Transformation of Existing SI Engine to Work

With Pressurized Air

Abstract

This project is an attempt to highlight the various possibilities of acquiring an environmentally

friendly and efficient power source. The use of high pressure, expanding gas, to power the engine

piston is the fundamental process in the function of all engines with reciprocating pistons.

In this project we have used highly pressurized gas to cause reciprocation of the piston and

thereby produce power. This gas is introduced into the engine cylinder at the Top Dead Center

position of the piston through a timing valve, thereby giving the gas the maximum capacity to impart

its force on the piston.

The emission from this process is nil and 100% environmentally friendly. We have shown that

with the smallest of changes in our existing engine design we can incorporate this technology in our

present modes of transportation. The simple yet dramatic change brought by this system is according

to us the most significant aspect of our invention.

We have shown a positive way of implementing this technology and as always with any system;

this has tremendous potential for improvement and perfection.

1
Chapter 1- Introduction
1.Introduction

1.1 Air engine -

The project titled “Transformation of Existing SI Engine to work with Pressurized Air” is

an attempt to highlight the various possibilities of acquiring an environmentally friendly and

efficient power source. The use of high pressure, expanding gas, to power the engine piston is

the fundamental process in the function of all engines with reciprocating pistons.

In this project we have used highly pressurized gas to provide that necessary force to

cause reciprocation of the piston and thereby produce power. This gas is introduced into the

engine cylinder at the Top Dead Centre position of the piston through a timing valve, thereby

giving the gas the maximum capacity to impart its force on the piston.

The emission from this process is nil and 100% environmentally friendly. We have shown

that with the smallest of changes in our existing engine design we can incorporate this

technology in our present modes of transportation. The simple yet dramatic change brought by

this system is according to us the most significant aspect of our project.

We have shown a positive way of implementing this technology and as always with any

system; this has tremendous potential for improvement and perfection.

1.2 Global Warming

Global warming or climate change is undoubtedly one of the most important challenges for our

future generation, and quite possibly any generation in history. The worldwide scientific

community is unanimous in its agreement that global warming is happening, that is our fault,

and that the opportunity to stop it is slipping away. If we let it get out of our control, the

consequences - which are already evident in most of our lifetimes - will be catastrophic.

2
Fig.1.2.1 Global Warming

For example some of the consequences that can be reasonably expected are rising sea

levels, frequent and severe natural disasters, large-scale food and water shortages, plagues,

massive species extinctions, unprecedented numbers of refugees, intensified ethnic and political

tensions, and a global economic depression the likes of which no one has ever seen.

The situation is still within our grip, but we must act now, we must act strongly, and we

must act together. Individuals, companies, and governments across the globe must each do what

they can to reverse climate change. We will never get a second chance.

1.3Green House Effect

The earth is surrounded by a blanket of gases. This blanket traps energy in the

atmosphere, much the same as glass traps heat inside a greenhouse. This results in a build-up of

energy, and the overall warming of the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is a natural process

which made life on Earth possible.

Fig.1.3.1 Example of natural occurring of Green House Effect

3
 Without naturally occurring greenhouse gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide,

methane and nitrous oxide, the earth’s surface temperature would be 33oc cooler, a chilly ~18oc

rather than the tolerable 15oc.

When we talk about the greenhouse effect, we mean the enhanced effect which we caused,

by the increase of greenhouse gases from human sources. Since the beginning of

industrialisation, 200 years ago, concentrations of these gases have increased. It is estimated

that the earth’s average temperature has risen by 0.6oc since 1880 because of emissions of

greenhouse gases from human activity.

The main sources of these emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous

oxide, are:

➢ The combustion of large amounts of fossil fuels (producing CO2)

➢ Deforestation (less trees mean that less CO2 is being mopped up)

An increase in global temperatures may seem great, we might even think of ‘Costa del

Blackpool’. Unfortunately global warming will probably result in big swings in weather

patterns across the world. Summers will become drier and hotter; winters will be wetter and

colder. Other things will start to happen such as

➢ Thermal expansion of the water and melting of continental glaciers would cause sea

levels to rise, possibly as much as two feet, by the end of next century.

➢ Rising temperature would lead to changes in regional wind systems which would

influence global rainfall distribution and lead to redistribution and frequency of floods,

drought and forest fire.

➢ Increased sea temperature would cause the destruction of coral reef across the world.

➢ Climate change would create favourable conditions for the growth in insect population.

This would lightly have a bad effect on agriculture and human health and result in a

spread of malaria and other tropical disease.

4
 ➢ Water supplies would become disrupted and droughts would be more common.

There is a lot of controversy surrounding global warming, views range from those who

believe that there is nothing to worry about to these who believe that the world is heading for a

global catastrophe. An edited version of a Greenpeace article on global warming, climate

change and the greenhouse effect can be found.

1.4 Need for alternative fuel:

Automobiles are responsible for a tremendous amount of air pollution and wasted energy.

These problems impact people all over the world, both motorists and non-motorists alike, by

affecting their health, their economies, and their communities.

One way cars create pollution is by contributing to the amount of ground-level ozone (not

to be confused with the atmospheric ozone layer).

In the atmosphere, the ozone layer shields the planet from harmful ultraviolet radiation

rays. But on the ground, ozone is another matter, causing hazy smog and respiratory problems.

Most ozone pollution is caused by motor vehicles, which account for 72% of nitrogen oxides

and 52% of reactive hydrocarbons. The seriousness of ground-level ozone should not be

underestimated.

Cars also pollute by emitting lead from leaded gasoline. Although the use of lead in

gasoline is banned in the United States, leaded gasoline is common in other countries. In fact, of

the countries for which data is available, 43% use nothing but leaded gasoline. Many of the rest

use at least some leaded gasoline in their energy mix. This is a definite cause for concern.

Perhaps even scarier than the direct damage to our bodies from auto pollution is the fact

that car emissions are contributing to an overall warming of the entire planet, which could

destroy the world's food chain.

Cars emit carbon dioxide (CO2), a heat-trapping gas. In fact, they emit a lot of it: 20

pounds per gallon of gas burned. Atmospheric Concentrations of CO2 have increased by 30%

5
since preindustrial times, and much of that increase is directly related to the burning of fossil

fuels.

According to the World watch Institute: "CO2 levels are now at their highest point in

160,000 years, and global temperatures at their highest since the Middle Ages".

The effects of this global warming are frightening: rising sea levels, dying coral reefs,

spreading of infectious diseases, and extreme weather conditions, including droughts, rare forest

fires, historic floods, and severe storms.

These harmful side effects of the fossil fuels in general and automobile pollution in

particular, drive the need for a clean and environmentally friendly fuel.

This leads to inventors looking for a different fuel source. Thus the field of alternative

fuels was born. The important aim of these alternative fuel technologies is to produce a power

source as efficient and powerful as the existing I.C. engine.

1.5Fossil fuel availability and consumption :

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the

remains of dead plants and animals. Today most of the automobiles are powered by fossil fuels

especially gasoline, diesel and natural gas, which comes under the non-renewable type.

According to statistics the estimated reserves of the major fossil fuels are,

 Oil: 1,050,691 to 1,277,702 million barrels (2003-2005)

 Gas: 6,040,208 - 6,805,830 billion cubic feet (2003-2005)

 Coal: 1,081,279 million short tons (2004)

With regards to the increasing demand of fossil fuels the expected life of the fuel reserves is

Oil-32 years, Gas-72 years, Coal-252 years.

6
 !

Fig.1.5.1 Consumption of fossil fuels

The graph shows that in the mere future the demand is going to exceed production. So we

are in need of finding an alternative renewable energy especially for automobiles.

1.6 Objective of the Project :

The main objectives are:

 To find an effective alternative fuel for the future

 To develop a zero pollution vehicle and hence contribute to the act of reducing

global warming.

 To make automobile common for a common man.

 To formulate economic way of transportation.

 To minimize the usage of fast depleting non-renewable resources especially gasoline

and diesel.

It has been the constant endeavour of these eminent people to develop an alternative

technology that produces the same or more power and delivers the same efficiency as the I.C.

engine that is also free of harmful pollutants.

In this quest several interesting and convenient alternatives have been devised.

Prominent among them are:

7
  Bio-diesel

 Ethanol

 Liquefied Petroleum Gas

 Compressed Natural Gas

 Hydrogen

In all these alternative forms of technology, the common process is combustion. This is

the primary reason for emission of pollutants. To ensure nearly zero emissions we have to seek

for a power generation process without combustion. Some of the present technologies

producing power without combustion are -

 Electrical power

 Fuel Cell Technology

The problems associated with electrical power systems is the need for frequent recharge of

battery and unable to operate at heavy loads along with need for specialized maintenance.

For example the readily available electric scooter in the market has a top speed of 40 km/h

and a battery life of around 9 hrs. which is not suitable for reliable transport system. An

American aerospace company, TESLA, has designed an electric car that can accelerate from 0-

60 kmph in under 4 sec. But this car uses around 64 batteries to power it, which requires a large

amount of electricity. So a higher consumption of electricity is required.

Fuel Cell technology is a developing and most promising technology currently used. But

its bulkiness and its employment of liquid and inability to produce high power output make it a

less viable option for the present. Also its use could be more suitable for stationary power

generation than automobile use.

8
Chapter 2-IC Engines
2.1Introduction

Any machine that derives heat energy from the combustion of the fuel and converts part of

this energy into mechanical work is known as heat engine. Heat engine are mainly classified

into two types, internal combustion engine and External combustion engine.

In case of external combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place outside the

cylinder as in case of steam engines. The other examples of external combustion engines are hot

air engines, steam turbine and closed cycle gas turbines.

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an

oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This

exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure, which are permitted to

expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed

by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement of solid parts of the engine, by

acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself.

The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to refer specifically to

reciprocating piston engines; however, continuous combustion engines, such as jet engines,

most rockets and many gas turbines are also internal combustion engines. All internal

combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion, the reaction of

a fuel, typically with the oxygen from the air, although other oxidizers such as nitrous oxide

may be employed.

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly

from petroleum. These include the fuels known as diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and

the rarer use of propane gas. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can run on

natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications except for the fuel

delivery components.
9
 Liquid and gaseous bio-fuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is

produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil) can also be used. Some can

also run on hydrogen gas.

All internal combustion engines must achieve ignition in their cylinders to create

combustion. Typically engines use either a spark ignition (SI) method or a compression ignition

(CI) system. In the past, other methods using hot tubes or flames have been used.

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in

automobiles, equipment, and other portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal

combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with

excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in transport in almost all

automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives,

generally using petroleum (called All-Petroleum Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or

APICEVs). Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships,

they appear mostly in the form of turbines. They are also used for electric generator

2.2 Classification of IC Engines

→ Based on Number of strokes:

• Two-stroke engine

• Four-stroke engine

→ Based on Cycle of Operation:

• Otto cycle

• Diesel cycle

• Dual cycle

→ Based on Number of Cylinders:

• Single cylinder engine

10
 • Multi cylinder engine

→ Based on Fuel Supply System:

• Carburettor engines

• Solid injection engines

• Air injection engines

→ Based on Lubrication System:

• Wet sump lubrication

• Dry sump lubrication

• pressure lubrication

→ Based on Fuel Used:

• Petrol engine

• Diesel engine

• Gas engine

• Bi-fuel engine

→ Based on Method of Ignition:

• Spark ignition engines (SI engines)

• Compression ignition engines (CI engines)

→ Based on Method of Cooling:

• Water cooled

• Air cooled

→ Based on the Arrangement of Cylinder:

• In-line engine

• V-Type engine

• Opposed piston engine

• Opposed cylinder engine

11
2.3 IC Engine Components :

2.3.1 Cylinder:

The cylinder of IC engine is considered as the main body of the engine in which piston

reciprocates to develop power. It has to withstand very high pressure and temperature because

there is direct combustion inside the cylinder. Therefore, the material used should be such that it

can retain strength at high temperature, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid

wear and tear due to reciprocating parts. Generally ordinary cast iron is used but in case of

heavy duty engines alloy steels are used.

Fig 2.3.1.Cylinder

2.3.2 Cylinder Head:

The cylinder head closes the one end of the engine. It houses the inlet and exhaust valve

through which the charge is taken inside the cylinder and burnt gases are exhausted to the

atmosphere from the cylinder. It is usually cast as one piece and bolted to the top of the

cylinder.

Fig 2.3.2 Cylinder Head

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2.3.3 Piston and Piston Rings:

The function of piston is to compress the charge during compression stroke and

to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then to the crank during power

stroke. The piston of IC engine is usually made of aluminium alloy because of its

high thermal conductivity and lower specific gravity.

Fig 2.3.3 Piston Rings

The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface of the

piston. It gives gas tight fittings between the piston and the cylinder and prevents the leakage of

high pressure gases.

2.3.4 Piston pin:

The piston pin provides the bearing for the oscillating small end of the connecting rod.

It is made up of hardened steel in the shape of the spindle.

Fig.2.3.4 Piston Pin

2.3.5 Connecting Rod:

13
It is usually a steel forging of circular, rectangular, I, T, H sections and is highly polished for

increased endurance strength.

Its small end forms a hinge and a pin joint with the piston and its

big end is connected to the crank shaft. In large engines, it has a passage for the transfer of

lubricating oil from the big end bearing to the small end bearing.

Fig 2.3.5 Connecting Rod

2.3.6 Crank and Crank shaft:

Crank is the integral part of the crankshaft. Both the crank and crank shaft are steel forged

and are machined to smooth finish. Crankshaft is supported in the main bearing and has a heavy

wheel called flywheel fixed at one end, to balance the fluctuations of torque. The power

required for any useful purpose is taken from the crankshaft only. Crankshaft is the backbone of

the engine.

2.3.7 Inlet valves:

This valve controls the admission of the charge in to the petrol engine or the air in to the

diesel engine during the suction stroke of the engine.

2.3.8 Exhaust Valve:

The combusted products after doing work on the piston are exhausted to atmosphere

through this valve.

14
2.3.9 Valve Springs:

The valves are kept closed by the valve springs.

2.3.10 Inlet Manifold:

It is the passage which carries the charge from the carburetor to the cylinder.

2.3.11 Exhaust Manifold:

It is the passage which carries the exhaust gases which comes out through the exhaust

valve to the atmosphere.

2.3.12 Engine Bearings:

Crankshaft is supported in main bearings which are lubricated.

Function of bearing is to facilitate smooth motion to crankshaft and reduce friction between

them.

Fig.2.3.12 Engine Bearings

2.3.13 Cam Shaft:

The function of the cam shaft is to operate the inlet and exhaust valve through the cams,

cam followers, push rods and rocker arms. The cam shaft is driven positively from the crank

shaft which is half the engine speed.

2.3.14 Cam and Cam Follower:

It is made of required profile to give the desired motion to valve through the follower.

2.3.15 Push Rod and Rocker Arm:

The motion of the cam is transmitted to the valve through the push rod and rocker arm.

These links are also known as valve gear.

15
2.3.16 Crank Case:

It is the base which holds the cylinder, piston and crank shaft set up. It also serves as a

sump for the lubricating oil.

2.3.17 Flywheel:

It is a wheel mounted on the crank shaft which stores excess energy during the power

stroke and returns that energy during the other strokes.

2.3.18 Governor:

It is run by a drive from the crank shaft. The function of the governor is to regulate the charge in

case of petrol engine and amount of fuel in case of diesel engine to maintain the speed of the

engine constant.

2.3.19 Spark Plug:

The function of the spark plug is to ignite the mixture at the correct time after completing

the compression stroke in petrol engine. It is generally mounted in the cylinder head. This is

used in petrol engine only.

2.3.20 Ignition System:

In petrol engines the charge is ignited by an electric spark. The ignition system provides

the voltage between the spark plug gaps at the proper timings.

2.3.21 Carburettor:

The function of carburettor is to prepare the mixture of fuel and air and meter it before

sending it to induction system of the engine according to operating conditions of the engine in

case of spark ignition engines.

2.3.22 Fuel Injection Pump:

Functions of fuel injection pump are to inject the atomised fuel to the cylinder under very

high pressure in case of compression ignition engines.

16
2.4 Four Stroke Petrol Engine and Functioning

2.4.1 Introduction:

Since our project was carried out in a four stroke petrol engine it is necessary to cite some

important features of four stroke engine. As mentioned earlier it comes under the classification

of IC engines, reciprocating type. In four stroke engine working cycle is completed in four

strokes of piston or two revolutions of the crank.

In four stroke engine, ports (used for two stroke engine) are replaced by valves located

inside the cylinder head which are opened and closed by cam mechanism to exhibit various

cycle processes.

The cam is mounted on camshaft. In case of four stroke engine, the camshaft rotates at

half the speed of the crankshaft with the help of timing gears having a tooth ratio of 1:2.

Four stroke engines are of two types:

• Spark ignition engines

• Compression ignition engines

During the suction stroke the mixture of fuel and air is supplied and the mixture is ignited

with the help of spark provided by spark plug before the end of compression stroke. These are

called S.I. engines.

The C.I. engines work on diesel cycle with working fluid as diesel. Here, only air is

inducted during suction stroke and the fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke. These

employ high compression ratio in the range of 14 to 20.

17
!

Fig 2.4.1.Cut Section of four stroke IC engine

2.4.2 Working:

In four-stroke engine, working cycle is completed in four stroke of the piston or two

revolution of the crank. Here, intake and compression process is completed during the first

revolution of the crank and correspondingly the expansion and exhaust process are completed

during the other revolution of the crank and this cycle is repeated. The various processes are

➢ Intake:

During the intake stroke, the piston moves downward, drawing a fresh charge of

vaporized fuel/air mixture. The illustrated engine fuels a poppet intake valve which is drawn

open by the vacuum produced by the intake stroke.

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 Some earlier engines worked this way, however, most modern engines incorporate

an extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held shut

by a spring.

➢ Compression:

During compression, the piston moves from BDC to TDC compressing the vaporized

fuel-air mixture.

Fig 2.4.2 Working cycle of four stroke engine

➢ Power:

At the top of the compression stroke, the spark plug fires, igniting the compressed fuel.

As the fuel burns it expands, driving the piston downward.

➢ Exhaust:

At the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened by the cam/lifter

mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder.

2.4.3 Ideal Otto Cycle :

The petrol engine works under Otto or constant volume cycle which is shown below.

19
 Fig2.3 ideal Otto cycle

Process involved:

→ Process (2-3):

Otto cycle consists of two constant volumes and two reversible adiabatic compression

or isentropic compression during which air is compressed from state-1 to state-2. The law of

process is P.Vγ=c

→ Process (3-4):

Heat is added to air from a heat reservoir at constant volume and state changes from

state-2 to state-3.

Heat supplied Q3-4=mCv(T2-T3)

→ Process (4-5):

The air expands from state-3 to state-4 reversible adiabatically according to the law

P.Vγ=c

→ Process (5-2):

20
 During this process heat is rejected at constant volume and the system returns to its

original state. Therefore, a cycle is completed.

Heat rejected Q5-2 = mCv (T4-T1)

2.4.4 Valve Timing Diagram :

Fig 2.4.4 Valve timing diagram of four stroke engine

IVO-Inlet valve open IVC- Inlet valve close

EVO- Exhaust valve open EVC- Exhaust valve close

2.5Two Stroke Petrol Engine

21
 A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the process cycle in

one revolution of the crankshaft (an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston, compared to

twice that number for a four-stroke engine). This is accomplished by using the end of the

combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke to perform simultaneously the

intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions. In this way, two-stroke engines often provide high

specific power, at least in a narrow range of rotational speeds. The functions of some or all of

the valves required by a four-stroke engine are usually served in a two-stroke engine by ports

that are opened and closed by the motion of the piston(s), greatly reducing the number of

moving parts. Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable)

applications, such as chainsaws, and the concept is also used in diesel compression ignition

engines in large and weight insensitive applications, such as ships and locomotives.

Two stroke cycle are very widely employed where small power required for motor

cycle, auto rickshaw, scooters. These types of engines are compact in size, easy for

manufacturing and simple in operations. One drawback is there, Specific FuelConsumption

(S.F.C) is more.(means fuel per Break Horse Power (b. h. p.) per hour is more). There are no

inlet and exhaust valves as in four stroke engine but we have inlet and exhaust ports only, due to

which suction and exhaust stroke are eliminated in two stroke cycle engine. Here the burnt

exhaust gases are forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh charge of fuel which enters the

cylinder nearly at the end of working stroke through inlet port. This process is called as

"Scavenging". Details about Scavenging will be covered in another post.

As I told above, it has no valves but consists of the inlet port (IP), exhaust port (EP) and transfer

port (TP).The ignition starts due to the spark given by spark plug when the piston be nearing the

completion of its compression stroke. As a result, piston is pushed down performing the

working stroke and in doing so; the air-fuel mixture already drawn from the inlet port in the

previous stroke is compressed to a pressure of about 1.4 kilogram/ centimeter square.

22
 When 80% of this stroke is completed the exhaust port is uncovered slightly and some

of the charges of burnt gases escape to the atmosphere. As the exhaust port is uncovered by the

further downward movement of the piston, the transfer port, which is slightly lower than

exhaust port, is also uncovered and a charge of compressed air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder

and further pushes out the burnt gases out of the exhaust port.

To facilitate the deflection of the fresh charge upward and to avoid its escape along with

exhaust gases, the top of the piston is made of a particular shape. From bottom dead centre,

when the piston moves up, it first closes the transfer port and then exhaust port. The charge of

fuel which previously entered in the cylinder is now compressed. When the piston is nearing the

upward movement the inlet port opens and afresh charge of air-fuel mixture from the carburetor

enters the crankcase. After the ignition of charge takes place the piston moves down for the

power stroke and thus the cycle is repeated.

2.6 Pollutants Released due to combustion:

Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce

air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main

derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide CO2, water and some soot — also called

particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans

and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There

are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides

and sulfur and some un-combusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and

the fuel-air ratio.

Not all of the fuel will be completely consumed by the combustion process; a small amount of

fuel will be present after combustion, some of which can react to form oxygenates, such as

formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not originally present in the input fuel

23
mixture. Incomplete combustion usually results from insufficient oxygen to achieve the perfect

stoichiometric ratio. The flame is "quenched" by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving

behind unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds,

quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural

gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to

stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the production of carbonmonoxide (CO). Further

chemicals released are benzene and 1,3-butadiene that are also hazardous air pollutants.

Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion

products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen
24
oxides (NOx). NOx is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of

ozone (O3). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the

atmosphere by the reaction of NO"x" and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight.

Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same

chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the

ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

Carbon fuels contain sulphur and impurities that eventually lead to producing sulfur

monoxides (SO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust which promotes acid rain.

In the United States, nitrogen oxides, PM, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone, are

regulated as criteria air pollutants under the Clean Air Act to levels at which human health and

welfare are protected. Other pollutants, such as benzene and 1,3-butadiene, are regulated as

hazardous air pollutants whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on

technological and practical considerations.

25
Chapter 3 - Compressed air Engine
Introduction to air engine :

As the main part of the COMPRESSED GAS ENGINE is air, it is mandatory to have a

brief study about air. Air is the substance which is essential for the existence of living beings.

Air is the most common and only natural breathing gas.

3.1 Why only Air an Alternate fuel ?

Air is a mixture of 21% oxygen,78% nitrogen, and approximately 1% other trace gases;

to simplify calculations this last 1% is usually treated as if it were nitrogen. Being cheap and

simple to use, it is the most common diving gas. As its nitrogen component causes nitrogen

narcosis it is considered to have a safe depth limit of about 40 metres (130feet) for most

divers.

Fig 3.1 Composition of air

Pure oxygen is mainly used to speed the shallow decompression stops at the end of a

technical dive. It was much used in frogmen’s re-breathers. Nitrox is a mixture of oxygen and

air, and generally refers to mixtures which are more than 21% oxygen. It is mainly used

instead of air to accelerate decompression or to decrease the risk of decompression sickness.

Trimix is a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and helium and is often used at depth in technical

diving and commercial diving instead of air to reduce nitrogen narcosis. Heliox is a mixture
26
of oxygen and helium and ids often used in the deep phase of a commercial deep dive to

eliminate nitrogen narcosis.

Helixair is a form of Trimix that is easily blended from helium and air without using

pure oxygen. It is always has a 21:79 ratio of oxygen to nitrogen; the balance of the mix is

helium.

TABLE 3.1 COMPOSITION OF AIR

Component Symbol Volume

Nitrogen N2 78.084%

Oxygen O2 20.947%
99.998%
Argon Ar 0.934%

Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.033%

Neon Ne 18.2 parts per million

Helium He 5.2 parts per million

Krypton Kr 1.1 parts per million

Sulphur dioxide SO2 1.0 parts per million

Methane CH4 2.0 parts per million

Hydrogen H2 0.5 parts per million

Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.5 parts per million

Xenon Xe 0.09 parts per million

Ozone O3 0.07 parts per million

Nitrogen dioxide NO2 0.02 parts per million

Iodine I2 0.01 parts per million

27
3.2 Earths Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas which surrounds the earth. This picture shows the

two most important layers known as the troposphere and the stratosphere. The air gets thinner

and thinner the higher you go, 90% of all the molecules in the atmosphere are in the

troposphere. Air is a mixture of various gases, information on the uses of some of these gases

can be found.

Fig 3.2 Layers of earth’s atmosphere

The atmosphere has changed a lot compared to earth’s early atmosphere, but for the last

billion years it has remained pretty constant. We now need to look at 3 very different

atmospheric problems:

3.2.1 Damage to the Ozone Layer :

Ozone is oxygen that contains molecules that have 3 oxygen atoms (O3). The molecule

is triatomic instead of the usual O2 molecule which is diatomic. There is a layer of ozone high

up in the atmosphere which shields the earth from the sun’s harmful UV rays; these rays can

lead to an increase in skin cancer. The ozone is present in very small quantities but it is

28
enough to absorb the UV rays preventing them reaching the surface. The map below shows

the concentrations of ozone over the northern hemisphere during 1980-1991

Fig 3.3 Concentrations of ozone over the northern hemisphere

In 1985 over 60 countries pledged to phase out a group of chemicals called CFC’s.

These very stable chemicals were once widely used in aerosols and refrigerators. It was

thought that their release into atmosphere produced chlorine radicals which reacted with O3 to

produce O2. The emission of CFC’s into the environment is now greatly reduced,

unfortunately the damage has already been done and the CFC molecules, thanks to their

stability, are still causing ozone depletion.

3.2.2 Acid Rain:

Rain water is naturally acidic due to carbon dioxide which partially reacts with water to

give carbonic acid (H2O + CO2 -- > H2CO3). When we talk about acid rain we mean the

Enhanced effect which is caused by other gases released when fossil fuels are burnt. Two

gases are the main culprits:

➢ Sulphur dioxide – Fossil fuels often contain a lot of sulphur impurities which burn to

give sulphur dioxide. The SO2 reacts with water in the atmosphere to form a weak

solution of sulphuric acid.

29
 ➢ Nitrogen oxides – under normal conditions nitrogen and oxygen don’t react together.

At very high temperatures (in an engine) a small proportion of oxygen reacts with

nitrogen to give nitrogen oxides. These oxides react with water in the atmosphere to

form a weak solution of nitric acid.

The dilute acid falls to ground as acid rain which causes the following problems:

➢ Lakes become acidic and plants and fishes die as a result

➢ Tree growth is damaged; whole forests can die as a result

➢ Acid rain attacks metal structures and also buildings made of limestone

TABLE 3.2: PROPERTIES OF AIR

Expansio

Specific Thermal Kinematic n

Temperatur Density
heat conductivit viscosity
 coefficien
Prandtl's
e
 

capacity
 y
 t

number

- ν -

- t -
 - ρ -

- cp -
 - l -
 - b -
 - P r-
(m2/s) x
(oC) (kg/m3)
(kJ/kg K) (W/m K) 10-6 (1/K) x

10-3

-150 2.793 1.026 0.0116 3.08 8.21 0.76

-100 1.980 1.009 0.0160 5.95 5.82 0.74

-50 1.534 1.005 0.0204 9.55 4.51 0.725

0 1.293 1.005 0.0243 13.30 3.67 0.715

20 1.205 1.005 0.0257 15.11 3.43 0.713

40 1.127 1.005 0.0271 16.97 3.20 0.711

60 1.067 1.009 0.0285 18.90 3.00 0.709

30
 80 1.000 1.009 0.0299 20.94 2.83 0.708

100 0.946 1.009 0.0314 23.06 2.68 0.703

120 0.898 1.013 0.0328 25.23 2.55 0.70

140 0.854 1.013 0.0343 27.55 2.43 0.695

160 0.815 1.017 0.0358 29.85 2.32 0.69

180 0.779 1.022 0.0372 32.29 2.21 0.69

200 0.746 1.026 0.0386 34.63 2.11 0.685

3.3 History of Air Engines :

The Technology of air engine is not new. The Sterling air engine was developed in

1790-1810, but due to its limitation no much work was carried out. In view of fire problems

in Coalmines and other volatile places, where high flammable fuel like fossil fuel vehicles are

not advisable, compressed air operated vehicles are normally being put in use. Now from last

two decades major thrust is being given by the researchers for development of Compressed

air engine. Some technical developments, which may be considered to work on 21st Century

Energy Storage system and can work on compressed air or hybrid system as an alternative to

fossil fuel for running light vehicles, are listed below

The compressed air as an energy and locomotion vector is precisely not a recent

technology. In fact at the end of the 19th century the first approximations to what could one

31
day become a compressed air driven vehicle already existed, through the arrival of the first

pneumatic locomotives. Yet even two centuries before that Dennis Papin apparently came up

with the idea of using compressed air (Royal Society London, 1687).

The first recorded compressed-air vehicle in France was built by the Frenchmen

Andraud and Tessie of Motay in 1838. A car ran on a test track at Chaillot on the 9th July

1840, and worked well, but the idea was not pursued further. In 1872 the Mekarski air engine

was used for street transit, consisting of a single-stage engine. It represented an extremely

important advance in terms of pneumatic engines, due to its forward thinking use of

thermodynamics, ensuring that the air was heated, by passing it through ….tanks of boiling

water. Numerous locomotives were manufactured and the first in Nantes in 1879. The H.

K.Porter Company in Pittsburgh sold hundreds of these locomotives to coal-mining

companies in the eastern U.S. With the hopeful days of air powered street transit over, the

compressed air locomotive became a standard fixture in coal mines around the world because

it created no heat or spark and was therefore invaluable in gassy mines where explosions

were always a danger with electric or gas engines.

Also in 1896, Porter supplied ten compressed air motor cars for the Eckington System

in Washington, D.C. There was a tank on the front of the engine and it was recharged at the

station. Between 1890 and 1902 ten compressed air trams circulated in Bern, Switzerland. In

1892, Robert Hardie introduced a new method of heating that at the same time served to

increase the range of the engine. However, the first urban transport locomotive was not

introduced until 1898, by Hoadley and Knight, and they introduced a two stage engine. Later

on, in 1912 the American’s method was improved by Europeans, adding a further expansion

stage to the engine (3 stages). In 1926, Lee Barton Williams of Pittsburg USA presented his

invention: an automobile which he claimed run on air. The motor starts on gasoline, but after

it has reached a speed of ten miles an hour the gasoline supply is shut off and the air starts to

work. At the first test his invention attained a speed of 62 miles an hour.
32
 In January 1932 what appears to be the first journalistic article ever written about a

car driven by compressed air was published. In 1934, a 21-year-old researcher Johannes

Wardenier announced the development of world’s first fuel-less automobile. For weeks Dutch

newspapers reported of an incredible invention that would change the world forever.

After the Second World War the term “Air engine” was never used again in textbooks

in reference to compressed air or pneumatic locomotives and, whenever they mentioned it the

article would go on to state that these engines are of little use or efficiency. In 1970’s, Willard

Truitt presented his invention in McKee’s Rocks, USA. But because he did not have the

financial means to develop his compressed air car further, he gave the rights of his invention

to NASA and the US Army in 1982.

In 1979, Terry Miller decided that compressed air was the perfect medium for storing

energy. He developed Air Car One, which he built for $ 1,500. Terry’s engines showed that it

was feasible to manufacture a car that could run on compressed air. He patented his method

in 1983 (US4370857).

In the 1980’s Carl Leissler developed a motor that was able to function on air. The

retired horticulturalist had been working from his garage in Hollywood for over 15 years. He

says that to use his motor in a car you might have to use a small electric or gas energy source

to help drive the air compressor. ‘We might be able to get 2000 miles per gallon; air is a

power in itself’ Leissler comments. Until 1987 the German company Arnold Jung

Locomotive fabric GmbH produced locomotives functioning on compressed air to be used in

mines. In the 1980’s they were still selling and renovating locomotives.

Currently the tram association in Bern Switzerland (BTG) is developing a locomotive

according to the original plans. At present (2008) various researchers and industries are

developing compressed air engines/motors applicable to transportation, apart from the many

industries that produce and commercialize compressed air motors for industrial purposes.

33
 3.4 Companies Looking Forward for Compressed Air Technology(CAT):

Various companies are investing in the research development and deployment of Compressed
air cars. Overoptimistic reports of impending production date back to at least May 1999. For
instance, the MDI Air Car made its public debut in South Africa in 2002, and was predicted
to be in production "within six months" in January 2004. As of January 2009, the air car
never went into production in South Africa. Most of the cars under development also rely on
using similar technology to Low Energy Vehicles in order to increase the range and
performance of their cars.
 APUQ

APUQ (Association de Promotion des Usages de la Quasiturbine) has made the APUQ

Air Car, a car powered by a quasiturbine.

 MDI

Main article Motor Development International

MDI has proposed a range of vehicles made up of Air Pod, OneFlowAir, CityFlowAir,

MiniFlowAir and MultiFlowAir. One of the main innovations of this company is its

implementation of its "active chamber", which is a compartment which heats the air

(through the use of a fuel) in order to double the energy output. This 'innovation' was first

used in torpedoesin 1904.

 Tata Motors

As of January 2009 Tata Motors of Indiahad planned to launch a car with an MDI

compressed air engine in 2011. In December 2009 Tata's vice president of engineering

systems confirmed that the limited range and low engine temperatures were causing

problems. Meanwhile any related articles or connections to MDI have been deleted from the

website of Tata Motors, including in the archive.

 Air Car Factories SA

Air Car Factories SA is proposing to develop and build a compressed air engine. This

Spanish based company was founded by Miguel Celades. Currently there is a bitter dispute
34
between Motor Development International another firm called Luis which developed

compressed-air vehicles, and Mr.Celades, who was once associated with that firm.

 Energine

The Energine Corporation was a South Korean company that claimed to deliver fully

assembled cars running on a hybrid compressed air and electric engine. These cars are more

precisely named pneumatic-hybrid electric vehicles. Engineers from this company made,

starting from a Daewoo Matiz, a prototype of a hybrid electric/compressed-air engine. The

compressed-air engine is used to activate an alternator, which extends the autonomous

operating capacity of the car.

The CEO of Energine was reportedly arrested for fraud.

A similar concept using a pneumatic accumulator in a largely hydraulic system has been

developed by U.S. government research laboratories and industry. It uses compressed air only

for recovery of braking energy, and in 2007 was introduced for certain heavy vehicle

applications such as refuse trucks.

 K'Airmobiles

K'Airmobiles vehicles were intended to be commercialized from a project developed in

France in 2006-2007 by a small group of researchers. However, the project has not been able

to gather the necessary funds.

People should note that, meantime, the team has recognized the physical impossibility to use

on-board stored compressed air due to its poor energy capacity and the thermal losses

resulting from the expansion of the gas.

These days, using the patent pending 'K'Air Fluid Generator', converted to work as a

compressed-gas motor, the project should be launched in 2010, thanks to a North American

group of investors, but for the purpose of developing first a green energy power system.

 Engineair

35
 Engineair is an Australian company which manufactures small industrial vehicles using

an air engine of its own design.

 Honda

In 2010, Honda presented the Honda Airconcept car at the LA Auto Show.

3.5 Compressed Air Energy Storage :

Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) is a way to store energy generated at one time for

use at another time. At utility scale, energy generated during periods of low energy demand

(off-peak) can be released to meet higher demand (peak load) periods.

Compression of air generates heat; the air is warmer after compression. Expansion

requires heat. If no extra heat is added, the air will be much colder after expansion. If the heat

Fig 3.5 Compressed Air Energy Storage

generated during compression can be stored and used during expansion, the efficiency of the

storage improves considerably.

There are three ways in which a CAES system can deal with the heat. Air storage can be

adiabatic,diabatic, or isothermic:

36
 Adiabatic storage retains the heat produced by compression and returns it to the air when

the air is expanded to generate power. This is a subject of ongoing study, with no utility

scale plants as of 2010, but a German project ADELE is planned to enter development in

2013. The theoretical efficiency of adiabatic storage approaches 100% with perfect

insulation, but in practice round trip efficiency is expected to be 70%. Heat can be stored

in a solid such as concrete or stone, or more likely in a fluid such as hot oil (up to 300

°C) or molten salt solutions (600 °C).

 Diabatic storage dissipates the extra heat with intercoolers (thus approaching isothermal

compression) into the atmosphere as waste. Upon removal from storage, the air must be

re-heated prior to expansion in the turbine to power a generator which can be

accomplished with a natural gas fired burner for utility grade storage or with a heated

metal mass. The lost heat degrades efficiency, but this approach is simpler and is thus far

the only system which has been implemented commercially. The McIntosh, Alabama

CAES plant requires 2.5 MJ of electricity and 1.2 MJ lower heating value (LHV) of gas

for each megajoule of energy output. A General Electric 7FA 2x1 combined cycle plant,

one of the most efficient natural gas plants in operation, uses 6.6 MJ (LHV) of gas per

kW–h generated, a 54% thermal efficiency comparable to the McIntosh 6.8 MJ, at 53%

thermal efficiency.

 Isothermal compression and expansion approaches attempt to maintain operating

temperature by constant heat exchange to the environment. They are only practical for

low power levels, without very effective heat exchangers. The theoretical efficiency of

isothermal energy storage approaches 100% for perfect heat transfer to the environment.

In practice neither of these perfect thermodynamic cycles are obtainable, as some heat

losses are unavoidable.

37
A different, highly efficient arrangement, which fits neatly into none of the above categories,

uses high, medium and low pressure pistons in series, with each stage followed by an airblast

venturi pump that draws ambient air over an air-to-air (or air-to-seawater) heat exchanger

between each expansion stage. Early compressed air torpedo designs used a similar approach,

substituting seawater for air. The venturi warms the exhaust of the preceding stage and admits

this preheated air to the following stage. This approach was widely adopted in various

compressed air vehicles such as H. K. Porter,

Inc'smininglocomotives and trams. Here the heat of compression is effectively stored in the

atmosphere (or sea) and returned later on.

Compression can be done with electrically powered turbo-compressors and expansion with

turbo 'expanders' or air engines driving electrical generators to produce electricity.

The storage vessel is often an underground cavern created by solution mining (salt is

dissolved in water for extraction) or by utilizing an abandoned mine. Plants operate on a daily

cycle, charging at night and discharging during the day.

Compressed air energy storage can also be employed on a smaller scale such as exploited by

air cars and air-driven locomotives, and also by the use of high-strength carbon-fiberair

storage tanks.

Since about 1990 several companies have claimed to be developing compressed air cars, but

none are available. Typically the main claimed advantages are: no roadside pollution, low

cost, use of cooking oil for lubrication, and integrated air conditioning.

Chapter 4. Compression of Air

4.1 Compression of air:
38
 An air compressor is a device that

converts power (usually from an electric motor,

a diesel engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic

energy by compressing and pressurizing air,

which, on command, can be released in quick

bursts. There are numerous methods of air

compression, divided into either

positivedisplacement or negative-displacement

types.

Positive-displacement air compressors work by forcing air into a chamber whose volume is

reduced to compress the air. Piston-type air

compressors use this principle by pumping air into

an air chamber through the use of the constant

motion of pistons. They use unidirectional valves

to guide air into a chamber, where the air is

compressed. Rotary screw compressors also use

positive-displacement compression by matching two helical screws that, when turned, guide

air into a chamber, the volume of which is reduced as the screws turn. Vane compressors use

a slotted rotor with varied blade placement to guide air into a chamber and compress the

volume.

Negative-displacement air compressors include centrifugal compressors. These devices use

centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then decelerate captured

air, which pressurizes it .

4.2 Types of compressors:

Types of air compressor:

39
 1. According to the design and principle of operation

1. Reciprocating compressor

2. Rotary compressor

2. According to the number of stages

1. Single stage compressor

2. Multi stage compressor

3. According to the pressure limits

1. Low pressure compressors

2. Medium pressure compressors

3. High pressure compressors

4. Super high pressure compressors

4. According to the capacity

1. Low capacity compressors

2. Medium capacity compressors

3. High capacity compressors

5. According to the method of cooling

1. Air cooled compressor

2. Water cooled compressor

4.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of Compression

(Reciprocating Compressor)

Reciprocating compressors are often used with air reservoirs to provide compressed

air for industrial and civil duties driving air tools etc. Reservoirs have to be used because

reciprocating compressors provide a pulsating air delivery..


40
The figure below shows a hypothetical indicator diagram for a single stage -single acting

reciprocating compressor.

a ->1... Air is drawn into the cylinder on the suction stroke 


1 ->2... The suction valve is closed and air is compressed according to the law

Pvn = c 


The cycles shown are assumed to follow a series of equilibrium states and the gas is assumed

to follow the equation of state. PV = RmT throughout the theoretical work done on the air per

cycle is the area enclosed by [ a-1-2-b- a ] which equals

! 


If C is the rate at which the cycles are repeated then the rate at which energy is imparted to

the air =

!
41
The ideal compression requiring the minimum amount of work is the perfect reversible

isothermal compression process which obeys Boyle's law PV = c. This is represented by 1-3.

The work saved per cycle is [ 1-2-3-1 ]. If the compression was isothermal the work done per

cycle would be [ a-1-3-b-a ] which is

The compressor isothermal efficiency is a measure of the departure from the ideal

compression process and is defined as

4.3.1 Clearance Volume effect:


A practical single stage compressor cylinder will have a small clearance at the end of

the stroke. This clearance will have a significant effect on the work done per cycle.


In operation the air in the clearance volume expands to 4 before any fresh air is drawn into

the cylinder. The stroke is from C to 1 with a swept volume of (V1 – VC) but the suction is

only from 4 to 1 giving a volume of (V1- V4) taken into the cylinder on each stroke.

42
! 


Effect of Clearance Volume

Work done W = Area 1-2-3-4 = Area A-1-2-B – Area A-4-3-B

= (n/n-1)* p1v1 [(p2/p1) (n-1/n) – 1] – (n/n-1)* p1v4 [(p2/p1) (n-1/n) -1]

= (n/n-1) * p1 (v1-v4) [(p2/p1) (n-1/n) – 1]

= (n/n-1) * mRT1 [(p2/p1) (n-1/n) – 1]

Where (v1- v4) and m is equal to the actual volume and mass of air sucked by piston per cycle

respectively

4.3.2 Multi-stage:


When air at high pressure is required, multi-staged compression is more efficient than

using a single stage compressor. Also single stage compressors delivering high pressures

result in high gas temperatures which effect the lubrication and increase the risk of burning.


43
It is required to compress air from P 1to P 4. The
diagram below shows the curve for single stage
compression .a-b-c-k-h. The curve for ideal
isothermal compression is also shown a-b-j-h. The
area enclosed by the curves indicates the work done
per cycle and it is clear that the work done in the
ideal isothermal process is far less than that done in
the single stage compression.

Assume a three stage compressor process is used. 


The air is compressed from P1 to P 2 (a -> c) and the air is transferred into a receiver and

cooled to its original temperature (c -> d) and the air is then transferred from the receiver to a

second cylinder and compressed to P3 (d -> e).


The air is then transferred to a second receiver and cooled back to its original temperature

(e -> f) and transferred again to a third cylinder and compressed to P4 (f -> g).


The overall process is represented by curve a-b-c-d-e-f-g-h. The cooling brings the process

closer toward the ideal isothermal (constant temperature) curve. The saving in work done per

cycle is identified by the shaded area.

44
Chapter 5- PRINCIPLE OF AIR ENGINE
5.1 Introduction :

The project titled “Design and fabrication of two stroke engine powered by compressed

gas” is an attempt to highlight the various possibilities of acquiring an environmentally

friendly and efficient power source. The use of high pressure, expanding gas, to power the

engine piston is the fundamental process in the function of all engines with reciprocating

pistons.

In this project we have used highly pressurized gas to provide that necessary force to

cause reciprocation of the piston and thereby produce power. This gas is introduced into the

45
engine cylinder at the Top Dead Center position of the piston through a timing valve, thereby

giving the gas the maximum capacity to impart its force on the piston.

The emission from this process is nil and 100% environmentally friendly. We have

shown that with the smallest of changes in our existing engine design we can incorporate this

technology in our present modes of transportation. The simple yet dramatic change brought

by this system is according to us the most significant aspect of our project.

We have shown a positive way of implementing this technology and as always with any

system; this has tremendous potential for improvement and perfection.

5.2 Principle :

The principle of the air engine is derived from the steam engine in which the pressure

energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy. The air engine uses compressed air instead of

steam. The compressed air has pressure which on expansion moves the piston (linear motion)

which is converted to rotary motion through crank and connecting rod mechanism.

PRESSURE ENERGY --> KINETIC ENERGY

5.3 Working :

In the compressed air engine, the cycle of operation gets completed with two strokes of

the piston or one revolution of the crank.

The two strokes are:

 Expansion or Power stroke.

 Exhaust stroke.

5.3.1 Expansion or Power stroke:

During this stroke the piston moves from the TDC to BDC. At the beginning of this

stroke the inlet valve is opened and allows the compressed air stored in the tank to expand

inside the cylinder. This moves the piston down as pressure energy of air gets converted into

kinetic energy thus producing a power stroke.

46
 Just before reaching BDC the specially designed cam mechanism closes the inlet valve

and the piston uncovers an exhaust vent through which the expanded gas escapes to the

atmosphere. This reduces the load on the piston by reducing the amount of air present inside

the cylinder during return stroke.

Fig 5.3.1 Power stroke

5.3.2 Exhaust stroke:

During this stroke piston moves from BDC to TDC. Initially the piston covers the

exhaust vent and the cam mechanism opens the exhaust valve. Most of the air is expelled to

the atmosphere through the vent.

47
 Fig 5.3.2 Exhaust stroke through vent

Fig 5.3.3 Exhaust stroke

Table 5.3 Valve timing for Compressed air engine

Crank angle
Position w.r.to
SI.No Stroke Event (in
TDC/BDC
degrees)

Expansion or power
1 IVO After TDC 15

IVC After TDC 140

2 Exhaust 1
EVO Before BDC 18

48
 EVO After BDC 35

3 Exhaust 2 EVC After BDC 18

EVC Before TDC 45

5.4 Valve Timing diagram for Air Engine :

Fig 5.4 Valve timing diagram of air engine

TDC- Top dead centre

BDC-Bottom dead centre

IVO-Inlet valve open

IVC- Inlet valve close

EVO- Exhaust valve open

EVC- Exhaust valve close

During the first stroke, just 15 degree after TDC, the inlet valve opens to allow air from

the cylinder to expand inside the cylinder. This causes the piston to move downward

(pressure energy converted to kinetic energy). This timing avoids reversing of the engine.

Then after 140 degree of crank revolution, inlet valve closes and cuts off the air supply.

49
 Then after 7 degree of crank revolution, the exhaust vent opens to allow major part of

the expanded air to escape to the atmosphere. Both these timings are given in such a way that

the former prevents useful air from escaping out.

The latter reduces the resistance on the piston during return stroke. The crank rotates

another 18 degree to take the piston to BDC, thus completing the first stroke. During the

second stroke the piston starts moving from BDC to TDC. After 35 degree of crank

revolution from BDC, the exhaust valve opens which facilitates the remaining part of

expanded air trapped inside the cylinder to escape to the atmosphere. After 18 degree of crank

revolution from BDC, the exhaust vent closes. At the same time the expanded air continues to

escape through the exhaust valve. After this just 45 degree before TDC, the exhaust valve

closes and the piston reaches TDC after 15 degree of crank revolution, thus completing the

second stroke.

5.5Modifications done on the Engine :

Specifications Of The Engine Brought:

Engine : Hero Honda CD 100

Stroke Length :50 mm

Bore :50 mm

Displacement :100 cc

Engine cycle :Four stroke

Engine output power :5.5BHP

(Before modifications)

Torque :10.2Nm@7500rpm

Cooling System :Air cooled

Modifications:

Since the existing four stroke engines cannot be used as such to work as an air engine,

certain modifications has to be carried out to serve the purpose. As for our purpose the four
50
stroke engine is converted to a two stroke engine. It can be done by any one of the following

methods

➢ Using the idle gear in cam shaft rod which has equal teeth of that of the gear

connected to the crank shaft, so that it becomes a 2 stroke as the number of rotations

of crank shaft and cam shaft becomes equal.

➢ Reducing the timing chain so that there is not much slag.

➢ The spark plug was eliminated as no spark is required because of the absence of

combustion.

➢ An exhaust vent of diameter 5 mm is drilled on the surface of cylinder as per the

timing diagram.

➢ The timing is controlled exactly as per required by means of the timing gear and

chain.

5.5.1 Fabrication of the Timing Gear:

The existing four stroke engine is converted to a two stroke engine in order to use it as a

compressed air engine. This process is carried out with the help of a new gear which we have

designed for our purpose. We have fabricated a gear with 14 teeth and radius half to that of a

normal four stroke engine’s timing gear so that the timing would be doubled and is fixed to

the camshaft according to our dimensions.

In order to fix this gear to the cam shaft, we have made a small key like shaft which can fit

into the hole, present on the cam shaft. To the other end of this key there is a

cylindrical surface whose outer diameter is equal to the internal diameter of the fabricated

gear. In order to fix this gear to the key shaft, we have made splines on the external surface of

the key and also on the internal surface of the gear so that even timing can be adjusted as per

the timing diagram. This key is fitted to the cam shaft by means of press fit and also a small

51
hole is drilled so that another small key is attached so that there will be no slip between the

cam shaft and the key.

5.5.2.Exhaust Vent Design:

As per our calculations stated below, an exhaust vent is bored at a distance of

2.5mm from BDC to partially release the air to the atmosphere during return stroke of the

piston. Two fins are removed to bore the exhaust vent on the surface of cylinder.

In two-stroke engine, for 180o of crank rotation the piston covers the distance equal

to the stroke length which in our case is 50 mm.

As per our valve-timing diagram,

(180−162)
Exhaust vent dia = 1 − ∗ 100
180

=0.1×50

= 5 mm

5.6.Detailed Description:

In the present project an existing petrol engine is designed to operate on a Compressed

Air. A 100 CC Four Stroke Engine was taken and it was converted into a Two Stroke

Engine by modifying the Cam Shaft and timing gear on the Cam Shaft. It was for the

purpose of having a power stroke for every cycle; otherwise air pressure may not be

sufficient to overcome the back pressure in the dead cycle. The uniqueness of this

invention is that opening and closing of the valves and also the exhaust vent was so

adjusted that air engine produces power to drive the vehicle. By initial trials and some

analysis the Cam Shaft and timing gear was so designed that the inlet valve for

compressed air opens at 15 degrees after TDC. Usually in case of any IC engine

combustion starts before TDC to minimize the timing losses. But in case of the

Compressed Air Engine inlet valve cannot be opened before TDC otherwise the piston

52
 will go back towards BDC. This inlet valve closes 25 degrees just before BDC to cut off

the air supply to the engine.

During its upward journey of the piston towards TDC, pressure will tend develop further

due to the air left in the cylinder after the piston shuts off the exhaust vent. To overcome

this pressure power will be consumed from the output shaft. Since there is no scavenging

or any other type of fuel loses in compressed air engine, a 5 mm diameter exhaust vent is

provided 18 degrees before BDC. This crank angle and diameter was selected by repeated

trials. So when the piston passes through the vent, pressure inside the cylinder will

become atmospheric; 18 degrees after BDC, when the vent closes, since already there is

some momentum in the piston it will tend to move up to 35 degrees after BDC. At that

point of time exhaust valve will open so that the pressure inside the engine remains

atmospheric. Exhaust valve also cannot be opened for longer period of time otherwise

towards BDC piston will have a pulsating behavior. According to the Cam Shaft and

timing gear designed in the investigation, exhaust valve closes 45 degree before TDC.

Next 60 degrees of crank rotation piston will rotate purely due to inertia. This sequence of

events of the valve timing diagram is as shown in figure 1. From figures 2-4 shows the

movement of air with respect to the piston position.

Chapter 6 Theoretical and conceptual

design
6.1 Introduction :

The connections from the air tank which stores compressed air to the engine is as

shown in the figure:

53
6.2Thermodynamic analysis of Air Engine

6.2.1 Work done by air in an air engine:

As a matter of fact, the compressed air is made to enter the cylinder of an engine

which pushes its piston downward in the same way as of a reciprocating steam engine. Now

the work is done by movement of the piston. Now consider an air engine working with the

help of compressed air.

Let p1 = Pressure of the compressed air

v1 = volume of the compressed air

The theoretical indicator diagram of a reciprocating air engine without clearance,

compression and pressure drop at release is shown in the figure

54
 !

The compressed air from the compressor is admitted into an air engine at A with

pressure p1. It drives the piston forward. But after a part stroke is performed, the air supply is

cut-off at B and the expansion occurs from B to C. after the stroke is completed, the air which

had done same work is exhausted into the atmosphere at a constant pressure p2.

We know that the work done by the air per cycle,

W = Area ABCD

= Area ABFG + Area BCEF – Area CEGD

= p1v1 + (p1v1-p2v2)/ (n-1) - p2v2

= (p1v1-p2v2) n-1/n

= × p1v1

= × mRT1

6.2.1Efficiency of compressed air engine:

The theoretical indicator diagram of a compressed air system is as shown in the figure. The

compression of the air in a compressor cylinder from pressure p1 to p2 is represented by the

curve 1-2. The hot air leaving the compressor is cooled down in an air cooler to original

compressor intake temperature

55
The air now enters the air engine cylinder and expands from pressure p2 to p1 as shown in the

figure. Now let us

compression and

according to pvn=

neglect clearance.

Work done on the

air compressor:

And work done by air in the engine:

Shaft output of the air engine:

Shaft input to the compressor:

56
The overall efficiency of the compressed air system is the ratio of the shaft output of the air

engine to the shaft input to the compressor. Mathematically, overall efficiency of the

compressed air system is

We know that

6.3 Design of Storage Tank :

57
 Fig 6.3.1 Air tank

Specifications:

Material - Mild steel

Outer Diameter, D - 40 cm

Length - 120 cm

Thickness of cylindrical portion - 5 mm

Inner diameter, d - 39 cm

π×𝑑2×𝐿
V=
4

Volume

V= ( π × 392 × 120)/4

= 143278 cc

Hoop Stress Calculation:

Material : Mild steel

58
!

Air tank with hemispherical end

Internal dia of the cylinder d=39 cm

Wall thickness of cylindrical portion t1= 5 mm

Wall thickness of hemispherical portion t2 =2 mm

Maximum pressure =15 bar

Hoop stress developed in cylindrical portion

P×d

2t1
σc1 = = 10×21×005.0×005.39

=40.1 MN/m2

Hoop stress developed in hemispherical portion

P×d10×105×0.39 σc2 = =

4t2 4×0.002

=50.4 MN/m2

6.4Torque calculations :

Diameter of cylinder=50mm

Length of stroke =50mm

Mass of car (approx) = 150kg

R.P.M = 5000

59
Frictional coefficient of cement road and rubber tyre (µ) = 0.8

Force required to move the car (F) = µ*m*g

=0.8*150*9.8

=1176 Kg-f

Area of contact of tyre and road (A) = π*d*t

=π*0.08*0.05

=0.01256m2

Therefore pressure required to run the car (P) = F/A

=1176/0.01256

=93630.5 Kg/m2

=9.18 bar=9.36 Kg/cm2

Approx = 10 bar = 101971.6213 kilogram-force/square meter

Area of the cylinder (A) = π*d2/4

= π*0.052/4

=0.0019625 m2

Force acting on the piston = P*A

= 101971.621*0.0019625

=200.119 Kg-f

60
Chapter 7 - ANALYSIS
TABLE 7.1: Pressure v/s Speed

Pressure
Sl. No Speed (rpm)
(psi)

1 10 819

2 20 1260

3 30 2562

4 40 3258

5 60 3892

6 80 4346

7 100 4592

8 120 4800

Fig7.1 Pressure Vs Speed

61
Chapter 8 –Advantages and Limitations
8.1 Advantages:

• Compressed air engines reduce the cost of vehicle production, because there is no

need to build a cooling system, spark plugs, starter motor, or mufflers

• The rate of self-discharge is very low opposed to batteries that deplete their charge

slowly over time. Therefore, the vehicle may be left unused for longer periods of time

• Expansion of the compressed air lowers its temperature; this may be exploited for use

as air conditioning.

• Reduction or elimination of hazardous chemicals such as gasoline or battery acids/

metals

! !

• Some mechanical configurations may allow energy recovery during braking by

compressing and storing air.

• There will be no huge sound due to detonations in the engine.

• No cooling system is required since there will be no large heat productions due to

combustion

• No harmful pollutants are released into the atmosphere due to combustion as the fuel

used is purely atmospheric air.

62
 • The “green house effect” can be minimized.

8.2 Limitations :

• The main problem of this engine is the indirect use of energy. Energy is used to

compress air, which in turn provides the energy to run the engine. Any conversion

of energy between forms, results in loss.

• Due to the conversion of pressure energy to the kinetic energy, the piston is

subjected to various forces which make the engine to vibrate heavily when

compared to the normal SI engine.

• According to Charles’s law, when air expands in the engine it cools dramatically

which makes the engine less efficient during cold climates.

• Conversely, when air is compressed to fill the tank it heats up. If the stored air is

not cooled as the tank is filled, then when the air cools off later, its pressure

decreases and available energy decreases.

• Refuelling the compressed air tank using a home or conventional air compressor

may take as long as 4 hours.

• During crashes, there is a high probability that the air tank filled with compressed

air may burst out with high intensity unless taken necessary measures.

• The car running with an air compressed car cannot carry heavy loads.

63
8.3 Solutions to overcome the limitations :

• Minimizing of the losses due to energy conversions and making the maximum

use of available energy also by recirculation of exhaust air if possible.

• Completely dehydrating the compressed air.

• Installing a heat exchanger in order to control the temperatures of both tank and

the engine when compression and expansion take place.

• Specialized equipment at service stations may fill the tanks in only 3 minutes.

• Using a carbon fibre tank so that it prevents from bursting of air tank during

crashes.

• Minimize the weight of car by making it with a lighter and stronger metal-alloy

and also by providing hollow structures to the chassis which can be filled with

tubes of lighter gases.

8.4Modifications can be done to improve the Efficiency :

The following are some ideas to make the air car perform better,

➔ Instead of letting the normal compressed Air into the Inlet valve of the Engine, we

can provide a Air Pre-Heater mechanism which can be used to heat the

compressed Air just before it enters into the Inlet valve. Since the density of the

hot air is less compared to the normal/cold air, the hot air tends to expand quicker

than the normal/cold air. By doing this we can make sure that the engine can be

operated for a longer time with the same quantity of air and increase its range to a

lager extent.

➔ The present Compressed Air Tank which is made of Mild Steel which holds a

maximum pressure of 15 bar can be replaced by a composite material made of

carbon-Fiber and thermo-setting plastic, which mainly reduces the weight by 65

64
 percent and increases the strength of the tank. The main advantages using this kind

of a tank (Blend of Carbon-fiber and thermosetting plastic) are as follows:

• Reduces the weight of the tank by 65 percent when compared to the usual Mild

steel tank.

• The maximum pressure that can be stored can be increased to 300 Bar where

as the maximum pressure that is stored in the Mild Steel tank is just 15 Bar.

• The tank made from the Carbon-fiber and Thermo-setting plastics will not

Burst/Explode in an event of a collision; instead it will just crack and let the air

out without causing any hazards to the driver/passenger.

• The space occupied by this tank can be reduced drastically and more amount

of Compressed Air can be stored.

➔ By mounting an on-board compressed on the car which works on DC current we

can be sure that the on-board compressor will provide continues supply of

Compressed Air to the tank provided so that we do not have to stop to keep

refilling the tank and the range will be increased to a large extent.

➔ We can attach a de-humidifying filter before the inlet valve of the engine so as to

make sure that the moisture doesn’t enter into the engine. So that the efficiency of

the engine will improve as there will be no accumulation of water inside the

cylinder.

➔ To improve the efficiency of the engine we can substitute Compressed air with

Compressed Nitrogen since the molecular weight of Nitrogen is less than the

65
molecular weight of the Natural Air and the compression ratio of Nitrogen can be

increased.

66
Chapter 9-Conclusion
The engine was successfully operated at different pressures that were changed using the ball

valve. The engine was found to have a strong and firm motion. It was found to produce

enough torque that can be said enough to pull loads. The rotation of the engine was very high

at high pressure. For example at a pressure of 150 psi the rotation obtained was above 5000

rpm. In a normal 4 stroke petrol engine the pressure developed inside the combustion

chamber is around 20 bar during power stroke. Thus by reproducing that pressure we have

shown that it could be possible to obtain the same amount of power and torque in an

environmentally friendly way

67
References
The following are the references that we have made use to complete this project and the

project report.

• B.L. Singhal, ‘Thermal Engineering’, Tech- Max Publications, India.

• Kirpal Singh, ‘Automobile Engineering ‘, Tata McGraw-Hill, India.

• Anthony Esposito, ‘Fluid Power with Applications’, Sixth Edition,

Prentice Hall Publications, 2005.

• http://www.mdi.lu/english/technologie.php

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed-air_vehicle

• www.makemagazine.com

• www.wikipedia.com

• http://www.aircarfactories.com/

• www.siamindia.com

• http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/news/preview-concept/4217016
Air cars under testing but are they efficient?, thegreencarwebsite.co.uk

• "Tata Air Car to drive in by 2011".Popular Mechanics