FLUID MECHANICS LAB

Study of Frictional Losses in Pipes and Flow Meters

Muhammad Shahzaib
Roll No 31, Group B-1

Sir Aneeq Raheem

Table of Contents
1 Abstract .................................................................................................................... 1
2 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
3 Fittings used ............................................................................................................. 2
4 Observations and Calculations .................................................................................. 2
5 Results and Discussions ............................................................................................. 9
6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 10
7 References .............................................................................................................. 10

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List of Figures
Figure 1: ln(Re) vs f for 1" Pipe ................................................................................................ 6

Figure 2: ln(Re) vs f for 3/4" Pipe ............................................................................................. 6

Figure 3: ln(Re) vs f for 1/2" Pipe ............................................................................................. 6

Figure 4: ln(Re) vs K for Bends and Elbows ............................................................................. 7

Figure 5: ln(Re) vs K for Expansions and Contractions ............................................................ 7

Figure 6: ln(Re) vs K for Valves................................................................................................ 8

Figure 7: ln(Re) vs K for Flow devices ..................................................................................... 8

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List of Tables
Table 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Table 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 3

Table 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 5

Table 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 5

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1 Abstract

The main purpose of this experiment is to find the major and minor losses that occur in the
pipes due to different fittings and valves etc. A flowrate is set using a rotameter and at this
fixed flow rate different fluid is controlled throughout the apparatus using upstream and
downstream valves. The head difference caused by that fitting or valve is then put into
mathematical computations and frictional factor (f) (using Darcy’s equation) and loss
coefficients are found. The factor f is found both using Darcy’s equation and Colebrook’s
equation. Lastly graphs accounting both of these major and minor losses are made and a
comparison is shown for f, k, Ca, and ln(Re) graphically.

2 Introduction

To get a liquid moving through a pipe, some energy is required, the driver of which is the
pressure difference. Some part of that energy is lost due to resistance in the flow. This
resistance is known as a head loss due to friction.

Head loss is the measure of the reduction in the total head of the liquid as it moves through a
system. The total head is the sum of the elevation head, velocity head and pressure head.
Head loss can’t be removed and is present because of the friction between the fluid and the
walls of the pipe and is also present between fluid layers as they are flowing in a pipe.

Head loss could be of two types.

1- Major losses that occur due to friction between fluid layers and viscosity.
2- Minor losses happen because of bends, elbows, joints, valves, and other fittings in
the systems.

Friction losses are dependable on the viscosity of the fluid and the turbulence in the flow. The
head loss caused due to this is measured by Darcy-Weisbach equation. This equation is also
slightly altered for minor losses. Friction loss is that part of the total head loss that occurs as
the fluid flows through straight pipes. The head loss for fluid flow is directly proportional to
the length of pipe, the square of the fluid velocity, and a term for fluid friction called the
friction factor. The head loss is inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe.

Minor losses happen very often because often times bends and valves are almost necessary in
a piping system. Similarly orifices, nozzles and venturies also cause minor losses. These
minor losses can accumulate to quite significant head loss.

We performed this experiment studying many different causes of minor losses as well as the
major losses. The value of f factor was also calculated both theoretically as well as
experimentally (Darcy and Colebrook’s equations)

1
3 Fittings used
 Rotameter
 Horizontal suction vertical displacement pump
 U- tube manometer
 1 in., 1⁄2 in., 3/4 in. Pipes
 Venturi, Orifice plate, Nozzle
 Gate Valve, Globe Valve, Ball Valve
 Fittings: Gradual Expansion, Gradual Contraction, Sudden Expansion, Sudden
 Contraction, 90 degrees Elbow, 90 degrees Bend

4 Observations and Calculations

The different values for the Loss coefficient and f were found. The graph were plotted for
different parameters and are elucidated as follow

2
 Table 1

Discharge
hf (H20) Velocity (m/s) Re In (Re) f(exp) f(moody)
Sr Flow
# Rate
(m3/s)
1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2''

1 0.00056 2.205 2.94 7.355 1.105 1.96 4.42 31332.06 41766.6 62664.13 10.35 10.64 11.04 0.44951463 0.142875 0.04685629 0.0230766 0.02157827 0.0197

2 0.000476 0.88 0.956 5 0.94 1.67 3.75 26653.52 35514.4 53264.5 10.2 10.47 10.88 0.24790584 0.06399499 0.04425244 0.02398916 0.0224049 0.02042182

3 0.00064 0.22 0.588 2.87 0.72 1.27 2.87 20415.4 27156.8 40689.15 9.9 10.2 10.61 0.10563735 0.06805984 0.04336585 0.02561643 0.02388087 0.02170837

4 0.00042 0.66 1.397 3.82 0.83 1.47 3.315 23534.5 31261.17 46998.1 10.06 10.35 10.75 0.23847757 0.1206932 0.04326394 0.02472881 0.02308902 0.02100511

5 0.000308 0.367 0.367 2.133 0.608 1.08 2.43 17239.2 22967.4 34451.1 9.75 10.04 10.4 0.24712615 0.05874077 0.04495812 0.0267358 0.02487777 0.02256514

Table 2

Disch Sudden
90 Degree Gradual Gradual 90 Degree Sudden
arge Gate Valve Globe Valve Ball Vale Contractio
S In Bend Expansion Contraction Elbow Expansion
Flow Velocit n
r Re (R
Rate y(m/s)
# e) h h h h
(m3/s hw k k k k hw k k hw k hw k hw k
) w w w w

10 0.
0.000 3132 1.4 23.811 0. 10.690 113.38 0. 8.0991 77.752 11.905 0.07 1.1824 0.2 3.563 7.1272
1 1.1 .3 7 4.8 73 0.44
56 3.56 7 5702 66 9091 843 5 7355 0661 7851 3 7934 2 63636 7273
5 5
0.
0.000 2665 10 17.745 8.1407 5. 115.78 0. 9.7600 73.200 0. 9.7600 6.4327 35.49 4.8800
2 0.94 0.8 36 3.3 0.29 1.6 0.22
476 3.52 .2 5862 8769 22 995 44 7243 5432 44 7243 7501 11725 3622
7

3
 0. 0.
0.000 2041 9. 11.342 5.5578 1. 58.225 5.5578 64.274 0. 8.3179 8.3179 0.5 19.28 0.07 2.7600
3 0.72 0.3 14 14 1.7 0.22
64 5.46 92 5926 7037 54 3086 7037 6914 22 0123 0123 1 24074 3 3086
7 7

0.000 2353 0.8 25.037 0. 14.225 6. 184.07 0. 14.225 2.9 83.646 0. 12.518 14.510 79.66 8.2508
4 0.83 10 0.51 2.8 0.29
42 4.5 8 0155 5 577 47 8966 5 577 4 3928 44 5078 0885 32312 3466

5 0.00 0.6 172 9. 0. 19.98 0. 11.97 2. 148.0 0. 11.97 1. 84.06 0. 11.97 0.2 15.78 1.1 63.7 0.2 11.97
030 11.3 7 36 11111 2 77778 7 88889 2 77778 54 22222 2 77778 9 88889 7 2 77778
8 7 5 7 2 2 2 4 2

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 Table 3

Dis
S
Flow hw Qideal Coefficient of Discharge v Re In (Re)
R
Rate
Orif Noz Ven Ventur Ventur Ventur Ventur Ventur
m3/s Orifice Nozzle Orifice Nozzle Orifice Nozzle Orifice Nozzle Orifice Nozzle
ice zle turi i i i i i
0.000 8.4 0.0021 0.0016 0.0014 0.2558 0.3318 0.3811 3.2941 4.1549 5.0450 54056. 60761. 67020. 10.897 11.014 11.112
1 8 9.1
56 6 8908 8771 6907 1493 1006 9449 1765 1913 4505 6917 5373 0937 7886 7123 7478
0.000 0.0016 0.0013 0.0011 0.2828 0.3465 0.4058 3.5316 4.2882 45948. 51647. 56967. 10.735 10.852 10.950
2 5 5.3 5.8 2.8
476 8291 737 7283 4271 0981 5625 8126 8829 1879 3067 0796 2697 1933 2288
0.000 0.0013 0.0010 0.0008 0.4909 0.6192 0.7234 3.7647 4.7484 5.7657 61779. 69441. 76594. 11.031 11.148 11.246
3 3 3 3.3
64 0358 3351 8466 5579 4978 3961 0588 79 6577 0762 7569 3928 32 2437 2792
0.000 0.0015 0.0012 0.0011 0.2660 0.3476 0.3782 2.4705 3.1161 3.7837 40542. 45571. 50265. 10.610 10.727 10.825
4 4.4 4.1 5.2
42 7871 0822 1051 3942 1929 0468 8824 8935 8378 5187 153 0703 1065 0302 0657
0.000 0.0010 0.0008 0.0007 0.2823 0.3649 0.4264 1.8117 2.2852 2.7747 29731. 33418. 36861. 10.299 10.416 10.514
5 2.1 2 2.2
308 9065 4386 2232 9962 9106 0143 6471 0552 7477 1804 8455 0515 9516 8753 9108

Table 4

Discharge
Sr # Flow Rate Velocity (m/s) Re Developing Length Le
(m3/s)
m3/s 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/4'' 1/2'' 1'' 3/2'' 1/2''
1 0.00056 1.105 1.96 4.42 31332.06 41766.6 62664.13 0.62750557 0.49372232 0.35217559
2 0.000476 0.94 1.67 3.75 26653.52 35514.4 53264.5 0.61081805 0.48055751 0.34276441
3 0.00064 0.72 1.27 2.87 20415.4 27156.8 40689.15 0.58426843 0.45954121 0.32771968
4 0.00042 0.83 1.47 3.315 23534.5 31261.17 46998.1 0.59827878 0.47044862 0.33568825
5 0.000308 0.608 1.08 2.43 17239.2 22967.4 34451.1 0.56803134 0.44688597 0.31875471

5
 1"
ln(Re) vs f(exp) ln(Re) vs f(moody)

0.5
0.4
0.3
f
0.2
0.1
0
10.35 10.2 9.9 10.06 9.75
ln(Re)

Figure 1: ln(Re) vs f for 1" Pipe

3/4"
ln(Re) vs f(exp) ln(Re) vs f(moody)

0.2

0.15

0.1
f

0.05

0
10.64 10.47 10.2 10.35 10.04
ln(Re)

Figure 2: ln (Re) vs f for 3/4" Pipe

1/2"
ln(Re) vs f(exp) ln(Re) vs f(moody)

0.05
0.04
0.03
f

0.02
0.01
0
11.04 10.88 10.61 10.75 10.4
ln(Re)

Figure 3: ln (Re) vs f for 1/2" Pipe

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 BENDS AND ELBOWS
90 Elbow 90 Bend

30

25
Loss Coefficient K

20

15

10

0
10.35 10.2 9.9 10.06 9.75
ln (Re) for 1" pipe

Figure 4: ln(Re) vs K for Bends and Elbows

EXPANSIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

Grad Expan Sudd Expan Sudd Cont Grad Cont

200

150
Loss Coeffient K

100

50

0
ln(Re) for 1" Pipe

Figure 5: ln (Re) vs K for Expansions and Contractions

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 VALVES
Globe Valve Globe Gate Ball Valve

90

80

70
Loss Coefficient K

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
10.35 10.2 9.9 10.06 9.75
ln(Re) for 1" pipe

Figure 6: ln(Re) vs K for Valves

Flow Devices
Orifice Nozzle Venturi

0.8

0.7

0.6
Loss Coefficient K

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
10.89778862 10.73526969 11.03132001 10.61010655 10.29995162
ln(Re) for 1" Pipe

Figure 7: ln(Re) vs K for Flow devices

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5 Results and Discussions

Value of f decreases with increasing ln(Re) with slight deviations.

Value of K (for 900 elbows a bends) first decreases with increasing ln(Re) and then increases.
In case of different types of values, value of K decreases and then the graph becomes flat in
case of expansion and contractions, graphs follow the trend of increasing with increasing
value of ln(Re).

Coefficient of Discharge for various flow rates is plotted against ln(Re). Cd shows little to no
variation for change in value of ln(Re)

Le changes for the different Flow Rates (Q) are calculated. Le changes as value of Q
changes, as changing flow rate changes Re.

Variation between f experimental and f moody are due to following reasons:

 In calculating value of f, we have assumed that pipes are smooth i.e. we have neglected
roughness of pipes.
 Flow in pipes is restricted and obstructed due to scaling.
 Personal and experimental error while performing the experiment.

Minor losses occurring due to different types of fittings are calculated and plotted. Slight
variation and errors might occur due to following reasons:
 We have considered the flow to be fully developed. But in reality, fluid flow isn’t fully
developed due to different geometric changes and pipe fittings.
 U- Shaped mercury manometer is insensitive to minor pressure changes.

Standard Coefficient of Discharge for different flow devices are given below:

Cd (nozzle) = 0.92 - 0.96

Cd (venturi) = up-to 0.98

Cd (orifice plate) = 0.6 – 0.66

Experimentally determined values of Cd, for different flow devices, lies between given range
with minor deviations. Le with different flow rates is calculated, which shows that with
decreasing flow rates, developing length also decreases.

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6 Conclusions

By doing this experiment we were able to find how losses occur in fluid flow. Main reasons
for major losses were due to friction, viscosity and sudden expansion and contraction. Due to
these losses head reduces to great extent. Along with major losses, minor losses are also
present although they don’t have the same effect as those of major ones. Other main
conclusions found were:

i. 𝒉𝒇 and D follow inverse relation

ii. The factor f varies inversely to Reynold’s number
iii. It is impossible to avoid fluid losses. Every piping system involves losses in fluid to
some extent.

7 References

[1] White, Frank M. Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition NY: WILEY, 1990.

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