International Geothermal Development
World Geothermal Power
Generation 2001 – 2005
By Ruggero Bertani – Enel, Generation and Energy Management -Renewable Energy - Geothermal Production
Editor's Note: The following article is published
in the GRC Bulletin by special permission
of Geothermics, the International Journal of
Geothermal Research and its Applications (Elsevier),
Vol. 34, No. 6, December 2005, pp. 651-690. This
rendition of the article underwent minor editing to
GRC Bulletin style.
A
review has been made of all the
country update papers submitted
to the World Geothermal Congress
2005 (WGC2005) from countries in which
geothermal electricity is currently being
generated. The most significant data to
emerge from these papers, and from follow-
up contacts with representatives of these
countries, are:
• A total of 24 countries now generate
electricity from geothermal resources;
• Total installed capacity worldwide is
approximately 8,930 megawatts-elec-
tric (MWe), corresponding to about
Figure 1. Installed geothermal capacity and electricity generation 1995-2005.
MAY / JUNE 2006
8,030 MWe running capacity and electric
energy production of nearly 57,000 giga-
watt-hours (GWh) (early 2005 data);
• Costa Rica, France (Guadeloupe), Ice-
land, Indonesia, Italy, Kenya, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Russia, and the United States
have increased the capacity of their geo-
thermal power plant installations by more
than 10 percent with respect to the year
2000;
• New members of the geothermal electric-
ity generating community include Aus-
tria, Germany and Papua New Guinea;
• Installed capacity in Argentina and
Greece is now null since their geother-
mal power plants have been dismantled;
and
• 19 countries have carried out significant
geothermal drilling operations since
2000, with 307 new wells.
Introduction
This paper discusses the latest develop-
ments in geothermal electricity generation
worldwide. It focuses on changes with
respect to previous similar reports (Hut-
trer 1995, 2000, 2001). For each country
producing electricity from geothermal re-
sources, information from relevant Coun-
try Update Reports presented at the World
Geothermal Congress 2005 (WGC2005,
convened on April 24-29, 2005 in Antalya,
Turkey) has been integrated with first-hand
data provided by members of the Interna-
tional Geothermal Association (IGA). De-
tailed information is not provided here, but
can be readily obtained from papers listed
under References.
The primary objective of this paper
is to identify geothermal fields currently
under exploitation to generate electricity,
their characteristics (e.g. reservoir depth,
and fluid temperatures and pressures),
and the status of operating geothermal
power plants. Limited emphasis is given
to data on geothermal field potential. A
summary of data is provided in Table 1,
including geothermal capacities in early
2005; annual energy production; number
of geothermal units installed; percentage of
national power capacity that is contributed
by geothermal; and the percentage of en-
ergy produced nationally from geothermal
resources. Changes in installed geothermal
power generating capacity worldwide over
the last 10 years are presented in Table 2.
Before proceeding further, two terms
frequently used in this paper should be de-
fined. Installed capacity (in MWe) is the
reference value for power plants, set by
the manufacturer as its target output when
the facility is operating under design con-
ditions. Possible reserve units should not
89
 International Geothermal Development

Table 1. Worldwide geothermal power generation in early 2005

Country Installed Running Annual Energy Number Percent of Percent of Source
Capacity Capacity Produced of Units National National of Data
(MWe) (MWe) (GWh/y)1 Capacity Energy
Australia 0.2 0.1 0.5 1 negligible negligible WGC05
Austria 1.2 1.1 3.2 2 negligible negligible WGC05
China 28 19 96 13 30% of Tibet 30% of Tibet WGC05
Costa Rica 163 163 1,145 5 8.4 15 WGC05
El Salvador 151 119 967 5 14 22 WGC05
Ethiopia 7.3 7.3 0 2 1 n/a WGC05
France (Guadeloupe) 15 15 102 2 9 9 WGC05
Germany 0.2 0.2 1.5 1 negligible negligible WGC05
Guatemala 33 29 212 8 1.7 3 WGC05
Iceland 202 202 14,838 19 13.7 17.2 WGC05
Indonesia 797 838 6,085 15 2.2 6.7 WGC05
Italy 791 699 5,340 32 1.0 1.9 WGC05
Japan 535 530 3,467 19 0.2 0.3 WGC05
Kenya 129 129 1,088 9 11.2 19.2 WGC05
Mexico 953 953 6,282 36 2.2 3.1 WGC05
New Zealand 435 403 2,774 33 5.5 7.1 WGC05
Nicaragua 77 38 271 3 11.2 9.8 WGC05
Papua New Guinea (Lihir island) 6 6 17 1 10.9 n/a WGC05
Philippines 1,930 1,838 9,253 57 12.7 19.1 WGC05
Portugal (Sao Miguel island) 16 13 90 5 25 n/a WGC05
Russia 79 79 85 11 negligible negligible WGC05
Thailand 0.3 0.3 1.8 1 negligible negligible WGC05
Turkey 20 18 105 1 negligible negligible WGC05
United States 2,564 1,935 17,917 209 0.3 0.5 WGC05
Total 8,933 8,035 56,786 490

be considered as part of installed capac-
ity, but may be accounted for separately.
Running capacity (in MWe) is the highest
average value over a one-hour period of
output from a power plant, measured at
the generator transformer supply volt-
age terminals, while operating at stated
design conditions or corrected to design
point conditions (Spielberg-Planer et al.,
2001). Running capacity can be correlated
directly with energy produced and with
relevant reservoir characteristics (Table
3). The main characteristics of geothermal
fields worldwide are presented in Table 3.
The table includes only fields providing at
least a few MW running capacity and fields
for which at least some relevant data were
available.
It is worth recalling the final part of
the message delivered during the World
Geothermal Congress 2000 by Dr. Phillip
Wright, IGA President at that time: “At the
1975 United Nations Conference on Geo-
thermal Energy, held in San Francisco, Cali-
fornia, Dr. Patrick Muffler (USGS, retired)
reported that some 1300 MW of geothermal
electrical power generation capacity were
installed in 10 countries. At this meeting,
WGC2000, Mr. Gerry Huttrer (Geothermal
Mgmt. Co., Inc. – Frisco, CO) reported that
installed geothermal generation capacity has
reached 7,974 MW in 21 countries. In 25
years, we have added 6,700 MW of installed
capacity around the world. This amounts to
an average of only 270 MW of new geother-
mal generating capacity per year since Dr.
Muffler’s report in 1975, and an average of
only 240 MW of new geothermal genera-
tion capacity per year since WGC1995 in
Florence, Italy. Mr. Huttrer also reported
that the worldwide electrical energy pro-
duction from geothermal power plants has
reached 49,000 GWh per year. Energy
production is a much better measure of our
contribution than installed capacity, because
geothermal power plants usually operate at
a higher capacity factor than other types of
power plants. But how are we to understand
this figure of 49,000 GWh/y of energy pro-
duction? To help form a perspective, let us
note that the International Energy Agency
reports that total electricity consumed
worldwide in 1996 was 13,700,000 GWh.
In other words, geothermal energy accounts
for less than 0.4 percent of the world’s total
electricity consumption.”
The trend has not improved since 2000.
Installed geothermal capacity has increased
by approximately 960 MWe (Fig. 1 and
Table 2), or only about 190 MWe per year
added during the 2000-2005 period. World-
wide, the contribution of geothermal to total
electricity generated is less than half of one

90 GRC BULLETIN
 International Geothermal Development

Figure 2. Geothermoelectric installed capacity worldwide in early 2005.

percent. World net electricity generation Table 2. Variation in installed geothermal generating capacity worldwide between 1995 and
for 2003 was 15.8 million GWh/y (U.S. early 2005.
Department of Energy, www.eia.doe.gov/ Country 1995 2000 Early 2005 2000-2005 Percent
pub/international/iealf/table63.xls), while (MWe) (MWe) (MWe) Increase (MWe) Increase
geothermal generation was only 0.057
Australia 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 unchanged
million GWh per year.
Austria 0 0 1.2 1.2 new plant
Figure 2 is a world map showing coun-
China 29 29 28 -1 unchanged
tries that generate electricity using geother-
Costa Rica 55 143 163 20 14%
mal resources, and their installed capacity
El Salvador 105 161 151 -10 -6%
in early 2005. Changes in installed capacity
Ethiopia 0 7.3 7.3 0 unchanged
during the last 30 years, as well as changes
France 4.2 4.2 15 10.8 250%
in electricity generation between 1995 and
Germany 0 0 0.2 0.2 new plant
2005, are reported in Table 4.
Guatemala 0 33 33 0 unchanged
Recent increases in oil prices and pre-
Iceland 50 170 202 32 19%
dicted decline in oil reserves during the
Indonesia 310 589 797 208 35%
coming years could lead to a boost in the
Italy 632 785 791 6 1%
amount of geothermal electricity produced.
Japan 414 547 535 -12 -2%
However, this will be affordable only with
Kenya 45 45 129 84 186%
appropriate government policies and regu-
Mexico 753 755 953 198 26%
lations, and with some sort of incentives
New Zealand 286 437 435 -2 unchanged
to attract investors. The acceptance of the
Nicaragua 70 70 77 7 11%
Kyoto Climate Change Protocol by many
Papua New Guinea 0 0 6 6 new plant
countries might also help the geothermal
Philippines 1,227 1,909 1,930 21 1%
electricity market achieve a one-percent
Portugal 5 16 16 0 unchanged
share in world electricity production by
Russia 11 23 79 56 243%
2010. This is still a long way from fulfilling
Thailand 0.3 0.3 0.3 0 unchanged
the world’s renewable energy target, but for
Turkey 20 20 20 0 unchanged
the next five years it is a reasonable objec-
United States 2,817 2,228 2,564 336 15%
tive with geothermal technologies currently
available. Total 6,833 7,972 8,933 961 13%

MAY / JUNE 2006 91

 International Geothermal Development

Table 3. Main characteristics of geothermal fields worldwide (early 2005).

Country Field Drilled Area Type of Reservoir Reservoir Production Reinjection Capacity
(km2) Reservoir Depth (m) Temperature (°C) Wells Wells (MWe)
China Yangbajain 4 Liquid 200 140-160 12 6 15
Costa Rica Miravalles 30-35 Liquid 1000-2000 240 32 20 163
El Salvador Ahuachapán 3-4 Liquid /Steam 600-1500 230-240 19 5 63
El Salvador Berlín 2-3 Liquid 2000-2500 300 9 15 56
France Guadeloupe 4 Liquid 300-1100 250 6 n/a 15
Guatemala Amatitlán 6-9 Liquid /Steam 1000-2000 300 4 n/a 5
Guatemala Zunil I 4 Liquid 1500-2300 300 6 2 24
Guatemala Zunil II 8-10 Liquid /Steam 800-1200 240 2 n/a 5
Iceland Krafla 5-6 Liquid 300-1200 190-210 20 2 60
1000-2000 240-340
Iceland Nesjavellir 6-8 Liquid 1000-2000 270-320 15 n/a 90
Iceland Svartsengi 6-8 Liquid /Steam 1000-2000 240 10 1 46
Indonesia Darajat 10 Steam 2000 245 17 n/a 135
Indonesia Dieng 12 Liquid 1000-2000 280-330 25 n/a 60
Indonesia Kamojang 15-20 Steam 1400-1600 245 29 n/a 140
Indonesia Lahendong 4 Liquid 1000-2000 260-330 15 n/a 20
Indonesia Salak 20-25 Liquid 1000-2000 240-310 30 15 371
Indonesia Wayang Windu 30 Liquid 1000-2000 250-270 18 n/a 110
Italy Bagnore 5 Liquid 1000-3000 200-330 7 4 19
Italy Larderello 250 Steam 1000-4000 150-270 180 23 473
350
Italy Piancastagnaio 25 Liquid 1000-3000 200-300 19 11 60
Italy Travale 50 Steam 1000-4000 190-250 22 0 147
Radicondoli 350
Japan Kakkonda 6 Liquid/Steam 500 1000 230-260 29 29 80
2500-3000 350-360
Japan Matsukawa 4 Steam 1000-1500 260 10 1 24
Japan Mori 6 Liquid 500-1500 230-250 10 9 50
2000-2500
Japan Ogiri 8 Liquid 1000-2000 260 11 6 30
Japan Onikobe 8 Liquid 500 1000 250 7 7 12
Japan Otake 8-10 Liquid 1000-2500 240-300 20 13 122
Hatchobaru
Japan Sumikawa 5 Liquid 1500-2500 250 8 12 50
Japan Takigami 5 Liquid 2000 160-260 5 9 25
Japan Uenotai 9-10 Liquid 1000-2000 300-320 9 3 29
Japan Yanauzu 10 Liquid 1000-2600 270-320 19 2 65
Nishiyama
Kenya Olkaria E 5 Liquid 500-2000 250-300 26 0 45
Kenya Olkaria NE 9 Liquid 1800-2700 250-300 9 n/a 12
Kenya Olkaria W 12 Liquid 1000-2000 250-300 1 n/a 70
Mexico Cerro Prieto 150-200 Liquid 2800 300-340 149 9 720
Mexico Las Tres Vírgenes 30 Liquid 2100 280 4 2 10
Mexico Los Azufres 35 Liquid/Steam 1600 150-200 29 6 188
2000-3000 280-300
Mexico Los Humeros 20 Liquid 1000-2000 290-320 17 2 35
New Zealand Kawerau 2 Liquid 1000-2000 240-300 6 2 14
New Zealand Mokai 12 Liquid 2000 270-320 4 3 51
New Zealand Ngawha 25 Liquid 600-2800 220-240 2 2 9
New Zealand Ohaaki 5-8 Liquid 1500-2500 230-280 24 n/a 96
New Zealand Rotokawa 25 Liquid 2000-2500 270-330 2 3 29

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Country Field Drilled Area Type of Reservoir Reservoir Production Reinjection Capacity
(km2) Reservoir Depth (m) Temperature (°C) Wells Wells (MWe)
New Zealand Wairakei 15 Liquid/Steam 1000-2000 160-260 60 n/a 204
Nicaragua Momotombo 4 Liquid 300-800 180-200 12 4 38
800-1700 200-240
Papua 1700-3000 240-300
New Guinea Lihir 3-5 Liquid/Steam 300-1000 250-300 3 n/a 6
Philippines Bac-Man 25-30 Liquid 1000-2000 260-280 24 12 150
Philippines Mak-Ban 14 Liquid 900 345 72 21 402
3400
Philippines Mt. Apo 8 Liquid 500 240-280 16 4 108
1500
Philippines Palinpinon 15-20 Liquid 2000-3000 280-320 43 26 192
Philippines Tiwi 13 Liquid 900 320 43 16 263
2800
Philippines Tongonan 120-150 Liquid 1000-2000 260-300 75 26 723
2000-3000 300-320
Russia Mutnovsky 12-15 Liquid/Steam 700-2500 240-300 17 4 62
Russia Pahuzhetka 1-2 Steam 300-800 180-210 7 n/a 11
Turkey Kizildere 4 Liquid 500-1000 240 15 2 17
USA-CA Casa Diablo 12 Liquid 200 160 8 5 27
USA-CA Coso 20 Liquid 500-3500 200-330 90 20 230
USA-CA East Mesa 24 Liquid 1500-2500 150-190 35 44 98
USA-CA Heber 5 Liquid 1200-1800 160-180 21 23 65
USA-CA Salton Sea 16 Liquid 1000- 2500 290-310 31 26 336
USA-CA The Geysers 100 Steam 600-3000 300 424 43 888
USA-HI Puna 1-2 Liquid 2000 200-300 3 4 27
USA-NV Brady 10 Liquid 300-700 180 6 9 21
USA-NV Beowawe 3 Liquid 1000-2500 215 3 1 16
USA-NV Dixie Valley 5 Liquid 1800-2500 230 7 10 68
USA-NV Soda Lake 8 Liquid 500-1500 180 5 5 17
USA-NV Steamboat 5 Liquid 200-800 160 11 5 66
USA-NV Stillwater 16 Liquid 1000-1500 160 4 3 13
USA-UT Roosevelt 3 Liquid 500-2000 240-270 4 3 20

n/a: data not available; this table includes only fields providing at least a few MW running capacity and for which some relevant data were available.

Geothermal Power Generation
Activities During 2001-2005
This section highlights new geothermal
projects worldwide that were initiated and
completed between 2000 and 2005. Power
plants that started up after the year 2000,
but related to activities that began earlier,
have not been included. New installed ca-
pacities are reported in Table 5. Facilities
currently under construction, for a total of
551 MWe, are listed in Table 6.
It is also possible to estimate short-
term prospects for additional installed
capacity, as there are some geothermal
projects needing only financing and final
approval for plant construction. It is real-
istic to expect an increase of at least 1,300
MWe in installed capacity worldwide
before 2010. These projects (or areas) are:
Deep Yangbajain field (China); Miravalles,
Rincón de la Vieja, Las Pailas, Borinquen
(Costa Rica); San Vincente, Chinameca,
Obrajuelo, Cuyanausul (El Salvador);
Langano (Ethiopia); Bouillante III (France,
Guadeloupe); Amatitlán, Zunil (Guate-
mala); Hellisheidi, Reykjanes (Iceland);
Darajat, Lahendong, Kamojang (Indone-
sia); Larderello, Travale, Bagnore (Italy);
Olkaria (Kenya); Los Humeros, La Prima-
vera (Mexico); Wairakei (New Zealand);
San Jacinto-Tizate (Nicaragua); Northern
Negros (Philippines); Terceira (Azores,
Portugal); Kamchatka-Mutnovsky, Kuril
Islands (Russia); Glass Mountain, Salton
Sea (California), Steamboat, Desert Peak
(Nevada), and Cove Fort-Sulphurdale
(Utah).
Considering these short-term prospects
(at least 1,300 MWe more) and power plants
already under construction or likely to be
installed (additional 551 MWe), the forecast
for world installed capacity by 2010 is ap-
proximately 10,800 MWe (Fig. 3).
Country Reports on
Geothermal Power Generation
The situation in each country currently
producing electric energy from geothermal

MAY / JUNE 2006 93

 International Geothermal Development

Table 4. Variation in geothermal installed capacity over the last 30 years, and in geothermal resources, along with relevant data, is de-
electricity generation over the last 10 years. scribed in the following pages. Tables and
figures are provided only for countries, but
Year Installed Capacity (MWe) Electricity Generation (GWh/y)
in the case of the United States, information
1975 1,300 n/a is provided for states with more than 200
1980 3,887 n/a MWe installed capacity.
1985 4,764 n/a
1990 5,832 n/a Australia. At the moment, only one unit
1995 6,832 38,035 is generating electric power from geo-
2000 7,972 49,261 thermal resources, the 150-kilowatt (kW)
binary cycle plant at Birdsville, southwest
2005 8,933 56,786
Queensland (Chopra, 2005). Electricity
demand for the small town of Birdsville
follows a familiar seasonal pattern, with
Figure 3. Predicted increase in installed geothermal power generation capacity worldwide highest demand in the hot summer months
to 2010.
when air-conditioning is used extensively
(250 kW) and relatively low demand in
winter (120 kW). The geothermal power
plant, with a nominal power rating of
150 kWe, supplies the baseload, using
98°C fluid from a 1,200 m well. The power
plant, installed in 1992, was upgraded and
refurbished in 1999, and is currently in
operation. Australia has also conducted
research on Hot Dry Rock (HDR) technol-
ogy. The most advanced project is in the
Cooper Basin region of northeastern South
Australia, where two wells have already
been completed, for a total drilled depth of
6 km. A third is scheduled to reach 4 km.
So far, downhole measured temperatures
are 248°C, but stabilized conditions have
not yet been reached. The government's
Mandatory Renewable Electricity Target
Table 5. Geothermal power plants that came on line during the 2000-2005 period. (MRET) Scheme introduced in 2001 re-
quires that by 2010 approximately 2 percent
Country New Project Completed in 2000-2005 MWe of Australia’s annual electricity needs be
Costa Rica Miravalles V 18 supplied by renewable energy resources.
France Guadeloupe-La Bouillante II 10 Geothermal energy, and in particular, HDR
Iceland Nesjavellir 30 technology, are expected to contribute to
Indonesia Sulawesi-Lahendong 20
these goals.
Italy Larderello, Travale, Bagnore 250
Austria. Geothermal research is fairly
Kenya Olkaria II & III and Oserian 86
active in Austria, but focused mainly
Mexico Los Azufres and Las Tres Vírgenes 110 on tapping low-temperature geothermal
Nicaragua Momotombo 7 waters for use in balneology. Two small
Papua-New Guinea Lihir 6 binary power plants have been installed,
Philippines Leyte-Tongonan 22 at Altheim (in the northwest) and Blumau
Russia Kamchatka - Mutnovsky 50 (in the southeast) (Goldbrunner, 2005).
United States Salton Sea V 60 Altheim is an excellent example of a
successful geothermal exploration and
Total 669
exploitation project by a small community
(5,000 inhabitants). A production/injection
Editor's note: For the United States, the table does not include new geothermal projects brought online
during 2005 at Heber (10 MW) in Imperial Valley, CA, and the Steamboat Geothermal Complex (20 doublet with bottomhole at 2,500 m pro-
MW) at Reno, NV. Personal communication, Dan Schochet, ORMAT 6/9/06. duces fluid at a wellhead temperature of

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 International Geothermal Development

105°C. The fluid is utilized both for district

Figure 4. Location of geothermal fields, power plants and volcanoes in El Salvador
heating and for electricity generation, in an
(from Rodriguez et al., 2005).
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) power plant.
Net output is 500 kWe, after accounting for
a 350-kWe parasitic load, mainly for a sub-
mersible pump. The Blumau project taps the
hottest geothermal water in Austria found so
far: 110°C at 2,000-3,000 m depth. It is used
to heat a spa facility and to generate electric-
ity in a 180-kWe net output ORC plant that
has been in service since 2001.

China. Geothermal exploration effectively

began in China in the early 1970s. During
the socialist economy, geothermal explora-
tion was managed by government entities
using public funds. Productive wells were
transferred free-of-charge to the final user.
Since the mid-1980s, as a result of priva-
tization and liberalization of the economy,
there has been a steady decrease in national
investment in geothermal exploration. No
new geothermal power plants were commis-
sioned in the period 2000-2005 (Battocletti Table 6. Geothermal power plants under construction in early 2005.
and Zheng, 2000; Zheng et al., 2005). The
Country Geothermal Field/Power Plant Installed Capacity (MWe)
only fields used for electricity generation
are those in Tibet. The most important of El Salvador Berlín III 40
the Tibetan fields is Yangbajain, with eight Guatemala Amatitlán Hybrid Plant 20
double-flash units for a total capacity of Iceland Nesjavellir, Hellisheidi and Reykjanes 210
24 MWe. Eighteen wells with an average Italy Larderello 60
depth of 200 m tap a shallow, water-domi- Mexico La Primavera 50
nated 140-160°C reservoir. The field covers New Zealand Wairakei, Rotokawa and Mokai 55
an area of only 4 km2, although there are
Nicaragua San Jacinto-Tizate 10
clear indications that the thermal anomaly
Papua New Guinea Lihir 30
is spread over 15 km2. Annual energy pro-
Philippines Palinpinon 20
duction is approximately 95 GWh, about 30
percent of the needs of the Tibetan capital, Portugal Azores-Pico Vermelho 16
Lhasa. A deeper, high-temperature reservoir Russia Kamchatka, Mutnovsky and Pauzhetka 40
has been discovered at Yangbajain, but has Total 551
not yet been exploited. A 2,500 m deep
well was drilled in 2004, reaching the deep
reservoir at 1,000-1,300 m. Temperatures in went online in the Qingshui field in 1981 (the 55 MWe) came online in 1994, followed
the 250-330°C range have been measured at reservoir is shallow, less than 500 m depth, by a small 5-MWe wellhead back-pressure
1,500-1,800 m depth. Geothermal potential with 150-220°C temperatures). A 300-kWe unit and a second single-flash 55-MWe unit
for Yangbajain is estimated at about 50- binary unit (Tu Chang) was installed in the (Miravalles II) in 1998. In 2000, Miravalles
90 MWe. A total of 80 geothermal wells same field, exploiting fluid with a maximum III (single-flash 29.5 MWe), and in 2003 the
have been drilled in Tibet for electric- temperature of 170°C. In 1994, both power binary Miravalles V (18 MWe), brought to-
ity production, to an accumulated depth of plants stopped operations. tal installed generating capacity in the field
20 km. Additional plants have been installed to 162.5 MWe. Total electricity generated
in Langju, western Tibet (two 1-MWe dou- Costa Rica. The only operational field in in 2003 was 1145 GWh/yr (Mainieri, 2003;
ble-flash units) and a 1-MWe binary power Costa Rica is Miravalles, which extends Mainieri, 2005). The project uses 52 deep
station (using brine at inlet temperature over a 20-km2 area. The reservoir, at 1,000- wells (32 for production and the remainder
of 110°C) in Nagqu. Two small 300-kWe 2,000 m depth, is water-dominated with a for gravity injection). The binary Miravalles
plants are operating in Guangdong and Hu- temperature of 240°C (Mainieri and Robles, V has been the major improvement since
nan. In Taiwan, a 3-MWe single-flash unit 1995). The first power plant (single-flash, 2000. This power plant exploits heat from

MAY / JUNE 2006 95

 International Geothermal Development
separated brine on the injection streamline.
At present, geothermal installed capacity
represents 8.4 percent of the country’s total,
and 15.1 percent of electricity produced.
To date, 131 geothermal wells have been
drilled in Costa Rica, to a total depth of
124 km. There are plans to extend the Mi-
ravalles field further eastward. Recently,
well PGM-55, drilled to 1.5 km, identified
a new high-permeability productive zone,
hydraulically connected with the reservoir
presently under exploitation. The potential
of this well is estimated at 4 MWe. Since
it is located near a protected natural area
(virgin rain forest), directional drilling will
be required for environmental reasons. This
will be the first time in Costa Rica that mul-
tiple wells are drilled from the same pad.
Geothermal energy is the second most im-
portant contributor to electricity generation
in Costa Rica. It is of strategic economic
importance, because of the country’s strong
dependence on imported oil for its thermal
power plants. Although these facilities
represent 17 percent of total installed ca-
pacity, they contribute only 2 percent of
Figure 5. First regional electricity grid: the SIEPAC (Sistema Eléctrico para América Central)
line (from Lippmann, 2003).
96
electricity produced annually. With such
important geothermal (and hydropower)
resources available, it is possible to oper-
ate the oil-burning plants as reserve units.
In the northern part of the country near the
Nicaraguan border, a second geothermal
area near the Rincón de la Vieja volcano
will be exploited in the near future. On the
southern slope of the volcano, in the Las
Pailas field, five exploration wells were
drilled in 2001-2002. A proven resource
associated with the 250°C reservoir is es-
timated at 18 MWe, with possible expan-
sion to 35 MWe. On the northwestern slope
of the Rincón de la Vieja volcano, in the
Borinquen field, the first of four planned
exploratory wells is being drilled. Prelimi-
nary results have confirmed the presence of
an important thermal anomaly.
El Salvador. Electricity has been gen-
erated from geothermal resources in El
Salvador since 1975 (Rodriguez and
Herrera, 2005). In the competitive energy
market adopted in this country, geothermal
electricity supplies 22 percent of national
requirements, with production in 2003 of
967 GWh. There are two major geothermal
fields, Ahuachapán and Berlín (Fig. 4). The
Ahuachapán field has been exploited since
1975, with three condensing units (two 30-
MWe single-flash, and one 35-MWe dou-
ble-flash). Because of reservoir decline,
only two of the three units are currently in
operation. A project for reaching the units’
full capacity (Ahuachapán optimization) is
underway. The 230-240°C reservoir is at
shallow depth (600-1,500 m). There are 19
production and five reinjection wells over a
3-4 km2 area. In 2004, total injection of all
produced fluid was achieved at Chipilapa,
6 km from the Ahuachapán area. A former
policy of sending cooled geothermal flu-
ids to the ocean through a canal has been
abandoned. The possibility of utilizing
residual heat through a 3.5-MWe binary
power plant is being investigated, with
plans to begin operations in 2006. The
Berlín geothermal field was explored
in the 1970s, but because of civil unrest
commercial operation did not begin until
1992, when two 5-MWe wellhead units
came online. They were decommissioned
in 1999, and two 28-MWe single-flash
units were installed. The 300°C reservoir
is at approximately 2,000-2,500 m depth.
There are nine production and 15 reinjec-
tion wells in the field. An extensive upgrad-
ing, aimed at installation of an additional
40-MWe, is currently scheduled. The first
four wells for this project have already
been drilled near the southern border of
the reservoir. The presently exploited area
is quite small, only 2-3 km2. An additional
6.5-MWe binary unit is under evaluation.
Projects are ongoing in other geothermal
areas of the country. In Cuyanausul, near
the Chipilapa injection field, an explorato-
ry well is being drilled. Should estimates
of field potential be confirmed, one or
two 5-MWe back-pressure units might be
installed. Further concessions have been
released for exploration in San Vincente,
Chinameca and Obrajuelo. The overall
potential of these fields could be around
100 MWe. In 2002, the Salvadoran and
Honduran electricity grids were intercon-
nected via a 230-kilovolt (kV) transmission
line. This is the final link of the Central
America grid. Now power can be traded
from Panama to Guatemala within the
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 International Geothermal Development

Regional Electricity Market (MER) (de la
Torre, 2002; Lippmann, 2003). The new
regional SIEPAC (Sistema Eléctrico para
América Central) transmission line with
a transfer capacity of 300 MW (Fig. 5) is
expected to be online during the first half
of 2008.
Ethiopia. Aluto-Langano is the only geo-
thermal area currently exploited for elec-
tricity production in Ethiopia. It is located
on the floor of the Ethiopian Rift Valley,
about 200 km southeast of Addis Ababa.
Eight deep wells (maximum depth of about
2,500 m) have been drilled in the field,
four of them productive (Teklemariam
and Beyene, 2005). Maximum reservoir
temperature is about 350ºC. The potential
of the field has been evaluated at up to
30 MWe for 30 years. A 7.3-MWe binary
geothermal plant was installed in 1999. It
is not fully functional because operational
experience is lacking. The government's
five-year plan includes rehabilitation of
the power plant, and possible installation
of an additional 20-MWe unit if financial
support becomes available. In the Ten-
daho field, in the Northern Afar, three
deep (2,100 m) wells found temperatures
above 270ºC.
geothermal project, based on a three-well
system in granite at a depth of 5,000 m, is
expected to go online during 2006.
Germany. The first geothermal power
plant in Germany, at Neustadt-Glewe, has
been online since 2003 (Schellschmidt et
al., 2005). It has an installed capacity of
about 230 kWe using an ORC. In addi-
tion, 10.7 MWt are used for district and
space heating. Energy production of 1.5
GWh/y will provide 500 households with
electric power. The plant uses a flow rate
of 100 m³/h at a temperature of 98°C; at
the end of the cycle the water is cooled
to 72°C. Currently, six new installations
for power generation are being planned at
Figure 6. Location of geothermal fields in Iceland (from Ragnarsson, 2005)
Groß Schönebeck, Bad Urach, Offenbach,
Speyer, Bruchsal and Unterhaching.
Guatemala. Geothermal exploration began
in Guatemala in 1972, but commercial ex-
ploitation started in 1998 at Zunil. This
area has two geothermal fields located
close together, Zunil I and II. Despite
their proximity, they have separate reser-
voirs with different heat and fluid sources.
Zunil I, located on the border of the Quet-
zaltenango caldera west of Guatemala
City, has temperatures of 300°C at 1,500-
2,300 m depth. There are seven binary units
with a total installed capacity of 28 MWe
(24 MWe running capacity). A research
and development project for Zunil I was

France. At present, the only geothermal

power production by France is under
the French Overseas Department, at La
Bouillante on the Caribbean Island of
Guadeloupe. The old Bouillante-1 double-
flash power plant is still operating after its
rehabilitation in 1995-1996. An 11-MWe
power plant (Bouillante-2) came online in
2004, bringing total capacity of the field
to 15 MWe (Laplaige et al., 2005), with
production in 2004 of 102 GWh. Three
new production wells were drilled for Table 7. Geothermal fields in Iceland.
Bouillante-2 (single-flash, 10-MWe plant). Field Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity
The Bouillante-3 project is currently in its (MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b
pre-feasibility phase. After installation of
the third unit, geothermal electricity should Nesjavellir 90 3 692
provide nearly 20 percent of the island's Krafla 60 2 401
electricity needs. Geothermal exploration Svartsengi 46 11 368
programs are planned for the near future on Namafjall 3.2 1 12
the islands of Martinique and La Réunion, Husavik 2 1 9
in the French Antilles. The HDR project Reykjanes 0.5 1 1
at Soultz-sous-Forêts, in Alsace, is now in Total 202 19 1,483
the scientific pilot plant stage, with mod-
ule construction underway. The enhanced Note: a: Early 2005 data; b: 2004 data

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 International Geothermal Development

Table 8. Geothermal fields in Indonesia (early 2005 data). tax exemptions for renewable energy
Field Location Installed Number Annual Electricity projects. The government’s commitment
Capacity (MWe) of Units Production (GWh/yr) a to renewables has also been confirmed
in a four-year geothermal development
Gunung Salak Java 330 6 n/a program, signed in 2003. Geothermal
Kamojang Java 140 3 n/a exploration is under way in other parts of
Darajat Java 135 2 n/a the country at Tecaumburro, San Marcos,
Wayang Windu Java 110 1 n/a Moyuta, and Totonicapán, but drilling has
Dieng Java 60 1 n/a not been carried out.
Lahendong Sulawesi 20 1 n/a
Sibayak Sumatra 2 1 n/a Iceland. The locations of geothermal ar-
Total 797 15 6,085 eas in Iceland are shown in Figure 6, and
listed in Table 7. Geothermal electricity
a
The only data available are for total production referred to late 2004 (Ibrahim et al., 2005) generation has increased significantly in
Iceland since 1999, with installation of new
power plants at Nesjavellir and Husavik.
Figure 7. Location of the geothermal fields in Indonesia (from Sudarman et al., 2000, Total installed capacity in Iceland is now
modified). 202 MWe. An additional 30-MWe single-
flash unit at Nesjavellir is at an advanced
stage of construction (Gunnlaugsson, 2002;
Ragnarsson, 2005). Two other geothermal
power plants are currently under construc-
tion, at Hellisheidi and Reykjanes. Their
combined installed capacity will be about
180 MWe, which will almost double
Iceland’s total. At Krafla, in the northern
part of the country, there are two 30-MWe
double-flash power plants. The geothermal
projects at Svartsengi and Nesjavellir in-
clude power plants with an installed capac-
ity of 46 and 90 MWe, respectively, and
transmission of hot water to the Reykjavik
and Hitaveita Sudurnesja district heating
systems. Hellisheidi, a new field that is
part of the large Hengill geothermal area
in the southwestern part of the country, is
currently under exploration, with plans to
install 80 MWe and increase the amount of
hot water supplied to the City of Reykja-
completed recently with installation of an is still in operation. Following the first vik. There has been a great deal of drilling
injection facility. There are nine producing four deep exploratory wells (two of which activity in Iceland over the last five years,
and four injection wells in this field, with produce steam), two new wells have been with 39 new wells that reach a total depth
six production and two injection wells cur- successfully drilled to define the extension of 55 km.
rently operative. At Zunil II, a small steam of the geothermal anomaly. As a result of a
cap linked to a deep hot aquifer has been positive field assessment, a five-year proj- Indonesia. Despite the huge geothermal
discovered at shallow depth. Its potential ect has been initiated to gradually increase potential of Indonesia, there has been
has been estimated at up to 50 MWe. A installed capacity with modular binary units relatively little development during the
development project was launched in 2003, totaling up to 50 MWe. A 20.5-MWe hy- 2000-2005 period, mainly because of a
with the drilling of two production wells brid power plant at Amatitlán was expected severe economic crisis that has adversely
and one for injection. In the near future, a to go online in 2005 (Lima Lobato et al., affected power demand and growth (Ibra-
long-term test will be performed to evaluate 2003; Roldán Manzo, 2005). In 2003, total him et al., 2005). Currently, the 797 MWe
the reservoir and its possible decline with geothermal power production in Guatemala of installed geothermal capacity from the
fluid production. The other Guatemalan was 212 GWh/yr. Developments at Zunil fields listed in Table 8 and shown in Fig. 7
field, at Amatitlán, also came online in and Amatitlán are supported by a new re- are being fully utilized. Note that total run-
1998. An old 5-MWe back-pressure unit newable energy law (2004), that provides ning capacity for the country is 838 MWe. A

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20-MWe geothermal unit at Lahendong is

the only installation in Indonesia after 2000 Figure 8. A century of electric power production in Italy (from Cappetti et al., 2005).
(it came online in 2002), but the situation
may change in the future. An investment
plan for a new 100-MWe power plant at
Darajat was approved in 2004. A tender has
been launched for an additional 20 MWe at
Lahendong. There are also plans to expand
Kamojang by 60 MWe, but the project has
not yet started.

Italy. A major event during 2000-2005 was

the centennial celebration of the first suc-
cessful experiment in producing geothermal
electricity, which took place at Larderello
in 1904. The first commercial power plant
in that field went online in 1913 (250 kWe).
Since then, geothermal power generation in
Italy has increased steadily to the current
791-MWe installed capacity (699-MWe
running capacity). Electricity generation Table 9. Geothermal fields in Italy.
reached a historical maximum of 5,340
GWh in 2003, as shown in Figure 8 (Cap- Location Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity
petti et al., 2000; Cappetti and Ceppatelli, (MWe ) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b
2005). Geothermal fields in Italy are listed Larderello 543 21 3,606
in Table 9 and their locations shown in Fig- Travale-Radicondoli 160 6 1,109
ure 9. The two major fields are Larderello- Mt. Amiata 88 5 625
Travale/Radicondoli and Mt. Amiata. Ten (Bagnore and Piancastagnaio)
new power plants (254-MWe installed ca-
Total 791 32 5,340
pacity) have been commissioned and gone
online at Larderello-Travale/Radicondoli
Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2003 data
during the last five years, to replace old
and obsolete units and to de-
velop a deeper reservoir found
in old, shallow fields. A deep Figure 9. Location of geothermal regions and power plants in Italy (from Cappetti et al., 2005).
exploration program has also
been launched, which includes
a 3D seismic survey and 11
deep (3,000-4,000 m) wells.
Twenty-one wells with a total
depth of 64 km were drilled
between 2000 and 2005. The
adjacent Larderello and Travale/
Radicondoli areas are part of the
same deep field that extends over
a large (approximately 400 km2)
area. The deep, super-heated
steam reservoir has the same
temperature (300-350°C) and
pressure (4-7 MPa) throughout
the field (Bertani et al., 2005).
The exploited area at Larderello
covers 250 km2, with 180 wells
and 21 power units totaling
543-MWe installed capacity.

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 International Geothermal Development

The Travale/Radicondoli area (50 km2) through a 20-km pipeline to the center of Martino). The Mt. Amiata area comprises
has 22 wells, which send steam to six the Larderello field, where it is injected. two water-dominated geothermal fields,
units totaling 160 MWe installed capacity. An additional 60 MWe are under construc- Piancastagnaio and Bagnore. In the
Condensed water from Travale is carried tion (Nuova Larderello 3 and Nuova San 1980s, a deep reservoir was discovered in
both fields, under the shallow geothermal
reservoir exploited at that time. The deep
Table 10. Geothermal fields in Japan.
resource is characterized by 20 MPa, 300-
Location Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity 350°C water (at 3,000 m). Objections by lo-
(Prefecture) (MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b cal communities have delayed development
Oita 153 7 1,108 of this high-potential deep system. At pres-
Iwate 104 3 643 ent, there are five units totaling 88 MWe
Akita 88 3 619 installed capacity at Mt. Amiata, one in
Fukushima 65 1 400 Bagnore and four in Piancastagnaio. A 20-
Kagoshima 60 2 416 MWe unit online since 1987 was decom-
Hokkaido 50 1 185 missioned in 2000. In 2003, the 40-MWe
Miyagi 12 1 81 power plant at Latera was closed because
Tokyo 3.3 1 15 of environmental and technical problems.
This field is no longer under exploitation.
Total 535 19 3,467 Liberalization of the electricity market has
been completed in Italy, with an incentive
Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2003 data scheme for renewables (Green Certificates)
that should lead to further ex-
Figure 10. Location of geothermal plants in Japan ( Kawazoe et al., 2005, modified, see Table 10). ploration and development of
deep geothermal resources.
On the basis of positive re-
sults achieved so far, some
100 MWe are expected to be
installed in Italy within the
next five years.

Japan. Seventeen geothermal

power plants are in operation
in Japan, most of which are
located in the Tohoku and
Kyushu districts (Fig. 10)
with total installed capacity
of 535 MWe (Kawazoe and
Combs, 2004; Kawazoe
and Shirakura, 2005). Geo-
thermal locations in Japan
are listed in Table 10.
Because financial support
and favorable regulations
are lacking, there have
been no major geothermal
developments in recent
years. Only a small, 2-MWe
binary unit was set up at
the Hatchobaru geothermal
power station in February
2004. This is the first
binary-cycle geothermal
power plant in Japan. On the
other hand, there has been
significant drilling activity

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during 2000-2005, with 41 geothermal

Figure 11. Location of geothermal fields in Mexico (from Gutiérrez-Negrín et al., 2005).
wells (totaling 74 km depth) equally
distributed for exploration, production
and injection. Deregulation of the
Japanese power generation market started
in 2000. As a consequence, electric power
companies changed their investment
policies regarding new power plants. This
process, in addition to a drastic reduction
in commitment to geothermal by the
New Energy and Industrial Technology
Development Organization (NEDO),
was responsible for the decline in recent
Japanese geothermal development. A
recent Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS)
law promulgated in 2003 may be a useful
tool for attracting private investment in
geothermal energy development. It should
be noted that only binary-cycle geothermal
power plants are covered by the RPS,
encouraging a trend in development
of small-scale geothermal fields. In
2004, NEDO launched its Geothermal
Development Promotion Surveys, based
on the concept of “local energy for local
areas.” Three new target areas were Table 11. Geothermal fields in Mexico.
carefully selected, based on economic and Location Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity
social factors, and on estimated potential (MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b
for installing binary power plants of
10 MWe or less. Though these units may Cerro Prieto 720 13 5,112
be relatively small, the program may lead Los Azufres 188 14 852
to further utilization of geothermal energy. Los Humeros 35 7 285
Results of the surveys will be evaluated Las Tres Vírgenes 10 2 33
by the end of March 2006. A strategy has Total 953 36 6,282
recently been proposed by the Ministry
for Education, Culture, Sports, Science Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2003 data
and Technology (MEXT) for developing
Japanese geothermal resources in ways
consistent with global environmental with other geothermal technologies such as geothermal system is located in the East
expectations for the 21st Century, the so- injection, HDR, “Hot Wet Rock”(HWR), Africa Rift valley about 120 km north-
called EIMY, or “Energy in My Yard.” and binary systems. This innovative west of Nairobi. The greater geothermal
The idea is that local energy requirements concept is expected to give a welcome anomaly covers 80 km2; only three sec-
should be met by an optimum combination boost to geothermal power generation, as tors (east, west and northeast) are being
of local renewable sources. Shortfalls it will obviate many problems with local exploited at this time. In the Olkaria East
and surpluses would be accommodated permits and encourage local acceptance field, three 15-MWe turbo-generating units
through interface with the national of small-scale installations. at Olkaria I have been online for 23 years.
electricity grid (Niitsuma and Nakata, The first of 33 drilled wells were shallow
2003). These integrated renewable energy Kenya. Geothermal electricity genera- (<1,200 m); subsequent deeper wells as-
systems offer a considerable advantage tion capacity in Kenya has increased by sessed resources down to 2,500 m. Five
over independent utilization of renewable 84 MWe since 2000. Olkaria is the only percent of waste brine is injected hot, and
resources. In rural areas of Japan, such geothermal field developed to date. Ex- 20 percent cold, back into the reservoir;
systems could reduce CO2 emissions and ploitation has grown from 45 MWe in the rest evaporates in an open-air pond. In
energy costs. Geothermal energy will play 1999 to 129 MWe in 2004, a 186-percent the Olkaria North-East field, two 35-MWe
a key role in these EIMY systems. Heat increase (Mwangi, 2005). Production units at Olkaria II were commissioned in
pumps are of primary importance, together in 2003 was 1,088 GWh. The Olkaria 2003. This new facility has lower specific

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 International Geothermal Development

port for appraisal drilling. A minor project,

Figure 12. Location of geothermal fields in New Zealand (from www.eeca.govt.nz/
with a 1.8 MWe binary plant, was com-
programmes/renewable/, modified).
missioned for North-West Olkaria by a
flower-growing company in September
2004. The overall geothermal potential
of Kenya is large and has been evaluated
at as much as 2,000 MWe. Many projects
have already been defined and funding is
being sought. The Kenyan government has
proposed creation of a special geothermal
development company, with a mandate to
explore and sell geothermal energy for
electric generation and other uses. Risks
associated with geothermal exploration
will be covered by the Kenyan govern-
ment. These policies may lead to private
investments in the development of Kenyan
geothermal resources.

Mexico. Currently, there are four geother-

mal fields in production in Mexico: Cerro
Prieto, Los Azufres, Los Humeros and Las
Tres Vírgenes (Gutiérrez-Negrín and Qui-
jano-León, 2005) Total installed geother-
mal capacity in the country is 953 MWe
(Fig. 11 and Table 11). Mexico is one of
the leading countries in geothermal devel-
opment for electricity production. Since
2000, eight new single-flash units went
online: four at Cerro Prieto (100 MWe);
four at Los Azufres (100 MWe); and 10
MWe at Las Tres Virgines, a new field
that recently started production. Further
installations are planned at Los Humeros
(50 MWe) and La Primavera (75 MWe).
The Cerro Prieto field is located near the
Table 12. Geothermal fields in New Zealand. Mexico-U.S. (California) border. Cur-
rently, commercial exploitation (started
Field Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity in 1973) has reached an installed capacity
(MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b of 720 MWe (four 110-MWe units; four
Wairakei-Poihipi 220 11 1,505 37.5-MWe units; four 25-MWe units; and
Ohaaki 105 4 300 one 30-MWe unit). All power plants are
Mokai 55 7 470 the condensing type. There are 149 pro-
Rotokawa 31 5 290 duction wells in operation. Waste brine is
Kawerau 14 4 130 primarily discharged into a 14 km2 solar
Ngawha 10 2 79 evaporation pond, and a portion returned
underground through nine injection wells.
Total 435 33 2,774
The four 25-MWe units at the Cerro Prieto
IV went online in 2000. The Los Azufres
Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2004 data
geothermal field is located in the central
part of Mexico, 250 km west of Mexico
steam consumption (7.5 t/h/MW) than Ol- depths of 1,800-2,800 m. Currently, some City, with 14 power units of diverse
karia I (9.2 t/h/MW). A private geothermal of the geothermal fluids are being utilized types (condensing, back-pressure, binary
company is developing the Olkaria West in three 4-MWe binary units. In 2005, the cycle), and capacities varying from 1.5 to
area (Olkaria III). It drilled nine wells to Olkaria IV project received financial sup- 50 MWe. Present total installed capacity

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is 188 MWe, with 29 production and six in operation since 1983. Recently, the proj- drilled at Momotombo, stabilizing produc-
injection wells. In 2003, four 25-MWe ect has been rehabilitated, including instal- tion from 12 producing wells. The shallow
units went online. Los Humeros, located lation of a 7.5-MWe binary power plant. production zone is affected by lake water
in east-central Mexico, has an installed Running capacity increased from 12 MWe infiltration, with consequent severe cool-
capacity of 35 MWe (seven 5-MWe back- in 1999 to the present 38 MWe. Total in- ing effects. In response, there are plans to
pressure units) and 17 production wells. stalled capacity at the field is 77.5 MWe achieve full production by drilling new
All separated brine is injected back into (Zuniga, 2005), with 2004 production of deep wells and expanding exploitation of
the reservoir through two wells. Two new 271 GWh. Four injection wells have been the deep part of the reservoir (1,700-3,000
units for an additional 50 MWe are sched-
uled to be installed in 2008. The Las Tres
Vírgenes geothermal field is in the middle Table 13 Geothermal fields in the Philippines.
of the Baja California Peninsula. Two pro-
duction wells feed two 5-MWe condensing Field Location Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity
units. At La Primavera, near Guadalajara, (MWe) a of Units a Produced (GWh/yr) b
there are plans to install 50 MWe in 2008 Tongonan Leyte 723 21 4,746
and another 25 MWe in 2009. Fifty-nine Mak-Ban Luzon 426 16 1,538
geothermal wells were drilled in Mexico Tiwi Luzon 330 6 442
between 2000 and 2003, for a total depth Palinpinon Negros 192 7 1,257
of 150 km. Bac-Man Luzon 151 5 457
Mt. Apo Mindanao 108 2 813
New Zealand. In the 2000-2004 period,
Total 1,930 57 9,253
three new geothermal power plants were
under construction or completed, including
Note: *Early 2005 data; #2003 data
start of construction for a 15-MWe binary
plant at Wairakei, commissioning of an
additional 6 MWe at Rotokawa, and start Figure 13. Location of the geothermal fields in Philippines (from Benito et al., 2005,
modified).
of construction for an additional 30 MWe
at Mokai. The status of the New Zealand
geothermal fields is summarized in Table
12. All but one (Ngawha) are located in
the Lake Taupo area, as shown in Figure
12 (Dunstall, 2005). The Wairakei-Poihipi
field has been in continuous operation for
nearly 50 years, with a stabilized decline.
The most recent installation of the 55-MWe
Poihipi power plant is exploiting a steam
cap that formed as a consequence of ex-
ploitation of a liquid-dominated reservoir
beneath. The Mokai field, which started
commercial fluid production in 2000, is a
unique example of a geothermal resource
wholely owned by a local community, the
Maori Trust, and operated via a state-owned
enterprise. This is a key element for local
acceptance of geothermal energy develop-
ment. Another 40 MWe of capacity are
currently under construction at Mokai.
Total installed capacity in New Zealand in
early 2005 was 435 MWe, with a running
capacity of 403 MWe.

Nicaragua. Despite Nicaragua’s very

large geothermal potential (1,000 MWe),
the only exploited area by the end of 2004
was the Momotombo field, which has been

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 International Geothermal Development

m). Two 5-MWe back-pressure units are

currently being installed at the nearby San Figure 14. Location of geothermal fields in Kamchatka, Russia (from Battocletti, 2000).
Jacinto-Tizate field, where seven explora-
tion wells (between 700 and 2,200 m) en-
countered temperatures from 264 to 289ºC.
These units are expected to be operational
in early 2006, with planned expansion to a
total of 66 MWe over the next few years.
Ratification of a new geothermal law and
energy policies should help to attract local
and foreign private investment in geother-
mal projects. Economic development of the
entire Central American region should also
improve when the SIEPAC transmission
line begins operation.

Papua New Guinea. Geothermal power

development is focused on tiny Lihir Island,
about 700 km northeast of Port Moresby,
where there is the unique combination of
a significant geothermal resource, a gold
mining operation, and isolated location
(Booth and Bixley, 2005). Hot (250°C)
water from 1,000 m depth—from large-
diameter wells used to dewater the mines
and regular geothermal wells—will be used
for the geothermal project. A 6-MWe back-
pressure power plant was commissioned in
2003, and began generating electricity in
2004. The new power plant is a substitute
for diesel generation, with fuel cost savings
of US$2,000,000 per annum. An additional
30-MWe geothermal power project was
commissioned in 2005.

Philippines. The Philippines is the world’s

second largest producer of geothermal
energy for power generation, with an
installed capacity of 1,930 MWe and a
running capacity of 1,838 MWe. The
geothermal fields are listed in Table 13
and their locations shown in Figure 13. In
the last five years, total installed capacity
has increased slightly with 22 MWe at
Tongonan. Drilling activity developed 28
wells, totaling 63 km depth (Benito et al.,
2005). Running capacity at Tiwi has been
de-rated from 330 to 263 MWe because
of decommissioning of an old power
plant. A minimum value of 232 MWe is
expected in 2005. Mak-Ban has been in
commercial production since 1979, despite
its small surface area (~14 km2). Recharge
from the extensive surrounding aquifer
has played a key role in its sustainable
development over such a long productive
lifetime. Make-up wells have been drilled,
and 10 new wells completed into the deep
reservoir (2,800 m). Running capacity
will reach 402 MWe after rehabilitation
activities are completed. Tongonan and
adjacent geothermal fields on the Island
of Leyte are the most important geothermal
projects in The Philippines, with 723 MWe
of installed capacity. Drilling of make-up
and replacement wells, well workovers,
and solving corrosion, erosion and scaling
problems have all contributed to sustaining
high levels of power generation, with 4,746
GWh produced in 2003. Palinpinon has a
total installed capacity of 192 MWe, and
has been in operation since 1983. There
is an expansion project for an additional
20 MWe scheduled for completion in
2006. Bac-Man has been in operation
since 1993 without substantial modifica-
tions or additions. Mechanical problems
have affected the operating life of its Unit
I (55 MWe). Mt. Apo is the sixth operating

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geothermal field in The Philippines, with at 700-900 m, which is underlain by a liq- plant) could help development of tourist
total installed capacity of 108 MWe. The uid-dominated 250-310°C reservoir. Pres- facilities in this environmentally protected
most recent addition is a second unit in ently, 17 wells producing 330 kg/s of fluids area. Ingoring geothermal resources at the
1999 (Mindanao II, 54 MWe). A project with an average enthalpy of 1,600 kJ/kg Kronotsky protected area, geothermal re-
for another 20 MWe is currently under are ready for exploitation. This project was sources identified in Kamchatka (Fig. 14)
evaluation. New areas are under study, supported by a US$100 million loan from to date could permit installation of several
the most promising in Northern Negros, the European Bank of Reconstruction and power plants with installed capacity of
where a feasibility study for 40 MWe has Development. Another partially explored, about 1,000 MWe.
already been performed. Development is promising site is Nizhne-Koshelev, where
expected to begin in 2006. fluids have an estimated enthalpy of up to Thailand. A small 300-kWe binary
2,800 kJ/kg. Similar sites include the Bol- power plant provides electricity to the
Portugal. Geothermal resources of the she-Bannoe and Kireuna fields, as well as small village of Fang, using 116°C water
largest and most populous Portuguese is- the Semyachik field adjacent to the Kro- (Subtavewung et al., 2005). This water is
land of the Azores, São Miguel, are utilized notsky Natural Park and its famous Geyser also used in other, direct applications, such
for electric power generation. The high-en- Valley. Limited use of the Semyachik field as air-conditioning, cold storage and crop-
thalpy resource is exploited in the Ribeira (enough to construct a small 5-MWe power drying, using the 80°C discharge from the
Grande power plant, where four binary
units were installed in 1998. On the same
island, another geothermal project is being Figure 15. Injection effects at The Geysers in northern California, United States. (from Lund
et al., 2005).
developed at Pico Vermelho. A 10-MWe
binary unit will replace an old 3-MWe unit.
Total geothermal capacity, currently at 16
MWe, will represent 38 percent of the
electric energy produced on São Miguel.
In addition, a 12-MWe power plant proj-
ect is underway on the Island of Terceira.
Installed electricity generation capacity in
the Azores is expected to double by 2009,
with 45 percent coming from geothermal
sources (Bicudo da Ponte, 2002; Carvalho
et al., 2005).

Russia. High-enthalpy geothermal fields

presently under exploitation in Russia are
located at Kamchatka and on the Kurili
Islands (Kononov and Povarov, 2005). On
the Kamchatka Peninsula, several geother-
mal power plants are in operation, with in-
stalled capacities of 12 MWe and 50 MWe
Table 14. Geothermal fields in California, USA.
at Mutnovsky, and 11 MWe at Pauzhetsky
(Fig. 14). On the Kurili islands of Kunashir
Field Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity
and Iturup, two small units (2.6 MWe and
(MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b
3.4 MWe) are in operation. Present total
installed capacity in far eastern Russia is The Geysers 1,421 23 7,784
79 MWe. Increased capacity over the last Salton Sea 336 13 3,146
five years is a result of the installation of a Coso 274 9 2,785
50-MWe single-flash power plant at Mut- East Mesa 109 71 859
novsky in 2002. At present, a 100-MWe Heber 85 13 641
power plant is under consideration, as well Mammoth 40 4 315
as a small binary unit. The high-tempera- Others 4 5 26
ture North Mutnovsky field is the primary Total 2,269 138 15,556
target for electric power production at
Kamchatka. Eighty-two wells in the 200- Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2004 data
2,000 m range have been drilled. A shal- Editor's Note: The Mammoth geothermal project in California is often erroniously referred to
low, vapor-dominated reservoir was found as “Casa Diablo.” (Personal communication – Dr. Jim Combs, Geo Hills Associates, 6/9/06).

MAY / JUNE 2006 105

 International Geothermal Development

power plant. The geothermal power plant

Figure 16. Location of geothermal fields in California, United States (from Lund et al.,
2005). replaced a diesel unit, saving about US15¢
per kilowatt-hour.

Turkey. The only geothermal field current-

ly under exploitation for power production
in Turkey is Kizildere, where generation
began in 1968. The power plant went
online in 1984, with an installed capac-
ity of 20 MWe and an average running
capacity of 12-15 MWe (Simsek et al.,
2005). In 2003, it had stable production
of 105 GWh.

United States. In the United States, geo-

thermal electrical production is restricted
to California, Nevada, Utah and Hawaii.
Since 1989, only 110 MWe have been
added to the country’s installed capacity.
Geothermal activity in the last five years
includes two injection projects at The
Geysers, in which recycled waste and lake
waters are sent from a number of local
communities to the geothermal field via
lengthy pipelines. The Southeast Geysers
Effluent Recycling Project (SEGEP) was
the first wastewater-to-electricity system.
As a consequence of massive reinjection
of fluid, power generation at The Geysers
has increased by an estimated 77 MWe (Fig.
15). A second pipeline that carries treated
wastewater from the City of Santa Rosa to
The Geysers went online in 2004. Its ben-
eficial effects are under evaluation, but the
water is expected to provide recovery of an
additional 85 MWe (Monastero, 2002; Sass
and Priest, 2002; Lund, 2003, 2004; Camp-
Table 15. Geothermal fields in Nevada, USA.
bell et al., 2004; Lund et al., 2005). Present
installed gross geothermal power capacity
Field Installed Capacity Number Annual Electricity in the United States is 2,564 MWe, with a
(MWe) a of Units a Production (GWh/yr) b net running capacity of nearly 2000 MWe,
and production in 2004 of 17,917 GWh. The
Dixie Valley 63 1 489 difference between capacity and production
Steamboat Springs 58 13 488 derives mainly from The Geysers, where
Soda Lake 26 9 206 the 21 power plants currently in operation
Brady Hot Springs 21 3 181 have an installed capacity of 1,421 MWe.
Stillwater 21 14 166 Because of overexploitation, however,
Beowawe 16 1 131 steam is available to generate only about
Steamboat Hills 15 1 120 900 MWe. Several geothermal power plants
Desert Peak 12 2 107 are scheduled for installation in the western
Empire 5 4 38 United States. If all of them succeed, U.S.
Wabuska 2 2 17 geothermal electric energy production
Total 239 50 1,943 should grow by 340 MWe by 2010, cor-
responding to a 20-percent increase over
Note: a Early 2005 data; b 2004 data the 2005-2010 period.

106 GRC BULLETIN


Alaska. By October 2005, a 400-kW binary
power plant is scheduled for installation at
Chena Hot Springs, northeast of Fairbanks.
The power will be used at a large tourist
facility that includes bathing pools, an
ice palace, a greenhouse, and more than a
dozen geothermally heated buildings.
California. Geothermal power plants
in California are listed in Table 14 and
shown in Fig. 16. The steam field at The
Geysers, with 21 units, after dismantling
old units and adding the reinjection proj-
ects, reached a total running capacity of
888 MWe (net) in 2004. Electricity genera-
tion reached a peak of over 1,600 MWe
Figure 17. Location of geothermal fields in Nevada, USA (from Lund et al., 2005).
MAY / JUNE 2006
International Geothermal Development
in 1987 (Sass and Priest, 2002). At the
Salton Sea field in the Imperial Valley, the
operator installed a new 50-MWe unit in
1999, followed by a second 10-MWe unit,
aimed at a zinc-recovery project from spent
geothermal brine. The project was aban-
doned recently for financial and technical
reasons. Installation of a new 185-MWe
power plant has been approved. At present,
a single operator is in charge of the Heber
and East Mesa plants, both in the Imperial
Valley. Projects for optimizing old units
and increasing generating capacity at the
two fields are underway. Future develop-
ments are planned at Glass Mountain in
northern California. Permits for 50 MWe
have been approved for the Fourmile Hill
area, but were denied for a proposed 50-
MWe project at Telephone Flat.
Nevada. Geothermal power plants in Ne-
vada are listed in Table 15 and shown in
Fig. 17. New plants are scheduled to be in-
stalled at Steamboat (42 MWe) and Desert
Peak (30 MWe). Additional capacity was
installed in the state in 2005 at Steamboat
(Ed.). Nevada is the state where most future
geothermal activity (exploration, develop-
ment and exploitation) will take place in
the United States.
Utah. There have been no significant geo-
thermal developments in the other states
during 2000-2005, a 26-MWe power
plant at Roosevelt Hot Spring came online
in 2001. This plant generated 200 GWh in
2004. There are plans to install a 25-MWe
unit at Cove Fort-Sulphurdale.
Hawaii. At Puna, on the Big Island of
Hawaii, there are 20 new small binary and
single-flash units totaling 30 MWe for 218
GWh of annual production. The project was
affected by well casing failure from heat
and corrosion in 2002. After months of
workover, it is now operating at its rated
capacity.
Conclusions
Based on information shown in Table
2, the countries generating electricity using
geothermal resources in early 2005 can be
classified into three groups:
• Countries that began geothermal gen-
eration after 2000. Austria, Germany
and Papua New Guinea belong to this
group. In two European countries, power
plants are small binary units (less than
one MWe). In Papua New Guinea, a 6-
MWe back-pressure unit can be consid-
ered the first stage of a project that will
soon add another 30 MWe.
• Countries that began geothermal genera-
tion before 2000 but have not increased
their installed capacity since 2000, or
only slightly include Australia, China,
El Salvador (but with an important 50-
MWe project at Berlín), Ethiopia, Gua-
temala, Japan (with some prospects for
107
 International Geothermal Development

Table 16. Worldwide geothermal drilling activity for power projects, 2000-early 2005. EIMY projects), New Zealand (projects
Country Number of Wells Total Drilled Depth (km) for the coming years for Wairakei and
Mokai), Portugal, Thailand, and Tur-
Australia 2 6 key.
China 1 2
Costa Rica 6 12 • Four other countries can be added to this
El Salvador 5 10 group:
France 3 5
Germany 4 12 Indonesia. No new units have been installed
Guatemala 5 8 since a number of power plants came online
Iceland 39 55 around the year 2000 (80 MWe at Darajat,
Italy 21 64 60 MWe at Dieng, and 110 MWe at Way-
Japan 41 74 ang Windu). This increased the country’s
Kenya 9 22 installed capacity by 35 percent.
Mexico 59 150
New Zealand 9 25 Italy. There was only a modest increase in
Papua New Guinea 7 4 capacity; although 10 new units have been
Philippines 28 63 placed online for a total of 254 MWe, they
Portugal 6 4 were replacing old or obsolete units;
Russia 4 10
Turkey 4 3 Philippines. There has been only a mod-
United States 54 42 est increase (i.e. 1%) in capacity with the
Total 307 571 commissioning of the 22 MWe unit at
Tongonan; and
Table 17. Power plant distribution by plant type (early 2005 data).
United States. The country’s installed
Plant type Installed Percent Installed Capacity Percent capacity grew by only 3 percent with the
Capacity (MWe) (number of units) new 60 MWe Salton Sea Unit V.
Dry steam 2,545 28 58 12
Single flash 3,294 37 128 26
Double flash 2,293 26 67 14
Countries that began geothermal
Binary/combined cycle/hybrid 682 8 208 42
generation before 2000 and have signifi-
Back-pressure 119 1 29 6
cantly increased (percentage) geothermal
power generation over the last five years
Total 8,933 100 490 100 include:

Figure 18. Plant categories: percent of installed capacity. • Costa Rica, with a 14-percent increase in
installed capacity (18-MWe Miravalles
V power plant);

• France, with a 250-percent increase at

Guadeloupe (10-MWe Bouillante II
plant);

• Iceland, with a 19-percent increase (30-

MWe power plant at Nesjavellir and a
2-MWe binary plant at Husavik);

• Kenya, where the installed capacity has

almost tripled (two new units at Olkaria
II and III for a total of 92 MWe);

• Mexico, with a 26-percent increase in

installed capacity (new units at Cerro
Prieto, Los Azufres and Las Tres Vír-
genes, for a total of 198 MWe);

108 GRC BULLETIN

 International Geothermal Development

• Nicaragua, with a 11-percent increase in Table 18. Effect of reservoir temperature on production indexes. (Hotter: > 250°C; Cooler
running capacity (due to the rehabilita- <250°C).
tion of Momotombo and the installation
of new binary unit); and Index Hotter Cooler
Power density (MWe/km2) 7.8±6.4 6.5±5.2
• Russia with a 243-percent increase in
Well density (Wells/km2) 1.9±1.4 1.9±1.6
installed capacity (50-MWe unit at
Well productivity (MWe/well) 4.7±3.3 4.2±2.2
Mutnovsky).
Note: Values in the second and third columns are mean and standard deviations
Drilling Activity
Drilling data for 19 countries that use
geothermal resources in the generation of
electric power are presented in Table 16
(data for Costa Rica, Russia and New Zea- Figure 19. Geothermal power plant categories: percentage of number of units.
land are estimates). More than 300 wells
have been drilled to obtain hot fluids for
electricity production (and/or reinjection
of spent brines) over the last five years,
for a total of 571 km. Average well depth
is about 1.9 km.
Mexico, the United States, Japan, Ice-
land, and The Philippines were the most
active countries for geothermal drilling.

Power Plant Classifications

Total installed geothermal capacity
worldwide has been classified under the
following plant categories: dry steam;
single flash; double flash; binary/combined
cycle/hybrid; back-pressure (Table 17 and
Fig. 18). The largest installed capacities
correspond to dry steam and single-flash
units, with 2/3 of the total. Binary units,
despite their low position
in this ranking because of Figure 20. Power density distribution of developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the number
their smaller capacity rat- of geothermal fields in each category, as a percentage of all analyzed reservoirs.
ings, are becoming increas-
ingly more common.
There were a total of
490 geothermal units oper-
ating in early 2005 (Table
17). The distribution of
units over the different
categories are shown in
Figure 19. The maximum
corresponds to 205 bi-
nary units (42%), with a
total installed capacity of
682 MWe (i.e. 3.3 MWe
per unit). The average
size of single-flash units
is 26.2 MWe, followed by
the 34.2 MWe for double-
flash units, and 43.9 MWe
for dry steam plants.

MAY / JUNE 2006 109

 International Geothermal Development
Figure 21. Well density distribution of developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the
number of geothermal fields in each category, as a percentage of all analyzed reservoirs.
Figure 22. Distribution of well productivity in developed geothermal fields. The vertical axis shows the
number of geothermal fields in each category, as a percentage of all analyzed reservoirs.
Geothermal Production Indices
and Other Statistics
Data presented in Table 3 should be
considered preliminary, and an indicator
of work-in-progress. For many fields, it
was not possible to obtain all requested
information. However, power density (i.e.,
MW/km2) was calculated using informa-
tion from 70 geothermal fields chosen at
random, for which reservoir data were
110
available, by dividing running capacity
by estimated reservoir surface (inferred
from drilling area). Results are shown in
Fig. 20. The average value is 7.4 ± 6.0
MW/km2, but it is clear from the shape of
the distribution that smaller power densi-
ties are more common, in the range 2-6
MW/km2.
It is also interesting to analyze the
number of productive wells per square
kilometer (Fig. 21). The aver-
age value is 1.9 ± 1.5 well/km2.
On the other hand, average well
productivity is 4.6 ± 2.9 MW/
well. Distribution is shown in
Fig. 22.
To evaluate the impor-
tance of reservoir temperature,
all geothermal fields consid-
ered were assigned to one of
two temperature categories:
“Hotter” (temperature equal
or higher than 250°C) or
“Cooler” (temperatures lower
than 250°C).
The mean and standard
deviation for the correspond-
ing production indices, well
density, and well productivity
are given in Table 18. The data
seem to indicate that reservoir
temperatures do not affect well
density, but this should be
considered only as a statistical
value of average well spacing.
On the other hand, resource
temperature has a slight influ-
ence on well productivity, and
as a consequence, on power
density. This variation is not
statistically significant, how-
ever, because of relatively
high standard deviations.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to
express his gratitude to the
International Geothermal
Association (IGA) Board
of Directors and to IGA-af-
filiated organizations for their
contribution of data for this
paper. Sincere thanks are also
due to Iris Perticone for her
help in collating geothermal
field data. Authors of Country
Update reports presented at WGC2005 are
also warmly acknowledged for their help in
clarifying many points. Last but not least,
Marnell Dickson, Roland Horne, Gerry
Huttrer, Marcelo Lippmann, John Lund,
Valgardur Stefansson, Jim Combs, Ted
Clutter, and Kelley Versteegh are thanked
most warmly for their contribution to im-
proving the final manuscript.
GRC BULLETIN

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