paid advertisers (Wolffe, 1999).
. Matters of intellectual copyright,
including the use of ``pirated'' names of
well-known brands and companies (e.g.
McDonald's, Levi's), misspellings of
leading brands, and registration of names
in foreign domains (Abel, 1998).
. The view that the speed of change in
fields like e-commerce is such that moral
reflection is unlikely, and thus standards
of corporate morality may be allowed to
slip (Useem, 2000).
. The existence of fraudulent ``Internet-
offered scams aimed at consumers''
(Bowe, 2000).
However, it is probably on aspects of privacy
that most concern has been focused.
Privacy Issues in Internet retailing
Privacy issues pertaining to retailing on the
Internet mirror many wider concerns
surrounding the ethics of marketing with new
technologies (Foxman and Kilcoyne, 1993;
Bloom et al., 1994; Pearce, 1997; Schwartz,
1998). To Pitt et al. (1999), the ability to
undertake ``electronic eavesdropping on
customers' conversations'' allowed positive
benefits to service marketing on the World
Wide Web, and undoubtedly there are such
benefits to be gleaned. However, to others
this also represents a potential threat. It is
nearly a decade since Jones (1991) warned of
challenges to privacy and discussed
implications of calls for regulation as a result
of the growth of information-based
businesses, and clearly many of the assumed
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
benefits of the Internet derive from its
efficient use of, and access to, information.
Yet, with perceived benefits of reduced costs,
better access to consumers, and better
consumer information also come challenges.
Traders have well established means to
``track'' consumer transaction information,
through scanner data, financial data, and the
like, but Internet tracking for some raises new
challenges of personal privacy rights:
We need to balance the free flow of information
appropriately with individuals' right to privacy in
ways that do not sacrifice the benefits electronic
commerce promises (Wellbery and Wolfe, 1998,
p. 13).
The ability to link computerised databases
from such as loyalty cards to Internet
technologies adds further to the privacy
concerns of some commentators (Evans,
1999; Janoff, 2000).
Reda (1998) suggests that the answer to
persistent consumer concerns about Internet
privacy lies in ``being up front with shoppers''
about information capture and use, giving
consumers a reason to share personal data,
and having established and publicised privacy
policies. Miyazaki and Fernandez (2000)
demonstrated a positive relationship between
the percentage of privacy- and security-
related statements on Web pages and
consumers' likelihood to purchase across
several shopping categories. However, a
Federal Trade Commission survey in 1999
found that, while 87 per cent of retail sites on
the Internet collect personal information on
consumers, only 13 per cent of the retailers
actually disclosed the practice (Chain Store
Age, 1999).
There exists a crucial tension in respect of
two contrasting aspects of the Internet.
Waldmeir (2000) paraphrases the view of
``Internet pioneer'' Dave Farber thus:
But anarchy and maturity seldom co-exist for
long, and anarchy and commerce make worse
companions.
So, as the Internet grows, its anarchist origins
come under threat.
Venkatesh (1998) identifies a similar duality
in the extension of commerce to cyberspace,
contrasting the marketing/profit seeking
perspective of cyberspace with the view of
cyberspace as a place to exercise freedoms
and establish identity. To Duquenoy et al.
(1999), who like Venkatesh develop a view
derived from Habermas' theory of discourse
ethics, ``Modern society is also in the process
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of bringing a regulatory framework to an
anarchic situation, at the same time seeking a
framework that will maximise the possibilities
of innovation and creativity''.
Lawrence Lessig, Professor of Law at
Harvard University, has emerged as a leading
authority in the area of government regulation
and cyberspace. Lessig (1999) argues against
the view that cyberspace defies regulation,
and to the contrary posits that the libertarian
nature of cyberspace is under threat from the
combination of commerce and government,
as well as the invisible hand of technology.
Apathy or inaction will, in Lessig's view,
result in these special interests shaping the
emergent medium, and thus he argues that
the architecture of cyberspace needs to be
appropriately ``coded'' to address key issues
concerning freedom of speech, intellectual
property, and privacy.
There are practical, commercial
considerations here, also. Alba et al. (1997)
see the collection of detailed information
about consumers' needs and behaviour as
central to the development of interactive
home shopping, but point out that it remains
questionable to what extent consumers will be
willing to make such data available and thus
see a need for e-retailers to explore strategies
to assure potential customers that personal
data will not be misused.
In ethical terms, it seems that a trade-off is
developing between a utilitarian vision of a
secure, but ``information efficient'', electronic
marketplace, and the individual rights and
freedoms which characterise the perceived
traditions of free, open, and possibly anarchic
cyberspace. The former may bring trading
benefits to both e-retailers and Net shoppers,
but the rights to privacy of the latter ± as well
as their need for actual and perceived security
± should not be ignored either on ethical or on
commercial grounds.
Concluding comments
The opportunities that the Internet presents
to those seeking to scrutinise and criticise
firms' ethical performance are a valuable asset
for all with a concern for high standards of
ethical behaviour in business. The low
barriers to entry which typify Internet
publication similarly can be seen as favouring
wider access and enhanced freedom of
speech. However, the positive benefits
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
portrayed here can also have a negative side.
The freedom created for those who wish to
exercise ethical scrutiny is also available to
less principled agents, whom some authors
see as prominent members of Web
communities and against whom companies
are often ill prepared (Reed, 1999). It is
probably no coincidence that, when in 1997
three retailer sites were identified as having
significant legal elements pertaining to
copyright and such issues, these were each
sites of companies that had been attacked in
various ways on the Web (i.e. Boots,
McDonald's, Ben & Jerry's) (Whysall, 1997).
That companies have taken measures to
protect themselves against less scrupulous
Internet activities is perhaps but an initial sign
of concern. However, if unjustified or
scurrilous attacks become more
commonplace, then calls for more general
regulation and enforcement of standards may
be yet more widely heard.
A similar argument can be made in relation
to retailing on the Internet. Clearly there can
be strong ethical benefits as a result of the
development of electronic commerce, such as
the opportunities it already offers consumers
with mobility problems of various types
(Morganosky and Cude, 2000). The potential
for Internet retailing to reach across
boundaries and into our homes is a driving
force behind the current interest in, and
expansion of, electronic retailing. That it is
available at relatively low cost to any retailer,
regardless of size or location, underpins that
attraction. However, it also makes Web-based
retailing available to the purveyors of anti-
social or socially unwelcome products. Again,
then, the very attraction of the medium
potentially contains the seeds for its critics to
oppose its free and open access. While to date
most retail interest in the Internet has perhaps
inevitably focused on electronic commerce
and trading, it is argued here that the Internet
is also important in relation to retailers'
corporate image, both positively and
negatively. Yet central to the development of
the medium is the issue of privacy, and it is
consumers' attitudes here that will allow or
hamper the development of the full potential
of electronic commerce. Consumer
confidence in terms of security and privacy
are expected to be key considerations in the
evolution of the medium.
While this paper focuses, largely through
personal interest, on the retailing sector,
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many of the conclusions have far wider
implications for business ethics and the
Internet. The critical, liberal and open
traditions of the Internet are one of its
strengths, but only through responsible use
will those traditions escape calls for greater
regulation or more intervention.
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Web sites referred to (all accessed
29/04/99, 12.00-14.00 BST):
``A matter of faith'':
http://www.brazil-brasil.com/p20jun97.htm
Anti-Wal*Mart: http://www.walmartsucks.com/
``Body Shop scrutinized'':
http://www.bath.ac.uk/Centres/Ethical/Papers/
BodyShop/franklin.htm
``Can the Body Shop shape up?'':
http://pathfinder.com/@@MNN@QcAZrA0Wemw/
fortune/magazine/1996/960415/managing.html
Clean Clothes: http://www.cleanclothes.org/
Christian Aid: http://www.christian-aid.org.uk/
f_reports.htm
``Controversial remarks by AR journalist'':
http://arrs.envirolink.org/ar-voices/nabr.html
Co-op American: http://www.coopamerica.org/
sweatshops/index.html
Corpwatch: http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/nike/
Envirolink: http://www.envirolink.org/
``Green washing'':
http://www.bath.ac.uk/Centres/Ethical/Papers/
BodyShop.utne.htm
 Retailing and the Internet: a review of ethical issues
Paul Whysall
Hanson on The Body Shop:
http://www.the-body-shop.com/aboutus/
values.html
http://www.labornet.org/alerts
http://www.mcspotlight.org/media/press/
msc2of2_16mar98.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/IFAT: http://
www.ifat.org/
London Animal Action: http://arrs.envirolink.org/LAA/
boots.html
``McSpotlight'': http://www.mcspotlight.org/home.html
Out of this World: http://www.ootw.ndirect.co.uk/
Oxfam Clothes: http://www.oneworld.org/oxfam/
campaigns.html
People for Fair Trade: http://vic.uca.org.au/people/fairtrad/
links.html
Quinn and Petrick's paper:
http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/docs/proceedings/
96usa087.txt
Russo and Fouts' paper:
http://lcb1.uoregon.edu/mrusso/resprof.htm
Sprawl Busters: http://www.connix.com/~fndssayb/
sprwlbst.htm
489
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Volume 28 . Number 11 . 2000 . 481±489
Sweatshop watch: http://www.sweatshopwatch.org/
swatch/index.html
``Taming the corporate beast'':
http://www.utne.com/lens98/society/
corporatebeast.html
``The Body Shop in need of repair'':
http://www.abo.fi/fak/esf/nat/hem/enveco/papers/
nghi2.html
``The curse of good intentions'':
http://www.mngt.waikato.ac.nz/depts/sml/
journal.entine2.htm
``The messy reality of socially responsible business'':
http://www.betterworld.com/BWZ/9512/cover2.htm
``The queen of bubble bath'':
http://www.web.apc.org/~bthomson/other/
fair8161.html
Traidcraft: http://www.traidcraft.co.uk/
TransFairUSA: http://www.transfairusa.org/why/
``What's wrong with the Body Shop?'':
http://ursus.jun.alaska.edu/archives/buseth/
msg00060.html