Compressible Flow

Ideal Gas – First Law of

Thermodynamics

For ideal gas

 Entropy – ideal gas

From 1st law

From ideal gases

Adiabatic Reversible – Isentropic
process
 Stagnation Properties

• Enthalpy
• For high-speed flows, enthalpy and kinetic energy are
combined into stagnation enthalpy h0
Stagnation Properties
• Steady adiabatic flow through duct
with no shaft/electrical work and no
change in elevation and potential
energy

• Stagnation enthalpy remains

constant during steady-flow
 Stagnation Properties
• If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (V2 = 0)

• h0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to

rest adiabatically.
• During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is converted to
enthalpy.
• Properties at this point are called stagnation properties
identified by subscript 0
Stagnation Properties
• If the process is also reversible and
adiabatic, the stagnation state is called
the isentropic stagnation state.
– Stagnation enthalpy is the same for
isentropic and actual stagnation
states
– Actual stagnation pressure P0,act is
lower than P0 due to increase in
entropy s as a result of fluid
friction.
– Nonetheless, stagnation
processes are often
approximated to be isentropic,
and isentropic properties are
referred to as stagnation
properties
 Stagnation Properties
• For an ideal gas, h = CpT, which allows the h0 to be rewritten

– T0 is the stagnation temperature. It represents the temperature an ideal gas

attains when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
– V2/2Cp corresponds to the temperature rise, and is called the dynamic
temperature
• For ideal gas with constant specific heats, stagnation pressure and
density can be expressed as (ideal as isentropic relation)
 Stagnation Properties
• When using stagnation enthalpies, there is no need to
explicitly use kinetic energy in the energy balance.

• Where h01 and h02 are stagnation enthalpies at states 1

and 2.
• If the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats
Example:
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where
the atmospheric pressure is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K.
The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser before it enters the compressor.
Assuming both the diffuser and the compressor to be isentropic, determine (a) the
stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet and (b) the required compressor work
per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.

Temperature of air would increase by

31.1°C and the pressure by 26.72 kPa as
air is decelerated from 250 m/s to zero
velocity. These increases in the
temperature and pressure of air are due
to the conversion of the kinetic energy
into enthalpy.
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Important parameter in compressible
flow is the speed of sound.
– Speed at which infinitesimally small
pressure wave travels

• Consider a duct with a moving piston

– Creates a sonic wave moving to the right
– Fluid to left of wave front experiences
incremental change in properties
– Fluid to right of wave front maintains
original properties
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Construct CV that encloses
wave front and moves with it
• Mass balance

cancel Neglect
H.O.T.
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Energy balance ein = eout

cancel Neglect
cancel
H.O.T.
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Using the thermodynamic relation

• we could apply a small pressure change dp to a sample, measure the

corresponding density change dρ, and evaluate c. For a simple substance, each
property depends on any two independent properties. For a sound wave, by
definition we have an infinitesimal pressure change (i.e., it is reversible), and it
occurs very quickly, so there is no time for any heat transfer to occur (i.e., it is
adiabatic). Thus the sound wave propagates isentropically. Hence, if we express
p as a function of density and entropy, P= P(ρ, s) then

• For an ideal gas

Speed of Sound and Mach Number

• Since
– R is constant
– k is only a function of T
– Speed of sound is only a
function of temperature
Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Second important
parameter is the Mach
number Ma
• Ratio of fluid velocity to
the speed of sound

Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma  1 : Transonic • Flow regimes classified
Ma = 1 : Sonic in terms of Ma
Ma > 1 : Supersonic
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• For flow through nozzles,
diffusers, and turbine
blade passages, flow
quantities vary primarily
in the flow direction
– Can be approximated as 1D
isentropic flow
• Consider example of
Converging-Diverging
Duct
Examples:
Air enters a diffuser with a velocity of 200 m/s. Determine (a) the speed of sound and (b)
the Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is 30°C.

Carbon dioxide flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a
nozzle at a mass flow rate of 3 kg/s. The carbon dioxide enters the duct at a
pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with a low velocity, and it expands in the nozzle to
a pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow can be approximated as
isentropic. Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each
location along the duct that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

Use cp = 0.846 kJ/kg · K and γ=1.289 throughout the calculations, which are the constant-
pressure specific heat and specific heat ratio values of carbon dioxide at room temperatures.
The gas constant of carbon dioxide is R =0.1889 kJ/kg · K.
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• Ma = 1 at the location of the
smallest flow area, called the
throat
• Velocity continues to increase
past the throat, and is due to
decrease in density
• Area decreases, and then
increases. Known as a
converging - diverging nozzle.
Used to accelerate gases to
supersonic speeds.
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• Continuity
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Variation of Pressure with Flow Area

• This is an important relationship

– For Ma < 1, (1 - Ma2) is positive  dA and dP have the same sign.
• Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct increases, and
must decrease as the flow area decreases
• At subsonic velocities, the pressure decreases in converging ducts
(subsonic nozzles) and increases in diverging ducts (subsonic diffusers)
– For Ma > 1, (1 - Ma2) is negative  dA and dP have opposite signs.
• Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and must decrease as
the area increases
• at supersonic velocities, the pressure decreases in diverging ducts
(supersonic nozzles) and increases in converging ducts (supersonic
diffusers)
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• A relationship between dA and dV can be derived by

substituting V = -dP/dV (from the differential
Bernoulli equation)

• Since A and V are positive

– For subsonic flow (Ma < 1) dA/dV < 0
– For supersonic flow (Ma > 1) dA/dV > 0
– For sonic flow (Ma = 1) dA/dV = 0
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a converging nozzle at subsonic velocities and a
diverging nozzle at supersonic velocities.

We visualize a nozzle as a converging duct. However, the highest velocity we can achieve by a
converging nozzle is the sonic velocity, which occurs at the exit of the nozzle.

Diverging section to a converging nozzle to accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities. The

result is a converging–diverging nozzle.

The fluid first passes through a subsonic (converging) section, where the Mach number
increases as the flow area of the nozzle decreases, and then reaches the value of unity at the
nozzle throat. The fluid continues to accelerate as it passes through a supersonic (diverging)
section.

Large decrease in density makes acceleration in the diverging section possible. An example
of this type of flow is the flow of hot combustion gases through a nozzle in a gas turbine.
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area
Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

The fluid is decelerated

by passing it first through
a supersonic diffuser

Flow reaches a Mach

number of unity at the
diffuser throat

The fluid is further

decelerated in a subsonic
diffuser
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
• Relations between static properties and stagnation properties in terms of
Ma are useful.
• Earlier, it was shown that stagnation temperature for an ideal gas was

• Using definitions, the dynamic temperature term can be expressed in terms

of Ma
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases

• Substituting T0/T ratio into P0/P and 0/ relations

• For Ma = 1, these ratios are called critical ratios

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
• Converging or converging-diverging nozzles are
found in many engineering applications
– Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft propulsion,
industrial blast nozzles, torch nozzles
• Here, we will study the effects of back pressure
(pressure at discharge) on the exit velocity, mass flow
rate, and pressure distribution along the nozzle
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
• State 1: Pb = P0, there is no flow,
and pressure is constant.
• State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along
nozzle decreases.
• State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is
sonic, creating maximum flow rate
called choked flow.
• State 4: Pb < P*, there is no change
in flow or pressure distribution in
comparison to state 3
• State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4.
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles

• Under steady flow conditions, mass flow rate is

constant

• Substituting T and P

– Mass flow rate is a function of stagnation properties, flow

area, and Ma
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles

• The maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle with a

given throat area A* is fixed by the P0 and T0 and
occurs at Ma = 1

• This principal is important for chemical processes,

medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere the mass
flux of a gas must be known and controlled.
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
• The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is
limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which
occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle
• Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma
> 1) requires a diverging flow section
– Converging-diverging (C-D) nozzle
– Standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion
• Forcing fluid through a C-D nozzle does not
guarantee supersonic velocity
– Requires proper back pressure Pb
Air at 1 MPa and 600°C
enters a converging nozzle,
shown in Figure with a
velocity of 150 m/s.
Determine the mass flow
rate through the nozzle for
a nozzle throat area of 50
cm2 when the back
pressure is (a) 0.7 MPa
and (b) 0.4 MPa.
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
1. P0 > Pb > Pc
– Flow remains subsonic, and mass flow is
less than for choked flow. Diverging
section acts as diffuser
2. Pb = PC
– Sonic flow achieved at throat. Diverging
section acts as diffuser. Subsonic flow at
exit. Further decrease in Pb has no effect
on flow in converging portion of nozzle
– P* is the lowest pressure that can be
obtained at the throat, and the sonic
velocity is the highest velocity that can be
achieved with a converging nozzle.
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
3. PC > Pb > PE
– Fluid is accelerated to supersonic
velocities in the diverging section as the
pressure decreases. However,
acceleration stops at location of normal
shock. Fluid decelerates and is subsonic
at outlet. As Pb is decreased, shock
approaches nozzle exit.
4. PE > Pb > 0
– Flow in diverging section is supersonic
with no shock forming in the nozzle.
Without shock, flow in nozzle can be
treated as isentropic.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
• Review
– Sound waves are created by small pressure
disturbances and travel at the speed of sound
– For some back pressures, abrupt changes in fluid
properties occur in C-D nozzles, creating a shock
wave
• Here, we will study the conditions under which
shock waves develop and how they affect the
flow.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks

• Shocks which occur in a plane

normal to the direction of flow are
called normal shock waves
• Flow process through the shock
wave is highly irreversible and
cannot be approximated as being
isentropic
• Develop relationships for flow
properties before and after the
shock using conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum

Increase in entropy
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
• Combine conservation of mass
and energy into a single equation
and plot on h-s diagram
– Fanno Line : locus of states that
have the same value of h0 and
mass flux
• Combine conservation of mass
and momentum into a single
equation and plot on h-s diagram
– Rayleigh line
• Points of maximum entropy
correspond to Ma = 1.
– Above / below this point is
subsonic / supersonic
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
• There are 2 points where the
Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersect
: points where all 3 conservation
equations are satisfied
– Point 1: before the shock
(supersonic)
– Point 2: after the shock
(subsonic)
• The larger Ma is before the shock,
the stronger the shock will be.
• Entropy increases from point 1 to
point 2 : expected since flow
through the shock is adiabatic but
irreversible
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shocks
• Equation for the Fanno line for an
ideal gas with constant specific
heats can be derived

• Similar relation for Rayleigh line

is

The stagnation temperature of an ideal gas also

remains constant across the shock.

The stagnation pressure decreases across the • Combining this gives the
shock because of the irreversibilities, while the intersection points
ordinary (static) temperature rises drastically
because of the conversion of kinetic energy into
enthalpy due to a large drop in fluid velocity
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shocks

• Not all shocks are normal

to flow direction.
• Some are inclined to the
flow direction, and are
called oblique shocks
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shocks
• At leading edge, flow is deflected
through an angle  called the
turning angle
• Result is a straight oblique shock
wave aligned at shock angle 
relative to the flow direction
• Due to the displacement thickness,
is slightly greater than the wedge
half-angle .
• Like normal shocks, Ma decreases
across the oblique shock, and are
only possible if upstream flow is
supersonic
• However, unlike normal shocks in
which the downstream Ma is
always subsonic, Ma2 of an oblique
shock can be subsonic, sonic, or
supersonic depending upon Ma1
and .
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shocks
• All equations and shock tables for
normal shocks apply to oblique
shocks as well, provided that we
use only the normal components
of the Mach number
– Ma1,n = V1,n/c1
– Ma2,n = V2,n/c2

-Ma relationship
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shocks
• If wedge half angle  > max, a
detached oblique shock or bow
wave is formed
• Much more complicated that
straight oblique shocks.
• Requires CFD for analysis.

Similar shock waves see for axisymmetric bodies, however, -Ma

relationship and resulting diagram is different than for 2D bodies
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shocks

• For blunt bodies, without a

sharply pointed nose,  = 90,
and an attached oblique shock
cannot exist regardless of Ma.
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
Flow turns gradually as each
successful Mach wave turns
the flow ay an infinitesimal amount
• In some cases, flow is turned in the opposite
direction across the shock
• Example : wedge at angle of attack  greater
than wedge half angle 
• This type of flow is called an expanding
flow, in contrast to the oblique shock which
creates a compressing flow.
• Instead of a shock, a expansion fan appears,
which is comprised of infinite number of
Mach waves called Prandtl-Meyer
expansion waves
• Each individual expansion wave is isentropic
: flow across entire expansion fan is
isentropic
• Ma2 > Ma1
• P, , T decrease across the fan
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
• Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans also occur in axisymmetric
flows, as in the corners and trailing edges of the cone
cylinder.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
Interaction between shock waves and expansions wave
in “over expanded” supersonic jet
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction
• Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice
involve chemical reactions such as combustion, nuclear
reactions, evaporation, and condensation as well as heat gain
or heat loss through the duct wall

• Such problems are difficult to analyze

• Essential features of such complex flows can be captured by a

simple analysis method where generation/absorption is
modeled as heat transfer through the wall at the same rate
– Still too complicated for introductory treatment since flow may involve
friction, geometry changes, 3D effects

• We will focus on 1D flow in a duct of constant cross-sectional

area with negligible frictional effects
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction
Consider 1D flow of an ideal gas with
constant cp through a duct with constant
A with heat transfer but negligible
friction (known as Rayleigh flow)
Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction

Energy equation
– CV involves no shear, shaft, or other forms of work, and potential energy
change is negligible.

– For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change
– In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy changes by heat
transfer only
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction

• Infinite number of downstream

states 2 for a given upstream
state 1
• Practical approach is to assume
various values for T2, and
calculate all other properties as
well as q.
• Plot results on T-s diagram
– Called a Rayleigh line
• This line is the locus of all
physically attainable
downstream states
• S increases with heat gain to
point a which is the point of
maximum entropy (Ma =1)
 Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction
• Friction must be included for
flow through long ducts,
especially if the cross-sectional
area is small.
• Here, we study compressible Consider 1D adiabatic flow of an
flow with significant wall ideal gas with constant cp through a
duct with constant A with significant
friction, but negligible heat frictional effects (known as Fanno
transfer in ducts of constant flow)
cross section. Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
Adiabatic Duct Flow with Friction
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction
Energy equation
– CV involves no heat or work, and potential energy change is negligible

– For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change

– In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy changes by heat

transfer only
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction
• Infinite number of downstream
states 2 for a given upstream state 1

• Practical approach is to assume

various values for T2, and calculate
all other properties as well as
friction force.

• Plot results on T-s diagram Called a

Fanno line

• This line is the locus of all

physically attainable downstream
states

• s increases with friction to point of

maximum entropy (Ma =1)

• Two branches, one for Ma < 1, one

for Ma >1
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
Non-Newtonian Fluids -
Rheology
 What is Rheology?
• “Rheology is the study of the flow of materials that behave in an
interesting or unusual manner. Oil and water flow in familiar, normal ways,
whereas mayonnaise, peanut butter, chocolate, bread dough, and silly putty
flow in complex and unusual ways. In rheology, we study the flows of
unusual materials.”

• “… all normal or Newtonian fluids (air, water, oil, honey) follow the same
scientific laws. On the other hand, there are also fluids that do not follow
the Newtonian flow laws. These non-Newtonian fluids, for example mayo,
paint, molten plastics, foams, clays, and many other fluids, behave in a
wide variety of ways. The science of studying these types of unusual
materials is called rheology”

*Faith Morrison, “The News and Information Publication of The Society of Rheology”, Vol 73(1) Jan 2004, pp 8-10
 Examples of Complex Fluids
• Foods
– Emulsions (mayonaisse, ice cream)
Personal Care Products
Suspensions (nail polish, face
An emulsion is a mixture of two or scrubs)
more liquids that are normally Solutions/Gels (shampoos,
immiscible (unmixable or conditioners)
unblendable) Foams (shaving cream)
– Foams (ice cream, whipped cream) Electronic and Optical Materials
A foam is a substance that is formed Liquid Crystals (Monitor displays)
by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid Melts (soldering paste)
or solid Pharmaceuticals
– Suspensions (mustard, chocolate) Gels (creams, particle precursors)
Emulsions (creams)
A suspension is a heterogeneous Aerosols (nasal sprays)
mixture containing solid particles
that are sufficiently large for Polymers
sedimentation
– Gels (cheese)
Gel is a solid jelly-like material that
can have properties ranging from soft
and weak to hard and tough
• Biofluids
– Suspension (blood)
– Gel (mucin)
– Solutions (spittle)
 Rheology’s Goals
• Establishing the relationship between applied
forces and geometrical effects induced by these
forces at a point (in a fluid).
– The mathematical form of this relationship is called the
rheological equation of state, or the constitutive
equation.
– The constitutive equations are used to solve
macroscopic problems related to continuum mechanics
of these materials.
– Any equation is just a model of physical reality.
 Rheological Properties
• Stress: Shear stress, Normal stress, Normal Stress differences

• Viscosity: Steady-state (i.e. shear), Extensional, Complex

• Viscoelastic Modulus:
 Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and
elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation.
 Viscous materials, like honey, resist shear flow and strain linearly with time
when a stress is applied.
 Elastic materials strain when stretched and quickly return to their original
state once the stress is removed.
 Elasticity is usually the result of bond stretching along crystallographic
planes in an ordered solid, viscosity is the result of the diffusion of atoms or
molecules inside an amorphous material
– G’ – storage modulus
– G” – loss modulus
The storage and loss modulus in viscoelastic materials measure the stored
energy, representing the elastic portion, and the energy dissipated as heat,
representing the viscous portion.

• Creep, Compliance, Decay, Relaxation times and many more …

World’s Longest Running Laboratory Experiment
– The Pitch Drop Experiment
 1927 – Prof Parnell in Univ. of Queensland
Australia heated a sample of pitch and poured it
into a glass funnel with a sealed stem. Three years
where allowed for it to settle, after which the stem
was cut.
 Examine the viscosity of the pitch by the speed at
which it flows from a funnel into a jar.
 Only eigth drops has fallen in 70 years.
 The viscosity is approximated as 100 billion times
that of water.
Year Event
1930 Plug trimmed off
1938 (Dec) 1st drop
1947 (Feb) 2nd drop
1954 (Apr) 3rd drop
1962 (May) 4th drop
1970 (Aug) 5th drop
1979 (Apr) 6th drop
1988 (Jul) 7th drop
2000 (28 Nov) 8th drop
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
Newtonian Fluid

du z
 rz   
dr
Non-Newtonian Fluid

du z
 rz  
dr
η is the apparent viscosity and is not constant for non-Newtonian fluids.
 η - Apparent Viscosity
The shear rate dependence of η categorizes non-
Newtonian fluids into several types.
Power Law Fluids:
 Pseudoplastic – η (viscosity) decreases as shear rate increases (shear rate thinning)
 Dilatant – η (viscosity) increases as shear rate increases (shear rate thickening)

Bingham Plastics:
 η depends on a critical shear stress (t0) and then becomes constant
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Bingham Plastic: sludge, paint, blood, ketchup

Pseudoplastic: latex, paper pulp, clay solns.

Newtonian

Dilatant: quicksand
 Modeling Power Law Fluids
Oswald - de Waele

Dv
  p   g    τ
Dt

 du z   n
 du z    du z 
n 1

 rz  K     K     
 dr    dr    dr 
where:
K = flow consistency index
n = flow behavior index  eff
Note: Most non-Newtonian fluids are pseudoplastic n<1.
 Common Non-Newtonian Behavior

• shear thinning
• shear thickening
• yield stress
• viscoelastic effects
– Weissenberg effect
– Fluid memory
– Die Swell

72
 Shear Thinning and Shear Thickening
• shear thinning – tendency of some materials to decrease in viscosity
when driven to flow at high shear rates, such as by higher pressure
drops

Increasing shear rate

73
 Shear Thickening
• shear thickening – tendency of some materials to
increase in viscosity when driven to flow at high shear
rates

74
 Quicksand – A Non-Newtonian Fluid
• Quicksand is a colloid hydrogel (sand, clay and salt
water).
• When undisturbed behaves as a solid gel
– Minor changes in the stress will cause a sudden decrease
in its viscosity
• After the initial perturbation, water and sand
separate and dense regions of sand sediment
– High volume fraction regions -> viscosity increases
• Sufficient pressure must be applied to reintroduced
water into the compacted sand.
• The forces required to remove a foot from quicksand
at a speed of 1 cm/s are about
– Same as “that needed to lift a medium-sized car.”
75
 Elastic and Viscoelastic Effects
• Weissenberg Effect (Rod Climbing Effect): Phenomenon that
occurs when a spinning rod is inserted into a solution of elastic
liquid. Instead of being thrown outward, the solution is drawn
towards the rod and rises up around it.
 Elastic and Viscoelastic Effects
• Viscoelastic fluids subjected to a stress deform
– when the stress is removed, it does not instantly vanish
– internal structure of material can sustain stress for some time
– this time is known as the relaxation time, varies with materials
– due to the internal stress, the fluid will deform on its own, even when
external stresses are removed
– important for processing of polymer melts, casting, etc..


τ
τ
   v  vT  τ    v  v   E  u  uT 
T

t t