The Science and Art of Computer Games

Development for Undergraduate Students

M.J. TAYLOR and M. BASKETT
School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences,
Liverpool John Moores University

In this article we discuss an approach to teaching computer games development to higher education
computing students that attempts to balance the artistic and scientific aspects of the computer game
development process. The development of computer software has traditionally been viewed as a
technical activity. However, unlike other existing types of computer software, a computer game is
aimed at the general public (or specific segments of the general public such as teenagers), and needs
to be designed in a different manner, with far more emphasis on interactivity, presentation, and
ease-of-use than other existing types of computer software. This is necessary, since if a computer
game does not appeal to the consumer, he or she will simply not purchase a copy of the game, or
play the Internet-based game. Hence, students need to be taught how to incorporate both artistic
and scientific aspects when designing a computer game.
Categories and Subject Descriptors: K.3.2 [Computers and Education]: Computer and Informa-
tion Science Education—Information systems education
General Terms: Design
Additional Key Words and Phrases: Computer games education
ACM Reference Format:
Taylor, M. J. and Baskett, M. 2009. The science and art of computer games development for under-
graduate students. ACM Comput. Entertain. 7, 2, Article 24 (June 2009), 9 pages.
DOI = 10.1145/1541895.1541904 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1541895.1541904
24

INTRODUCTION
The activity of design can involve a number of facets. Design may in some
instances mainly concern developing an artifact that meets a given set of func-
tional requirements. Sometimes design may require the balancing of different
functional requirements. For example, a design for a car may need to balance
the cost of the finished product against performance in terms of acceleration and
maximum speed, alongside safety and environmental requirements. Functional

Authors’ address: School of Computing and Mathematical Sciences, Liverpool John Moores Uni-
versity, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK; contact author’s email: M.J.Taylor@ljmu.ac.uk.
Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use
is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial
advantage and that copies show this notice on the first page or initial screen of a display along
with the full citation. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be
honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers,
to redistribute to lists, or to use any component of this work in other works requires prior specific
permission and/or a fee. Permissions may be requested from Publications Dept., ACM, Inc., 2 Penn
Plaza, Suite 701, New York, NY 10121-0701 USA, fax +1 (212) 869-0481, or permissions@acm.org.
C 2009 ACM 1544-3574/2009/06-ART24 $10.00
DOI 10.1145/1541895.1541904 http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1541895.1541904

ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
24:2 • M.J. Taylor and M. Baskett

design will typically involve the application of scientific principles. However,

there may also be aesthetic considerations for the design of a new product. In
order to appeal to customers, many products, may require being seen as pleas-
ing in a variety of ways that might include color, shape, size, texture, and so
on. In the computing industry, design has typically tended to be more biased
towards an engineering approach [Pressman 2000, p. 6–10]. However, the dra-
matic increase in the volume of computer games being developed, where presen-
tation can potentially be an equal (if not greater) factor in design than technical
considerations [Matheson 2006[, implies that when teaching computer games
development it is necessary to impart the creative, artistic aspects of design
(as well as technical ones) to students. Degree levels in the study of design,
media, and art typically face the opposite situation, so that students may of-
ten feel they are learning creativity and skill-based competencies when such
courses aim to emphasize the value of theory and academic study [Grove-white
2003].
Davidson [2004; 2005] commented that many university computing depart-
ments world-wide are now developing computer games development courses.
This article aims to propose and justify an approach for teaching both the
“scientific” and “artistic” aspects of computer games development to undergrad-
uate students. Although developing individual creativity and imagination are
core aims of most art and design curricula [Steers 2003], typically such goals
would not be explicitly stated in most computer games development modules in
a degree course in the subject. Morrison and Johnston [2003] stated that sys-
tematic approaches to the development of creativity among higher education
students appear to be limited, particularly in the UK.
Teaching a “scientific” approach to computer games development might typ-
ically involve encouraging students to view computer games as a collection of
mathematically-based software components that define the characters, objects,
and settings in a given computer game and the rules that govern their inter-
actions. Thus, for example, students would need to be able to apply vectors,
matrices, and the laws of physics (such as Newton’s laws of motion, coefficients
of restitution, and conservation of linear and angular momentum) to the cre-
ation of computer game software.
The “scientific” approach to computer games development can be useful for
dealing with the purpose, structure, and function of computer software arte-
facts. However, this approach is rather weak with regard to addressing the more
ephemeral issues like interactivity, presentation, style, appeal, and ease-of-use.
With regard to such issues, a creative artistic approach can take a perfectly func-
tional computer game and turn into something that people will actually want
to use, and will enjoy using. Eisner [2003] stated that a feature of visual arts
is that they can be used to communicate the way something feels, that is, its
emotional character. In the context of computer games design, this would typi-
cally translate to the players’ feelings or emotions regarding a computer game
and what it represents to them. Further, Bogost [2005] commented that many
computer game designers and researchers have become interested in how com-
puter games can serve as forms of cultural expression, beyond entertainment
alone.
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
 The Science and Art of Computer Games Development • 24:3

LITERATURE REVIEW
Burns [2007] stated that unlike many traditional topics in computer science,
computer games development is inherently interdisciplinary. Developing a com-
puter game requires the integration of the artistic aspects of computer graphics
[Shultz 2005] with the mathematical and scientific basis of artificial intelli-
gence, physical simulation, and operating systems.
Ozcan and Akarun [2002] commented that in the teaching of interactive
media design, it is not easy to maintain a balance between distinct disciplines
such as computer science and art. The worlds of science and engineering and
that of art and design are two alien cultures. Davies and Worrall [2003] stated
that in the context of design, computing technology offers great potential in
terms of new meanings, interpretations, and practice. Hence there can be great
scope in terms of the design of a “game world” and in its operation and laws
[Taylor et al. 2007a]. For example, a computer game world need not follow the
“usual” rules of physics, so that game characters might be able to float or fly
[Second Life 2008; Cheal 2007].
Carter [2003] commented that, contrary to popular belief in the computing
education community, visual design has much in common with programming,
since it is a highly iterative process based on constraints and can be evalu-
ated objectively. He also stated that computing has become highly visual due to
the increasing prevalence of interactive programs, so that computing students
need to be taught the concepts of graphic design, including basic visual ele-
ments and visual organization principles. Lindgaard and Dudek [2002] believe
that user interface designers need guidance on how best to balance aesthetics
and efficiency factors in their designs. They commented that when users first
encounter an artefact, their emotional responses are pre-attentive and precede
the cognitive ones. Thus, for example, a game player may not bother to play a
computer game simply because the graphics look too primitive or unappealing.
Bloch [1995] argued that in modern society aesthetic sensibilities are relevant
to all products, regardless of their function. When given the choice between two
products, equal in price and function, target consumers choose the one they
consider more attractive.
In terms of the actual mechanics of computer game design from scientific
and artistic perspectives, Vanderdonckt et al. [1994] describe the importance
of placement strategies for effective visual design. This involves the aesthetic
placement of interaction objects to achieve an effective visual design for a user
interface. Thus, for example, in most first-person combat simulation computer
games, the icons representing character status in terms of ammunition, health,
location, and so on, will typically be placed in common positions such as along
the bottom or top of the screen.

AN APPROACH TO TEACHING UNDERGRADUATE COMPUTER

GAMES DEVELOPMENT
To illustrate and justify a possible approach to teaching computer games devel-
opment that incorporates both scientific and artistic perspectives, the present
authors’ experiences in teaching such a module to second-year computing
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
24:4 • M.J. Taylor and M. Baskett

undergraduates will be be examined. The aims and objectives of the module

we taught were the following:
r to apply computer animation techniques including procedural animation,
motion control, and deformation techniques;
r to apply techniques for the animation of natural phenomena including par-
ticle systems, plant growth, and collisions; and
r to utilize algebra, geometry, and trigonometry for three-dimensional spatial
transformations.
The learning outcomes of the module were as follows:
r application of matrix algebra, vectors, and numerical methods including in-
terpolation;
r use mathematical software and programming languages to apply such math-
ematical techniques in animations;
r apply storyboards to design animated sequences; and
r use three-dimensional animation software tools (3D Studio Max [Autodesk
2008]) to create motion for animated sequences.

TEACHING STRATEGY: SCIENCE VERSUS ART IN COMPUTER

GAMES DEVELOPMENT
The teaching strategy for the computer games development module described
in this article involved attempting to engender in the students the need to com-
bine the rigor of the mathematician, scientist, and engineer with the creativity
of the graphic artist. It is not difficult to encounter computer games that are
clearly well-designed technically but are completely bland and unappealing,
and possibly difficult or confusing to play. On the other hand, there are plenty
of computer games that may be visually appealing but lack much in the way
of interactivity, gameplay or storyline. In this article we will describe the mod-
ule topics we taught and explain the teaching strategy we used to achieve a
scientific and artistic balance for each topic.
The first topic taught in the module was the use of three-dimensional co-
ordinate systems. This not only involved the standard 3D co-ordinate system
with x, y, and z axes, but also cylindrical polar and spherical polar co-ordinates.
Three-dimensional co-ordinate systems provided the base on which to teach the
use of vector geometry, followed by interpolation as a means of fitting curves to
sets of points in 3D space. We then covered linear algebra, speicifically matrices,
with the aim of highlighting how vectors can be manipulated using matrices.
For example, how matrices can enlarge, shrink, rotate, and transpose a vector
or set of vectors.
Although the mathematical techniques above might initially appear to con-
cern a purely mathematical and scientific view of computer games development,
the students were also taught how mathematics can underpin numerous artis-
tic principles. For example, any object in a computer game can be represented
as a set of 3D vectors [Taylor et al. 2008]. Hence the students were encouraged
to view a computer game object as being “drawn” via a set of mathematically
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
 The Science and Art of Computer Games Development • 24:5

defined vectors. The use of matrices to manipulate vectors was then presented
as being a means of “animating” the sets of vectors that comprised a computer
game object. Thus, for example, enlarging, shrinking, or rotating a game object
(comprised of vectors) could be achieved by applying simple matrices. In order
to reinforce this concept, the students were provided with a set of animated
learning materials that showed a single vector as a line, to which other lines
were then added to make the outline of a game object (e.g., a tank or a boat)
and then textures were added to the various geometric shapes within the set
of vectors to create the finished game object. Similarly, a set of animations was
provided to the students to show how matrices could enlarge or rotate a sim-
ple shape comprised of vectors, and then a more complex set of vectors that
represented a game object such as a tank or boat.
The students were also taught the underlying mathematical aspects of the
artistic representation of characters, objects, and scenes within a computer
game. For example, the importance of scale (a game character or object should
be an appropriate size in relation to its surroundings); perspective (perspective
lines can give the illusion of objects being close or far away); proportion (most
natural objects typically have proportions defined by the golden ratio, e.g., the
ratios of the lengths of the constituent parts of a human arm or leg). In this
way the students were encouraged to appreciate that art can to some extent be
assessed in a scientific, mathematical manner.
Grove-white [2003] commented that when considering artistic merit it is
necessary to avoid falling into the viewpoint of some lecturers in art, media,
and design education who might apply subjective judgments such as “I like
it,” or “that works well” with little supporting explanation. Artistic creativity
in computer game creation can be justified and assessed by adopting a “fit for
purpose” viewpoint. For example, will the computer game characters, game ob-
jects, and layout follow artistic “rules” concerning scale, perspective, proportion,
and shading and provide an appropriate appeal for the computer game, and in
particular, appeal to the target market for the computer game? Carter [2003]
stated that computing students need to be taught how to visually communicate
the services or functionality of a software system (in the context of a computer
game, the game environment or “game world,” and what the gameplay will
involve).
The next topic in the module concerned the use of storyboards. Storyboards
would initially appear to strongly represent the artistic aspects of computer
games development, since they typically show a series of sketches of the scenes
within an animation or a selection of frames within a scene. However, the stu-
dents were taught that there can also be a scientific aspect to storyboards. The
storyboard can show the linear flow of events within a scene or animation, but
can also be adapted to show how the flow might move between different paths
based upon logic controlling the flow of the game, which is determined by the
input of the game player [Taylor et al. 2006]. In addition to logic controlling the
game paths represented by a storyboard, the students were also encouraged to
view storyboards as being able to describe the functionality of the frames within
a scene. Thus, for example, a storyboard need not just represent a visualization
of a frame within a computer game scene, but could also contain additional
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
24:6 • M.J. Taylor and M. Baskett

information to describe the logic controlling the gameplay in a particular set of

frames. For example, that the game player may collect an object in a given set
of frames, or move through a doorway.
The next main topic of the module was the animation process itself, which
included the use of key frames and motion tweening. The students were en-
couraged to view the animation process from an artistic perspective via a set
of images and their manipulation over a period of time. However, they were
also encouraged to view the animation process as a set of mathematical trans-
formations that defined how the images (defined by mathematical constructs
such as vectors and geometric shapes) were manipulated using mathematical
operators such as matrices over a given time period.
The final topic of the module was the more complex process of modeling
the physical world, that is, applying the laws of physics to the movement and
collisions of objects. Although the students were taught the mathematical tech-
niques and the underlying physics equations to perform such modeling (such
as equations concerning collisions), they were also encouraged to view the mo-
tion as a pattern (in artistic terms) in its own right. To this end, the students
were presented with examples of “stop motion” images of a particular action
and encouraged to draw the “flow” lines of movement within the action.

ASSESSMENT STRATEGY, SCIENCE VERSUS ART IN COMPUTER

GAMES DEVELOPMENT
The assessment strategy for the computer games development module de-
scribed in this article attempted to assess the student’s ability to do the
following:
r design and develop 2D and 3D models;
r design and specify the animation of 2D and 3D using techniques such as
storyboards;
r demonstrate an understanding of applying appropriate textures maps to 2D
and 3D objects and their effect upon the rendering process;
r demonstrate an understanding of appropriate lighting and how it affects the
rendering process;
r apply textures and lighting in the rendering of 2D and 3D images as well as
animated sequences; and
r animate 2D and 3D models to a given set of requirements; including setting
the number of frames per second and applying motion blur effectively.
The assessment strategy was not meant to purely assess what the students
could “do,” in this case use a set of defined computer game development tech-
niques (storyboards and mathematical modeling) and the appropriate software
tools (3D Studio Max, C++). The strategy also intended to assess whether the
students could apply appropriate “technical” and “artistic” evaluations in order
to use the aforementioned development techniques in an academic and pro-
fessional manner. To achieve this, the assessment strategy involved student
discussion and justification for why they chose the game design and develop-
ment they did from both “technical” and “artistic” perspectives. In terms of the
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
 The Science and Art of Computer Games Development • 24:7

actual marking scheme for the coursework, there were no strict divisions be-
tween scientific and artistic aspects; rather marks were awarded for fitness for
purpose, which generally involved both scientific and artistic qualities. Thus, for
example, the marking scheme for designing and developing 2D and 3D models
incorporated artistic aspects, such as the appropriate use of colors and textures,
and scientific aspects, such as scale and proportion. Overall, this strategy aimed
to assess the “fitness for purpose” of the 2D and 3D models designed and de-
veloped. As a further example, the storyboards were assessed for artistic merit
in terms of clarity and level of detail of the images; on mathematical aspects
such as proportion, scale, and perspective; and on scientific aspects such as the
level, detail, and clarity of the descriptions of functionality with regard to game
characters and objects and their interactions.

CONCLUSIONS
To evaluate the teaching and assessment strategy for the computer game de-
velopment module described here, we will discuss the work produced by the
students over the five years that the module ran and the authors’ experiences
in teaching the students.
As part of the coursework, the students were required to show mastery of
the technical aspects of a computer game development software package and to
produce technical design documents, and also have the artistic ability to create
the appropriate visual styles, game characters, and layouts. The majority of
the computer games created by the students over the five years were both
technically functional and artistically appropriate for the intended user base.
In terms of teaching students both the scientific and artistic aspects of com-
puter game development, most students applied the technical programming
principles fairly quickly. However, some of the mathematical aspects such as
the use of matrices, vectors, and the laws of physics and the artistic aspects
regarding detailed use of 3D Studio Max took longer to master.
In order to support the learning of the mathematical techniques (in par-
ticular, matrices and vectors), the authors of this article produced a series of
animated materials that helped explain the underlying mathematical concepts
and their application [Taylor et al. 2007b; Taylor et al. 2008]. Initially, the
students appeared to find the mathematical aspects of computer games devel-
opment the most difficult to master. Some students could visualize vectors and
matrices, but found the mathematical notation confusing; other students could
manipulate the mathematical notation, but could not visualize what the nota-
tion described. Animations that showed the vector and matrix notations and
how a matrix altered a set of vectors (for example, by enlarging a simple shape
like a triangle or a game object comprised of vectors such as a tank) appeared
to make the mathematics less daunting to the students.
Storyboards were generally perceived by the students as the easiest aspect
of computer games development, in part because they had also produced sto-
ryboards for coursework on website development (completed early on in their
first year at university), and many of the students had also produced story-
boards while at school. Thus, storyboards were the one aspect of computer
ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
24:8 • M.J. Taylor and M. Baskett

games development that most students had already encountered before they
started to apply the technique to computer games development coursework.
In general, students seemed to take more interest in developing computer
games for coursework when they had freedom of choice as to the type of game.
Narrowly defining the type of computer game for development in a course-
work appeared to demotivate some students if the game type did not interest
them.
In this article we have examined those scientific and artistic aspects of com-
puter game development that should ideally be incorporated into the teaching
and assessment of computer games development modules in higher education.
It appears that higher education computing courses sometimes suffer from a
lack of appreciation of the benefits of artistic creativity in the design process,
and that art, media, and design courses sometimes suffer from a lack of stu-
dent appreciation of the benefits of science and theory in the design process. It
is hoped that attempts to bridge this gap in terms of teaching and assessment
practice, as described in this article, may benefit providers of higher education
in both areas. With increasing amounts of commercial, educational, and even
social activities involving the use of computer games (e.g., Second Life), it is
an area of growing economic importance that needs to be taught effectively to
future generations of computer games developers.

REFERENCES

AUTODESK. 2008. Autodesk, 3D Studio Max. http://usa.autodesk.com.

BLOCH, P. 1995. Seeking the ideal form: Product design and consumer response. J. Marketing 59,
16–29.
BURNS, B. 2007. Teaching the computer science of computer games. J. Computing Sciences in
Colleges Archive 23, 3, 154–161.
CARTER, R. 2003. Teaching visual design principles for computer science students. Computer
Science Education, 13, 1, 67–90.
CHEAL, C. 2007. Second Life: Hype or hyperlearning? On the Horizon 15, 4, 204–210.
DAVIDSON, D. 2004. Why create a media and game centre? On the Horizon 12, 1, 10–13.
DAVIDSON, D. 2005. Games by degrees: Playing with programs. On the Horizon 13, 2, 70–74.
DAVIES, T. AND WORRALL, P. 2003. Thinking out of the box: Developments in specialist art and
design teacher education and ICT. In Issues in Art and Design Teaching, N. Addison and L.
Burgess (eds.), RoutledgeFalmer, London, 90–97.
EISNER, E. 2003. Concerns and aspirations for qualitative research in the new millennium in art
and design teaching, In Issues in Art and Design Teaching, N. Addison and L. Burgess (eds.),
RoutledgeFalmer, London, 52–60.
GROVE-WHITE, A. 2003. Theory and practice in photography: Student’s understandings and ap-
proaches to learning, Active Learning in Higher Education 4, 1, 56–73.
LINDGAARD, G. AND DUDEK, C. 2002. User satisfaction, aesthetics and usability: Beyond reduction-
ism in usability. In Gaining a Competitive Edge, IFIP World Computer Congress, J. Hammond
et al. (eds.), Kluwer, Boston, MA.
MATHESON, B. 2006. A culture of creativity: Design education and the creative industries. J.
Management Development 25, 1, 55–64.
MORRISON, A. AND JOHNSTON, B. 2003. Personal creativity for entrepreneurship: Teaching and
learning strategies. Active Learning in Higher Education 4, 2, 145–158.
OZCAN, O. AND AKARUN, L. 2002. Teaching interactive media design. Int. J. Technology Design
Education 19, 161–171.
PRESSMAN, R. 2000. Software Engineering: A Practitioners Approach. McGraw Hill, London.
SECOND LIFE. 2008. http://secondlife.com.

ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.
 The Science and Art of Computer Games Development • 24:9

SHULTZ, G. 2005. Integrating 3D graphics into early CS courses. J. Computing Sciences in Colleges
Archive 21, 3, 169–178.
STEERS, J. 2003. Art and design in the UK: The theory gap. In Issues in Art and Design Teaching,
N. Addison, and L. Burgess (eds.), RoutledgeFalmer, London, 19–30.
TAYLOR, M., GRESTY, D., AND BASKETT, M. 2006. Computer game flow design. ACM Trans. Computers
Entertainment 4, 1. http://www.acm.org/pubs/cie.htm.
TAYLOR, M., BASKETT, M., HUGHES, G., AND WADE, S. 2007a. Using soft systems methodology for
computer games design. Systems Research and Behavioral Science 24, 3, 359–368.
TAYLOR, M., POUNTNEY, D., AND MALABAR, I. 2007b. Animation as an aid for the teaching of math-
ematical concepts. J. Further and Higher Education 31, 3, 249–261.
TAYLOR, M., POUNTNEY, D., AND BASKETT, M. 2008. Using animation to support the teaching of
computer game development techniques. Computers and Education 50, 4, 1258–1268.
VANDERDONCKT, J., OUEDRAOGO, M., AND YGUEITENGAR, B. 1994. A comparison of placement strate-
gies for effective visual design: Crafting interaction: styles, metaphors, modalities and agents. In
Proceedings of the HCI Conference on People and Computers, Cambridge University Press, 125 –
143.

Received December 2008; revised January 2009; accepted February 2009

ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol. 7, No. 2, Article 24, Publication date: June 2009.