Highway Design Manual Qatar PDF

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Introduction by H.E. Minister for Municipal Affairs and Agriculture
The State of Qatar is witnessing rapid

development and the road construction
sector is most closely connected with this
development. It is highly important when
designing roads to take into consideration
the latest international standards and
specifications which in turn conform to
environmental requirements and the future
need to link the road network with the
development programme.
Therefore, the initiative of the Civil

Engineering Department in the Ministry of
Municipal Affairs and Agricultural to up-
date the Qatar Highway Design Manual,
which was published for the first time in
1989, is the best evidence of its desire to
keep up with the progress that this country
is witnessing and emphasises the
determination of this Ministry that its
achievements are proof of its work.
. '
We ask God to guide our steps to the
righteous path.
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ALI BIN SAEED AL KHAYAREEN
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MINISTER OF MUNICIPAL AFFAIRS AND AGRICULTURE
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Introduction by H.E. the Undersecretary of the Ministry of Municipal Affairs
and Agriculture
The Road Network represents the arteries

for traffic movement in the modern state.
Street~ are not just for pedestrian and
traffic movement but contain electricity
and telephone cables, and sewerage
networks.
Therefore, the information that should be ui '-:-'---;>-;! lfill e::"L...),uJ1 u\--i ~ 0----"J
• available for the road designer should not

be confined to population density, the
nature of land and its topography only.
The designer has to coordinate with
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service authorities and study the • i.l!IIJ • 'bj,11 c;i1~1 .J~I

development progress of the area, its .J.l ",1\ Ls.>'"J J.;--bJ1 ~~! ';----:;i J
environment and the effects of road .~
construction and the movement of traffic.
The publication of the Qatar Highway

Design Manual, in a new issue by the Civil
Engineering Department, is undoubtedly a
step in the right path, and is the fastest
way to reach our objective.
• God is behind our purpose and will guide

us on the right path.
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ALI BIN 5AAD AL KUWARI
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UNDERSECRETARY OF THE MINISTRY OF MUNICIPAL AFFAIRS
AND AGRICULTURE
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Introduction by the Director of Civil Engineering Department
This is the second issue of the Qatar

Highway Design Manual we present to
engineers working in the roads and
construction sector in the State of Qatar.
The first issue was published in December 4.l..-..... ~J ~ .u.. ~",:.,1 ~I t::J.J........
1989 and we have been eager that this ,LA. 0, J" ;.,-; ~ lh.o.>"'" .li\J . r' ~ A~
issue should contain more details of the ~L....)'I ~ ~lli\1 0-" 1J;j..;; "!6l1
methods and ideas which have developed _pi ,l........l. J)G. di~1 <?I .J~YIJ
during this period regarding the design and Lt.iJ
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construction of roads, especially those
adopted in the USA, UK and other ~ JJ.L-.JI 0-" tA..J:!6J _~I;; <l..lI J
countries in the last few years. . -..r.;:..Y I t::JI~I
Whilst it is the intention of this Manual to wL.:i5J1
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be used in the road construction sector, .r.-:i'Y )' "'----31 )'! JY:J1 Jt.,..... '''-! J,..,JJ
never the less, it should not be considered <.,?"'~ JL;;.J! ~t:i..; yl> J; Jp.$ (';---"-yll
the only source; it is only a guide to tY.....-...billJ '.' . .,!lI 1'5 .:Ie 0 1J. JY:JI
highway engineers. The engineer needs to ~ . t.S~1 ~ jJ~ :uw...........)'I J
research, review and be assisted by other :L.....".ili, J~ ~)' yL.:iS.l1 1LA. 0i
scientific sources. The Manual does not JI l' • 0--' lH J ' o'J LoJ ' jJ..>---<-!1
cover the area of traffic engineering and , t::J)\ , olyJl t::JL....ljJJ ,6Jb ';'lI
related matters such as planning and ',' "y W~ Iii . :l...........WI.hh;J1 0J~J
transportation studies and issues of general t::JU~! ) t::JL..:..1 ftl ) t::JI 1.;.,)L, :t.,l.,
policy, We will welcome any observations, ;;.:'!" ,
".lI t::J '""-;h\l
suggestion or additions for future issues.
• The Civil Engineering Department while

working earnestly to benefit from new
engineering developments to keep up with
the times, requests all those specialising in
road design in the State of Qatar to
implement the specifications and standards
contained in this Manual.
May god gives us the fortune to carry out ~ L.J ~J :ULoYI ~I~Y ..lJ1 ~J
the trust we bear and to do what benefits ,J)L;JI ~
the Country.
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ALI BIN NASSER AL THANI
d.! i.i.oll ;Lu.i..i..dJ1 djl.i!~.io
DIRECTOR OF CIVIL EN<5INEER.IN<5 DEPARTMENT
QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL DOCUMENT HISTORY
• DOCUMENT HISTORY
The purpose of the Document History is to record changes to the Qatar Highway Design Manual. In the
event of a revision to the manual, CEO will issue the amended pages and re-issue the Document
History.
The Document History pages should contain a description of the change, the issue reference and the
date of issue as noted below. The updated Document History should replace the superseded history
and the revised pages of the manuai should be placed in the appropriate position in the manual.
Description Issue Date
Qatar Highway Design Manual Original Issue December 1989
Qatar Highway Design Manual 2nd Edition (Rev 0) January 1997
January 1997 Page DH/1

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• The Qatar Highway Design Manual draws on technical input and experience from a number of
recognised international sources and applies these to the road system requirements for Qatar. Within
the text there are references to publications where the engineer may seek further information on a
specific topic. The main reference sources are acknowledged below:
• Qatar Construction Specification

• Qatar Traffic Manual
• Design Manual for Road and Bridgeworks· British Government Highway Agency
• Policy on Geometric Design of Highways . American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
• Road Design Manual· National Association of Australian State Road Authorities.
• Designing for Deliveries· Freight Transport Association .
Section 6 Copyright Acknowledgement
Section 6 of this manual contains text and diagrams which are based on material contained within the British Government's
Highways Agency publication the "Design Manual for Road and Bridges - Volume 6 Section 2.
Crown copyright material has been adapted with the permission of the controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office and the
Highways Agency who do not accept any responsibility for the accuracy or comprehensiveness of the contents this Manual.
January 1997 Page AK/1

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Page No.
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G/1
ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR.............................................. RSQ/1

The Highway Network
Primary Routes
Secondary Routes
Tertiary Routes
The Route Classification
Qatar Area Zones
SECTION 1 DESIGN SPEED

Clause 1.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/1
,.
Clause 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/1
Clause 1.3 Selection of Design Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.4 Posted Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.5 Changeover of Design Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.6 Changeover to Existing Roads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.7 Selection of Parameter Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.8 Relaxations and Departures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2
Clause 1.9 Special Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/3
SECTION 2 SIGHT DISTANCE

Clause 2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/1
Clause 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/1
Clause 2.3 Full Overtaking Sight Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/1
Clause 2.4 Obstructions to Sight Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/2
Clause 2.5 Effect of Horizontal Curves on Sight Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/2
SECTION 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT .

Clause 3.1 General . 3/1
Clause 3.2 Minimum Curvature . 3/1
Clause 3.3 Transition Curves . 3/1
Clause 3.4 Camber and Superelevation . 3/2
Clause 3.5 Widening on Curves . 3/6
Clause 3.6 Harmonising the Alignment . 3/8
Clause 3.7 Horizontal Clearances . 3/10
Clause 3.8 Special Considerations . 3/12
SECTION 4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Clause 4.1 General Controls . 4/1
Clause 4.2 Maximum and Minimum Grades . 4/1
Clause 4.3 Vertical Curves . 4/2
Clause 4.4 Harmonising the Vertical Alignment . 4/3
Clause 4.5 Phasing Horizontal and Vertical Alignment . 4/5
Clause 4.6 Vertical Clearances . 4/9
Clause 4.7 Special Considerations . 4/10
SECTION 5 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

Clause 5.1 Road Reservations . 5/1
Clause 5.2 Lane Widths . 5/11
Clause 5.3 Lane Capacity . 5/12
Clause 5.4 Shoulders , . 5/12
Clause 5.5 Edge Strips and Shy Distances . 5/13
Clause 5.6 Medians . 5/13
January 1997 Page C/1

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL . CONTENTS
Clause 5.7 Verges . 5/14

Clause 5.8 Parking Bays and Lanes . 5/15
Clause 5.9 Side Slopes . 5/16
Clause 5.10 Auxiliary Lanes . 5/17
Clause 5.11 Service Roads . 5/17
Clause 5.12 Pedestrian Facilities . 5/18
Clause 5.13 Utilities . 5/19
Clause 5.14 . Use of Kerbs . 5/19
Clause 5.15 Safety Fences . 5/20
Clause 5.16 Crash Cushions . 5/26
Clause 5.17 Fencing . 5/27
Clause 5.18 Road Closure . 5/27
Clause 5.19 Landscaping . 5/30
SECTION 6 JUNCTIONS
Clause 6.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/1
6.1.1 Junction Spacing
6.1 .2 Traffic Flows
6.1.3 Design Vehicles
Clause 6.2
6.1.4
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
Siting of Junctions
Types of Junction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .
T-Junction
Simple Crossroads
Staggered Junction
6/6
•
6.2.4 Skew or Y·Junction
6.2.5 Roundabout
6.2.6 Grade Separated Interchange
6.2.7 Traffic Signals
Clause 6.3 Junction Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/7
6.3.1 Status of Intersecting Roads
6.3.2 Continuity of Standard
6.3.3 Junction Capacity
Clause 6.4 Major/Minor Junctions - General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/9
Clause 6.5 Safety At Major/Minor Junctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/9
Clause 6.6 Major/Minor Junction Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/9
6.6.1 The Simple T-Junction
6.6.2 T-Junction with Ghost Island
6.6.3 T-Junction with Single Lane Dualling
6.6.4 T-Junction on a Dual Carriageway with Median
Opening (Signalized)
6.6.5 T-Junction on a Dual Carriageway with Carriageway
Separation
6.6.6 Crossroads
6.6.7 Staggered Junction
6.6.8 Right and Left Hand Skew Junction
Clause 6.7 Major/Minor Junction Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/14
6.7.1 General
6.7.2 Design Speed
6.7.3 Visibility
6.7.4 Corner Radii
6.7.5 Carriageway Widths
6.7.6 Central Islands - Major Road
6.7.7 Central Island Tapers
6.7.8 Turning Length in Median
6.7.9 Direct Taper Length
6.7.10 Left Turning Lanes
6.7.11 Median Openings
6.7.12 Traffic Islands
6.7.13 Nearside Diverging Tapers and Auxiliary Lanes
6.7.14 Merging Tapers

• 6.7.15
6.7.16
6.7.17
6.7.18
6.7.19
Stagger Distances
Skew Junctions
T-Junction with Carriageway Separation
Channelizing Islands
Splitter/Right Turn Islands
6.7.20 Drainage and Crossfall
6.7.21 Traffic Signs and Road Markings
6.7.22 Road Lighting
Clause 6.8 Roundabouts· General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/33
6.8.1 General Principles
6.8.2 Types of Roundabout
Clause 6.9 Safety at Roundabouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/35
6.9.1 General
6.9.2 Two Wheeled Vehicles
6.9.3 Large Goods Vehicles
Clause 6.10 Roundabout Elements ..: , " 6/38
6.10.1 Definitions
6.10.2 Entries
6.10.3 Entry Width
6.10.4 Flare Design at Entry
6.10.5 Entry Angle
6.10.6 Entry Radius
6.10.7 Entry Kerbing
6.10.8 Entry Deflection
6.10.9 Achieving Entry Deflection
6.10.10 Visibility
6.10.11 Circulatory Carriageway
6.10.12 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)
6.10.13 Exits
6.10.14 Crossfall and Longitudinal Gradient
6.10.15 Segregated Right Turning Lanes
6.10.16 Road Markings
Clause 6.11 U-Turns - General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/60
Clause 6.12 Safety At U-Turns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/60
Clause 6.13 U·Turn Elements. .. . .. .. .. . . . . . ... .... ... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 6/60
6.13.1 .General
6.13.2 Direct Taper Length
6.13.3 Width of Physical Islands in the Median
6.13.4 Left Turn Lane
• 6.13.5
6.13.6
6.13.7
6.13.8
6.13.9
Median Openings
Storage/Queuing length
Merging Length
Pavement Construction
Road Lighting
6.13.11 Drainage and Crossfall
Clause 6.14 Urban Road· Service Road Diverge/Merge ,. 6/63
6.15.1 Residential Areas
6.15.2 Older Residential Areas
6.15.3 Other Road Users
Clause 6.16 Signalized Junctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6/68
6.16.1 Introduction
6.16.2 Basic Requirements
6.16.3 Typical Layout Features

SECTION 7
Clause 7.1
Clause 7.2
INTERCHANGES
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Interchange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1
7.2.2
General
Full Interchange
7/1
7/1 •
7.2.3 Compact Interchange
Clause 7.3 Selection of Junction Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/6

7.3.1 General
7.3.2 Traffic Flows and Design Year
7.3.3 Junction Spacing within the Network
7.3.4 Initial Information Requirements and Decisions
7.3.5 Types of Interchange for Preliminary Design
7.3.6 Preliminary Designs
Clause 7.4 Design Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/8
7.4.1 Definitions
7.4.2 Design Speed
..
7.4.3 Lane Provision and Capacity
7.4.4 Hard Shoulders and Edge Strips
7.4.5 Merges and Diverges at Interchanges
7.4.6 Slip Roads
7.4.7 Link Roads
7.4.8 Loop Roads
7.4.9 Weaving Sections
Clause 7.5 Other Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/16
7.5.1 Clearance and Headroom
7.5.2 Superelevation
7.5.3 Safety Fencing
7.5.4 Signing
7.5.5 Lighting
7.5.6 Utilities
7.5.7 Emergency Vehicles
7.5.8 Maintenance Provisions
7.5.9 Environmental Issues
. SECTION 8 DRAINAGE
Clause 8.1 Introduction. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8/1
8.1.1 Functions of Highway Drainage
8.1 .2 Minor and Major Systems
Clause 8.2
Clause 8.3
Design Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
Hydrological Data
Design Return Period
Design Method
Urban Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8/2
8/14
•
8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Urban Catchment
8.3.3 Positive Drainage
8.3.4 Drainage of the Carriageway
8.3.5 Drainage of Medians, Footways and Verges
8.3.6 Emergency Flood Area (EFA)
8.3.7 Maintenance Strategy
Clause 8.4 Rural Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8/18
8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Rural Catchment
8.4.4 Drainage of Medians and Verges
8.4.5 Natural Surface Drainage
Clause 8.5 Junction Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8/22
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Drainage at Junctions

• Clause 8.6
SECTION 9
Subsurface Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1
8.6.2
PAVEMENT
Introduction
Subsurface Drainage Methods
8/25
Clause 9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

9.1.1 General
9.1.2 Typical Pavement Structures
9.1.3 Road Deterioration
9.1.4 Variability in Materials and Road Performance
Clause 9.2 Traffic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/2
9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Design Life
9.2.3 Traffic Forecasting
9.2.4 Traffic Counts
9.2.5 Standard Axles
9.2.6 Determination of Cumulative Standard Axles
9.2.7 Design Traffic Classes
Clause 9.3 Pavement Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/6
9.3.1 Qatar Construction Specification (QCS)
9.3.2 SUbgrade
9.3.3 Granular Material for Sub-base and Roadbase
9.3.4 Roadbase - Asphalt Concrete
9.3.5 Cement Bound Material
9.3.6 Wearing Course
9.3.7 Concrete for Rigid Pavements
9.3.8 Precast Paving Blocks
Clause 9.4 Design Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/8
9.4.1 General
9.4.2 Asptialt Concrete Roadbase
9.4.3 Asphalt and Granular Roadbase
9.4.4 FleXible-Composite Roadbase
9.4.5 Reinforced Jointed Concrete Slabs
9.4.6 Precast Block Paving
Clause 9.5 Special Pavement Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/15
9.5.1 Staged Construction (Single Layer Construction)
Clause 9.6 Pavement Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/15
9.6.1 Introduction
9.6.2 Routine Monitoring
9.6.3 Detailed Survey
9.6.4 Detailed Investigation
9.6.5 Interpretation and Design of Remedial Works
Clause 9.7 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9118
Annex 9A Basis of the Design Method for Asphalt Roadbase . . . . . . . . . . . . 9/19
9A.1 Design Methods
9A.2 Design Strategy
9A.3 Applicable Methods
9A.4 Specific Method for Qatar
9A.5 Weak Subgrades
9A.6 References
SECTION 10 ROADWAY LIGHTING

Clause 10.1 Introduction . 10/1
10.1.1 Reasons for Lighting
10.1.2 Justification
10.1 .3 Scope
10.1.4 Complementary Standards
Clause 10.2 Performance Requirements . 10/1
10.2.1 Summary of Road Classifications in Qatar
10.2.2 Lighting Performance Recommendations
10.2.3 Limitation of Glare and "Light Pollution"
January 1997 Page CIS

•
Clause 10.3 Recommended Practice . 10/2
10.3.1 Decisions Prior to Design
10.3.2 Standard Lighting Geometries for Different Road Profiles
10.3.3 Lighting Columns as Hazards
10.3.4 Typical Lighting Layouts at Junctions
Clause 10.4 Specification of Equipment . 10/7
Clause 10.5 Electrical Distribution . 10/7
10.5.1 Supply
10.5.2 Feeder Piliars
10.5.3 Cables
10.5.4 Ducts
10.5.5 Earthing Systems
10.5.6 Safety Standards
Clause 10.6 Maintenance and Operation . 10/8
10.6.1 Design Implications
10.6.2 Quality of Equipment
10.6.3 Inventory and Fault Reports
10.6.4 Cleaning and Lamp Replacement
10.6.5 Frequency of Inspections
10.6.6 Hours of Operation
APPENDIX A
Clause A1
CiauseA2
SURVEYS
Introduction
Survey in Qatar .
. Al1
AI1
•
A2.1 Centre for GiS - Mapping and Positioning Services
A2.2 Land Information Centre - General Survey Section (GSS)
A2.3 Planning Department
A2.4 CEO Survey Unit
Clause A3 Survey Work Procedures . Al5
A3.1 Topographical Surveys
A3;2 Services Surveys
A3.3 As-built Surveys
CiauseA4 Approved Survey Companies . Al6
CiauseA5 Specification for Topographical Survey . Al6
A5.1 Features to be Observed
A5.2 Preparation of Survey Data
A5.3 Specifications
A5.4 Checking and Verification
APPENDIXB
Clause B1
Clause B2
GUIDANCE NOTES TO PREPARE A BRIEF FOR GEOTECHNICAL
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Initial Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B/1
B/1
•
Clause B3 Preparation of the Brief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B/2
B3.1 Geotechnical Investigation Works
B3.2 Field Tests
B3.3 Laboratory Tests
Clause B4 Engineering Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B/7
B4.1 Methods of Investigation
B4.1.1 Trial Pits
B4.1.2 Boreholes
B4.1.3 Samples
B4.2 Testing
B4.2.1 In Situ Testing
B4.2.2 Laboratory Testing
B4.3 Earthworks
B4.4 Retaining Structures
B4.5 Geo-synthetics
Clause B5 Sample Pro Forma for Quantifying Geotechnical Site Investigations B/14

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL GLOSSARY
• GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED
AADT(Average Annual Daily Traffic) - Total

yearly two-way traffic volume divided by the
Buffer Zone (Buffer Strip) - Land adjacent to
a highway acquired by the highway authority for
number of days in the year. the purpose of preventing development that
would be adversely affected by traffic noise, or
Acceleration Lane - A speed change lane to for erecting noise barriers.
enable a vehicle entering a roadway to increase
its speed to merge with through traffic. Business District - That portion of a
municipality or an area within the influence of a
Access Road - Road providing access to a municipality in which the dominant land use is
local area or individual properties from a offices, banks, hotels and government bUildings
distributor road.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) - The ratio of
ADT (XX) (Average Daily Traffic) - The current the force required to penetrate a soil mass with
or projected average two-way.daily traffic for the a circular piston of 5cm diameter to the force
year 19xx or 20xx used to define the traffic for required to penetrate a mass of high quality
that year in the Gregorian Caiender. crushed stone with the same piston. The rate of
•
penetration in both cases is 1.27mm per
At-grade Intersection - An intersection where minute. Refer BS 1377.
all carriageways join or cross at the same level.
Camber - (1) A slight arch designed or built into
Auxiliary Lane - The portion of the carriageway a structure to compensate for the naturar
adjoining the travelled way for weaving, truck deflection after loading. (2) Siope on a single
climbing, speed change, or for other purposes carriageway road from the centre to the edges
supplementary to through traffic movement. to aid drainage.
Axle Load - The total load transmitted by all Capillary Break Layer - The layer of specified
wheels on a single axle extending across the or selected material placed on the subgrade to
full width of the vehicle. Tandem axles 1mar break the capillary rise of water and salts.
less apart shall be considered as a single axle.
Capping Layer - Layer replacing existing
Backslope - In cuts, the slope from the bottom material under the pavement.
of the ditch to the top of the cut.
Carriageway - The part of a highway, including
Berm - (1) A raised and elongated area of earth shoulders, for vehicular use. Single
intended to direct a flow of water, screen carriageway or dual carriageway.
•
headlight glare. (2) Embankment widening to
provide lateral support for the roadway. Catchment - Area feeding rainfall to a specific
point.
Braking Distance - The distance required to
stop the vehicle from the instant brake Centreline - (1) For a two-lane highway the
application begins. centerline is the middle of the travelled way,
and for a divided highway the centreline may be
Braking Reaction Distance - The distance the centre of the median. For a divided
traversed by the vehicle from the instant the highway with independent roadways, each
driver sights an object necessitating a stop, to roadway has its own centreline. (2) The defined
the instant the brakes are applied. and surveyed line shown on the plans from
which the highway construction is controlled.
Bridge - Structure supporting road or
pedestrian walkway over an area to be crossed. Cloverleaf Interchange A four-leg
interchange with loops for left turns, and other
Broken Back Curve - An arrangement of connections for right turns. A full cloverleaf has
curves in which a short tangent separates two ramps for two turning movements in each
curves in the same direction. quadrant.
January 1997 Page G/1

Commercial Area - That portion of a

municipality or an area within the influence of a
municipality in which the dominant land use is
shops and commercial business.
the highest continuous speed where individual
vehicles can travel with safety upon a highway
when weather conditions are favourable, traffic
density is low and the geometric design
features of the highway are the governing
•
Crash Barrier - See Safety Fence conditions for safe speed.
Crest Vertical Curve - A vertical curve having Design Vehicles - Selected motor vehicles with
a convex shape in profile. the weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics used to establish highway design
Crossfall - (1) A pavement superelevated controls for accommodating vehicles of
toward the right or left shoulder on appreciable designated classes.
curves. (2) On divided highways on straights
or flat curves, each one-way pavement may Design Year - The future year used to estimate
have a unidirectional slope across the entire the probable traffic volume for which a highway
width of pavement, usuaily downward toward is designed. A time 10 to 20 years from the
the outer edge. start of construction is usually used.
Culvert - A closed conduit, other than a bridge, Diamond Interchange - A four-leg interchange
•
which conveys water carried in a natural with a single one-way ramp in each quadrant.
channel or waterway from one side of a Ail left turns are made directly on the minor
highway to the other side. Culverts may be roadway.
prefabricated pipes of concrete, steel, or vitrified
clay, or they may be cast-in-place structures of Distributor Road - A type of road serving two
reinforced concrete, such a box culverts or arch distinct functions. It provides a traffic service
culverts. between primaries, arterial-coilectors, other
local roads, a town, viilage, industrial or
Curve Widening - The widening of the highway commercial deveiopment, or a recreational
traveiled way on sharp curves to compensate area. it also provides direct vehicular access to
. for the fact that the rear wheels of a vehicle do privately owned properties. Land service is the
not foilow exactly in the tracks of the front first consideration, but traffic service may have
wheels. more than incidental significance.
Deceleration Lane - A speed-change lane that Ditch - A trench dug in the earth for drainage
enables a vehicle to slow to a safe exit speed purposes.
when making an exit turn.
Diverging - The dividing of a single stream of
Desert Road - A graded track to access a farm traffic into separate streams.
•
or small group of properties.
Dual Carriageway - A highway with separated
Design Hour Volume (DHV) - Th.e future two- carrlageways for traffic in opposite directions.
way hourly traffic volume for use in design,
usuaily the 30th highest hourly volume of the Eighty-fifth Percentile Speed - The speed at
design year (30 HV). or below which 85 percent of the vehicles are
being operated.
Design Lane - The lane on which the greatest
ilumber of equivalent 8-tonne, standard axle Elevated Highway - A highway on fiil or
loads is expected. Normaily, this will be either structure above the level of the adjacent
lane of a two-lane highway (single carriageway) ground.
or the outside lane of a multilane highway (dual
carriageway). Embankment - A raised earth structure on
which the road is placed.
Design Life - The number of years of intended
service life of a facility before the first major Emergency Vehicle - A vehicle belonging to
rehabilitation. the armed forces, civil defence, police, fire
service or ambulance service, or other
Design Speed - A speed selected for purposes designated vehicle used for answering
of design and correlation of the geometric emergency calls for assistance.
features of a highway and a measure of the
quality of service offered by the highway. It is

Emergency Flood Area (EFA) - Area set aside Gutter - A paved and generally shallow
to store flood water during heavy rainfall. waterway provided for carrying surface
drainage.
ESA (Equivalent Standard Axle) - The effect
on pavement performance of any combination Headwall - A vertical or inclined wall at the end
of axle loads of varying magnitude, equated to of a culvert to prevent earth from spilling into
the number of reference single-axle loads the channel.
required to produce an equivalent number of
repetitions of an 8-tonne single axle. Hierarchy Classification - The grouping of
individual highways in a highway system,
Exit - The point where traffic leaves to travel to according to their purpose or function, the type
an intersecting road. of traffic they serve, and their maintenance
requirements. The main functional classes are
Fencing· Item placed next to the road to define Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary, though
the edge of reservation or restrict animal subclasses are also used.
access.
Highway - see Road.
Foreslope - The slope from the edge of the
surfaced shoulder to the top of the subgrade, or Horizontal Alignment - Horizontal geometry of
the bottom of the ditch in cuts. the highway.
Formation - Graded surface above sUbgrade or Horizontal Curve - A circular curve or transition
capping layer on which the pavement structure by means of which a highway can change
is laid. direction to the right er left.
Formation Drain - Porous or perforated pipe, Independent Alignments - Each carriageway

or graded aggregate installed under a roadway of a dual carriageway is designed and located
or shoulder to provide subsurface drainage. to take full advantage of the terrain. The
median need not be of uniform width, and the
Footpath - That portion of a street or highway two carriageways need not be at the same
between the kerb line or edge of the roadway, level.
and the adjacent edge of reservation
constructed specifically for pedestrians Industrial Area - That portion within a
(sometimes referred to as sidewalk). municipality in which the dominant land use is
light or heavy industry.
Full Overtaking Sight Distance (FOSD) - The
minimum sight distance that must be available Inside Lane - the first lane of a dual
to enable a driver of one vehicle to pass carriageway, commonly referred to as the slow
another vehicle safely without interfering with lane or nearside lane.
the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at
the design speed. Interchange - A system of interconnecting
roads in conjunction with one or more grade
Gantry - Signal or sign support above a separations, providing for the movement of
carriageway. traffic between two or more roads on different
levels.
Ghost Island - Painted or hatched marking on
the road surface to gUide traffic. Intersection - The connection of two or more
roads is called a intersection.
Gradient - The profile of the centre of the
carriageway, or its rate of ascent or descent. Intervisibility - The requirement of a vehicle
driver to see approaching vehicles and also for
Grade - To shape or reshape earth by means of his vehicle to be seen by approaching vehicles.
cutting or filling.
Junction - Treatment of the intersection of two
Grade Separation - A structure that provides roads.
for highway traffic to pass over or under another
highway. Kerb - A structure with a vertical, horizontal or
sloping face placed along the edge of a
Gully - Collection and distribution point for pavement or shoulder forming part of a gutter,
surface water along a gutter. and strengthening or protecting the edge..

Lane - A portion of the travelled way providing

for a single line of traffic in one direction.
Left Lane - On a two-lane, two-way road, the

traffic lane that is to the left of the centreline and
Overpass - A grade separation where the
highway passes over an intersecting highway.
Parking Lanes - Additional width outside the

travelled way of a highway or street that is
•
normally used by traffic moving in the opposite designated for the temporary storage of
direction; or on a multiiane road, the extreme vehicles.
left traffic lane of those avaiiable for traffic
travelling in the same direction, ie: adjacent to Pavement - Structure on which vehicles travel.
the median.
Pedestrian Crossing - Any portion of a road at
Left-Turn Lane - A traffic lane within the normal an intersection or elsewhere distinctly indicated
surfaced width of a roadway or an auxiliary lane for pedestrian crossing by signs, lights and by
adjacent to or within a median, reserved for left- lines or other markings on the road surface.
turning vehicles at an intersection.
Perception Time - The time required by a
Median - The portion of a divided highway driver to perceive that he must change speed or
separating the travelled ways of traffic travelling stop.
in opposite directions.
Primary Road • Principle road within the
Median Barrier - A longitudinal system used to
prevent an errant vehicle from crossing the
network.
fit
median of a dual carriageway. Profile - A longitudinal section of a highway,
drainage course, etc.
Median Opening - A gap in a median provided
for crossing and turning traffic. Ramp - A short carriageway, usually one way,
to accomplish transfer movements within an
Merging - The converging of separate streams interchange from the arterial highway or
of traffic into a single stream. motorway to the minor road. Commonly
referred to as a slip road.
Moisture Content - The percentage, by weight,
of water contained in soil or other material, Reaction Time - The time required for a driver
usually based on the dry weight. to apply foot pressure to the brake after he
perceived that he must stop.
Motorway - A multiiane, dual carriageway
designed to move large volumes of traffic at Refuge Island - An island in a wide intersection
high speeds under free-flow conditions. to provide refuge for pedestrians.
Motorways have full control of access with
interchanges incorporating grade separation
•
Residential Area - That portion of a
and junctions. municipality, or an area within the influence of a
municipality in which the dominant land use is
Network - A group of roads of varied hierarchy residential development, but where small
in a defined area. business areas may be included.
Noise Barrier - A barrier of earth, stone, Rest Area - A roadside area with parking
concrete, or wood placed adjacent to the facilities separated from the carriageway
highway to reduce the noise level on abutting providing motorists with opportunities to stop
property. and rest for short periods.
One-way Highway - A highway or roadway Reverse Curve - A curve consisting of two arcs
having one or more lanes on which all vehicular of the same or different radii curving in opposite
traffic must go in the same direction. directions and having a common tangent or
transition curve at their point of junction.
Outer Separator - A separator between a
service road and the carriageway of a highway Right-Turn Lane - An auxiliary lane or
or major street. designated lane provided at intersections for
right-turn movements.
Outside Lane - The lane nearest the median on
a dual carriageway, commonly referred to as
the fast lane or off-side lane.

• Ring Road - An arterial highway for carrying

traffic around an urban area or portion thereof.
Road (Highway) - A general term denoting a

public way for purposes of vehicular travel
Separator - An area or a device located
longitudinally between two carriageways so as
to separate traffic flowing In the same or
opposite directions, and so designed as to
discourage or prevent passage by vehicles from
including the entire area within the reservation. the traffic lanes on one side of the separator to
those on the other.
Roadbase - The layer of specified or selected
material placed on a sub-base or formation. Shoulder - The portion of carriageway
contiguous with the travelled way for
Road Hump (sleeping policeman) - Raised accommodation of stopped vehicles for
portion of the carriageway designed to slow emergency use, and for lateral support of base
passing vehicles. and surface courses.
Road Markings - A traffic control device Shy Distance - The portion of carriageway
consisting of lines, patterns, works, symbols, or contiguous with the travelled way which
colours on the pavement, or adjacent to the separates the face of the kerb from the travelled
road. way.
•
Road Sign - A traffic control device mounted on Sight Distance - The length of roadway ahead,
a support above the level of the roadway that visible to the driver.
conveys a specific message by means of words
or symbols. Standard Axle - Single axle load of 8,167 kg.
Road Stud - Reflective or nonreflective stud on Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) - The distance
the road surface to define road markings and required by a driver of a vehicle, travelling at a
traffic positioning. given speed, to bring his vehicle to a stop after
an object on the roadway becomes visible. It
Rumble Strip - A rough textured surface, includes the distance travelled during the
constructed for the purpose of causing the lyres perception and reaction times, as well as the
of a motor vehicle driven over it to vibrate vehicle braking distance.
audibly as a warning to the driver.
Storm Drain (sewer) - A system of catch
Safety Fence - A protective cable, beam or wall basins and underground conduits collecting,
device placed along the carriageway edge for concentrating, and conveying water to a
the purpose of redirecting vehicles that have left disposal point.
the roadway at a point of hazard.
Street - See Road.
'.
,a
Sag Vertical Curve - A vertical curve having a
concave shape in profiie.
Screening - The use of trees, shrubs, fences,

or other materials to obscure an objectionable
view or to reduce an objectionable sound.
Sub-base - The layer or layers of specified or
selected material of designed thickness placed
on the subgrade to support the roadbase.
Subgrade - (1) The top 300mm layer of

embankments or excavated areas on which the
Secondary Road - A highway of less national pavement structure including shoulders is
significance than a Primary road, but a highway constructed. (2) The top of a capping layer
that is intended to move large volumes of traffic upon which the pavement structure and
at high speeds. Military installations and shoulders are constructed.
seaports not served by a Primary road are
reached via Secondary roads. Traffic Superelevation - The elevating of the outside
movement is the primary consideration, but this edge of a curve to partially offset the centrifugal
type of road may also provide some land force generated when a vehicle rounds the
service function. curve.
Superelevation Runoff (application) - The

transition distance between normal crown and
fully superelevated roadway.
January 1997 Page GIS

Tack Coat - An application of bituminous Underpass - A grade separation where the
"
materiai to an existing surface to provide bond highway passes under an intersecting highway.
with a superimposed course. Can be a pedestrian or animal underpass which
crosses under the main highway.
Time of Concentration - The time required for
storm runoff to flow from the most remote point Verge' The portion of the highway reservation
of a drainage catchment area to the point under that is next to the road and is unpaved.
consideration. It is usually associated with the
design storm. Vertical Curve - A curve on the longitudinal
profile of a road to provide a change of gradient.
Toe of Slope - The intersection of an
embankment side slope with the original ground Visibility - The distance at which an object can
surface. be just perceived by the eye.
Topsoil (Rodah soil) - Surface soil, usually Visibility Splay· The area required for driver
containing organic matter. visibility to the left and right on the approach
to a junction from the minor arm.
Traffic Barriers - Roadside barriers, median
barrie.rs, crash cushions, and bridge parapets Wearing Course· The top layer of a pavement
•
intended to guide or protect traffic from roadside which resists skidding, traffic abrasion and the
hazards, including collision with other vehicles. disintegrating effects of climate.
Traffic Island - An island provided in the road Weaving - The crossing of traffic streams
to separate or direct streams of traffic; includes moving in the same general direction
both divisional and channelizing islands. accomplished by merging and diverging.
Traffic Lane - That portion of the travelled way Weaving Sections - Highway segments where
for the movement of a single line of vehicles. the pattern of traffic entering and leaving at
contiguous points of access resuits in vehicle
Traffic Signal· Lights used to direct and stop paths crossing each other.
and start traffic.
Transition - A section of variable pavement

width required when changing from one width of
travelled way to a greater or lesser width.
Transition Curve (Spiral) - A cLirve of variable

radius intended to effect a smooth transition
•
from straight to curved alignment.
Travelled Way - The portion of the

carriageway for the movement of vehicles,
exclusive of shoulders, hard strips, shy
distances and auxiliary lanes.
Turning Lanes - Auxiliary lanes provided at at-

-grade intersections for right and left turning
movements.
Turning Track Width - The radial distance

between the turning paths of the outside of the
outer front tyre and the outside of the rear tyre
that is nearest the center of the turn.
Typical Cross Section - A transverse section

of a proposed highway showing the lateral
dimensions and functional and structural
elements of the highway.

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR
• ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR
The Highway Network
Roads within the State of Qatar each fulfil

Secondary and Tertiary Route Numbers follow
a branching system based on the Primary
Route Numbers.
Qatar Area Zones

certain functions within the overall network. A
hierarchy exists which defines their various For ease of communication and coordination
roles. Table 1 shows the status of road types between Government bodies Qatar has been
within the hierarchy. divided into reference Zones.
Primary Routes Activities such as planning, street names, Road

Network Plans and Hierarchy Plans are
These are 'routes of strategic significance generally referenced against the area zones.
whose purpose is to act as the principal These zones are illustrated in Figure 3 and
distribution routes between the City of Doha, the Figure 4.
main regional centres and the national border.
They are generally dual carriageway roads, built
to high geometric standards.
• The present system of Primary Routes is

illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Secondary Routes
Secondary Routes serves as area distributors

by linking Primary Routes either to each other
or by feeding traffic into the Tertiary Route
network. They are generally dual Carriageway
but in rural areas may be single carriageway.
The major Secondary Routes are also shown in

Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Tertiary Routes
District distributors, local distributors and access

roads are classified as Tertiary Routes. District
distributors are urban dual carriageway roads
providing high capacity routes between districts.
Local distributor roads link access roads to
either the Secondary Route network or, in urban
areas, the district distributors. Both local
distributors and access roads are
characteristically low design speed, single
carriageway roads.
The Route Classification
The Route numbering system is centred on the

city of Doha. As shown in Figure 2, the origin of
the Primary Route network is the D-Ring Road,
this being designated Route No.1. The Primary
Routes Nos. 1 to 7 extend radially outwards
from the D-Ring Road. With the exception of
Route No. 59, linking Route No.5 to the national
border, all Primary Routes have single digit
numbers.
January 1997 Page RSQ/1

Route Classification Class Function Carriageways General Design

•
Ref Corridor
Width
(m)
PRIMARY ROUTE
Rural P1 A major road linking lowns, or a Dual 2·3 lane 64 Roundabouts, minor T or grade-
bypass separated junctions. Some U-
turns on rural routes
Urban P2 A major urban road
SECONDARY ROUTES
Rural S1 A rural road linking settlements Dual 2·3 lane 64/40 T-juncUons, with double U·turns
10 the primary networks. Single 2-lana on dual carriageway, staggered
Significant traffic flow or use by junctions on single carriageway
goods vehicles
Urban S2 A major urban road lor through Dual 2·3 lane 64/40/32
trafflc
TERTIARY ROUTES
Rural Local Road TR1 A rural road linking settlements Single 2-1ane 40/32 T-junclions
District Distributor TR2 An urban road linking districts Dual 2·3 lane 64/40/32 Roundabouts, slip-onlslip-off or
wide single or signalised junctions. No U-turns.
single 2-lane Limited access from existing
properties. New properties to
provide rear access. Parallel
parking in bays
Local Distributor TR3 A road distributing traffic within Wide single or 40/321241 Roundabouts. T·junctions or
a district single 2-lane 20 signalised junctions. Offset X-
(some existing roads. Direct access from
routes may be properties. Parallel parking bays.
dual
carriageway)
Access Road TR4 A road giving direct access to Single 2-lane 24/20/16 Roundabouts or T-junctions.
properties Offset X-roads. Direct access
- residential major access from properties. Parallel parking,
- residential minor access on street.
- eul-pe-sac serving a maximum
0112 properties
Service Road TRS A road giving direct access to Single 1·way Merge/diverge tapers onto dual
properties and collecting minor or 2·way clway. Parallel alignment to major
roads for entry/exit onto Dual road way. T·Junction access for
Carriageway. Minor roads. Speed reduction,
direct access from properties, on-
street parking, parallel or angle.
SPECIAL ROUTES (2)
Scenic Routes SR1 Roads with special functions as varies varies Varies, emphasis on integrated
dignitary routes or recreational landscaping and architecture.
routes
Lorry Routes (3) SR2 Specially designated and varies varies Varies, emphasis on pavement
designed for heavy vehicles design, appropriate junction radii
etc.
Notes (1) The general road corridors are based on the MMAA's plan "General guidance for road cross-sections and utility dispositions".
(2) These can be either primary, secondary or tertiary routes.
(3) The main Lorry Routes include the Regional Primary Roads and the Rural Distributors.
Table 1 Route Classification and Function

.. QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR
•
PRIMARY ROUTES
SECONDARY ROUTES
TERTIARY ROUTES
LOCAL ROUTES
For Hierarchy
Inside Doha
refer to Page
RSC/4
.'
\.
Figure 1 Road Hierarchy - State of Qatar

r A
N •
KEY
_
_
_
PRIMARY ROUTES
SECONDARY ROUTES
TERTIARY ROUTES
•
LOCAL ROUTES
•
)
Figure 2 Road Hierarchy - Greater Doha

• A
N
78
76 75
74
• 72
71
___ ZONE BOUNDARY
ZONE NUMBER
80
86 85
82
84
83
• 96
95
94
.'
•
•
Figure 3 QARS Zones - State of Qatar

A
N •
ZONE BOUNDARY
5. ZONE NUMBER
57
Figure 4 OARS Zones - Greater Doha

ZONE ZONE
No. Name No. Name
1. AI Jasra 31.
2. AIDiwan 32. Madina! Khalila (North)
3. Mohammed Bin Jasim 33. AI Markhiya
4. AI Asmakh 34. Madina! Khalila (South)
5. AI Najada 35. Kulaib
6. AI Ghanim AI Qadaem (North) 36. AI Muraur I AI Massila
7. New Markets 37. Bin Omran / AI Hitmi I AI Jadeed
8. 38. AI Sadd
• 9.
10.
11.
12.
Wadi AI Sail (East)
AI Rumeila (East)
AI Bidda
39.
40.
41.
42.
AI Mirqab I AI Nasr
AI Asiri I AI Salata I AI Jadeeda
AI Hilal (West)
AI Hilal (East)
13. Musheireb 43. AI Nuaija (West)
14. Abdul Aziz 44. AI Nuaija (East)
15. AI Doha AI Jadeeda 45. AI Matar AI Qadeem
16. AI Ghanim AI Qadeem (South 46.
17. Al Hitmi 47.
18. AI Salata 48. Doha International Airport
19. Doha Port 49.
20. Wadi AI Sail (West) 50.
,-
t4IJI
21.
22.
23.
AI Rumeila (West)
Bin Mahmoud (North)
Bin Mahmoud (South)

51.
52.
53.
AI GharrafaiBani Hajer/AI Zaghwa
AI Rayyan AI Jadeed/Muai!her North
24. AI Muntazah 54.
25. AI MansouraiBin Dirham 55 AI Soudan Sou!hlAI AZiziyaiAI

Ghanim/Al Murrah
26. Najrna 56. AI Khulaifat AI Jadeeda
27. Umm Ghuwailina 57.
28. AI Khulailat 58.
29. Ras Abu Abboud 59.
30.
January 1997 Page RSQI7

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
ZONE
ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR
ZONE
..
No. Name No. Name
60. New District of Doha (West Bay) 81. Abu Nakhla
61. Diplomatic District 82. Rawdat Rashed
62. New District of Doha (West Bay) 83. MUkainess
63. New District of Doha (West Bay) 84. Umm Bab
64. New District of Doha (West Bay) 85. AI Nasraniya
65. New District of Doha (West Bay) 86. Dukhan
66. New District of Doha (West Bay) 87.
67. New District of Doha (West Bay) 88.
•
68. 89.
69. New District of Doha 69 90. AI Wakra
70. AI Kheesa 91. Al Wukair
71. Umm Sial I AI Kharaitiyat 92. Mesaieed (Town)
72. AI Utouriya 93. Mesaieed (Industrial Area)
73. AI Jemailiya 94. Shaqra
74. Ai Khor 95. AI Kharrara
75. Ai Thakhira 96. Abu SQmra
76. AI Ghuwairiya 97. Sawda Natheel
77. FuwairitiAI Jassasiya 98. Khor AI Adaid
78. Abu Dhaiouf/Ai Zubara
79. Madinat AI Shamall AI Ruwais
80. Ai Shahhniya

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SECTION 1
• SECTION 1 DESIGN SPEED
1.1 GENERAL
The speed of vehicles depends on the

relaxations and
considerations
Class
Reference
departures
Type of Highway
and special
Design
Speed
capabilities of driver and vehicle and on other (kph)
general conditions such as the physical
characteristics of the highway and its roadsides, Primary Routes
the weather, the presence of other vehicles and P1 Rural 140
P2 Urban 120
finally, the presence of speed limitations.
Although anyone of these may govern, often Secondary Routes
the effects are combined. S1 Rural Distributors 140
S2 Urban Distributors 100
In Qatar the weather has an adverse effect on
the relationship between lyre and road surface Tertiarv Routes
and hence design speed. The heat results in a TR1 Rural Local Road 100
TR2 District Distributor 100
build-up of rubber deposit on the road surface Local Distributor
TR3 70
from tyres. This in turn decreases the skid TR4 Major IMinor Access 60
resistance of the road surface. Qatar is also TR5 Service Roads 60
•
subject to intense rainfall at certain times of the
year. The addition of rainfall to a road surface Table 1.1 Design Speed for Various
which has reduced skid resistance increases Road Classifications.
the potential for accidents. This is particulariy
valid on the approach to and at junctions where Design speeds for Special Roads (Class
turning and stopping movements are high. Reference SR1 and SR2) require special
Furthermore, water is often spilled from water consideration and should be agreed with the
tankers at roundabouts and junctions. Bearing Director of Civil Engineering.
this in mind, the selection of design speed and
hence stopping distance is extremeiy important. All reference to speed in this manual should be
taken as the design speed unless noted
The design speed of a highway may be defined otherwise.
as the highest continuous speed at which any
vehicle can safely travel when given favourable
1.2 DESIGN SPEED RELATED
weather conditions and low traffic volumes, so
PARAMETERS
that the design features of the highway may
govern. Such design features may include
The driver will vary his speed according to his
structures, or frequency of junctions. The
impression of the road alignment and layout.
design speed is related to the posted speed
Table 1.2 details the main design speed related
which represents the 85 'h percentile of the
parameters which are dealt with in greater
design speed, that is the value at which 15% of
depth in their respective clauses in this manual.
vehicles are expected to exceed the design
speed. Refer to Section 1.4 for posted speeds.
Parameter Reference
The road alignment shall be designed so as to
Posted Speed Clause 1.4
ensure that standards of alignment, visibility Table 1.3
and superelevation are consistent with the
selected design speed. This choice will Stopping Sight Clause 2.2
essentially be dependent on the provision of the Distance Table 2.1
highway and its location, I.e. single or dual Overtaking Sight Clause 2.3
carriageway or whether in a rural or urban area. Distance Tabie 2.2
The visibility criteria are dealt with in Section 2
Horizontal Clause 3.2
Sight Distance. Curvature Table 3.1
The design speed for various road Vertical Curvature Clause 4.3
classifications are shown in Table 1.1. The Table 4.4.3
road classifications are defined in the front of Traffic Calming Clause 1.9
this manual, refer to Road System in Qatar.
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters
The selection of design speed should be
approved by the Director of Civil Engineering
Department. Refer to Clause 1.8 and 1.9 for
January 1997 Page 1/1

1.3 SELECTION OF DESIGN SPEED
The designer must select the appropriate

design speed based on his knowledge of the
class of highway planned, the character of
1.6 CONNECTION TO EXISTING ROADS
Care shall be taken where an improved section

of road rejoins an existing road. The existing
standard of curvature and sight distance at the
•
terrain, development density, traffic volumes interface shall be subject to the same
and economic considerations. Generally for restrictions as would be relevant for the design
Qatar the design speed is selected using Table speed of the Improvement. Careful
1.1. consideration shall also be given for roads
passing between rural and urban areas, posted
Design speeds shall also be selected with speed step down and also dual to single
reference to the posted speed limit envisaged carriageways, although this latter case should
or that which is already in place for the road and be limited to junction locations only.
the Road Network Plan. An allowance shall be
made for a margin of safety for vehicles which In all cases it is important to emphasise the
will travel in excess of the speed limit. Refer to need for clear signing at any location where
Section 1.4 below. there is a speed reduction.
1.4 POSTED SPEED 1.7 SELECTION OF PARAMETER
•
VALUES
Posted Speed is the mandatory speed limit
applied to a road. The speed limit is displayed Designers should normally aim to achieve the
on the roadside and is enforceable. The posted desirable minimum values for stopping sight
speed limits to be implemented in relation to distance, horizontal curvature and vertical crest
design speed are shown in Table 1.3 below. curvature. For sag curves, designers should
normally aim to achieve at least minimum
Design Speed Posted values.
(kph) Speed (kph)
1.8 RELAXATIONS AND DEPARTURES
140 120
120 100 Generally for Qatar the design speed is
100 80 selected using Table 1.1. In certain
80 60
70 60 circumstances it may be uneconomic to design
60' or less'" an alignment to the prescribed standards and
.Special consideration50required for consequently a reduced standard may be used.
[ower class roads, see Clause 1.9 This is termed a "relaxation". In situations of
extreme difficulty where application of a
Table 1.3 Relationship between Design relaxation does not overcome the difficulty, it
Speed and Posted Speed may be possible to overcome them by adoption
of departures from standard. Any such
The above table allows for a margin of safety relaxations or departures must be agreed in
appropriate to the selected design speed. writing with the Director of Civil Engineering.
1.5 CHANGEOVER OF DESIGN SPEED Table 1.4 shows the allowable relaxation of
design speed for the different classes of roads
Transitions between roads (or sections of a in Qatar.
road) with different design speeds shall be
carefully implemented so as not to present the The road classifications for Qatar and Doha are
driver with an abrupt change in standards. For described in the front of this manual. The
details of signing the speed reduction refer to selection of a design speed is particularly
the Qatar Traffic Manual. difficult for some of the roads in the older areas
of the city. These areas are not so easily
Where an alignment changes from a higher to classified into land use and factors such as
the next lower design speed, relaxations below access and parking need to be assessed in
the desirable minimum radius and desirable determining the design speed. Other
minimum stopping sight distance shall not be considerations are the number and spacing of
used at the start of the lower design speed junctions on a particular section of road.
section. Relaxations and departures provide a means of
accommodating these areas.

• Class
Reference
Type of Highway
Primary Routes
Design
Speed (kph)
Traffic calming measures may be introduced on
existing roads to reduce traffic speed. This is
achievable by the use of narrow· lanes,
chicanes, width or height restrictions, speed
bumps or different textures or colours of
P1 Rural 140-120 pavement.
P2 Urban 120-100
Care shall be taken to ensure that traffic
Secondary Routes
calming measures, being introduced do not
S1 Rural Distributors 140-120
S2 Urban Distributors 100 impede emergency service vehicles.
Tertiary Routes A typical speed bump may be 305m in length

TR1 Rural local Road 100 with its profile reaching a maximum of 100mm.
TR2 District Distributor 100-70 They should ideally be located at 100m
TR3 Local Distributor 80-60 intervals. Much shorter intervals result in
TR4 Major Access 60-50
Seryice Roads 60-30 inconvenience to the residents, whereas for
TR5
much longer intervals the overall speed control
is lost. For safety reasons speed bumps should
Table 1.4 Design Speeds for Various not be located near junctions or sharp bends.
Road Classifications.
For further details on traffic calming measures,
Departures below minimum values may be refer to the Qatar Traffic Manual.
considered when cost or environmental savings
are considered to be significant, except in the
folloWing circumstances:
• immediately following an overtaking

section on single carriageway roads.
• on the immedia1e approach to a

junction, other than a roundabout,
where frequent turning traffic will occur.
1.9 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Special consideration is required for residential

and commercial areas.
The posted speed in residential areas is 50kph
• for local roads and lower for access roads.

Lower speeds may be posted in special
circumstances such as residential cul-de-sacs
or in industrial areas where the facilities are
designed to distribute vehicles to their final
destination.
The lower design speeds applied in residential

and urban areas do not require superelevation
on bends or other special dynamic related
considerations.
One-way roads may be used for local and

access roads usually in the form of discreet
loops.
One-way roads should be designed so as not to

encourage speeding. This may be achieved by
the use of narrow lanes and avoiding long
straight sections of road, and by implementing
anyone or more of the traffic calming measures
listed below.

•
•
• SECTION 2 SIGHT DISTANCE

a) Vertical Plane
~
2.1 GENERAL
2.:w 2.0m
Sight distance is the continuous length of road 1.05m
O.26m
ahead, visible to the driver, assuming adequate
iight, visual acuity and clear atmospheric
conditions. The arrangement of geometric b) Horizontal Plane
elements is crucial to ensure adequate sight
distance exists for safe and efficient operation.
There are two separate sight distances to be
considered:
• Stopping Sight Distance (for all roads)
• Full Overtaking Sight Distance (for

Figure 2.1 Measurement of Stopping Sight
single carriageways only)
..
Distance (SSD)
Safe stopping distance must be provided
continuously on all highways. Safe overtaking 2.3 FULL OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
distance is appiicable only on two-lane
highways, primarily in rural or outlying urban Full Overtaking Sight Distance (FOSD) is the
areas. minimum sight distance that must be available
to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass
2.2 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE another vehicle safely and comfortably, without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the distance vehicle travelling at the design speed. In the
required by the driver of a vehicie travelling at a interests of safety and service, it is important to
given speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after ensure sufficient visibility for overtaking on as
an object on the carriageway becomes visible. much of the road as possible. FOSD influences
SSD has three components; perception time, the average speed of the traffic especially when
reaction time and braking time. A combined a highway is near operating capacity.
driver perception and reaction time of two
seconds has been allowed for in Table 2.1. Table 2.2 shows for each design speed the
FOSD required for overtaking vehicles using the
Design Stopping
opposing traffic lane on single carriageway.
Speed (kph) Sight Distance 1m) roads. These are minimum values and
wherever possible, larger values should be
140 350 used.
120 295
100 215
80 160 Design Speed Full Overtaking
70 120 (kph) Sight Distance (m)
60 90
50 70 140 910
40 60 120 720
100 580
80 490
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance SSD 70 410
60 345
Stopping Sight Distance is measured from a 50 290
driver's eye height of between 1.05 and 2.00m 40 215
to an object height of between 0.26 and 2.00 m,
above the road surface, refer Figure 2.1. It Table 2.2 Full Overtaking Sight Distance
shall be checked in both the horizontal and FOSD
vertical plane between two points in the centre
of the lanes on the inside of the curve (for each FOSD shall be measured from a driver's eye
lane in the case of dual carriageways). point between 1.05m and 2.00m above the
centre of the carriageway (for each lane in the
case of dual carriageways) as shown in Figure
2.2 and shall be checked in both the horizontal
and verticai planes.

FOSD is considerably greater than SSD and

can normally only be economically provided in
relatively flat terrain where the combination of
horizontal and vertical alignment allows the
design of a flat and relatively straight road
central offset required with varying horizontal
curvature, in order to maintain the design speed
related stopping sight distances. It can be seen
that extensive widening of verges and
structures, or medians with safety fence or
•
alignment. safety barriers, would be required to maintain
stopping sight distances on horizontal radii
below the minimum.
Figure 2.4 shows the maximum central offset

required with varying horizontal curvature, in
Envelope of visibility order to maintain the design speed related full
'~:~/"$H~efm
overtaking sight distance. It can be seen that
the higher requirements of FOSD result in
extensive widening of verges for all but
relatively straight sections of road.
•
It is vital that drivers on an access or minor road
should have adequate visibility on the approach
to a junction with a major road. The driver
Figure 2.2 Measurement of Full should have sufficient visibility to judge when to
Overtaking Sight Distance join the main carriageway. Furthermore, it is
(FOSD) important for the driver on the major road to be
aware of the vehicle approaching the junction
Where possible on a single carriageway it is on the minor road.
advisable to design sections of road specifically
for overtaking. This will reduce the frequency of The required visibility criteria for junctions is
serious accidents occurring on 'roads with given in Section 6 Junctions.
continuous large radius curves.
The required visibility criteria should also be
2.4 OBSTRUCTIONS TO SIGHT applied to private accesses and driveways
DISTANCE leading onto access roads.
Care shall be taken to ensure that no The visibility required on bends is shown in
substantial fixed objects obstruct the sightlines Table 2.3 below. -
including road furniture, bridge piers, buildings,
signs and cut slopes. However, isolated slim Visibility distance (m)
objects such as lamp columns, sign supports, or Type of Road
other slim objects of width 550mm or under can Absolute Desirable
be ignored. Similarly, the effect of short Minimum Minimum
intermittent obstructions, such as bridge
parapets of minor roads under, can be ignored. Local Roads 50 70
Access Roads 30 50
Lay-bys or parking lanes should, wherever
possible, be sited on straights or on the outside
of curves, where stationary vehicles will not Table 2.3 Required Visibility on Bends for
obstruct sightlines. Residential Roads.
Sightlines should be checked where safety Where there is likely to be increased pedestrian
fencing is installed. traffic, care must be taken to ensure that
visibility is not impaired by pedestrians. This
2.5 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL CURVES could occur at the following residential and
ON SIGHT DISTANCE commercial locations :
When a road is in a cutting or at bridge • Pedestrian crossing points

crossings it will be necessary to widen verges
or increase bridge clearances to ensure that the • Sikkas and alley-ways
appropriate stopping sight distance is not
obstructed. Figure 2.3 shows the maximum • Schools

• •
•
•
Shopping areas
Sports venues
Cinemas
• Bus stops
In existing residential or' commercial

developments, it is important to review the
visibility on 90 degree bends. Where it is not
possible to achieve the required visibility,
consideration should be given to using a larger
radius or even locating a junction on the bend.
In new developments where it is not possible to

avoid the use of a 90 degree bend, the foilowing
should be considered:
•
• Avoid building.on corner plots
• Use low landscaping
• Avoid placing street furniture and

signing within the visibility splay.
Care should also be taken when locating

.parking areas as parked cars wiil impede
visibility at tight bends, junctions and driveway
locations. Refer to Section 5 for further details
on parking.
January 1997 Page 213

~
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a: \ \ <!'
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ec \ I \ The values shown are maxima and apply
\ \ where FOSO > curve length. Land for :l>
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Z
c:
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•
•
SECTION 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT provide adequate superelevation
• 3.1 GENERAL
The most important consideration in determining

the horizontal alignment of a road is the
d)
crossover between the curves.
Broken-back curves consist of two

curves in the same direction connected
with a short straight and should not be
provision of safe and continuous operation at a used. This type of curve is unexpected
uniform design speed for substantiai lengths of by drivers and is not pleasing in
road way. The major aspects influencing the appearance. An attempt should be
horizontal alignment are; safety, design speed, made to adopt one simple curve or
topography, costs, vertical alignment and road even a compound curve.
classification.
e) Horizontal alignment and its associated
All of these factors must be balanced to produce design speed should be consistent with
an alignment that is safe, economical, and in other design features and topography.
keeping with the natural contour of the land and Co-ordination with vertical alignment is
the adjacent land use. Poor design will result in discussed in Section 4.5.
lower speeds and a reduction in the capacity of
the road and safety. f) On duai roads, consideration may be
given to independent horizontal and
• The design of a road on straight alignment vertical alignments for each

requires consideration of grades, sight distance, carriageway.
pavement, reservation cross section, etc. When
horizontal curves are introduced, additional 3.2 MINIMUM CURVATURE
items including radii, transition lengths,
pavement widening and superelevation require The minimum curvature without the need for
special attention. adverse camber, superelevation or transitions
is shown in Table 3.1 below.
In addition to the specific guidance given in this
section, there are a number of general Design Minimum Radius
considerations which are important in producing Speed without Adverse
a safe and economic design. These practices, (kph) Camber,
as outlined below, are particularly applicable to Superelevation or
Transitions
high speed situations. (m)
a) Flatter curves for a certain design speed 140 3800

should be used where possible, 120 2880
100 2040
retaining the most conservative 80 1300
standards as possible for the most 70 1020·
critical conditions. 80 720
50 510
b) Compound curves consist of two or
more consecutive curve alignments. Table 3.1 Minimum Radii without transitions
They should be used with caution and
should be avoided where conditions Where the radius of curvature is less than the
permit the use of a simple curve. value indicated in Table 3.1, trp.nsition curves
Where compound curves are used, the should be used.
radius of the flatter curve should not be
more than 50 percent greater than the 3.3 TRANSITION CURVES
radius of the sharper curve for rural and
urban conditions. On this basis, a The adopted form of transition between a
several step compound curve may be straight and a horizontal curve is a clothoid,
used as a form of transition to sharp also known as transition curve. It provides a
curves or a spiral, transitioning from one usefui and logical section of the alignment for
radius to the next. This condition can the development of superelevation and is the
be relaxed for lower speeds at junctions most common method adopted.
and roundabouts.
Where it is not possible to adhere to the values
c) Reverse curves on high speed roads of curvature given in Table 3.1, a transition
should include an intervening tangent or curve should be used.
transition section of sufficient length to

The length of transition depends on the radius of 3.4 CAMBER AND SUPERELEVATION
•
the circular curve and the design speed. The
basic length of the transition is given by the On sections of road with radii greater than that
formula: shown in Table 3.1 for the given design speed,
the crossfall or camber should be 2% from the
L= va / (46. 7qR) centre of single carriageways, or from the
central median of dual carriageways to the
Where: L= length of transition (m) outer channels. At junctions other than
V= design speed (kph) roundabouts, the cross-section of the major
q= rate of increase of road shall be retained across the junction, and
centripetal acceleration the side road graded into the channel line of the
(m/sec 3 ) major road. On horizontal curves, adverse
R= radius of curve (m) camber shall be replaced by favourable
crossfall of 2% when the radius for the given
Normally, q should not exceed 0.3 m/sec3 • design speed is less than that shown in Table
However, in particularly onerous cases, it may 3.1. However, it may be necessary to eliminate
be necessary to increase the value up to 0.6 adverse camber on larger radii for aesthetic or
misec'. On bends the length of transition should drainage reasons. Provision of camber and
normally be limited to .f(24R) metres. For quick superelevation In low speed areas such as
reference some common transition lengths are commercial or residential areas has a tendency
given in Table 3.2. to encourage drivers to drive faster and should
be avoided. Refer to Clause 3.8 for special
The elements for circular and transition curves considerations relating to low speed areas.
are shown in Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2.
The following superelevation and minimum
Superelevation or elimination of adverse camber curves are recommended (Table 3.3).
shall generally be applied on or within the length
of the transition curve from the arc end. The Desig Minimum Radius (m) for
basic transition appropriate to the design speed n
however will often result in insufficient transition Speed (a) (b) (c) Superelevallon
(kph) Normal Adverse
length to accommodate superelevation turnover, Camber Camber
3.5% 5% 7"10·
and it will therefore be necessary to provide Eliminated
longer transitions to match the superelevation 140 3800 2880 2040 1300 1020
design. 120 2880 2040 1300 1020 720
100 2040 1300 1020 720 510
80 1300 1020 720 510 360
Transitions are not necessary in urban low 70 1020 720 510 360 255
speed areas such as junctions and service 60 720 510 360 255 180
50 510 360 255 180 127
roads.
7% may be only used at speCial locattons and must have the
permission of the Director 01 Civil Engineering Department prior to
its use.
Radius Design Speed (kph)
•
(m)
140 120 100 80 70 60 50 Table 3.3 Minimum Radii with Camber
and Superelevation
2400 82 51
2200 89 56
2000 98 62 36 On radii less than those shown in Table 3.1
1800 109 69 40
1600 122 77 45 superelevation shall be provided, such that:
1400 140 88 51
1200 163· 103 59 30
1000 196" 123" 71 37 24 S = II' /2. 828R
800 154" 89 46 31
600 119 61 41 26 Where:
400 91 61 39 22
. 200
Refer Table 3.3 for restrrcted
122 77
use of superelevatlon
45
S = Superelevation (%)
V = Design Speed (kph)
Table 3.2 Basic Transition Lengths (m) R = Radius of Curve (m)

Superelevation shall not exceed 5%. Only In When expanded, this formula provides the
• special circumstances and with prior permission

from the Director of Civil Engineering
Department will superelevation greater than 5%
be considered. Table 3.4 gives examples of
superelevation for selected design speeds and
equation for the vertical reverse curve to be
used for the superelevation curve. This reverse
curve is shown in Figure 3.3
In some difficult areas, even the above

radii. requirements can lead to drainage problems,
ego where the superelevation is applied against
Radius Design Speed (kph) the longitudinal gradient. It may be necessary
(m) to either modify the horizontal alignment to
140 120 100 80 70 60 50 move the superelevation area, increase the
2400 2.88 3.15 variation in grade of the edge profile, or appiy a
2200 3.15 2.31 rolling crown. Areas susceptible to such
2000 3.47 2.56
1800 3.85 2.83
drainage problems shouid be identified at an
1600 4.33 3.18 2.21 early stage in the design process, before the
1400 4.95 3.64 2.53 horizontal alignment is fixed.
1200 5.78' 4.24 2.95
1000 6.93· 5.09' 3.54 2.26
800 6.36' 4.42 2.83 2.17
600 5.89' 3.77 2.89 2.12
x I
__~[~
400 5.66' 4.33 3.18 2.21
I ~:r
200 6.6S· 4.42
Special Circumstances see above
• Table 3.4 Superelevation of curves (%)
Progressive superelevation or removal of

adverse camber shall be achieved over or within
I
I --=L
Y = 3SX;/L 2 _2SX'/L 3
_
!
wh ere Y = offset
the length of the transition curve from the arc
S = maximum offset
end. On existing roads without transitions, =
X distance from start of application
between Y2 and % of the cant shall be L = length of application
introduced on the approach straight and the
remainder at the beginning of the curve.
Figure 3.3 Reverse Curve Formula
Superelevation shall not be introduced, nor
adverse camber removed, so gradually as to Figure 3.4 shows typical methods of developing
create large, almost flat areas of carriageway, to superelevation by rotating about the edges and
cause driver discomfort or to kink the edges of the centre of the road. The designer should use
the carriageway. A satisfactory appearance can the most appropriate method to suit the
usually be achieved by ensuring that the situation. For dual carriageways, greater
carriageway edge profile does not vary in grade consideration of topography, cut and fill,
by more than about 0.5% from the line about catchment and median drainage is required.
which the carriageway is pivoted, and by ample
smoothing of all changes in edge profile. It is
recommended to ensure that a minimum
longitudinal gradient of at least 0.5% is
maintained wherever superelevation is to be
applied or reversed. The distance to satisfy this
constraint is given by the equation:
G=%xSIL
Where:
G= rate of change of gradient

(0.5%)
S= change in channel
superelevation relative to the
line about which the
carriageway is pivoted (m)
L= length required to
accommodate the change in
superelevation (m)

QATAR HiGHWAY DESiGN MANUAL SECTION 3
,.
Elements:
PI ::;: Point of Tangent Intersection
BCe::;: Beginning of Circular Curve
ECC::;: End of Circular Curve
/).C = Deflection Angle of Circular Curve
R ::;: Radius of Circular Curve
T ::;: Tangent
LC ::;: Length of Curve
BCC ECC
Circular Curve-
Figure 3.1 Circular Curve Elements

..
Elements:
PI = Point of Tangent Intersection
BTC = Boginning of Transition Curve
Bee = Beginning of Circular Curve
ECC = End of Circular Curve
ETC = End of Transition Curve
6. = Total Deflection Angle
6r = DeJlection Angle: of Transition Curve
fie = Deflection Angle of Circular Curve
R = Radius of Circular Curve
MT = Main Tangent
TK
TL
XM
Li R
X
Y
LT
::;: Short Tangent of Transition Curve
= Long Tangent of Transition Curve
= Abscissa of the Center of Radius Point
= Circular Curve Offset
= Abscissa of BCC or ECG
= Ordinate of BCe or ECG
= Length of Transition Curve
•
LC = Length of Circu lar C urva
Symmetrical Form of Transition to Circular Curve
Figure 3.2 Transition and Circular Curve Elements

• Tanaen!
Runout
....oW
~
o
Suoerelevation runoff
00
Runoff slope~ 0 0
o
enw
O..!!ts~e ~g~ofJ.ra~elJed way
-~
Slope 1:400~ ~ o
~
Normal \ _.- - ct Grade -::';
crown - I- - - f- -I-- _ "-~
;;;
- -/- - - - -~
a.
l,!!id~eqge.2J t!!v·~ed way
A B c ~D ct. Profile control
Travelled way revolved about centreline
Tangent Superetevation runoff

Runout ~
•
o 00
....
w
00
enW
o Runoff slope ~ ~~...'!ts~e ~dg~ oUra.'!.elled way
o
....
Slope 1:400 \
en
_ c- -
- Ci.. Grade -~
~
Normal ormal CLProfile grad~ _

crown - _.-- r - - -------- - -----
Inside edge of travelled way
A B c
Inside edae
Profile control
Travelled way revolved about inside edge
Superelevation runoff
I Io
~Io
Tangent
Runout
0 ....
.... w 00
en ~ enw
Normal Normal ct...Qrofile grade Outside edge of travelled way
crown -:-.. _ _ --§-~
It Grade
'n>i
~
"--
RunOffSlope~-
~
- - -- a.
-~~ - - - -
Inside edge of travelled way
A B c D Outside edge
......... Profile control
Travelled way revolved about outside edge
Notes:
A = Norm al crown
B = Level high side norm al crown low side
C = Superelevation at normal crown rate
o = Full superelevation
Figure 3.4 Development of Supereievation

3.5 WIDENING ON CURVES
The rear wheels of vehicles do not follow the

front wheels exactly on horizontal curves, and it
is more difficult to steer the vehicle on curves.
..
For these reasons it is recommended to
Increase travelled way widths on curves.
Widening is required for carriageways of less

than standard width and for low radius curves of
standard width to allow for the swept path of
long vehicles.
For carriageways of standard width, (3.65m,

7.3m and 11.0m for 1, 2 and 3 lanes
respectively) an increase of O.3m shall be
allowed when the radius is between 90m and
150m. Two lane roads of width greater than
7.9m require no additional widening. Widening
of road widths when the radii is less than 90m is
covered in Section 6 Junction Design.
For carriageways less than the standard width,

widening shall be as shown in Table 3.5.
•
LaneWldlh Radius Additional
Widlh(m)
Standard Radius less than gOm refer to -

Width SeeUon 6
Standard Radius between gDm and 0.3

Width 150m
Standard Radius grealer than 150m None

Width
Less than Radius less than gOm refer to

Standard Section 6
Width
Less than Radius between gOm and 0.6

Standard 150m subject to maximum
Width carriageway widths o17.9m
and 11.9m (for 2 and 3 lanes
respectively)
Less than Radius between 150m and 0.5

Standard 300m subject to maximum
Width carriageway widths of 7.3m
respectively)
Lesslhan Radius between 300m and 0.3

Standard 400m sUbject to maximum
Width carriageway widths of 7.3m
respectively)
Table 3.5 Application of Additional Lane

Width

,.
Circular curve
_--'t--_
/'
.".. ./
- -
-- --:;:;~~~~~;--...
axirn uOl s.upe~elevation "S"
& widening "w"
..
Widening
./--Avoid reserve curve

at this point
Transition curve may be widened on inside and outside
\II
-ct-_
Simple curve may be widened on inside only
Figure 3.5 Widening of Pavement on Curves

3.6 HARMONISING THE ALIGNMENT viewpoint is at the same distance from the start
•
of the curve then an improvement is not
The choice and arrangement of the linear achieved, in fact the kink will appear to be
elements are crucial factors in ensuring that the rather more pronounced.
road will look right in its surroundings and will
be pleasing to the driver of the vehicle. The
design shal[ also provide a safe route, with the
necessary stopping sight distances.
...... _-- ,
The aim of flowing alignment is to combine the ,,
various components in a manner which results 8
in the road being experienced by the road user
as a free-flowing, harmonious form without U
visual discontinuities. Such a design results in
better integration of the road into the landscape
n
and helps to make the road a construction ./
which is visually pleasing from the viewpoint
both of its users and those outside the road
reservation. Figure 3.7 Improved View with Larger
Radius
The principles of flowing alignment are closely
linked with the way in which the driver sees the
road line and in particular the shape of the road
edges.
It is advisable to avoid small changes in

Even with a large radius curve, it is not possible
to avoid the illusion of a sharp change in
direction if the approach straights are
sufficiently long, refer Figure 3.8. The best
results are likely to be achieved with the flowing
•
direction in a flowing alignment. These are alignment when straights can be dispensed
likely to appear unsatisfactory from the vehicle. with. This of course is not always possible or in
Furthermore, small transverse displacements fact desirable. For example, in roads Which are
can present a confusing prospect for the driver. not dual carriageways, the sight lines on
stretches of road where overtaking is permitted
must be based on passing sight distance and
not stopping sight distance. Straight lengths
may then be required to achieve these sight
StraIght distances. Also, it should be borne in mind that
such effects will not necessarily be significant in
Short the total view for any particular case. Each
curve design should be considered in its landscape
context. This is true of many aspects of internal
Straight harmony, although the greater the design
•
speed, the iess the externai features modify the
internal views. This occurs because vegetation
I and buildings are further back from the road
edge, the carriageways are wider, sight lines
longer and the roadworks generally constructed
Figure 3.6 Example of Kink to a larger scale.
In all cases, when additional width is required, Abrupt changes in direction can be
the extra width should be applied uniformly unsatisfactory on access roads as well as
along the transition curve. Where existing highways. In Figure 3.9 the straights have been
alignments are to be improved the Widening joined without the use of a horizontal curve.
should take place on the inside of curves. This The appearance is quite different when a
is shown in Figure 3.5. horizontal curve is added, refer Figure 3.10.
When two straights are connected, the use of a

short horizontal curve Is likely to cause the
appearance of a kink, refer Figure 3.6. In such
cases the impression can be improved by
employing a larger radius, but an improvement
only results provided the views being compared
are taken from the same distance from the
vertex of the curve, refer Figure 3.7. If the

Figure 3.8 Illusion of a Sharp Bend with Long Straights
Figure 3.9 Anguiar Geometry Figure 3.10 Curved Geometry

Short straight sections of road should not be Similarly, in the case of two subsequent curves
•
interposed between horizontal curves of in the same direction. the use of an intermediate
opposite sense since the appearance of a kink short straight, as shown in Figure 3.14. is likely
is likely to result, refer Figure 3.11. A possible to produce an unsatisfactory visual effect. Here
solution is the use of a pair of transition curves there may be the possibility of replacing the two
refer Figure 3.12. When designing for slower curves and the straight with one circular curve,
speeds or in the case of very large radii it may refer Figure 3.15. Another possibiiity may be to
be feasible to join the two curves directly as interpose one transition curve between the two
shown in Figure 3.13. This could be done with radii. refer Figure 3.16.
care since here also an impression of lack of
flow may result. ' A series of reverse curves is likely to produce a
flowing alignment which is pleasing to the eye
and comfortable for the driver. This type of line
is ideal for integrating a route into an undulating
landscape.
Figure 3.17 summarises alignments to be

avoided and those to be attained where
possible.
Circular Circular
3.7 HORIZONTAL CLEARANCES
curve
Straight
curve
Figure 3.11 Short Straight Between Curves

Generally. no structures apart from roadside
furniture. such as signs and lighting coiumns,
are allowed to fall within the road reservations.
The positioning of signs and other street
•
furniture should be in accordance with the Qatar
Traffic Manual. If it is not possible to position
structures outside the reservation, consideration
should be given to providing a safety barrier or
safety cushions, refer clauses 5.15 and 5.16
respectively. Setback of crash barriers is dealt
with in the clause referenced previously.
Structures should not be placed within 1.2m of

the edge of the hard shoulder, or a.6m of a
kerbed road.
Circular Circular It is important to ensure that sight distance is

curve curve
Transition Transition not impaired. especially at junction and
driveway locations. Refer to Section 2 Sight
Distance.
Figure 3.12 Back to Back Transitions
I~
Circular Circular
curve curve
Figure 3.13 Back to Back Circular Curves

Circular Circular
curve Straight curve
Figure 3.14 Two Subsequent Curves in the Same Direction
Circular curve Transition

curve
Circular Circular
curve curve
Figure 3.15 Single Circuiar Curve Figure 3.16 Single Transition Curve
Between Two Curves
To be avoided
- - X 1 Small change of direction
~ X 2 Short horizontal curve between two straights
• ~ X 3 Short straights between horizontal curves of

opposite sense
~ X 4 Short straight between horizontal curves of

the same sense
~ X 5 Out of balance alignment
To be attained
~ V 1 Well-balanced alignment
~ V 2 Use of curves rather than straights where

feasible
Figure 3.17 Summary of Alignments to be avoided and those to be attained

3.8 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS Case 1 Standard cross section, carriageway falls

from centre-line at nominal 2%. To
Residential roads selVe or give access to continue this cross-section around a
private dwellings or properties. They should be curve would introduce adverse camber.
designed to selVe the needs of the residents Minimum recommended centre line radius
and at the same time discourage through traffic for local roads (TR3) is 130m and for
by ensuring that the roads are not used as a access roads (TR4) is 5Sm
short cut.
Case 2 Normal 2% crossfall applied across the
full section, falling from the outer kerb
Generaliy the design of roads in residential towards the inner kerb
areas and local street systems should consider
Minimum recommended centre line radius
he foliowing: for local roads (TR3) is 100m and for
access roads (TR4) is 45m
• Local streets should be designed to
minimise through traffic movements. Case 3 4% crossfall applied across the fUll
section, falling from the outer kerb
towards the inner kerb
• Street patterns should minimise
excessive vehicle travel. Minimum recommended centre line radius
for local roads (TR3) is 80m and for
• The local circulation should not have to access roads (TR4) is 40m
rely on extensive traffJc regulations or
signs in order to function properly. Table 3.6 Possible Road Sections at
Bends
• Traffic generators within residential
areas such as schools, mosques or Table 3.6 identifies three possible road sections
shopping facilities should be at bends.
considered in the overali design.
The introduction of cUlVes to residential roads is
• The local street system should be
designed for a relatively uniform low
an effective form of speed control. However
bends of smaller radius than those given in
volume of traffic. Table 3.6 exaggerate this effect and with
particularly sev.ere bends, induce the sharp
• Local streets should be designed to
discourage excessive speeds.
braking/acceleration behaviour which has been
identified as undesirable.
• Pedestrian - vehicular conflict should

be minimised.
In short cul-de-sac or loops, such as 60m or
less in length, where speeds are low the
desirable minimum inner kerb radius is 15m
• Parking requirements should be
provided without reducing visibility
with an absolute minimum of 10m.
•
requirements or the safe operation of
the road.
There should
intersections.
be a minimum of
The minimum radii to be provided at junctions is
discussed in Section 6 Junction Design.
The typical driveway should be designed for

passenger-car operation only. For a 90 degree
•
turn, an inside radius of 5m and an outside
• Local streets should be related to swept path of a 9m radius will comfortably
topography from the standpoint of accommodate most drivers In all passenger
drainage, economics and amenities. cars. Temporary encroachment on the wrong
side of a residential street while entering a
The speeds on residential roads are private driveway is generally considered
considerably lower than major, secondary and allowable. For higher traffic volumes expected
primary roads. As the dynamic element is not at the driveways of school or apartment car
so critical, it is not normal to implement parks, increased driveway widths are
transitions as part of the horizontal alignment, recommended.
nor to apply superelevation to a cUlVe.
The visibility requirements for bends on

residential roads Is detaIled in Section 2.

.. SECTION 4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
4.1 GENERAL CONTROLS
Vertical alignment consists of a series of

gradients connected by vertical curves. It is
surface, the profile shall be established so that
the low edge of the finished shoulder is at least
0.5m above the temporary water level. If the
water table is permanent then the road formation
level should be at least 1.0m above the table
due to the possibility of capillary action. In areas
controlled by safety, topography, highway class, of rock, if practical, the profile should be
design speed, horizontai alignment, established so that the low edge of the finished
construction costs, adjacent deveiopment, shoulder is at least 0.3m above the rock level.
drainage, vehicular characteristics and This should avoid unnecessary rock excavation.
aesthetics. The verticai alignment is usually
referred to as the profiie. For aesthetic reasons the length of vertical
curves should be substantially longer than the
A smooth prbfiie with gradual changes, length required for stopping sight distance.
consistent with the class of highway and the
character of the terrain, is preferable to a 4.2 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM GRADES
vertical alignment with numerous sharp breaks
and short lengths of gradient. Generally gradients should be fixed to be
consistent with the topography through which the
A "roller coaster" or "hidden dip" type of profile highway passes in order to minimise excessive
should be avoided. A smoothly rolling profile, unnecessary earthworks. The maximum
rather than a straight profile can often result in gradients for design purposes shall be as shown
economy of construction, without sacrificing in Table 4.1.
operating characteristics and aesthetics.
Route Classification Max. Grade
As the driver progresses along the profile with (%)
increasing chainage, an increasing gradient is
denoted as being positive (+ve) and a Primary Route 4
decreasing gradient is denoted as being Secondary Route 6
negative (-ve). Tertiary Routes
Local/District Distributor 6
Major/Minor Access 10
A broken-back profile (two vertical curves in the Cui de Sac 10
same direction separated by a short section of
tangent grade) is not desirable, particularly in
Table 4.1 Maximum Gradients
sags where a full view of the profile is possibie.
In residential areas, where properties lie
Where an at-grade intersection occurs on a
adjacent to the road, the desirable maximum
highway with moderate to steep grades, the
gradient is 3.3%. Gradients approaching "Stop"
gradient through the intersection shall be
or "Give Way" junctions should be a maximum of
reduced if possible. This is beneficial for
+/- 2% for a minimum of 15m before the "Stop"
vehicles making turns and stops, and serves to
or "Give Way" line. Refer Figure 4.1.
reduce potential hazards.
A superelevation runoff occurring on a vertical

curve requires special attention in order to MaJor Road Minor Road
ensure that the required minimum vertical
15m min
curvature is maintained across the pavement.
For example, the lane profiie on the opposite
side of the road from the superelevation control
line may have sharper curvature due to the
change in superelevation rate required by the
superelevation runoff. It is therefore necessary
to check both edges profiles and adjust where
necessary in order to maintain the desired
Figure 4.1 Vertical Alignment at T-Junction
minimum vertical curvature.
Approach
In flat terrain, the elevation of the profile is often
For drainage purposes, a desirable minimum
controlled by drainage. The vertical profile must
be positioned such that adequate drainage longitudinal gradient of 0.5% on kerbed roads
structures can be constructed. In areas where shall normally be adopted. The absolute
the surface water is above the ground level or minimum longitudinal gradient for kerbed roads
the groundwater table is immediately below the shall be 0.3%. In flat areas careful consideration
should be given to drainage requirements.

The use of over edge drainage may also be For single carriageways where the horizontal
considered in conjunction with surface channels alignment has been designed to allow
or ditches in rural areas. Refer to Section 8 for overtaking, full overtaking sight distance should
further details on drainage. not be obstructed by crests. Conversely there is
no merit in providing an overtaking crest if the
4.3 VERTICAL CURVES horizontal curve does not permit overtaking.
K-values for vertical curvature on single
Vertical curves shall be provided at all changes carriageways are given in Table 4.3
in gradient, except at junctions and on lower
classes of roads where the arithmetic change is There are two prime factors that affect the
less than 0.5%. The curvature shall be large choice of crest curvature, visibility and comfort.
enough to provide for comfort and where At design speeds of 50 kph and above, a crest in
appropriate, stopping sight distances for safe the road will restrict forward visibility to the
stopping at the design speed. The use of the minimum stopping sight distance before
permitted vertical curve parameters will normally minimum comfort criteria are approached, and
meet the requirements of visibility. However, consequently desirable minimum crest curves
stopping sight distance should always be are based upon visibility criteria.. This is
checked because the horizontal alignment of the discussed further in Section 2 Sight Distance.
road, presence of crossfall, superelevation or
verge treatment and features such as signs and
Design Minimum Avoid Absolute
structures adjacent to the carriageway, will affect Speed K-value for Crest Minimum
the interaction between vertical curvature and (kph) an K-values K·value
visibility. Overtaking in this
Crest Range Crest Sag
A vertical curve is a curve on the longitudinai

profile of a road which allows for a change of 100 400 400 -100 55 26
gradient. 80 285 285 - 55 30 20
70 200 200 - 30 17 20
60 142 142 - 17 10 13
A crest (summit) curve is a vertical curve which 50 100 100 -10 6.5 9
is convex in shape. Generally the sign of the
gradient as the driver travels up chainage, Table 4.3 K-values for Single
changes from +ve to zero to -ve. Carriageways
A sag (valley) curve is a vertical curve which is Particular attention is needed on dual
concave in shape. Generally the sign of the carriageways to check any restriction to visibility
gradient as the driver travels up chainage, caused by safety fences, median kerbs, bridge
changes from -ve to zero to +ve. piers, etc. especially at combined horizontal and
vertical curvature.
A K-vaiue is a constant related to the comfort of
the driver.
•
Visibility at sag curves is usually not obstructed
unless overbridges, signs or other features are
Vertical curve lengths can be determined by present. Forthese curves, comfort criteria appiy.
multiplying the K-values given by the algebraic The maximum rate of vertical acceleration is to
change of gradient expressed as percentage, ie be taken as 0.3m/sec2 • However for design
+3% grade to -2% grade indicates a grade speeds of 70 kph and beiow, in unlit areas,
change of 5%. flatter sag curves are necessary to ensure that
headiamps illuminate the road surface for at
For dual carriageways curvature shall be derived least the required stopping sight distance. Sag
from the appropriate K-value in Table 4.2. curves shouid normally be designed not less
than the absolute minimum K-values in Table
Design Desirable Absolute Minimum 4.3.
Speed Minimum K-value
(kph) K-value for
Crest Crest Sag
Where, at crests, the sight line is across the
verge, consideration shall be given to the design
140 230 182 50 of a lower verge profile in order to allow for a
120 182 100 37 maximum overall height of landscaping of 0.5m
100 100 55 26
80 55 30 22 More generous sag curves may be required
70 30 17 20
60 17 10 13 under bridges and through underpasses etc. in
50 10 6.5 9 order to maintain the envelope of required sight
distances.
Table 4.2 K-values for Dual Carriageways

The choice of vertical profile is fixed mainiy by radius must be sufficiently large for the
• the geometric standards but is also influenced by

the nature of material in the cuttings and the total
earthworks. Ideally a balance should be
achieved between cut and fill, and the
calculations should include compaction factors
appearance of a kink to be avoided, refer
Figures 4.2 and 4.3. Even large radii will give
the appearance of an abrupt change in direction
if the viewpoint is sufficiently far from the curve,
but this is unimportant since, at great distances,
for shrink and swell and allowance for suitable it will not be found disturbing. Drivers do not tend
and unsuitable material. to become aware of an approaching valley curve
until they are about 500m from the start.
Due to the topography of Qatar, it is unlikely that
steep gradients would be implemented which
Straight
would require a climbing lane. However, if a •• ••
scheme including a climbing lane was to be
considered, reference should be made to the UK
Department of Transport pUblication, Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6,
Section 1, Highway Link Design (TD 9/93).
I I U~,
4.4 HARMONISING THE VERTICAL Valley curve I Level Valley curve

ALIGNMENT
• This section should be read in conjunction with

Clause 3.6, harmonising the horizontal alignment
and Clause 4.5, combining the horizontal and
vertical alignment.
Figure 4.4
Tangents, especially short ones, between two

valley curves can result in an awkward looking
line, refer Figures 4.4 and 4.5.
The valley curve plays an important part in
achieving internal harmony in the alignment,
especially since it can often be viewed along its
whole length at one time. This is not normally
possible in the case of .crest curves but for this
reason particular attention must be paid to
ensuring that visual continuity is maintained.
This leads to the avoidance of short summit
curves even though they may satisfy visibility
requirements. Figure 4.5
A vertical curve is seen as a hyperbola.

Whether or not the junction of a tangent and a
vertical curve presents the appearance of a kink
depends on the curvature of the sharpest bend
_ _ G=,a.=.di.=.on""---II I Gradient .. of the hyperbola and its location in relation to the
-1--1-
Valley
end of the tangent. It is desirable that the
curve hyperbola does not start at the position of its
smallest radius. In critical cases it is advisable
to examine perspective draWings of the line. An
Figure 4.2 indication of the effect of small and large radius
vertical curves on the drivers view are shown in
Figures 4.6 and 4.7 respectively.
I ,
Figure 4.3 /
{}
I)
As is the case with horizontal curves and
straights, when a valley curve is used to join two
gradients, or a gradient and a level length, the Figure 4.6

•
-
\I
I
Q
I
I
I
Summit
curve
I Valley
curve I Summit
curve
•
~
tJ
/1
Figure 4.7 Figure 4.10
A level length of road containing a short low When a terrace is created by a sequence of
summit curve can cause a visual discontinuity summit and valley curves, whether or not there
since the distant length of road, diminished in are tangents between the curves, it is likely to
size by perspective, can be seen over the crest, result in an unsatisfactory view if two summits
refer Figure 4.8. can be seen at the same time. An example is
shown in Figure 4.12.
••
I I I I
r •
/lwl\v/N/XV)Nlk'iiNhVJ:I0\\Vi\w:w:t\VXWI -
I,mm J
F~urv~'l
Valley
curvo
b,mm,l
,r~urv~11
•
1\
~/" Figure 4.11
Figure 4.8
Similarly the use of a reverse curve in the ~

~
longitudinal section, causing a small change in
level, can result in a visual discontinuity due to """""'" I
I Valley Summit Valley Summit
the road surface disappearing from view and curve curve curve curve
then reappearing. An example of the effect
when a reverse vertical curve is used in
~
~ \~
conjunction with level straight lengths is shown in 7 I
Figure 4.9. A view of this type can occur with a ~ , ,,//
double reverse curve, refer Figure 4.10. In the ,,
case illustrated, the line can be improved by
increasing the length of the valley curve and
decreasing those of the summit curves, refer Figure 4.12
Figure 4.11 .
The lower the terrace is placed and the shorter
-
i vm:;; MINlm;1 (PIi \ vA \ Vimx \\l\\\h\\91\\h\\95:
its length the more disturbing it is likely to
appear, since it can be viewed from a shorter
distance. All terraces tend to appear
unsatisfactory when seen from the top. As with
the horizontal alignment, the ideal solution for
the verticai alignment is a series of well
modulated vertical curves proportioned so that
they avoid the problems discussed. Such a
solution can, of course, oniy be used when the
land form and other controlling factors make it
Figure 4.9 possible.

Table 4.4 summarises the type of vertical Plan
• alignment to be avoided and that to be attained.
c::::::::::TI:: X
Short summit curves
between gradients
Longitudinal section
Short valley curves
~ X between gradients
Figure 4.13
Short tangent between
C::I I I I-----=' X summit curves If the out of phase lengths are small this is not
likely to be significant. In fact it is probably
advantageous to have overlap. This may be
Short tangent between considered to contribute to the integration of the
D I I -c1 X valley curves two aspects of the line. When an overlap is
used it should normally be small in comparison
Reverse vertical curve with the length of the element. Yet there are
exceptions to this: the plan and profile
• :r X causing small change in

I 1 I I level, on a level length combination of the type shown in Figure 4.14 will
or gradient probably produce awkward looking perspectives.
In this arrangement, the horizontal curve ends at
A level length or gradient the same point as the vertical curve begins.
CD ITI X containing a low valley
curve
A level length or gradient Horllontal
I I I I I I X containing a low summit

curve
Terracing on which two

--=:1:R
~.
I I I [[I] X summits can be seen at
V:llley
one time Levol curvo Gradlenl
c:r=D::::::J ../ Well balanced alignm.ent
Use of curves rather than
j& ~ ../ straights or gradients

where feasible
\ffffI'
Table 4.4 Summary of desirable/

undesirable combinations of
vertical alignment
Figure 4.14
4.5 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT If prevailing conditions prevent using longer,
coincident curves, it is possible to achieve
To obtain a satisfactory alignment it is important significant improvement if longer overlapping
to integrate the vertical and horizontal aspects of curves are implemented as shown in Figure
the line. In order to accomplish this, the engineer 4.15.
should consider the road as a three-dimensional
unit. The elements of the horizontal and vertical
alignment should be In phase wherever possible.
In other words, the corresponding elements in
the horizontal and vertical planes should start at
approximately the same points and end at
approXimately the same points, refer Figure 4.13.

." .. I.. '""" .

~
s,,,rn
h
'
Horizontal
~ ,.
~ Valloy
Lovol curve Gradiont
Figure 4.15
The best results would be obtained if co-

ordinated curves of ionger radius could be used,
refer Figure 4.16. The following combinations of
horizontal and vertical alignment are some
additional examples of those which are likely to
result in an awkward appearance. A summary of
•
desirable/undesirable combinations of alignment
is shown in Table 4.5.
Figure 4.16
Table 4.5 Summary of desirable/undesirable combinations of alignment
Figure Notes
4.17
Horizontal curve
• A short valley curve within a
horizontal curve. This is similar to the
~ case of a short valley curve occUrring
along a straight, but the impression of
I I I I
Y/t,<.()"'VA'0mt..Y;A\(jI.\~t\WAYlt,.v.
discontinuity will probably be even
more pronounced.
11!~umm,11
Lev "I curve
V3UOy·-lsummlll
curve CUIVII Love]
I I I I
I
2-~-~8

•
4.18 I •
Horizontal curvc • Low summit curve within a horizontal
curve. Here too the discontinuous
~ appearance is liable to be even more
I I I I
VJXwlR/)},.'JINJliWJI vtIl Vl1;;;;2\YiXWl..YJ/J(,
pronounced than with the low summit
curve on a straight.
Loval
l,l~3118~ [summitt
CUrY"
valJo~"i,
curve curve Lovel
:>---~
---
4.19
•• Horlzol'lal ~urv• .. • A short vertical curve connecting
gradients in a long horizontal curve.
cr:c:
This arrangement is liable to result in
the illusion of a pronounced kink in the
alignment. Small changes in direction
between tangents are as undesirable in
•
the vertical plane as they are in the
Gradient
I V.II., I
curvo Gradlllnt
horizontal plane.
---------:---7
v---- il'
~
I"'
~
4.20 Horizontal • A horizontal curve following a straight

, Straight
,I , Curve
• and starting on a valley curve which
follows a gradient. This combination
~
tends to give the horizontal curve the
appearance of a sharp bend.
d d
Gradient
I Valley Curve .
4.21 Straight , Horizontal

cliNg
• I
• Valley curves joined by a level length
i or gradient and occurring along a
1~'
straight followed by a horizontal curve.
Valley curves joined by a tangent are
undesirable in themselves but when
~ combined with a horizontal curve in this
way they can produce the results
Valley IvaUIIY shown.
Gradient curve Levol curve Gradient
I
c:;J<; I
[:~;;;::J
January 1997 Page4n
•
Hallzanlal
4.22 Sltalght tllrv. ISl13fghl
• A summit curve followed by a valley
I curve occurring along a straight
followed by a horizontal curve. A
~
I I I" disjointed effect is liable to result when
the beginning of a vertical curve is
Gradl.n!
..I ,"mm"
ell.....
TV,I., 1
CUNa r:adtDnl
hidden from the driver by an
intervening summit while
continuation of the curve is visible in
the
I I I
the distance beyond.
V ~
4.23 Horizont.l • A tangent length between a vertical
Slra!phl cUlY"
I curve and a compound curve.
:I~
Wherever possible such a tangent a~b
,.. I' should not be used. Instead the
vertical alignment should be so
~ arranged that the curves can be joined
vall.~ I
<lUNa Gradlant
I Summit -
tillY"
directly.
I
kZ s:J l
(
,•
I
a •
4.24
• ....S tralght
Horizontal
I • curva r • A short horizontal curve within a long
valley curve. This combination can
result in the appearance of a kink.
:IJ::;.. Valley curve

•
~
4.25 Hor!l:onlal • A short horizontal curve occurring on
~ a short summit curve. This can be
dangerous since the driver is unable to
~ see the continuation of the curved

horizontal alignment. An even more
.~
unsatisfactory case would be if the
.I I.' ,
Gradient
Summll
CUrvB GradllH\1
horizontal curve started immediately
over the summit.
4.26 Horizontal Horlzofllal • A reverse horizontal curve with the

curve I curve
change in curvature situated at the top
I of a sharp summit curve. This also is
lIT
~ / //(\
a dangerous arrangement since the
driver is not able to anticipate the
change in curvature.
Gmdllln,[ Summit curve IGr3dlont
Table 4.5 Summary of desirable/undesirable combinations of alignment

Table 4.6 shows a summary of the Horizontal and vertical

combinations of horizontal and vertical
~
curves in phase (the
visual continuity can often
alignment to be avoided and that which is to be
t=::r::D ../
be improved by haVing
attained. the horizontal elements
slightly leading the
-------
vertical ones)
Horizontal curve
X containing a low valley ~ Where possible use three-
I I I I I
I curve within its length
~ ../ dimensionable curves and

avoid the use of straights
-------
I I I I I I X
Horizontal curve
containing a loW summit
curve within its length
~
r:==CJ=:1 ../ Use a well balanced three

dimensional alignment
-------
~ X
Short vertical curve
between gradients in a
horizontal curve
Table 4.6 Summary of desirable/
undesirable combinations of
horizontal and vertical
•
Horizontal curve following alignment
"'"
Lt::1 X
a straight and starting
on a valley curve which
follows a gradient
4.6 VERTICAL CLEARANCES
The minimum vertical clearances are specified

Valley curve joined by a
to prevent vehicles or their loads from coming
-........ level length or gradient
into contact with any structure or roadside
t't--,-,-:c1
X and occurring along a
straight followed by a furniture.
horizontal curve
The minimum clearance over the carriageway
Summit curve followed by Is 5.5m. This Is to be provided across all
"' a valley curve occurring
trafficked lanes Including and shoulder or edge
r:r=t--= X along a straight followed
by a horizontal curve
strips. The figure of 5.5m allows for 200mm of
pavement construction which may be applied
during the maintenance of the road.
--.. A tangent length between
a vertical curve and a
rcu X compound curve

Minimum clearance shall be prOVided to all
structures or roadside furniture that overhangs
-----
r-:- ::J X
Short horizontal curve
within a tong valley curve
the carriageway. These include any bridge or
bUilding structure, sign gantry, overhead cables
or suspended lighting.
Where a public utility specifies a minimum
------
vertical clearance to its plant then the greater of
Short horizontal curve the clearances must be provided for. Protective
measures may be required at overhead cable
~ X occurring on a short
summit curve crossings such as guardwires. Guidance may
------
be sought from the Ministry of Electricity and
Reverse horizontal curve Water when planning works in the vicinity of
with the change in their installations.
curvature situated at the
e::cr-----, X top of a sharp summit
Where a road passing underneath a bridge is
curve
on a sag curve, the headroom given above
shall be increased In accordance with Table
-------------
c:e::L:b X Out of phase alignment
4.7. The sag radius is measured along the
carriageway over a 25m chord.
~ Badly balanced
X
t=r:11f1 arrangement

Sag Radius Additional • Maximum driveway gradients to

(m) Clearance properties shall be 1 in 15.
(mm)
• Low retaining walls/planters may be
1000 80 used to assist in matching road levels
1200 70 to existing plot boundaries. However,
1500 55 they shall not be allowed present a
2000 45
3000 25 hazard to vehicle or pedestrian traffic.
6000 15
>6000 nil Industrial
Table 4.7 Sag Radius Compensation • Maximum gradients to be 1 in 20 due

to road usage by heavy vehicles.
• After long or steep down gradients,
heavy vehicles may require additional
Special considerations for vertical alignment are
required in many areas, one of the greatest level areas for braking distance or
concerns to the engineer in Qatar being the emergency run-off lanes.
flatness of many areas and subsequent surface
water drainage difficulties. Section 8 details the • On long or steep up gradients, heavy
•
recommended minimum gradients and vehicles may require climbing lanes to
comments on the importance of drainage in allow faster vehicles to pass.
nearly level areas.
• Change in transverse or longitudinal
grade should not be significant so as to
Below are listed a number of vertical alignment
considerations specific to certain conditions that cause loss of load.
the engineer should be aware of:
Residential and Commercial
• Need to match threshold levels in areas

of existing development
• Preferred maximum siope across

housing plots is 1 in 30
• Valley points where water may collect

should be kept away from residential
accesses
• Road alignment should preferably be

kept below adjacent property level
• Minimum length of vertical CUNe should

be 30m due to construction tolerances
• Vertical alignment changes where

abrupt or repetitive (such as in flat
areas) can be disguised by being made
at the horizontal bends
• Levels of existing utilities require

consideration regarding the vertical
alignment of new roads
• Footpath maximum longitudinal gradient

to be 1 in 10. Steps may be used to
overcome worse gradients but are not
preferred as they limit access by
wheelchairs

SECTION 5 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS proposed land use require carriageways to be

offset to one side then approval from the
5.1 ROAD RESERVATIONS Director of the Civil Engineering Dept must be
sought.
In general the different road reservations are
intended to provide drivers with adequate sight In the case of road centrelines being offset from
distances and ailow the public utilities sufficient the reservation. The utilities layout shall be
space for existing and proposed piant. Where revised to suit the specific road cross section
space for utilities is limited, "way leaves" proposed, the revised utility locations to be to
outside the road reservation may be obtained the approval of the Utility Authorities.
by contacting the relevant pianning authority.
If the engineer is unable to utilise
Figures 5.1 to 5.9 show cross sections depicting recommendations from the typical cross-
the essential elements in typical sections for sections because of existing buildings, building
two way single carriageways and dual usage or land ownership problems, for example,
carriageways for urban and rural roads. Each then advice should be sought from the Director
of the different elements comprising the cross of Civil Engineering Department before
sections is discussed in detail in the following proceeding.
clauses. The cross sections shown are typical
and the final layout of the reservation should be Certain special routes, such as abnormal or
agreed with the Director of the Civil Engineering exceptional ioad routes or scenic routes, may
Department. require individual reservations to satisfy their
performance criteria, ego the Corniche. In these
The recommended reservation details for rural cases, consultation should be sought with the
roads are similar to those for urban roads but Director of Civil Engineering Department.
reflect the reduced access and drainage
requirements of the rural situation. Generally In many areas of existing development, road
for the rural situation the near side of the corridor widths or alignment may be restricted
carriageway would not be kerbed although flush by property ownerships or old planning. In
kerbing may be considered at certain locations. many cases, 12m reservation widths were once
Raised kerbing to the median of rural dual the norm. In these situations the designer must
carriageways should only be provided at pay particular attention to many factors
specific locations ego bridges, U-turns. In all including sight distances, clearance at junctions,
cases an edge strip shall be provided between utility location, reduced carriageway widths,
the kerb and lane edge. Verges shall be restricted access and road closure.
designed to fall away from the carriageway in
the rural situation and thus water will drain to
surrounding ground.
Shoulders are not normally required on rural

single carriageway roads but, generally, edge
strips would be included in the design. Edge
strips may also be considered as an alternative
to fuil hard shoulder construction on rural and
urban dual carriageways for economic reasons.
A standard lane width of 3.65m has been used

on all typical cross sections illustrated.
Exceptions are permitted where it is necessary
to maintain continuity with the remainder of an
existing route, and in new development areas
such as Salwa Industrial Area and the New
District of Doha.
In order to provide adequate drainage, a

standard crossfall of 2% has been applied for
carriageways and medians.
Generally the centreline of the main

carriageway shall be iocated on the reservation
centreline. However, should existing or

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QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SECTIONS
m
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m",
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Figure 5.8 Typical Rural Single Carriageway

•e'C!
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•
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Figure 5.9 Typical Rural Dual Carriageway
January 1997 Page 5/1 0

5.2 LANE WIDTHS The use of 4.0m lane widths may be permitted
In particular situations to maintain continuity with
Lane widths have a great influence on the the remainder of an existing route. If the length
safety and comfort of driving. it has been of new road concerned is significant,
shown that undesirable conditions are consideration should be given to adopting a tie-
generated on two-lane, two-way, rural roads, in for economic reasons. Where an existing
carrying moderate traffic, with road widths iess road with 4.0m wide lane widths is to be
than 6.5m. Furthermore, it has been shown redesigned, the lane widths should be
that narrow widths severely affect the capacity redesigned as 3.65m wide.
of a road.
Generally lane markings should be allowed for
In general, the road width to be provided as Figure 5.10.
should be 7.3m, based on a lane width of
3.65m. This provides adequate clearance Edge lines - line provided within the edge strip.
between passing commercial vehicles. In
certain circumstances it may be necessary to Lane lines - included within the carriageway
increase the road width to 11.3m. This may be width.
considered on local distributor roads to facilitate
future improvements to turning movements as
the traffic volume increases. This 11.3m width
•
comprises two 3.65m wide ianes with an
additional 4.0m to facilitate the turning lane.
The width of turning lanes is discussed in

Clause 5.10.
Where the road edge is kerbed, the

carriageway should be increased in accordance
with Clause 5.5.
i
Edge Lane Width
,I Lane Width Edge
Strip , Strip
,I
Edge I. 1.1 I. Lano I. Edge
Line 'I '11'1
, Line 'I Line
- -!-
I,
,I
-
Figure 5.10 Lane Line / Lane Width Relationship

5.3 LANE CAPACITY provision sh'ould be made for further
In addition to strategic importance and safety,

the desired characteristics of traffic flow will
generally determine the class of a road. For
example, high voiumes of traffic are generally
improvements to existing sections.
Lane Provision Road Capacity

(veh/hour)
•
associated with urban Primary Routes, where Single Lane 1,600
2-Lane Dualling 3,200
as low volumes are associated with Tertiary 3-Lane Dualling 4,800
Routes.
In most urban situations, the capacity of Table 5.1. Recommended Road Capacity
intersections on a particular network will govern
the capacity of the network as a whole. For detailed assessment of highway capacity
Uninterrupted flow only takes place when the and level of service for different roads, refer to
influence of at-grade intersections can be The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Ministry of
neglected. This is rarely the case on most urban Communications, Highway Design Manual,
road systems. Volume 2, Design of Roadways, Section 1.03.
The capacity of a highway is affected by the 5.4 SHOULDERS

composition and the habits and desires of the
traffic using the road system and the controls The addition of a shoulder to the nearside edge
that the designer imparts onto the traffic. These of a road has many advantages. Shoulders
include: provide structural support for the pavement
edges, emergency parking space for stopped
Commercial vehicles vehicles and also provide side clearance
between moving vehicles and stationary objects.
Lane distribution They also provide additional running lanes for
diversions and road maintenance. Shoulders
Variations in traffic flow are not usually required on urban single and
urban dual carriageways as structural support is
Traffic interruptions. provided by the kerbs and channels and
stopped vehicles can find a safe place to rest in
Under ideal conditions, vehicles can follow one driveways and side streets. The shoulder may
another at average minimum headways of be paved to the same standard as the
about 1.8 seconds, giving a maximum flow rate carriageway or of lesser construction such as to
of about 2,000 vehicles per hour. A line of road base construction. The merits of using a
vehicles can start up with an average minimum lesser construction should be considered
headway of about 2 seconds giving a maximum accordingly for each particular situation.
starting-up rate of approximately 1,800 vehicles
per hour. These maximum rates are reduced Where there is a high traffic volume, narrow
by many prevailing road and traffic conditions. shoulders give very poor service. There is a
greater number of accidents and they incur
When two or more lanes are available for traffic more frequent and costly maintenance.
in a single direction, the distribution in lane-use
will vary widely. The lane distribution will In deciding whether to include a shoulder, the
depend on traffic regulations, traffic engineer should consider the following:
composition, speed and volume, number and
location of access points, origin-destination a) Additional width provides a place for
patterns of drivers, development, environment, safe stopping because of mechanical
and local driver habits. difficulty, flat tyre or any other
emergency. This also minimises
Due to the above factors, there are no typical disruption to traffic flow.
lane distributions. The recommendation for
1,600 vehicles per lane per hour recognises b) Additional width provides space for
that flow in some individual lanes will be higher increased mobility to escape potential
and in others lower. Refer Table 5.1. accidents or reduce their severity.
At the planning stage, major routes should be c) Stormwater drainage is improved as the
planned and designed as multi-lane, divided, water can be discharged further from
controlled access facilities even though they the running carriageway.
may be developed by staged construction. In
the plans for each stage of development,

d) Additional width increases sight strip there is no need to provide a shy distance.
• e)
distance in cuttings and improves
lateral clearance to signs and safety
fences.
The apparent openness of the inside

It is recommended that a shy distance of O.5m
should be added to the road width for each
kerbed road edge on roads with a design speed
greater than BOkph. On kerbed dual
lane reduces driver stress. carriageway roads of design speed less than or
equal to BOkph, a shy distance of O.35m shall
f) A cost benefit analysis should be be added to the outside edge as a gutter. Refer
carried out at the initial scheme Figures 5.1 - 5.7. The shy distance is an
assessment phase. additional pavement width and the lane width
shall not be reduced. Shy distance at junctions
Where shoulders are provided a width of 3.0m is discussed further in Section 6.
should be used at a standard crossfall of 2
percent or as an extension of the crossfall of 5.6 MEDIANS
the carriageway.
Medians are used to separate opposing traffic
5.5 EDGE STRIPS AND SHY DISTANCES lanes on dual' highways. They provide
protection from interference by opposing traffic,
Edge Strip minimise headlight glare, provide space for
• Edge strips provide a safer carriageway, with

improved drainage and more space to move in
case of an emergency. Edge strips keep
roadside debris away from the running width of
an outside lane and prevent edge loss on the
utilities and future lane width, provide additional
space for crossing and turning vehicles at at-
grade junctions, and allow pedestrian refuge in
urban areas.
running lane. A median may vary in composition from say a

1.2m width with a pedestrian barrier to a 20m
Edge strips are to be provided on all roads wide median with street lighting, drainage and
which are not kerbed. landscaped areas. Medians are dependant on
the width of reservation available and the
A width of O.5m is deemed sufficient for an edge functional requirements of the median. Often,
strip width for a median edge on a dual consultation with the relevant planning authority
carriageway. The edge strip width shall be is required prior to agreement of the width and
allowed for within the standard median width function of the median. Preferred standard
and shall not reduce the lane width. Refer median widths are given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.2.
Narrow Intermediate Wide
Edge Strip/Shy Distance (m)
1.2 4.0 8.0
Road Type Outside Edge Median Edge 2.0 6.0 12.0
Aural
Single 0.35 - Table 5.3 Preferred Standard Median
Dual 2 Shoulder 0.5 Widths (m)
Dual 3 Shoulder 0.5
Narrow
Urban
Single . - Narrow medians are those in the range 1.2m to
Dual 2 < 80kph Kerb + 0.35 Kerb less than 4.0m and are used in restricted
Dual 3 < 80kph Kerb + 0.35 Kerb
Dual 2 > 80kph Shoulder Kerb + 0.5
conditions. Medians 102m wide do not provide
Shoulder Kerb + 0.5 a refuge area for pedestrians but do provide the
. Dual 3 > 80kph
..
Whilst awaIting services and kerbs to be Installed. a minimum space permitted for clearance of
temporary edge strip a.35m shall be added to give a opposing traffic provided the lane edge Is
carriageway width of 8.0m. kerbed. Narrow medians are used where there
is a need to provide a divided road: but where
Table 5.2 Edge Strips & Shy Distances the available reservation does not permit a
greater median width. Narrow medians are not
Shy Distance wide enough to provide effective left turn lanes.
Where a kerb is provided there is a tendency for The minimum allowable median width to provide
drivers to steer a distance away from the kerb, a safe pedestrian refuge is 3.5m. Pedestrians
this is termed "shy distance". At slower speeds ability to cross at narrower medians shall be
the requirement for shy distance is reduced and controlled or actively discouraged by the
conversely, at higher speeds, an increased shy provision of barriers/high kerbs, continuous
distance is required. Where there is an edge planting and other features.

It is not recommended that narrow medians are again, consideration should be given to the
used on rural roads.
A narrow median should not be considered if it

is possible to provide an intermediate or wide
median at that particular location. Acceptable
provision of additional storage capacity or
outlets to allow for storm conditions.
drainage inlets in the median should be
All
designed with the top flush with the ground, and

culvert ends provided with safety grates so they
•
standards for the remaining cross section will not be hazardous to out of control vehicles
elements should be maintained. that run off the road.
Intermediate It is common practice to landscape medians.

Intermediate width medians are those in the This is seen to provide a better environment and
range 4.0m to less than 8.0m and are generally reduce driver stress. Careful consideration
wide enough to provide for a left turn lane. A should be given to the choice of planting to
width of 8.0m is the desirable minimum to ensure that visibility and stopping distances are
provide a left turn lane and a residual median, not impaired. Furthermore, the upkeep of the
and a width of 8.0rn is the desirable minimum to landscape and growth of the plants should be
shelter a crossing vehicle undertaking a U-turn designed for minimal maintenance and hence
manoeuvre. less disturbance to the road user.
Wide Watering shall not require tankers to obstruct

Medians 8.0m or greater in width provide space the trafficked lanes at any time.
for effective landscaping and may be used for
signing, services and drainage. Wide medians Where two abutting sections of highway have
may aiso be used to absorb level differences different carriageway widths it is desirable that a
across the road reserve. Rural medians should smooth transition should accommodate this
be a minimum of 8.0m wide with a central safety difference. The transition should be as long as
barrier. possible for aesthetic reasons and preferably
occur within a horizontal curve.
A disadvantage of wide medians occurs at
signalised junctions, where the increased time 5.7 VERGES
for vehicles to cross the median may lead to
ineffective signal operation. The verge is a width of the reservation which
facilitates additional functions essential for the
Wide medians should not be impiemented at operation of the road. As a minimum verges
the expense of reduced verge widths. Verge must be able to accommodate highway signs,
widths are required for pedestrian walkways, structures, utility services such as water,
installation of services, traffic signs, drainage electricity, Q.TEL, drainage, and additionally
channels, parking etc. Any significant reduction such items as traffic signals and street lighting.
in verge width may result in hazards in the Where a verge is adjacent to a development a
verge which negate the advantages of a wider set back may be required. Verge widths may
median. vary from a desirable minimum of 3.0m up to the
limits of the reservation, which could be in
It is recommended that urban medians should excess of 15.0m. Paved verges should be
be kerbed and that rural medians should be designed with a 2% fall towards the carriageway
provided with an edge strip and not kerbed. A for drainage purposes. However, in larger
kerbed median is desirabie where there is a paved areas, falls shall be designed to specific
need to control left turn movements and is aiso drainage collection points in the verge.
used when the median is to be landscaped. In
the rural situation, a depressed median is It is important to ensure that whatever is
preferred as this improves drainage of the road. installed in the verge (such as structures, signs
or landscaping) does not affect the sight
Special attention should be given to drainage of distances required for the particular design
medians. If the median is kerbed, the median speed of the road. Additional care should also
surface should be designed to have slopes of 2 be taken at traffic signals and junctions where
percent, and should fall towards the centre of more signage is implemented.
the median if unpaved, or slope out if paved.
Depending on whether the median is paved or Verges may be paved, landscaped or graded
open, or planted or not, the drainage should not depending on the intended use of the verge.
interfere with the operation of the highway.
Paved medians may require positive drainage It may be necessary to increase the verge width
systems incorporating manholes, pipes etc. if soakaways are to be installed within the verge.
Non-paved medians may be self-draining, but

Due investigation of utilities to be
•
Dimension On Angle
accommodated shall be made at the design Figure
5.9 45" SO' 75' 90'
stage.
Stall width, parallel A 4.25 3.50 3.25 3.00
10 aisle
5.8 PARKING BAYS AND LANES
Staillengih alline B 9.00 7.75 6.80 6.00
The need for parking is determined by the Stall depth to wall C 6.40 6.70 6.60 6.00
existing and future deveiopment of the
Aisle width belween D 4.50 5.00 7.10 8.00
immediate surrounding area. Consultation will slaillines
be required with the Traffic Section and the
Stall depth interlock E 5.30 5.95 6.20 6.00
Planning Department to determine the future
.development plans and the amount of on-street Module, wall to F 16.20 17.65 19.90 20,00
interlock
and off-street parking required.
Module, interlocking G 15.10 16.90 19.50 20.00
Where possible, parking shall be provided away Bumper overhang H 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.75
from the carriageway and in conveniently (lypical)
located, specific iots or along service roads. DimenSIons for 3m by 6m stalls

Parking shouid not be provided near junctions
or opposite access points as this is likely to Table 5.4 Parking Bay Dimensions (m)
increase the probability of accidents and also
hinder sight distance.
/- v
Provision for parking is achievable by the
following methods. x
Parking Lanes (parallel parking)

Parking lanes may be provided adjacent to the
inside lane of the carriageway (ie. the slow
iane). The standard width required for a parking
lane is 2.5m, each bay being nominally 8.5m in H
length. Care should be taken when providing a C D E
parking lane to ensure that the design speed is F G
appropriate to allow a safe stopping distance, if W.ltle Interlock
Module
Interlocking
Modula
Interlock 10 Kerb
Modul.
for example, a passenger were to accidentally
step into the carriageway whilst embarking or x • SloU nolDvellable In clltlaln loyout_
disembarking a vehicle. It is recommended that
parking lanes should only be provided on single
carriageway roads, with posted speeds of 50 Figure 5.9 Parking Bay Dimensions for
kph or less. The lane provision, design speed, 3.0m x 8.0m Stalls
stopping sight distance and traffic volumes
• should also be appropriate to allow minimal

interruptions to traffic flow when vehicles are
entering or leaving the parking lane.
Parking Bays (angled parking)

Service Road Parking
If there is sufficient reservation width,
consideration should be given to the provision of
a service road to access either a parking lane,
parking bays or designated car park. This
If the width of available reservation allows, results in a safer highway and fewer
consideration should be given to the provision of interruptions to through traffic, and enables flow
parking bays. Parking bays should not be to be maintained more easily. Refer to Clause
permitted on the main through carriageway of 5.11 for service roads.
dual carriageways. The perpendicular parking
bay should be made up of stalls 3.0m wide and Parking on Access Roads
8.0m in length. The dimension requirements for Where residential development is dense and the
angled parking are shown in Tabie 5.4 and requirement for additional on-street parking is
Figure 5.9. Parking in bays requires greater likely, then the standard parking lane width of
adjacent lane width to accommodate the turning 2.5m shall be used. The minimum parking lane
movement depending on the choice of parking width is 2.2m. The designer should bear in mind
angle. that the very low number of vehicles using
access roads means occasional on-street
parking by visitors or delivery vehicles wiil not
cause congestion. In fact, their presence will
help to keep the speed of other vehicles low.

Parking Exclusions Cut and fill slopes should be flattened as

Parking shall be excluded from the following
locations:
• Junctions; to provide space for

pedestrians to cross and to maintain
appropriate with the topography and be
consistent with the overall type of highway. The
intersection of slope planes in the highway cross
section should be well rounded to simulate
natural earth forms. The rounding and flattening
•
adequate visibility. See Figure 5.10 of slopes minimises drifting and wash out of
loose material such as sand and hence reduces
• Bends; to maintain adequate forward maintenance costs.
visibility for drivers
It is recommended to carry out an adequate
• Pedestrian crossing points; to minimise
crossing width and enable crossing
geotechnical investigation prior to specifying
slopes. The investigation will determine the
pedestrians to be seen clearly by maximum slopes for cut and fill and the criteria
drivers for benching or erosion protection if required.
• Any other location where parking would Benches should ideally be 4.0m in width and
,.'.
cause unsafe conditions. laid to falls of approximately 1 in 20 to avoid
ponding of water and consequential slip failure.
.............). 1..-_ .
----_._._--------._._-------j-_.------_._._---------_._.- In rock cuttings it is recommended to include
.............. l.---j ~'5··Ty~_? l----j j ditches and a debris verge to provide a safe
landing and catchment area for possible rock
5.0m m'n:7 1 I ( ""s.om min. Parking
fall. and removal of surface water run off. This
; additional width also provides a useful area for
;
rock face maintenance. It is becoming common
! practice in the UK for rock outcroppings to be
left in place for reasons of economy or
*In all cases parking must not encroach on visibility splays. aesthetics. This may be considered for
application in Qatar. However in such situations
Figure 5.10 Typical Parking Lane this may prove lethal if a vehicle were to collide
Treatment at T-Junctions. with the outcrop. It is recommended that at all
such locations a safety fence be prOVided.
5.9 SIDE SLOPES Refer to Clause 5.15 for safety fences.
Side slopes fall into two categories. For details of sand slopes, wind blown sand and
embankment and cutting. They serve two main dune control refer to the Kingdol)l of Saudi
functions; firstly they provide structural stability Arabia. Ministry of Communications. Highway
to the road, secondly they provide a surface on Design Manual. Book 2, Section 1.16, Sand
which out of control vehicles may travel and Dune Control.
recover, minimising the chance of overturning.
Where possible the side slopes should fall away

from the verge at a slope of 1 in 5. It is usual to
consider the provision of a safety fence when
slopes are steeper than 1 in 5 and/or the height
of the slope is greater than 6m. Safety fencing
is discussed in Clause 5.15. Generally, it is
better to use flatter slopes, proViding there is
adequate fall for drainage. Slopes in cutting
should not be steeper than 1 in 2 and preferably
should be 1 in 3 to allow mechanical
maintenance equipment to be used on the
slope. If there is insufficient width which would
require siopes. steeper than 1 in 2. then partial
or fUll retaining walls should be used or some
method of slope stabilisation. Retaining walls
should be set back from the carriageway to
avoid a constricting feeling and reduce stress
for the driver.

5.10 AUXILIARY LANES S=NU30
• Auxiliary lanes serve as speed change lanes,

storage lanes or a combination of the two. They
may also be either right turn or left turn facilities
at junctions (refer to Section 6 Junctions). A
Where S =
N =
L =
Storage length (m)
Design volume of turning
vehicle (vehicles per hour)
Length in metres occupied by
speed change lane is primarily for the each vehicle (7m for passenger
acceleration or deceleration of vehicles entering vehicles, 12m for trucks)
or leaving the through traffic lanes. A speed
change lane should be sufficient in length and For further details of junction design and lane
width to enable a driver to make the necessary capacity refer to Section 6 Junctions and the
change between the speed of operation on the Qatar Traffic Manual.
through highway and the lower speed necessary
to turn, with minimal disruption to the speed of 5.11 SERVICE ROADS
following vehicles. Speed-change lanes can
have different layouts depending on the Service roads are roads which run roughly
alignment of the highway, frequency of parallel with, and are connected to the main
intersections and the distance required to effect through highway. They are generally of low
the necessary change of speed. design speed and preferably restricted to one-
way traffic. Figure 5.7 shows a typical
Refer to Section 6 Junctions for further details reservation with a service road.
on the following topics.
Service roads provide a number of functions
Deceleration Lanes depending on the deveiopment of the
A deceleration lane consists of a taper and a full surrounding area. The provision of service
lane width. The length of deceieration lanes roads reduces the number of access points onto
should be determined according to the design the main highway and segregates the higher
speed of the highway and the design speed speed through traffic from the lower speed local
necessary to make the turn. The greater the traffic. This reduces interruption of traffic flow,
difference between these speeds the ionger the makes the best use of road capacity and results
deceleration lane should be. Deceleration lanes in a safer road.
on approach to at-grade intersections can also
function as storage lanes for turning traffic. Service roads may also provide an alternative
route if maintenance is required on the through
Acceleration Lanes road or in case of an emergency..
Design considerations for acceleration lanes are
similar to those for deceleration lanes. The width of the servjce road is dependant on
Acceleration lanes are provided to permit an the classification of traffic expected to use the
increase In speed before entering the through- service road such as light vehicles, delivery
traffic lanes and also to serve as manoeuvring lorries or heavy goods vehicles. Further
space, so that a driver can take advantage of an consideration should be given to the turning
opening in the adjacent stream of through-traffic requirements of such vehicles, the type and
and join it. number of access points and type of street
parking, if required.
Left and Right Turn Lanes
The provision of separate left and right turning Service road connections to the main road
lanes should be determined by a capacity should be designed as at-grade junctions in
analysis for the junction under consideration. accordance with the guidelines given in Section
Acceleration and deceleration tapers should be 6 Junctions.
used with these turning lanes. The length of
turning lanes shall depend upon the length Where one-way service roads'are to be installed
required for speed change and the number of within the reservation the absolute minimum
vehicles to be stored. Typically the storage width of outer median permitted is 1.2m
length is based on the number of vehicles that provided no signing is required. This distance
are likely to accumulate in two minutes, as allows for the provision of a central pedestrian
determined by the capacity analysis, and Is barrier only. if traffic signs are required or other
calculated by the following formula: street furniture the desirable minimum width is
2.1 m. A wider outer median is preferred, but
this will depend on the width available within the
reservation. Wider outer medians give greater
scope for landscaping which enhances the
appearance of both highway and the

appearance of both highway and the In areas with high volumes of pedestrian traffic,
development adjacent to the highway.
Refer to HMSO pUblication, Designing for

Deliveries for detailed explanation and
gUidelines of requirements for service
footpaths should be provided on both sides of
the road. Some urban areas and most frontage
roads can be served with a footpath on one side
only. In these areas, footpaths must be
continuous for the full pedestrian route.
•
roads/areas, and turning movements for
different vehicle types. On rural roads, footpaths are not usually
required, except along sections of road where
5.12 PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES there is sUbstantial residential or commercial
deveiopment. In such situations, footpaths are
Pedestrian facilities are generally found within usually located between the bottom of the
the verge and at road crossing points. The embankment and the property line.
provision of paved pedestrian areas is related to
the function of the roadside development. It is Pedestrian Ramps
often difficult to obtain reliable estimates of In order to provide adequate and reasonable
pedestrian volumes and movements. For this access for the safe and convenient movement of
reason, studies should be carried out at the pedestrian and handicapped persons, including
concept and preliminary design stage. All urban those in Wheelchairs, kerb ramps should be
roads and junctions shall allow space for included at all pedestrian crossing points. Kerb
footpaths unless the area strictly forbids ramps should be at least O.9m in width, sloped
walking. A width of 2.0m should be provided at the rate of 1 in 12 or flatter, and located on
depending on pedestrian needs. The width of the pedestrian side of the kerb face.
paved pedestrian areas should be increased to
a minimum of 3.0m near schools, large sports The edge of the ramp facing the carriageway
venues, commercial areas or other areas with shall be flat and set 25mm above the level of the
high pedestrian volumes. Footpaths may be road pavement. Drainage equipment such as
constructed of paving blocks or concrete and gratings should not be placed in ramp areas
laid to crossfalls of 2% towards the roadway to where they may caused a hindrance to
permit drainage. wheelchairs.
Where possible a separation area should be Structures for Pedestrian Movements

included within the verge which acts as a buffer The need for a pedestrian grade separated
between vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The structure such as a footbridge or underpass
separation width should be designed to must be investigated in some depth for each
discourage pedestrians from standing at the particular situation. The investigation should
kerbside. This is achievable by providing a cover studies of pedestrian generating sources,
number of obstacles such as low planting, travelling patterns, crossing volumes,
raised blockwork or pedestrian barriers. A classification of road to be crossed, land use,
minimum separation width of 1.2m is desirable. location of adjacent crossing facilities, and social
A separation width is not required in commercial
areas with on street parking where wider
footpaths are usually provided.
Pedestrians should be activeiy discouraged

and cuitural factors. The structure to be provided
must accommodate handicapped pedestrians
and those with wheelchairs. Ramps should be
prOVided to a preferred grade of 1 in 12.
However, a maximum grade of 1 in 10 may be
•
from crossing roads along the length of dual used in difficult locations. Level landing areas of
carriageways. Special pedestrian refuge 1.5m length should be installed such that no
sections should be provided at selected points, individual ramp section is longer than 9.0m.
or ideally at junction locations. It is Handrails should be provided on all steps and
recommended that these refuge areas be a ramps. The width of the walkway should be a
minimum of 3.5m wide and should be staggered minimum of 2.5m between walls or railings. It
so that pedestrians are not able to approach may be necessary to install pedestrian barriers
and cross both carriageways in one line. in the vicinity of the structure to deter
pedestrians from crossing the road at-grade.
On roads with a posted speed of 60kph or less,
it is recommended to provide a pelican crossing A pedestrian overstructure is preferred to an
(signaiized pedestrian crossing) or a zebra underpass. An over structure should be
crossing (pedestrian crossing defined by road designed to be in keeping with the surrounding
markings) as a crossing point for pedestrians. area in terms of geometry and architecture. The
These crossings should be located, signed and required headroom clearance for overstructures
marked in accordance with this manual and with is detailed in Clause 4.6. Lighting and fencing
the Qatar Traffic Manual. should be considered on a site by site basis.

Pedestrian underpasses shall be well lit with 5.14 USE OF KERBS
• clear unobstructed visibility. A pavement or

ramp approaching an underpass should provide
a clear view through the underpass. The
desirable headroom clearance through the
underpass is 3.0m.
There are a number of types and combinations
of kerbs available, each with particUlar
applications. Some of the details in regular use
are listed beiow.
Specific consideration needs to be given to the Raised kerb

drainage of underpasses both for the removal of
rainwater and effects of high groundwater Raised kerb with channel block
levels.
Edge kerb
5.13 UTILITIES
Channel block
Road corridors are given in Figures 5.1-5.9.
These are intended to provide adequate space Flush kerb
for road cross section requirements and at the
same time allow the public utilities sufficient Dropper kerb
space for existing and proposed plant. Where
space for utilities is limited, "wayleaves" outside Dropped kerb
•
the road reservation may be obtained by
contacting the planning department. Vehicle barrier unit (VBU).
The pUblic and private utilities to be The standard kerb unit is available in a range of
accommodated include the following: sizes and shapes. The shape is varied to
enable kerbs to be installed on a range of radii.
Telephone (Q.TEL) It is recommended to check the availability and
dimensions of kerbs with the manufacturer as a
Cable television full range may not be available in Qatar.
Electricity - distribution Kerbs provide a number of functions which are:

to define and provide structural support to the
Electricity - lighting edge of carriageway; to control highway
drainage; to segregate vehicles and
Electricity - transmission pedestrians.
Sewerage Kerbs are to be used on all urban roads and

only at special locations on rural roads, such as
Return effluent junctions where there is a need to give a clear
delineation of the road edge.
Surface water and land drainage
Where there is a need to install a safety fence
Water alongside a kerbed section of road, the fence
design, kerb design and drainage design should
Oil and gas. be carried out together. The kerb may affect the
choice of safety fence type, and it is important to
Each utility has their own working procedures ensure that the combined drainage/kerb facility
and works specifications. These shall be does not reduce the safe operation of the safety
referred to when designing the road fence.
construction and drainage facilities.
Particular consideration may be required to

position soakaways if the reservation width is
restricted. Refer to the typical cross sections
shown in Figures 5.1 to 5.7. Where space is
limited, soakaways may be lowered, by the
addition of rising sections, to allow shallow
utilities such as Q.TEL to pass above the
soakaway chamber. However, in new roads,
priority is to be given to road related utilities, ego
drainage, lighting etc.

5.15 SAFETY FENCES minimum radius a standard size car can
General
A safety fence is a longitudinal barrier used to
shield motorists from natural or man-made
hazards located along a road. It may also be
negotiate without losing tyre contact. This is
dependant on approach angle and speed as
well as the characteristics of individual vehicles.
Roadside Obstacles
•
used to protect bystanders, pedestrians and A safety fence should only be installed if it is
cyclists from out of control vehicular traffic. clear that the result of a vehicle striking the
Safety fences may be located in the verge or barrier will be less severe than the accident
median depending on the particuiar resulting from hitting the unprotected object.
requirements and location. Refer to Figure 5.11
for the definition of terminology used in safety Generally, if an object is greater than 10m
barrier design. from the travelled way, it does not require
protection.
The safety fence is designed to prevent an
errant vehicle from leaving the carriageway and Table 5.5 summarises of the various needs for
striking a fixed object or feature that is safety fencing.
considered more hazardous than the barrier
itself. This is accomplished by containing and Pedestrians
redirecting the errant vehicle. The most desirable solution to protect the
•
innocent bystander is to separate pedestrians
On a divided road, a safety fence is located in and vehicuiar traffic. If this is not achievable
the median to separate opposing traffic. then consideration of safety fencing shouid be
given at schools, busy commercial and retail
Safety fences should only be installed if they centres, sports venues and other locations
reduce the severity of accidents. This may where high pedestrian movements are
appear subjective, but generally a barrier should anticipated or observed.
be provided if the consequences of a vehicle
striking a fixed object, or running off the road
are determined to be more serious than hitting
the safety fence itself. Other considerations are
traffic speed and traffic volumes and a cost
analysis.
The cost analysis is based on:
• Removing or reducing the hazard so

that it no longer requires protecting
• Installing an appropriate safety fence
• Leaving the hazard unprotected.
Median safety fences are generally provided

where the median width is relatively narrow and
the traffic volumes and speeds are high. They
may also be provided where the separated
carriageways are at different ievels, as the
likelihood of an accident increases the steeper
the slope between carriageways. It is important
to provide gaps in the median fencing for
emergency use and maintenance.
Embankments
Embankment height and side slope are factors
in determining safety fence need. The provision
of safety fencing should be considered when
slopes are steeper than 1 in 5 and/or the height
of the slope is greater than 8m, refer to Figure
5.12. Rounding slopes reduces the chances of
an errant vehicle becoming airborne. The
optimum rounding may be defined as being the

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Setback/Clearance to Edge of Pavement

Edae of Pavement Flare
Direction of Travel Rate
(adjacent traffic)
Direction of Travel
(opposing traffic)
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TR:~i~~~~~~:Li2??r/ ;H~LL:tJSECTION EMBANKMENT

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Om 3m 6m 8m 12m 15m 18m

Height (m)
Barrier not Required for Embankment.
• However, Check Barrier need for other

Roadside Hazards.
Figure 5.12 Requirement for Safety Fences on Embankments
January 1997 Page S/22

Types of Standard Sections of Safety Fence The self-restoring safety fence is a high
Safety fencing is usually classified as flexible, performance fence designed to be
.semi-rigid or rigid. maintenance free for most impacts and capable
of containing and redirecting large vehicles.
Flexible systems are generally more forgiving The combination of high initial cost and high
than other categories, as much of the impact performance makes this barrier more suited for
energy is dissipated by the deflection of the use at high accident frequency locations.
barrier and lower impact forces are imparted on
the vehicle. There are two basic types of When traffic speeds are expected to be greater
flexible system: than 50kph the semi rigid system should be
tensioned. Tensioned systems usually require
The first is a cabled fence, normally comprising a minimum length to be effective and are
4 strands of tensioned cable. Cable fences unable to be installed on sharp radii (typically
redirect impacting vehicles after sufficient 50m length and 150m minimum radii).
tension is developed in the cable, with the posts Individual barrier manufacturers specifications
in the impact area providing only slight should be adhered to.
resistance. The cable fence returns to its
original position and damaged posts are easily Object Comment
replaced.
Bridge piers, Protection generally
abutments and railing reqUired
The second type utilizes a standard steel beam ends
section mounted on relatively weak posts. This
system acts in a similar manner to the cable Culverts, pipes, Judgement required based
safety fence. It retains some degree of headwalls on size, shape and location
of hazard
effectiveness after minor collisions due to the
rigidity of the beam rail element. However, after Cut slopes (smooth) Generally protection not
major collisions it requires full repair to remain reqUired
effective. As with the cable system, lateral
Cut slopes (rough) Judgement required based
deflection can be reduced to some extent by on likelihood of impact
closer post spacing. This system, as with all
barriers having a relatively narrow restraining Ditches (transverse) Generally protection
width, is vulnerable to vaulting or vehicle under- required, ditch profile to be
considered
ride caused by incorrect mounting height or
irregularities in the approach terrain. Embankments JUdgement required based
on height and slope
Semi Rigid Systems work on the principle that
Retaining wall Judgement required based
resistance is achieved through the combined on relative smoothness and
flexure and stiffness of the rail. Posts near the anticipated maximum angle
point of impact are designed to break or tear of impact
away, distributing the impact force to adjacent Signs and luminalrs Generally protection
posts. Deflection of this type of beam is up to supports required for non-breakaway
approximately 1.5m (test data; 26 degrees, supports
95kph, 1.8 Tonnes)
Traffic signals Isolated traffic signals on
high speed rural roads may
Strong post fences usually remain functional require protection
after moderate collisions, thereby eliminating the
need for immediate repair. There are a number Trees and utility poles Protection may be required
depending on site by site
of different types of semi rigid fence on the conditions
market, each system having its own
performance requirements and capabilities. A Permanent bodies of Judgement reqUired based
few examples are listed below: water on deptfl of water and
likelihood of encroachment
Box Beam
Table 5.5 Consideration forthe Provision
Open Box Beam of Safety Fencing
W-Beam (corrugated type of fence) Rigid Systems offer no deflection when hit by
a vehicle. The impact energy is absorbed by
Blocked Out W-Beam the vehicle. For high angle and high speed
impacts, passenger size vehicles may become
Self-Restoring Safety Fence partially airborne and in some cases may reach
the top of the barrier. For shallow angle

impacts, the roll angle toward the barrier

imparted to high centre of gravity vehicles may
be enough to permit contact of the top portion of
the vehicle with objects on top of or immediately
length should be 10 to 12 times the difference
in the lateral deflection of the two systems in
question ego for a beam deflection of 1.5m the
transition should be around 15m.
.,
behind the fence, ego bridge piers. Commonly
used rigid systems are the New Jersey Barrier in Drainage features such as ditches should be
the USA, and the British Concrete Barrier in the avoided at transition positions as they may
UK. initiate vehicle instability.
Typically the system is relatively low cost, has The stiffness of the transition should increase
generally effective performance for passenger- smoothly and continuously from the less rigid to
sized vehicles and has maintenance-free the more rigid system. This can be achieved
characteristics. by decreasing the post spacing, increasing post
size or strengthening the rail eiement.
End Treatments
The untreated end of a safety fence is extremely Selection of Safety Fence
hazardous If hit, as the beam element can The selection process is not easily defined but
penetrate the, passenger compartment and will the most desirable system is one that offers the
generally stop the vehicle. A crashworthy end required degree of protection at the lowest total
treatment is therefore considered essential if the cost. Table 5.6 summarises the factors to be
safety fence terminates within 10m of the considered.
travelled way and/or is in an area where it is
likely to be hit head-on by an errant vehicle. The
termination of the safety fence should not spear,
vault or roll a vehicle for head-on or angled
impacts. For Impacts within the length of need,
the end treatment shouid have the same
redirectional characteristics as the standard
safety fence, which means that the end must be
also properly anchored.
There are a number of different types of end

treatments which work on a range of principles,
some of which are listed below:
Breakaway Terminals
Turned Down Terminals
Energy Absorption Systems
Special Anchorage for Cable Fence e'

Anchorage into Embankment
Further reference is essential to select the most

appropriate system for each particular situation.
Transitions
Transition sections of safety fence are
necessary to provide continuity of protection
when two different barriers join, when a barrier
joins another barrier system (such as a bridge
rail) or when a roadside barrier is attached to a
rigid object (such as a bridge pier).
The transition section should be the same

strength or stronger than the two systems.
The transition should be long enough so that

significant changes in deflection do not occur
within a short distance. Generally the transition

Criteria Comments Placement
• 2
Performance
Capability
Deflection
Fence must be structurally
able to coniain and redirect
design vehicle
Expected deflection of fe'nce

Lateral offset: As a rule, safety fences should
be placed as far from the travelled way as
conditions permit. This gives the errant driver
the best chance of regaining control of the
vehicle without having an accident. It also
should not exceed available provides better sight distance. Table 5.7 gives
room to deflect
suggested lateral offsets related to the design
3 Site Conditions Slope approaching the fence speed. Other factors may override these
and distance from travelled suggested figures.
way may preclude use of
some fence types
Design Speed Setback from Edge of
4 Compatibility Fence must be compatible Pavement (m)
with planned end anchor and
capable of transition to other 140 3.7
safety fence systems 120 3.0
100 2.5
5 Cost Standard fence systems are 80 2.0
relatively consistent in cost, 70 1.7
but high performance railings 60 1.5
can cost significantly more 50 1.0
.,
Note. Rigid system IS not recommended for design speeds
•
6 Maintenance: greater than 100kph
a) Routine Few systems require a
significant amount of routine Table 5.7 Desirable Lateral Clearance
maintenance for Safety Barriers from Edge
b) Collision Generally, flexible or semi- of Travelled Way.
rigid systems require
significantly more The desirable minimum distance between back
maintenance after a collision offence and rigid hazards should not be less
than rigid or high performance
fences than the dynamic deflection of the safety fence
for impact by a vehicle at impact conditions of
c) Materials The fewer the different approximately 25 degrees and 100kph.
Storage systems used the fewer
inventory items and storage
space required Specific manufacturers requirements must be
followed. However, as a guideline, the
d) Simpiicity Simpler designs cost less and clearances set out in Table 5.8 are typical.
are more likely to be
reconstructed properly on site
Barrier Typ'e Clearance from Back of
7 Aesthetics Occasionally safety fence Fence to Hazard (m)
aesthetics are an important
consideration in its selection Tensioned wire rope 2.0
8 Field The performance and Tensioned beam 1.2

Experience maintenance requirements of
existing systems should be Box beam 1.2
monitored to identify problems
O'
that could be lessened or
eliminated by using a different . ..
Rigid
Mimmum clearance of objects behmd the barner to
fence type travelled way must be maintained.
Table 5.8 Typical Manufacturers

Table 5.6 Selection Criteria for Safety Clearance Requirements
Fences
On embankments care should be taken to
ensure that at full deflection of the fence the
wheels of the vehicle do not overhang the edge
of the siope.
The combined use of kerbs and flexible

safety fences together should be avoided.
The use of kerbs and semi-rigid or rigid
safety fences should generally be avoided.
However, if the face of the safety fence is
within 225mm of the kerb face, a vehicle is
not likely to vault the fence.

A safety fence is considered flared when it is not These installations will require upgrading to
parallel with the carriageway. Flare is normally
used to locate the barrier terminal section further
from the carriageway, to minimise a driver's
reaction to a hazard near the road by gradually
introducing a parallel safety fence installation, to
current standards and each installation should
be considered on a site by site basis.
For further reference on the different types of

safety fencing refer to the British Department of
•
connect a roadside barrier to a hazard nearer Transport document TD 19/85, Safety Fences
the carriageway such as a bridge parapet or and Barriers, and the American Association of
railing, or to reduce the total length of rail State Highway and Transportation Officials
needed. Reference Figure 5.11. pUblication, Roadside Design Guide. For
details of specific safety fences the
Flare rates are a function of design speed and manufacturers' technical literature should be
safety fence type. Bearing this in mind, Table referred to.
5.9 shows typical flare rates.
5.16· CRASH CUSHIONS
Design Flare Rate Flare Rate for Fence
Speed for Fence beyond Setback Crash cushions or impact attenuators are
(kph) within protective devices designed to prevent errant
Setback Rigid System Semi-rigid vehicles from impacting fixed object hazards.
1:x System This is achieved by gradually slowing down a
140 1:35 1:23 1:17 vehicle to a safe stop (from possible head-on
120 1:30 1:20 1:15 impacts) or by redirecting a vehicle away from
100 1:26 1:17 1:13 the hazard (for side impacts). Crash cushions
80 1:21 1:14 1:11 are ideally suited for use at locations where
70 1:17 1:11 1:9
fixed objects cannot be removed, relocated or
. 60 1:13 1:8 1:7
Refer to manufacturers techmcal literature for special
made to breakaway, and cannot be adequately
protected by a normal safety fence.
conditions.
Table 5.9 Typical Flare Rates Crash cushions primarily serve to iessen the
severity of accidents rather than to prevent
The length of safety fence required should be them from happening.
such that it protects the vehicle for the full extent
Crash cushions work on one of two principles,
of the hazard. This includes the length of the
either absorption of kinetic energy or transfer of
approach flare, the length of the hazard and the
momentum. In the first instance the kinetic
runout length beyond the hazard. The runout
energy of a moving vehicle is absorbed by
length is particularly important on single
crushable materiais. This can be achieved by
carrlageways where protection is required for the use of water filled containers. Crash
vehicles travelling in the opposite lane. cushions of this type require a rigid back stop to
resist the impact force of the vehicle.
Underground Obstructions
Where there is a risk of driven posts or standard The second concept involves the transfer of
concrete footings interfering with cables, ducts momentum of a moving vehicle to an
and pipes and the alignment of the safety fence expendable mass of material or weights. This
cannot be adjusted to avoid the obstruction, or may be sand filled containers. Devices of this
the depth of pavement construction is such that type require no rigid back stop.
the standard driven post or concrete footing
would not penetrate into the subgrade, special The design procedure is relatively straight
posts or footings shall be provided with the forward and basically relates to the number of
approval of the Director of Civil Engineering crash cushion units being able to slow down a
Department. design vehicle, at a design speed under an
acceptable deceleration force. Most
Existing Systems manufacturers have design charts to select an
With the development of technoiogy and appropriate layout.
understanding of this sUbject, it is a fact that
older installations are sUb-standard and do not The most common application of crash
always meet current recommended performance cushions is at an exit ramp at an elevated or
levels. These deficiencies usually fall within two depressed structure, where a bridge pier
categories, those that have structural requires protection. However, they may also
inadequacies and those that are improperly be used at temporary road works or used to
designed or located. slow a vehicle down on a slope when the
brakes have failed. For optimum use, the
crash cushion should ideally be placed on a
relatively flat surface. Kerbs should also be

avoided as this may cause the vehicle to large sports complexes where crowds
become airborne. may gather. The fencing controls the
movement of pedestrian traffic and
The effective use of crash cushions is restricted lowers the risk of a pedestrian
to cars travelling up to speeds of 100kph, and accidentally moving onto a live
not applicabie for large trucks and buses. carriageway.
There are many different manufacturers of crash 5.18 ROAD CLOSURE AND PARTIAL
cushion systems, each with there own particular CLOSURE
merits and applications. However, the engineer
in the selection process must consider the site The main aims of full or partial road closure are
characteristics, cost, maintenance and the to:
structural and safety characteristics of the
different systems. • Deter non-access traffic from using
residential roads as through routes
For further reference on the different types of
crash cushions refer to the American • Limit the number of minor accesses
Association of State Highway and onto major routes
Transportation Officials publication, Roadside
Design Guide. For details of specific crash • Remove the crossroad type junction
cushions, manufacturers technical literature
•
which is generally considered unsafe.
should be referred to. Refer Section 6 Junctions
5.17 FENCING Although these aims are common to the design

of new roads, the approach here is different as
There are many different types of fences used established route patterns, many having been
within the road reservation, each type having in use for years, have to be broken and
particular applications. The main types of reformed elsewhere. Provision of clear,
fencing are listed below: concise warning and/or diversion signs are
advised during the first two to three months of
operation. This will help re-educate the driver
• Right of Way Fencing to delineate and who was familiar with the old road layout.
separate private property from the road
reservation The most basic way to prevent traffic using a
particular route is to close the road, either at a
• Safety Fencing erected where particular point or along a certain length. It is
considered necessary. Refer Clause usual to close a road at an existing junction, ie.
5.15 at the end of a block of properties, unless the
block is very long, ego 250-300m, in which case
• Animal Fencing prevents animals from "No Through Road" signs must be displayed at
entering the highway reservation. The the open end(s) of the road.
size and type of fencing is dependant
on the type of animal the fencing is End of block closures could be made simply by
intended to control, ego camel or goat the use of "No Entry" signs, but these may
prove to be ineffective, particularly if drivers
• Acoustic Fencing may be required in approaching a closure can see traffic moving
sensitive locations such as residential beyond it. Hence it is preferable to provide a
areas to lower the traffic noise level. physicai barrier to prevent drivers violating the
The fence forms a barrier and the restriction. This may be in the form of a traffic
sound is reflected away from the island with a sign showing the direction that
sensitive area vehicles must now follow. It is important to
ensure that the arrangement is in keeping with
• Headlight Barriers may be the area and consideration should be given to
implemented at locations where it is the provision of landscaping.
desirable to minimise the glare of the
headlights of oncoming vehicles, such Where a closure is made at a mid-block
as at unlit bends on rural roads position, provision must be made for large
vehicles, such as refuse vehicles to turn
• Pedestrian Access Fencing may be around.
required where there are significant
numbers of pedestrians such as on Typical turning heads are shown in Figure 5.13.
commercial streets, outside schools or The choice of layout is dependant on the width

of carriageway available and the positions of

existing property accesses that have to be
accommodated by the ciosure.
Any barriers or turning heads shall be designed

in such a way as to ensure that emergency
•
vehicles are able to gain access. This is
achievable by the use of lockable barrier gates
or demountable bollards. Whichever is chosen,
it must be capable of preventing private vehicles
from passing through the restriction. For this
reason, solutions such as a route through a
landscaped area are not recommended as they
are open to abuse, particularly by drivers of four
wheel drive vehicles.
Whatever the designed restriction, adequate

access and parking shall be provided for
residents.
•
Partial closure allows access into areas.
However, by the use of width restriction or
raised road humps it is made unattractive for
general road users.
Partial closure is often incorporated at

undesirable locations along the major road to
discourage use such as at accesses near to
major junctions. Where the minor road has to
remain open due to emergency vehicle access
requirements or limited access routes into the
development then partial closure is an easy way
to control general use.

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All dimension in metres
Note:
A central island radius of 10 metres will
just allow the vehicle to turn about. In
view of the restricted area available, the
island may be reduced or omitted altogether.
Minimum Dimensions for Turning Heads

In situations where larger vehicles have to be
accommodated, these dimensions should be increased to
take account of the larger turning radius and swept
path area.
Figure 5.13 Typical Turning Head Details

5.19 LANDSCAPING the opposite side of the roundabout to the point

of entry can, without restricting necessary
Apart from the amenity benefits, the landscape visibility, avoid distraction and confusion
treatment of medians, junctions and verges can caused by traffic movements of no concern to
a driver. Planting can provide a positive
have practical advantages. By ground
background to chevron signs and direction
modelling, perhaps in conjunction with planting, signs on the central island while visually uniting
the layout of the road can be made more the various vertical features and reducing any
obvious to traffic. appearance of clutter.
Landscaping can play an important part in aiding Generally the planting of roundabout central
drivers waiting to exit the minor road by islands less than 10m in diameter is
providing reference points or features by which inappropriate as the need to provide driver
to judge the speed of drivers approaching on the visibility leaves only a small central area
available. Such a restricted area of planting is
major road. This is particularly useful where a out of scale with the roundabout as a whole,
major/minor junction is located In an open and becomes an incongruous "blob".
landscape, where there Is a lack of natural
reference points. Planting can also provide a Recent experiments with a ring of black and
positive background to the road signs around white paving laid in a chevron pattern inside the
the junction, whilst visually uniting the various central island perimeter at a gentle slope have
component parts. it is important that a wider proved successful in improving the consplcuity
view does not distract from the developing traffic of central islands and they can be effective
from a safety point of view (Figure 5.14).
situation as the driver sees it.
It is common to construct features such as
Specialised planting, which might be more coffee pots etc. in roundabouts. They become
appropriate in an urban area, generally requires a focus for the traveller, and if designed and
greater maintenance effort if it is to be positioned correctly will prove an asset to the
successful. The preferred maintenance method surroundings.
Is an automatic Irrigation system connected to a
return effluent main. Approval for any such Lighting of central islands or any landscape
scheme must be sought from the Director of the feature is important, though care should be
taken to avoid distraction or dazzle to drivers.
Civil Engineering Department and the Drainage
Division. If a return effluent main is unavailable,
care should be taken so that watering does not
require tankers to obstruct trafficked lanes at
any time.
A well defined maintenance programme should

be developed if extensive planting is used to
ensure that such planting does not obscure
either opposing traffic or traffic signs at any time.
In rural areas, planting should be restricted to

indigenous species and be related to the
surrounding landscape. In the desert, for
example, any planting of other than local
species would appear incongruous and
landscape treatment would normally be
restricted to ground modelling.
At roundabouts, the areas required for visibility

envelopes can be planted with species having a
low mature height, with higher and denser
species of bushes and trees towards the centre
of the island. Due allowance for the situation
that will develop with matured growth must be
made.
Section x-x
Apart from the amenity benefits, the landscape
treatment of roundabouts can have practical
advantages. By earth modelling, perhaps in
conjunction with planting, the presence of the Figure 5.14 Contrasting Chevron Markings
roundabout can be made more obvious to for Roundabouts
approaching traffic. The screening of traffic on

•
SECTION 6 JUNCTIONS however, important to ensure that the minor
road traffic movements are still adequately
6.1 GENERAL provided for. Spacing between consecutive
junctions is best considered in terms of the
The scope of this section of the QHDM is to minimum distance that allows traffic travelling
identify the main types of major/minor junction on the main road and traffic leaving it or joining
which can be used in the design of new and the it, to do so in an easy, efficient and safe
improvement of existing roads. manner.
Advice is given on the main factors which affect In determining this distance, due consideration
the choice between different types of must be given to:
major/minor junction, on the siting of such
junctions and suitable types of layout. • Design speeds
To ensure a consistent approach to the design

of the major/minor junctions, a series of
• Weaving lengths for merging/diverging
traffic flows
recommendations covering the geometric
design of the key elements of the junction, and
how these can be best combined to produce a
• Horizontal and vertical geometry of the
main road for visibility
good overall design, have also been included.
• Provisions for turning traffic wishing to
Junctions are widely recognised as one of the cross, join or leave at the junction.
primary locations of accidents on all roads.
Safety is therefore of paramount importance The minimum spacing between consecutive
during the development of any junction design. simple T-junctions on access roads and service
A number of safety issues such as: visibility; roads is 80m, and across a staggered T-
driver perception; signing and road markings; junction 40m. Refer to Clause 6.7.15 for
traffic control and pedestrian access, need to additional information on stagger distance and
be considered as part of the design refer to Clause 7.4.9 for additional information
development process. More detailed guidance on weaving sections.
on these and other relevant factors is given
elsewhere in this section. Consideration should also be given to the
spacing of the deceleration lanes and the
6.1.1 Junction Spacing acceleration lanes of junctions along the main
carriageway. Refer to Clause 6.14 for
The frequency at which junctions are located on information on diverge/merge distances. The
a main road is usually a function of the spacing of these junctions should relate to the
surrounding area and its current or future weaving characteristics of:
development, i.e. rural or urban environment. In
general terms, urban environments are • Traffic on the mainline
characterised by a mixture of residential
properties, and commercial and industrial • Traffic entering the mainline from the first
developments/outlets. There is usually a high junction
demand for through traffic and local traffic
movements. Consequently there is a high • Traffic leaving the main road to the
demand for access across, onto and off of the second junction.
main road from the local road network.
When improving existing roads it may be
In contrast, rural environments generally have necessary to reduce the number of junctions on
few residential properties that are interspersed the route. This may be achieved by:
intermittently with industrial and commercial
developments/outlets. The demand on the main • Provision of service roads to collect
road is for through traffic with local traffic minor roads
movements catered for chiefly by the local road
network. As demand for links with the main road • Closure of minor roads and provision of
are lower than urban environments, junctions turning heads, refer to Section 5.
occur much less frequently.
The spacing of junctions, particularly in urban

situations is critical to ensure that disruption to
traffic on the main road is minimised. It is

6.1.2 Traffic Flows corner radii and lane widths that are likely to be
affected. Swept paths should be checked using
An important factor that governs the choice of standard templates or a computer software
junction type at a given location is the volume of package.
traffic that is currently using the main road and
side roads, and the predicted future traffic The vehicle classification to be used in Qatar is
demand. Before any detailed evaluation can be shown in Table 6.1.
made It is important to obtain the best estimate
of all the relevant traffic flows and turning Failure to make adequate provision is likely to
movements for the junction. result In:
In situations where this data is not readily

available it will be necessary to undertake traffic
• A reduction in the junction capacity as
the larger vehicles are forced to straddle
surveys, or use traffic modelling to predict the two traffic lanes to facilitate the turning
likely traffic flow levels. movement at the junction
The composition and turning movements of • Overrunning of kerbs

traffic will influence the geometric layout
adopted. A high proportion of heavy goods • Reduced visibility for other traffic
vehicles for example will dictate the minimum approaching or negotiating the junction.
lane width and corner radii to be adopted at the
junction. A high proportion of turning traffic may
require the provision of a segregated or
dedicated turning lane at the junction, to ensure
that adequate through traffic capacity is
These design principles should be extended to
the positioning of street furniture such as signs,
splitter islands, traffic signals and lighting
columns.
•
••.• l1l.aintained.
Allowance shall be made for the swept turning
Predicted future traffic flows are important paths of long vehicles where they can
because they: reasonably be expected to use a junction.
Consideration shall also be given to the
• Enable the design to be tailored to manoeuvring characteristics of these vehicles in
provide sufficient capacity to meet the the design of staggered junctions.
future traffic flow demands
All of the geometric parameters given in this
• Enable a decision to be made to
constrain the traffic flows at the given
section for use in the design of a major/minor
junction have been developed to cater for a
location for a particular reason 16.5m long artiGulated vehicle, whose turning
width is greater than for most other vehicles that
• Identify the need to allow for current or
future junctions.
regUlarly use these junctions.
The turning requirement of a 20.0m long

Guidance on acceptable traffic flows for junction drawbar trailer combination are less onerous
types and layouts are given throughout this regarding road width.
Section.
In cases where hardstrips are present, the
6.1.3 Design Vehicles design vehicle is assumed to use these on
some turns, and at some simple junctions, it
An obvious but often overlooked aspect of the may encroach into opposing traffic lanes.
design of junctions is the type of vehicle that will
be using the junction. Different sizes and Where buses or other long rigid vehicles form a
classes of vehicle have varying swept paths significant portion of total or peak time traffic,
and turning circles. All junctions need to be and their turning movements within these
designed to allow the vehicle with the greatest dimensions would be awkward or present a
swept path, that will regularly use the junction to hazard or significant delay. Then corner radii
turn in a safe and easy manner. For example a and lane widths should be increased based on
36 tonne articulated lorry is unlikely to be a the use of appropriate swept path templates.
regular user of a residential road. In this
exam pie the most likely largest vehicle would
be a refuse vehicle or a school bus. Generally,
the design vehicle is likely to be a heavy goods,
public service, or refuse vehicle and it is the

6.1.4 Siting of Junctions
• The siting of junctions for new build and

improvement schemes is very important.
Failure to choose a suitable location can reduce
the effective operation and safety of the
junction. It is essential to include engineering
considerations in the early pianning stages to
help minimise poor land use.
Sites that should be avoided include:
• Where the major road is on a sharp

curve and visibility may be impaired by
waiting vehicles
• Where the minor road approaches are

skewed less than 70° or greater than
110° to the main road.
• •
•
At the top or bottom of gradients greater
than 4% on the main road
Where the minor road approaches the

main road on an up or down gradient
greater than 2%
• Where junction frequency is excessive.
The problems listed above while not exhaustive

cover the more commonly occurring situations,
and they can usually be overcome by
modifications to the horizontal and vertical
alignments.
In situations where, because of site constraints,

it is not practical to fully apply these principles,
then a compromise will need to be established
that minimises the potential risks to drivers
approaching the junction. Measures such as
reduced speed limits, alignment constraints,
additionai signing and road markings can help
to minimise the potential hazards to the driver.

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Average
frurning Width
C ill Vehicle Dimensions Whaels
..,III (J) Vehicle Type Class
etwun kerb No. at No. of (on lHIch side jJ
...
'<
CD
:... Weight (kg) length fm} Width{m) Height (m)
1180")
1m)
Axles Stondord
Axles
at the vehicle)
::I:
15
!!ll < ::I:
'c5"" ~
::r 1BOD 4.5 1.7 1.5
ill 0
;;
~ ~ cPr 1 2500
2600
5
5
1.9
1.9
2
2
5 2 - 1-1
C
·•
() Saloon cet 4w~drjyB Pick-up van
m
iii" (fl
CJ> ()
CJ>
=;; 15
o· ~ 2 1800 4.5 1.7 1.5 5 2 - 1-1 z
~ s:
0·
Ol
Taxi
»
z
(j) c:
»
::r
'~" ·•• ~
~
0
0
, 5900 7 2 2.6 15 2 0.2-0.5
1-1
"
"2
r-
~
IAini-ous
~
S. ~ ,
.!.'S
([l@OO~ ,
m
4 16500 12 2.5 24 2 1.3-5.0 1-2
.
~
0
Bus/coach
. QI~ ~
0
as 1-1
0.5-7.0
-§:2> G
5 7500 8.5 2.5 3.2 15 2
~
"
1-2
I:; Pick-up lorry
·
•
<;
QBII Q 2 Axle lorry-rigid
©Ii
6 1BOOO 12 2.6 4.1 24 2 0.5-7.0 1-2
··
:E
>
~
0
0
a
~
>
••
J:
CJUPW Q3 Axle lorry-rigid
@=@'
7 24000 12 2.6 4.1 24 3 1.5-4.0 1+2+2
~
(fl
8 SDDDD 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 3 0.6-10.0 1"'2+2
m
~
"1J
III 3 Axle-articulated
(Q
1Il 5
Refer Tabla 9.1 for Average No. 01 Standard Axles Por Vehicle z
~ 0>
. • •
c.. -;
• • o
III
'0-ro"
~:c
::l
c: Vahic!s Dlmltnsions Turning Width Avarage
Wheals
III
0)
etween kerb No. at No. or
~ VlJhicle Type Class (on B8Ch lOide
'< :... (1 Bo·) Axles Standard
:r
~
~9lght (kg) Length fm) Width(rnj Height fm} em) AXles of lha vahlcla)
(Q
i5
~I < :r
~ ~
CD
:r
0' , 36000 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 4 1.5-7.0 1+2+22
ro c
() 4 AXle-articulated
iii" m
C1l
~
<J)
<J)
=;; i5
0' 1D 43500 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 5 2.5~7 .0 1+2+222 z
!'l.
~
s:
o'
::l
5 Axht-artlculated »
z
c
Cil
:r
CD
m. ••
QIIWIJill4 Axle-articulated
11 36000 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 4 1.5-7.0 1+22+2
»r-
'"sa. '0
:c
•>
B ·
~
0
~
111111 1111111111 I111 12 42000 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 5 2.0-7.0 1+22+22
~ ~ ~ ~
••>
J:
5 Axis-articulated
( IIIIIIII~ [[]I]] 13 49500 16.5 2.6 4.1 16 6 1.5-7.0 1+22+222

~ l;li
6 Axle-articulated
~ 3 Axle-trailer
14 SODDD 9 2.6 4.1 2D 3 2.0-7.0 +2+22
~ 4 Axlll-traiJ9r
15 36000 9 2.6 4.1 2D 4 2.0-10.0 +22+22
~ 16 1000 2.3 D.6

1.B (INCL
rider)
- - - - C1l
m
-c M Dtor~bjcycle
III ~
lQ
CO
Refer Table 9.1 ror Average No. of Standard Axles Per Vehicle
oz
lJi '"
6.2 TYPES OF JUNCTION 6.2.4 Skew or Y-Junction
There are seven basic types of junctions that This type of junction is an at-grade junction of
should be considered for use. two roads, where the minor road approaches
the major road at an oblique angle. In a similar
There are advantages and disadvantages to manner to the T- junction, traffic control is
each of the seven types and the engineer proVided by "Give Way" or "Stop" iine road
should carefully consider the suitability of each markings in conjunction with "Stop" or "Give
type for the intended location and purpose. Way" signing on the minor road.
The seven basic junction types are as follows: As skew angle to the main road decreases, the
junction becomes less safe.
6.2.1 T-Junction
6.2.5 Roundabouts
The T-Junction, of which there are five main
variants, is an at-grade junction of two roads A roundabout is a special form of at-grade
where the minor road terminates at the major junction characterised by a one-way circulatory
road at right angles. It is the most common type carriageway around a central island located at
of approach road junction and is a suitable the intersection of a maximum of six roads.
solution for coping with most traffic flow Traffic flows around the central island on the
requirements. Traffic control is generally circulatory carriageway in an anti-clockwise
provided by "Give Way" or "Stop" signs/road direction until it reaches the required exit point.
markings on the minor approach but could Entry onto the roundabout from the approach
include traffic control on all approaches. roads is controlled by the appearance of gaps in
the circulating traffic flow. Traffic wishing to
In certain urban situations where traffic, enter the roundabout must give way to traffic
pedestrian or safety requirements dictate, already on the circulatory carriageway.
signalization may be required. The type of
traffic control is determined through a "warrant 6.2.6 Grade Separated Interchange
analysis" (refer to the Qatar Traffic Manual).
This type of junction removes the principle
6.2.2 Simple Crossroads vehicle conflict by the provision of grade
separation between some of the turning
The crossroad is an at-grade junction of two movements. These junctions are complex and
roads that cross approximately at right angles. include extensive connecting roads and loops.
Simple crossroads are not safe junctions Grade Separated Interchanges are discussed in
because of the high number of traffic movement Section 7 of this manual.
conflicts that can occur at the same location.
For this reason, the use of crossroads is not 6.2.7 Traffic Signals
recommended. A safer solution, location
permitting, is to provide a roundabout or signal Whilst not strictly a junction type, traffic signals
control. may be implemented on a number of junction
types to control the movement of traffic.
6.2.3 Staggered Junction Junctions may be specifically designed for
signal control or signai control may be added a
A staggered junction is an at-grade junction of later stage.
three roads, where the major road is continuous
through the junction. The minor roads intersect The design of physical features of this type of
the major road forming two separated T- junction, excluding the signal design, are
junctions on opposing sides of the main road. covered within this manual. An introduction to
signaiized junctions is given in Clause 6.16.
This type of junction is the preferred alternative
to a simple crossroad. However, should future
traffic volumes be expected to increase, then a
roundabout or signalisation may be preferable
from the outset at certain locations.

• 6.3 JUNCTION SELECTION
The selection of a junction type at a given

location is important for operational, economic
and safety reasons.
6.3.2 Continuity of Standard
In the interests of safety, the sequences of

junctions on a section of road or neighbouring
roads of similar standard shouid not involve
many different layout types. A length of major
The engineer should carefully select the road comprising roundabouts, single lane
junction type for the location in accordance with dual ling, ghost islands and simple priority
the considerations listed below. junctions would inevitably create confusion and
uncertainty for drivers, and may result in
However, in some circumstances, local accidents. The safest schemes are usually
conditions such as driver behaviour may also straightforward, containing no surprises for the
influence the engineers choice of junction type driver.
for a particular location. Where it is felt that
drivers may ignore "Stop" or "Give Way" signs, 6.3.3 Junction Capacity
a different or higher type of junction could be
selected. The form that a junction takes is greatly
influenced by the volume of traffic predicted to
Apart from the basic selection considerations pass through it. All junction layouts will need to
given below, the engineer should also consider be analysed to ensure they have sufficient
the possibility of planning benefits to be gained capacity. This analysis should be carried out
by the selection of junction types at locations using a standard software package (eg.
that promote the use of the roads in the ARCADY for roundabouts and PICADY for
hierarchy defined in this manual. major/minor junctions).
The following points should be considered: Junction selection by capacity is given in Figure
6.1. It is based on capacity and on UK
6.3.1 Status of Intersecting Roads congestion acceptance levels. Engineers may
consider that higher standard facilities should
Restrictions are placed on the categories of be provided than that indicated by the
road that may meet. As a result, for any given nomograph for operational or safety reasons.
permitted combination of road types, only
certain junction types will be appropriate for The detailed geometry of junction types relating
use. Table 6.2 below outlines acceptable to capacity is given in Clause 6.7.
carriageway and junction combinations.
Minor
7.3m Carriageway 11.3m Carriageway Ouol-2 Oual-3
Major Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

, .
7.3m Rural T,R
Carriage-
way Urban T,Ts.R T,Ts,R
11.3m Rural
Carriage-
way Urban I· T,Ts,R "'. T,Ts,R
Oual-2 Rural T,Tu,R,1 R,I
Urban T,Ts,V,R,1 T,Ts,V,R,1 Ts, R,I
Duat-3 Aural T,Tu,R,1 R,I R,I
Urban T,Ts,V,R,1 T,Ts,V,R,1 Ts, R,I Ts, R,I
Key:
T T-Junclion R Roundabout I Interchange
Ts T-Junction with Signals Tu T-Junction with U-Turn V Service Road
Table 6.2 Possible Junction Types for Different Major Road Carriageway Configurations

....o
o
<0
o
<0
>:
..,.0 '"~
0
~
....
a
«:
«:
"- 0~
x
;;:
0 a
..J
"" U.
a
«:
0
0::
0::
0
--,
«:
::;;
0
N
+
+
+
+
+
+
•
0
o o
N
(.IeM-oMll .LOW ,O~ x MOlo 0\10<1 <lONIl'l
Figure 6.1 Junction Selection By Capacity

6.4 MAJOR/MINOR JUNCTIONS 6.6 MAJOR/MINOR JUNCTION TYPES
• GENERAL
This section gives advice and standards for the

geometric design of major/minor junctions with
regard to traffic operation and safety.
6.6.1 The Simple T·Junction
I
I
I
6.5 SAFETY AT MAJOR/MINOR I
JUNCTIONS I
I
Vehicular and pedestrian accidents mainly I
I
occur at major/minor junctions. More accidents
~ I
occur in the urban environment than the rural. ______-._~======J ~ _
These accidents are mainly associated with
poorly judged left turn movem~nts onto and
from the major road and with incautious
overtaking manoeuvres.
Various methods to enhance safety can be Figure 6.2 Simple T-Junction
• introduced at major/minor junctions.
individual basis.
The
engineer should review each junction on an
Ghost Islands and single lane dualiing (physical

A simple T-Junction is without any ghost or
physical islands in the major road, and without
channelizing islands in the minor road
approach. Refer to Figure 6.2.
islands) to shelter left turning traffic and
discourage overtaking are discussed in Sections Simple T-Junctions are appropriate for most
6.6 and 6.7. Other safety measures that could minor junctions on single carriageway roads, but
be adopted are as follows: not dual carriageways. For new rurai junctions,
they shall only be used when the design flow on
• The use of road markings, double white the minor road does not exceed 300 vehicles
lines, raised rib markings, narrow central AADT (two-way) and on the major road does
hatching, block paving, ceramic studs, not exceed 13000 vehicles AADT (two-way).
refuge islands with keep right bollards or
different coloured surfacing to discourage At existing rural and urban junctions upgrading
overtaking manoeuvres on the major to a left turning facility, ghost Island or single
road lane dualling should be considered when safety
considerations dictate or where the minor road
• Skid resistant road surfaces flow exceeds 500 vehicles AADT (two-way).
• At urban locations where pedestrian

movements occur, pedestrian barriers,
6.6.2 T-Junction with Ghost Island
central refuge islands and at some AT-Junction with widening on the major road to
locations, pedestrian crossings and accommodate a ghost island and an extra
controlled pedestrian crossings central lane for turning traffic. The minor road
approach should also have a channelizing
• At some locations where safety is an
issue, the major/minor junction may
island to direct vehicles to the correct position
for turning movements. Refer to Figure 6.3.
require traffic signals.
Ghost islands will enhance safety of the junction
In addition, in rural areas, problems occur with by giving shelter to left turning traffic from
driver perception of the termination of the minor opposing vehicles and vehicles approaching
road. Drivers at night, on unlit rural roads are from behind. Measures to discourage
mostly involved with this type of misjudgment. overtaking at ghost island widening could be the
The engineer shall ensure that there are no use of physical traffic islands, double white
physical obstructions to the path of such a lines, different coloured surfacing and ceramic
vehicle. studs.

Figure 6.3 T-Junction with Ghost Island
•
Figure 6.4 T-Junction with Singie Lane Dualling/Physical Island
Ghost islands, however, should not be the major route to speed up through the junction
positioned where overtaking opportunity is where slow vehicles may be crossing. Care
restricted either side of the junction because needs to be taken when siting the junction.
drivers may use the wide ghost island hatching
and central lane as a place to overtake. If a The single lane dual ling carriageway width is
ghost island has to be positioned at these 6m, where 4m is the running carriageway and
locations then an alternative such as single iane there are 1 m hard strips on both sides. Some
dualling should be considered. drivers may try to overtake in this width and
hatching of the 1 m strips will discourage such
Ghost island junctions should not be used manoeuvres.
where traffic turning ieft out of the minor road
needs to make the manoeuvre in two stages. There may be certain conditions when single
This can occur when the major road flow lane dualling could be misinterpreted by drivers:
exceeds 18000 AADT (two-way).
• Where a length of road contains
alternating single and dual carriageway
6.6.3 T-Junction with Single Lane Dualling
sections
Single lane dualling (physical islands) can be
used on rural single carriageway roads to • Where single lane dualling is proposed
shelter left turning traffic on the major road and within 3 kilometres from the end of a long
prevent overtaking. It can also J;le used where length of dual carriageway.
the traffic turning left out of the minor road
needs to make the manoeuvre in two stages. In these cases, other forms of junctions should
Refer to Figure 6.4. be considered.
Single lane dualling does, however, bring in

other safety issues. With the improved highway
layout there may be a tendency for drivers on

•
====--~
-----------------------------
I-So-
1- ------ ------------
~::=::: - -----j§J "

Figure 6.5 T-Junction with Dual Carriageway with Median Opening (Signaiized Only)
Figure 6.6 T-Junction on a Dual Carriageway with Carriageway Separation
6.6.4 T·Junction on a Dual Carriageway with be incorporated. The turning facilities should be
Median Opening (Signalized) provided nearby at another junction. The
nearby junction may be grade separated, a
These T-Junctions may be used on two or three roundabout, signalization or a U-Turn where
lane dual carriageways. This layout shall only traffic speed and traffic flow conditions are
be implemented with traffic signals. Refer to different. Refer to Figure 6.6. Acceleration and
Figure 6.5. deceleration lanes from and to the minor road
should be designed in accordance with through
Short lengths of dual carriageway just to traffic volumes and speeds.
incorporate a junction should not be provided.
6.6.6 Crossroads
On continuous dual carriageways the median
width is usually between 2 and 8m. If required, As discussed earlier in Clause 6.2.2, simple
this width can be widened to provide space for crossroads are not recommended. Staggered
a left turn lane and waiting space for vehicles junctions are always considered a much safer
turning left into the minor road. alternative, especially if a significant proportion
of the flow on the minor roads is cross
6.6.5 T·Junction on a Dual Carriageway with movement. In residential areas, consideration
Carriageway Separation should be given to closing off one of the arms of
the crossroads to create a preferred simple T-
On dual carriageways, the left turn manoeuvre Junction.
from the minor road is prevented by the median,
unless the minor road warrants signalization to

6.6.7 Staggered Junction do not overlap, and the left turning traffic from
the minor roads does not mix with the turning
A staggered junction comprises a major road traffic on the major road. Refer to Figure 6.7.
passing through the junction with opposed T-
Junctions on either side. Figu'res 6.7 to 6.11 Right/Left Stagger
show variations of staggered junction layouts. A simple right/left staggered junction should not
be considered. However, the right/left
Left/Right Stagger staggered junction with ghost isiand or single
The left/right stagger is preferred because the lane dualling would be an alternative. Refer to
two left turning traffic streams on the major road Figures 6.10 and 6.11.
~ ..
I
I
V '''''''--
I
I
I
Figure 6.7 Simple Left/Right Staggered Junction
Figure 6.8 Left/Right Staggered Junction with Ghost Island
Figure 6.9 Left/Right Staggered Junction with Single Lane Dualling

• A
Figure 6.10 RighVLeft Staggered Junction with Ghost Island
..
Figure 6.11 RighVLeft Staggered Junction with Single Lane Dualiing
6.6.8 Right and Left Hand Skew Junction This form of junction can be a solution when an
existing minor road joins the major road at a
Figure 6.12 shows a left hand skew junction skew angle. It is sometimes calied a Y-
with a ghost island. The junction couid also be Junction.
right handed.
The existing junction is improved on safety
grounds by channelizing the minor road with
islands and road markings, and connecting it to
the major road at right angles for optimum
.... visibility.
.. Typicaliy skew angles of 70' or greater do not
".
\.,
require straightening to approach the main road
at 90'. As skew angles become smalier a large
area is required in order to achieve an effective
-----'"'._....!.. U_.~ ._ 90' junction.
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::&~~~~
Other combinations of skew junctions could
combine staggered junctions, single lane
dualiing and dual carriageways.
Figure 6.12 Left Hand Skew Junction

6.7 MAJOR/MINOR JUNCTION Drivers approaching a major/minor junction

ELEMENTS
6.7.1 General
This section outlines the geometric design

from both the major road and the minor road
shall have unobstructed visibility in accordance
with the following clauses. The envelope of
visibility for driver's eye height is as described in
Section 2.
•
elements to be considered in the design of
major/minor junctions. Many of the elements Major Road
are dealt with separateiy, and the engineer Drivers approaching a major/minor junction
should work systematically through the design along the major road approaches shall be able
procedure prior to assembling the component to see the minor road entry from a distance
parts. This is an iterative process, and it may corresponding to 1.5 times the stopping sight
be necessary to alter part of the junction design distance (SSD) for the design speed of the
covered previousiy in order to achieve a major road as described in Section 2. This
satisfactory design. intervisibility allows drivers on the major road to
be aware of traffic entering from the minor road
6.7.2 Design Speed in time for them to be abie to slow down and
stop safely if necessary.
When considering geometric standards for the
design speed of the major/minor road junctions, The concept of adequate visibility to make safe
it is the design speed of the major road that turning movements also applies to vehicies
governs. turning ieft into the minor road from the major
road.
6.7.3 Visibility
Minor Road
Clear visibility on the approach to, at and Minor road traffic has to approach the junction
travelling through a junction is essential for the and join or cross the major road when there are
safe and efficient use of that junction. gaps in the major road traffic streams. It is
therefore essential that minor road drivers have
In determining the correct visibility adequate visibility in each direction to see the
requirements for a junction, the engineer must junction layout and oncoming major road traffic
consider both the layout of the junction and the in sufficient time to permit them to make their
vehicles that will use it. The visibility and manoeuvres safely.
intervisibilily requirements provided within this
clause are related to the design speed of the The principle of prOViding the reqUired visibility
major road and little benefit is to be gained by for drivers approaching the junction from the
increasing them. However, each junction must minor road has three distinct features (refer to
be considered on a site-specific basis with an Figure 6.13):
assessment made of additional visibility to be
•
provided due to factors such as: W: Approaching drivers should have
unobstructed visibility of the junction from a
• Width of major road to be crossed distance corresponding to the stopping sight
distance (SSD) for the design speed of the
• Traffic control on the minor approach minor road. This allows drivers time to slow
road down safely at the junction, or stop, if this is
necessary. Where a "Give Way" or "Stop" sign
• Turning movements to be made at the is proposed, the visibility envelope shall be
junction widened to include the sign.
• Gradient of the approaches and z: A driver approaching the junction should

departures be able to see clearly the junction form and
those peripheral elements of the junction layout.
• Type of vehicle that will be using the This provides the driver with an idea of the
junction, ego large, slow speed vehicles junction form, possible movernents and
require additional Visibility. conflicts, and possible required action before
reaching the major road. This point is called the
As well as having adverse safety implications, 'z' point which is 15m back aiong the centreline
poor visibility reduces the capacity of turning of the minor road measured from the
movernents. continuation of the line of the nearside edge of
the running carriageway of the major road (not
from the continuation of the back of the major
road hardstrip, if this is present).

.. X, Y: The distance back along the minor road

from which the full visibility is measured is
known as the 'x' distance. It is measured back
along the centreline of the minor road from the
continuation of the line of the nearside edge of
The 'x' distance, from which full 'y' distance
visibility is provided, should preferably be not
more than 10m as this induces high minor road
approach speeds into the junction, and leads to
excessive iandtake.
the running carriageway of the major road. The
'x' distance shall be desirably 10m. Similarly, although the 'y' distance should
always be provided, there is little advantage in
From this point an approaching driver shall be increasing it, as this too can induce high
able to see clearly points t9 the left and right on approach speeds and take the attention of the
the nearer edge of the major road running minor road driver away from the immediate
carriageway at a distance given in Table 6.3, junction conditions. Increased visibility should
measured from its intersection with the not be provided to increase the capacities of
centreline of the minor road. This is called the various turning movements.
'y' distance. Relaxations are not available for
this distance. These Visibility standards apply to new junctions
and to improvements to existing junctions.
If the line of vision lies partially within the major
road carriageway, it shall be made tangential to If the major road is one way, a single visibility
the nearer edge of the major road running splay in the direction of approaching traffic will
• carriageway, as shown in Figure 6.14.
In difficult circumstances, the 'x' distance may

be taken as a relaxation from 10m to 7.5m for
lightly trafficked simple junctions, and in
suffice. If the minor road serves as a one-way
exit from the major road, no visibility splays will
be required, provided that forward visibility for
turning vehicles is adequate.
exceptionally difficult circumstances, to 5.0m Vehicles parked within splay lines will obstruct
back from the nearer edge of the major road visibility. Parking and access should be
running carriageway. In some urban locations designed to prevent this. Care should also be
where only light vehicles are involved, the 'x' taken in the placing of signs, landscaping and
distance can be further reduced to 2.5m. street furniture within the Visibility splay areas to
ensure that their obstructive effect is minimised
Design Speed 'y' Distance Minimum 'x'

of Major Road (m) Distance
(kph) (m)
140 350 10
120 295 10
100 215 10
80 160 10
70 120 7.5
60 90 7.5
50 70 5.0
< 50 50 2.5
.. ..
Note. In all cases the preferred x distance Is 10m. The mInimum x distances given shall only be used In difficult CIrcumstances, In accordance
wilh Clause 6.7.3.
Table 6.3 Minimum 'x' and 'y' Visibility Distances from the Minor Road

y
I
y
"
•
I
Lines over which unobstructed
visibility shouid be provided
'1 ---
--------1------- -_.--
........
I
- -..:-.---1-=-=v-:--"-
~, ='= = = """
. xt
, , '' I . ..- . - .
,, ..- z = 15 m
, ..-I ..-
w
"·1/ ' , ,
I
.. I . x 'x' Distance
y 'VI Distance
\'..
i
I
w Minimum Stopping Distance (SSD)
for Approach Road Design Speed •
I
Figure 6.13 Visibility Standards
- --
-..-:::::::::"'.......,,,----- - -
Tangent edge of carriageway
x 'x' Distance
y ty'Distance
Figure 6.14 Visibility Standards with a Curved Major Road

6.7.4 Corner Radii

,
,,
For simple junctions, where no provision is to ,,
be made for large goods vehicles or buses, it is
recommended that the minimum circular corner l:k: ~t.O
E ,3
radius should be 6rn in urban areas and 10m in ~
,,
,';0
rural areas. Where provision is to be made for
large goods vehicles or buses, the B"' 1.22m
recommended circular corner radius Is shown 27mR
--- ----__
I~E
in Table 6.4 and Figure 6.15. 1B"
9mR -----
These radii only apply where there are no
4 , '" E
~
---.::i=±::;;O_d':- ~"
diverge tapers or lanes, or merge tapers. Refer
to Sections 6.7.13 and 6.7.14.
Alternatively, where large goods vehicles

comprise a significant proportion of the turning
movements, use of the compound curve shown
~
in Figure 6.16 is recommended.
Corner
Figure 6.16 Design of a Compound Curve
Junction Taper Length of
Type Rate Taper (m) Radius (m)
T L R 6.7.5 Carriageway Widths
Urban
Simple
All of the geometric parameters defined in this
Junction 1:5 30 10 clause can be seen for the three main types of
major/minor junctions in Figures 6.17 - 6.19.
Rural
Simple
Junction 1:10 25 15 Through Lanes
At ghost and physical island junctions, the
Ghost through lane in each direction shall be 3.65m
Island
wide, exclusive of edgestrips.
Junction 1:6 30 15
Staggered At dual carriageway junctions, the through lane
Junction 1:8 32 15 widths remote from the junction shall be
All Other . . 20 continued through the junction.
Minor Road Approaches

Table 6.4 Circular Corner Radii
On a minor road approach of nominal width
7.3m, where a channelizing island is provided,
both lanes shall be 4.0m wide at the point where
the hatched markings surrounding the
R = Corner Radius channelizing island begin. (Refer to Figure
L = Length of Taper 6.17).
T = Taper Rate
At the point where the channelizing island

commences, the widths on either side shall be
as follows:
a) On the approach to the major road, 4.0m

wide for a ghost island or 4.5m wide for
single lane dualling or a dual
L I carriageway, exclusive of hardstrips. If
J the approach on the minor road consists
of two lanes, this dimension shall be
5.5m.
Figure 6.15 Circular Corner Radii
b) On the exit from the major road, 4.5m
wide for a ghost island, or 5.0m wide for
single lane dualling or a dual
carriageway, exclusive of hardstrlps.

If there are no channelizing islands in the minor Where the minor road approach is a dual
road, the nominal approach width should
continue up until the tangent point of the curve
to join the edge of the major road running
carriageway.
carriageway it should be either reduced to a
single carriageway before the junction (see
Figure 6.18), or signalized.
Where 16.5m long articulated vehicles (eg.

•
Class 8) are anticipated, but are likely to form
only a very small percentage of the total number
of vehicles and where conflicts will not occur on
bends, the carriageway widths should be
•. 7.3m Nominal Width
b. 4.0m In All Cun
d. 4.0m f"rGhnllsland
4.5m ForSlngl. Lan, OU.Hlnll
designed to cater for the lower class vehicle that
c. 4.5m for Gholll.land or Du,l Cam_lIlwlY will regularly use the junction with an additional
5.0m for Slngll Lan, Qualllng 5.5m It Two lana Approach
tlr Dual Carrlaglway 1m allowance for variation in vehicle position.
Alternatively, figures from Table 6.5 could be
used.
An articulated car transporter will turn in the

widths shown, but where provision is to be
made for this type of vehicle, street furniture
--------~- ==== -- - - - - " " ' - - - above 2.5m high should be set back at least 1m
from the edge of the minor road carriageway at
the bellmouth (this does not apply for
channelizing islands) to allow for the projection
of the trailer over the tractor cab.
Figure 6.17 Minor Road Approaches
I
I
~
Approach Reduced to Single Carriageway Approach Incorporating V-turn Facility
Figure 6.18 Minor Road Dual Carriageway Approaches

•
Carriageway Widths Around Corners On single lane sections greater than 50m in
Where carriageways are taken around corners length, the allowance given in Table 6.5 shall be
and short radius curves, added width shall be made for broken down vehicles. However, the
provided to cater for the swept path of larger" engineer must be careful not to use this
goods vehicles and the "cut in" of traiier units. additional width in iocations that may encourage
Table 6.5 shows the recommended minimum 2 lane flow to develop, ego at intersection right
widths for various nearside curve radii based on turn lanes.
the Class 12 design vehicle. For radii above
100m, the standards set out in Table 3.5 shall
be used.
Inside Single Lane Width Single Lane Width with Two Lane Width for One Way or Two Way Traffic
Comer/Curve (Excluding Edgestrip Space to Pass Stationary (Excluding Edgestrip Provision)
Radius Provision) Vehicles (Including (m)
(m) (m) Edgeslrip Provision)
(m) Inside Lane Outside Lane Tolal
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9

15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
•
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9

30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6
Tabie 6.5 Minimum Corner and Curve Radii and Carriageway Widths
" a l
~ __= -
~
- - - -.,... - -7;===========-
~=~
c
c
- ~
L3S~
~ f J V
a. Turning Length (+Queuing Length c. Through Lane Width (6.7.5)
if required, see clause 6.7.8)
d. Turning Lane Width (6.7.6)
b. Deceleration Length (6.7.10)
e. Direct Taper Length (6.7.9)
Figure 6.19 Major/Minor Junction with a Ghost Island

6.7.6 Central Islands • Major Road one time. This can lead to greater safety. For
the separation to be effective, the junction must
Ghost Islands be large enough for drivers to identify in
For new junctions, the desirabie width of a ghost adequate time those vehicles which wiil conflict
isiand turning lane shail be 4.0m, but a with their intended path and those that wiil not.
relaxation to 3.0m is permissible. At urban and If this is not so, gaps in the flow cannot be used
suburban junctions, it can sometimes be effectively by traffic entering the junction.
advantageous to use a greater width not
exceeding 5.0m to ailow a degree of shelter in 6.7.7 Central Island Tapers
the centre of the road for large goods vehicles
turning left from the minor road to execute the Central isiands, whether for ghost isiands
turn in two separate manoeuvres. (Figure 6.20) or single lane dualling (Figure
6.21) should normally be developed
For improvements to existing junctions, where symmetrically about the centreline of the major
space is very limited, a reduced width may be road to their maximum width at the tapers
unavoidable. The width of ghost islands shall shown in Table 6.6. The maximum island width
not bEl less than 205m. should continue through the junction to the
tangent point of the minor road radius and the
At righVleft staggered junctions, the deceleration edge of the major road carriageway.
lengths would overlap but the width of the ghost
island shall not be increased to make them lie
side by side. The starting points of the left
turning section shall be joined by a straight line,
which will mean at higher design speeds, the full
width of the turning lane will not be developed
Design Speed
(kph)
50
60
Taper for Ghost
Island and Single
Lane Quailing
1:20
1:20
Taper for
Dual
Carriageways
1:40
1:40
•
until the end of the diverging section (as shown 70 1:20 1:40
in Figure 6.10). The width of the turning lane 80 1:25 1:45
100 1:30 1:50
shail be the full width of the ghost island. 120 _. 1:55
140 -- 1:60
Physical Islands
At single lane duailing and dual carriageway Table 6.6 Tapers for Central Islands (1 :T)
junctions, the width of the central island at the
crossing point shall be 10.0m, including median
hardstrips. This width will shelter most large T R
goods vehicles turning left from the minor road, - -_ _~""1~---.J.1-<>-
except for very long vehicles. In exceptional
circumstances where use by very long vehicles =~~~'S.>:..'-S=~---
is expected and a roundabout is not feasible, a 9 ta
width of 14.0m including hardstrips wiil be
R
needed to shelter the largest articulated
vehicles (1605m) and a width of 16.5m including T.Ghost Island Taper (1:T)
hardstrips will be required to shelter drawbar
R. Rounding (50mR Typical)
trailer combinations (20.0m). The minimum
width of a physical island, usually located at the
end of the direct taper shall be 3.5m. Figure 6.20 Ghost Island Development
Crossing left turn movements within the central For single lane dualling, the central island
island can usefuily be separated by physical or should be introduced by means of hatched
painted guide islands set out with road markings markings until there is sufficient width to
so that the number of traffic conflicts at any accommodate the appropriate sign on the nose
point is reduced. Painted guide islands can be of the physical island with the required running
enhanced by the use of coloured surfacing or clearances to it.
textures within them, block paving, road
marking or traffic studs. However, designs
which have numerous small traffic islands
should be avoided as they are confusing and
tend to be ignored.
Preventing or minimising conflicts by separation

means that drivers are only faced with simple
decisions on their choices of movement at any

•
T E 6.7.10 Left Turning Lanes
=====-==~'==::d:l~ Left turning tapers and lanes in the centre of

ghost islands, and single lane dualling are
especially useful as they provide a convenient
space for vehicles to slow down and wait before
'\" - .'Road Sign !~ turning off the major road. These junction
layouts can also assist the left turn out of the
minor road.
T. PhysIcal Island Taper (1 :T)
The overall length of a left turning lane provided
at ghost island, single lane dualling and dual
Figure 6.21 Physical Island Deveiopment carriageway junctions will depend on the major
road design speed and the gradient.
6.7.8 Turning Length in Median (a)
It consists of a turning length, as described in
The turning length is provided to allow long Clause 6.7.8, and a deceleration length. This
vehicles to position themselves correctly for the component shall be provided in accordance
.. left turn. The turning length should be a

minimum of 10m long irrespective of the type of
junction, design speed or gradient, measured
from the centreline of the minor road. It is
shown on Figure 6.19.
Where capacity calculations indicate that for

with Tables 6.8 and 6.9, in which the gradient is
the average for the 500m length before the
minor road.
Design
Speed
(kph)
Up Gradient
0-4% Above
Down Gradient
O~4% Above
significant periods of time there will be vehicles 4% 4%
queuing to turn left from the major road, the 50 25 25 25 25
turning length shall be increased to allow for a 60 25 25 25 25
reservoir queuing length to accommodate such 70 40 25 40 40
80 55 40 55 55
vehicles. For simplified calculation of storage 80 55 80 80
100
length refer to Section 5.10. 120 110 80 110 110
Where reservoir provision appears desirable at Table 6.8 Deceleration Length - b (m) for
a junction with ghost islands, consideration shall Ghost Island and Single Lane
be given to providing physical islands instead to Dualling
afford greater protection to turning traffic.
Where site conditions prevent this, the reservoi'r
space may still be provided. Design Up Gradient Down Gradient
Speed
(kph) 0-4% Above 0-4% Above
6.7.9 Direct Taper Length (e) 4% 4%
The direct taper length is the length over which 50 25 25 25 25

60 25 25 25 40
the width of a left turning lane is developed. For 70 40 25 40 55
ghost islands and physical islands in single lane 80 55 40 55 80
dualling and dual carriageway junctions, left 100 80 55 80 110
120 110 80 110 150
turning lanes shall be introduced by means of a 150 110 150 200
140
direct taper whose length is part of the
deceleration length and depends on the design
speed. This taper iength is given in Table 6.7 Table 6.9 Deceleration Length - b (m) for
and illustrated in Figure 6.19. Dual Carriageways
The deceleration length can be seen on Figure

Design Speed Direct Taper 6.19. The deceleration length is based on the
(kph) Length· e (m)
assumption that vehicles will slow by one
50 5 design speed step on the trunk road before
60 5 entering the length. The deceleration rate on
70 15 the level is assumed to be 0.375g. There is no
80 15
100 25 reaction time as this is a planned manoeuvre.
120 30
140 35
Tabie 6.7 Direct Taper Length - e

6.7.11 Median Openings illustrated in Figure 6.29. Opposite the refuge

openings, dropped kerbs shall be installed to
The opening in the median for single lane aid pedestrians.
dualling at the crossing point shall be 15.0m
wide. 6.7.13 Nearside Diverging Tapers and
Auxiliary Lahes
Problems have been experienced with driver
confusion over priority within the median, Nearside Diverging Taper
particularly where the width of the physical Major road traffic, when slowing down on the
Island has been increased to cater for large approach to a junction in order to turn into a
goods vehicles. minor road, may impede following vehicles that
are not turning. It is helpful, therefore, to permit
Measures to regularise the priority arrangement the divergence of the two streams at a small
within the median opening include channelizing angle by the provision of a nearside diverging
the central area. taper.
Consideration may also be given in these Nearside diverging tapers are of iess benefit in
circumstances to introducing differential terms of operation and safety than left turning
coloured sUrfacing or studs to enhance the road lanes because the right turn from the major
markings or indicate the area of allowable road does not cross an opposing traffic stream
overrun for large goods vehicles. However,
such coloured surfacing should also be visible
at night and in poor weather conditions.
6.7.12 Traffic Islands

and is rarely impeded. However, nearside
diverging tapers should always be considered
for higher speed roads or on gradients.
Nearside diverging tapers shall not be provided

•
at simple junctions (Clause 6.6.1). They shall
Traffic islands can be ghosted or kerbed be provided at junctions between major and
(physical) and should be provided in the mouth minor roads where the design speed for the
of the minor road at major/minor junctions major road is 80 kph or above. They shall be
(except at simple junctions) to: provided at other junctions in the following
circumstances for traffic in the design year:
• Give guidance to long vehicles carrying
out turning movements • Where the volume of right turning traffic
is greater than 600 vehicles AADT (one-
• Channeiize intersecting or merging traffic
streams
way).
• Where the percentage of large goods

• Warn drivers on the minor road that a
junction is ahead
vehicles is greater than 20%, and the
volume of right turning traffic is greater
•
than 450 vehicles AADT (one-way).
• Provide shelter for vehicles waiting to
carry out manoeuvres, such as waiting to
turn left
• Where the junction is on an up or down
gradient of greater than 4% at any design
speed and the volume of right turning
• Assist pedestrians. traffic is greater than 450 vehicles AADT
(one-way).
Physical traffic islands shouid be positioned in
urban situations only, shall have an area of at Where the major road traffic flow is greater than
least 4.5 square metres, and shall be treated to 7000-8000 AADT (one-way), then the figures
be conspicuous in poor lighting conditions. given above for turning traffic should be halved.
Smaller areas should be defined by road
markings. The risk of overriding the islands can Nearside diverging tapers shall not be provided
be reduced by offsetting the approach nose when the minor road is on the Inside of a curve
from the edge of the vehicle paths. where traffic in the diverging lane could
adversely affect visibility for drivers emerging
Where a traffic island serves as a refuge for from the minor road. They shall generally not
pedestrians, it shall be at least 1.5m wide and be provided where the design speed for the
have openings in the centre at carriageway level major road Is less than 80 kph nor where the
to make the crossing easier for pedestrians (see cost of provision is excessive. In this case,
Clause 5.12). The recommended layout and adequate warning of the junction ahead must
details of the design of channelizing islands are be provided.

Nearside diverging tapers shall be formed by a In this instance, consideration shouid be given
• direct increase to a width of 4.0m contiguous to

the corner into the minor road. A radius of at
least 20m should be used where the main road
design speed is 80kph and at least 40rn above
this speed. The width around this corner will
to the provision of a nearside auxiliary lane
instead of a taper for diverging traffic. The
provision of an auxiliary lane, as shown in
Figure 6.23, would allow turning traffic to move
off the mainline prior to any deceleration.
depend on the radius selected. The length of
this lane is defined as being from the beginning The auxiliary lane should be of sufficient length
of the taper up to the start of the radius, as to allow for the speed change from the major
shown in Figure 6.22. road to the turn into the minor road and would
not normally be less than 80m. Its length may
The desirable length of a nearside diverging also depend on any need for reservoir space for
taper shall be that of the relevant deceleration turning traffic. The auxiliary lane should
length given in Tables 6.8 and 6.9. commence with a direct taper (Figure 6.23), the
length of which shall be determined from Table
Auxiliary Lane 6.7. The taper should be that used for a left
At major road flows of over 7000-8000 AADT turning lane for a single lane dualling or dual
(one-way), vehicles decelerating on the main carriageway junction, with the relevant
carriageway and moving into the diverging taper deceleration length given in Tables 6.8 and 6.9.
to a point where there is a full lane width
available in the diverging taper may have a
significant effect on the capacity of the through
carriageway by impeding following drivers.
~~=~~~~~~~t _
1-
.. - - _ - - ' a L - . . - - .~
a. Deceleration Length
Figure 6.22 Major/Minor Junction with Nearside Diverging Taper
============~~
b I,
a
a. Deceleration Length
b. Direct Taper Length
Figure 6.23 Major/Minor Junction with Nearside Auxiliary Lane

6.7.14 Merging Tapers A separate turning lane, with a radius of at least

25m where the main road design speed is 80
Merging tapers permit minor road traffic to kph, and at least 30m above this speed, shall
accelerate fully before joining the faster traffic be used to introduce the merging taper from the
streams on the mainline where the joining traffic minor road. The initial width of the lane, which
may otherwise impede flow or be a hazard will depend on the radius of the turning lane
(Figure 6.24). (determined from Table 6.5), should be
decreased at a constant taper depending on the
Merging tapers shall oniy be used at dual design speed.
carriageway junctions. They shall be provided
generally where the major road design speed is The lengths of the tapers to be used are given
80 kph or above, or when and the volume of in Table 6.10. The minimum initial width of a
right turning traffic in the design year exceeds merging taper shall be 4.0m.
600 vehicles AADT (one-way).
On dual carriageways, with a design speed of
However, where the merging taper is for an 120 kph or greater, the merging taper may be
upgradient of greater than 4% or where the preceded by a short nose of 40m length formed
percentage of large goods vehicles exceeds between it and the end of the 30m approach
20%, the threshold value may be reduced to curve. The back of the nose should have a
450 vehicles AADT (one-way). minimum width of 2m (Figure 6.25).
Merging tapers shall never be used at single Design Merging

lane dualling junctions. Speed Length ~ a
(kph) (m)
At some junctions on dual carrlageways, there
80 90
may be safety benefits in providing merging 100 110
tapers at lower flows. 120 130
140 150
Table 6.10 Merging Length - a
-----------------~----
E
..."!
a. Merging Length
Figure 6.24 Major/Minor Junction with Nearside Merging Taper

• a b
Nose 2m minimum --...........
1'-2
------------~~~-~
o
....
a. Merging Length
~
o #
b. Nose Taper
Nose~ N#
_ .= = Z::Z>Z2>55...Q _
• Shoulder
Figure 6.25 Major/Minor Junction with Nearside Merging Taper (Allernative for Dual Carriageway with
a Design Speed of 120 kph)
6.7.15 Stagger Distances Design Stagger Distance

Speed (kph) (m)
The stagger distance of a junction is the Ghost Island Single Lane
distance aiong the major road between the Dualling
centrelines of the two minor roads.
50 50 (Manoeuvring) ..
Left/Right Stagger 60 50 (Manoeuvring) ..
For simple major/minor junctions with a lefVright ..
70 60(10+40+10)
stagger, the minimum stagger distance shali be
40m. 80 75{10+55+10) 75(10+55+10)
100 100 (10 + 80 + 10) 100 (10 + 80 + 10)

For a ghost island junction the stagger distance
shali be 50m and for a junction with single lane
dualiing it shali be 40m. These are based on Table 6.11 Minimum Stagger Distance for
the distance required for manoeuvring the Right/Left Staggered Junction
20.0m drawbar trailer combination design
vehicle between the two minor roads, and shall 6.7.16 Skew Junctions
be provided on all new staggered junctions,
including the upgrading of rural crossroads, The design parameters where the minor road
where large vehicles are expected. approaches at an angle other than 90', for both
left hand and right hand skew junctions, are
Right/Left Stagger shown in Figure 6.26. The geometric
The minimum values for staggered right/left parameters are set out in Clauses 6.7.5 to
major/minor junction are given in Table 6.11. 6.7.12.
For higher design speeds, the distance is based
on the sum of the two deceleration lengths lying
side by side plus the turning lengths (and
queuing lengths, if appropriate) at each end, as
indicated in the table. Otherwise it is based on
the manoeuvring requiremenls of the design
vehicle.

------.,---.=..-::_=-=-=-=-:-:;- = = =
A
- -~~ _-::::--_-
~==~~===~~~~~
I. b .~
/:
/
/
f; H
k;\
A e
-~- - -~- •
- ~: === -
--------r-=--==---=-=-=-::-:-=--,= = = = -
~= ,............... _ C
---------------
_ ~~~
I, b .1.a.1
a. Turning Length (+ Queuing Length c. Through Lane Width (6.7.5)

if required, see ciause 6.7.8)
d. Turning Lane Width (6.7.6)
b. Deceleration Length (6.7.10) e. Minor Road Entry Width (6.7.5)
Figure 6.26 Major/Minor Junction with Skew Minor Road

6.7.17 T-Junction with Carriageway right-in/right-out connections shall be designed

Separation in accordance with Section 7.
On dual carriageways, left turn crossing Traffic shall be introduced to the right turn lane
manoeuvres at the junction are prevented and by a nearside diverge or auxiliary iane in
facilities shall be provided nearby for turning accordance with Clause 6.7.13.
traffic, as highlighted in Clause 6.6.5. One
method of achieving this is to provide an Traffic leaving the right turn lane should "Give
interchange, the principle of which is shown in Way" or merge with the major road traffic in
Section 7. The design of such crossings is accordance with Clause 6.7.14, or join an
outlined in the following paragraphs and the added lane, depending on the major road
rlght-in/right-out connections to the mainline are design speed, traffic flows and layout.
illustrated in Figures 6.27 and 6.28.
Preventing left turns removes the need to

signalize the carriageways on the major road to
cater for these movements. The major road
carriageway can pass through the junction at a
constant width. Two right-in/right-out
connections are used with an overbridge or
• underpass. These junctions should be

designed in composite form, as described in
this section, catering for the right turn
movement only.
For the right turn merge to the main road, the

minor road channelizing Island shown in
Figures 6.27 and 6.28 shall be designed so as
to provide a constant width of turn into the
major road. The width shall be determined from
Table 6.5. The detail of the island as
approached aiong the minor road is as set out
in Ciause 6.7.18. If there is a merging taper as
shown in Figure 6.28, the widths and tapers
shall be as set out in Clause 6.7.14. The
hatched markings shall be extended from the
minor road centreline to link with those for the
merge taper, the channelizing island being
provided within them, as in Figures 6.27 and
6.28. .
For the right turn diverge from the major road,

the channelizing island described in Clause
6.7.12 and shown in Figures 6.27 and 6.28 shall
be designed so as to provide a constant width
around the turn to the minor road. The width
shall be determined from Table 6.5. Where a
nearside diverging taper or nearside auxiliary
lane is present (see Figures 6.22 and 6.23), the
hatched markings should be extended along
their current path until the intersection with the
centreline of the minor road, and the
channelizing island shall be provided within
them. This is shown in Figures 6.27 an 6.28.
The right-in/right-out connections can also be

used with the compact interchange detailed in
Section 7. It offers a cheaper but more
restricted form of grade separation where the
economic case for a full interchange cannot be
fully justified. The connector roads between the

Channellslng Island flared to

give constant carriageway
width around the turn
•
Figure 6.27 T·Junction with Carriageway Separation
c b
a •
~------------------
a. Diverge Taper c. Merge Taper
b. Nose Taper d. Curve Widened Lane
Figure 6.28 T·Junction (Alternative for Dual Carriageway with a design speed of 120kph).

•
6.7.18 Channelizing Islands b) For right hand skew junctions, the island
should be about 15 metres long. The left
T-Junction hand side of its tail (viewed from the
The recommended channelizing island iayout minor road approach) should touch the
for T-Junctions or staggered junctions, where curved minor road centreline and be
the minor road centreline is inclined to the major rounded off at a radius of 0.75m to
road at an angle of between 70' or 110', is 1.00m.
shown in Figure 6.29: This shouid be read in
conjunction with Tables 6.12 and 6.13. c) The offset, d, for right hand skew
junctions is 4.5 metres.
The following points shouid also be noted:
d) For left hand skew junctions, the circular
a) "Edge of major road carriageway" means arc R, touches the curved minor road
edge of major road travelled way. centreline and is tangential to the offset
edge of the through traffic lane on the
b) The circular arc R, is tangential to the major road into which left turning traffic
offset, d, from the minor road centreline from the minor road will turn.
and the offside edge of the through traffic
lane on the major road into which left e) The island should be about 15 metres
turning traffic from the minor road will long. The tail is offset about 1m to the left
turn. of the curved minor road centreline
(Viewed from the minor road approach)
c) By striking a circular arc of radius (R, + 2) and rounded off with a radius of O.75m to
metres from the same centre point as arc 1.00m.
R, to intersect the edge of the major road
carriageway, point A is established where
a straight line drawn from the centre point
of arc R, to this intersection crosses R,.
d) The circular arc R2 is tangential to the

offside edge of the major road offside
diverging lane and also passes through
point A.
e) Radius R2 is normally the same value as

R, but should be designed to ensure that
the island nose is positioned between 2 -
4 metres from the edge of the main
carriageway and that the width of the
island lies between 2- 5 metres.
f) The design ensures that left turning traffic

from the major road will not clash with
traffic waiting to turn left from the minor
road.
Skew Junctions
The design of a channelizing island for skew
junctions is similar to that outlined above, but
the following points should be noted:
a) The centreline of the minor road is turned

with a radius of at least 50 metres to meet
the edge of the major road at right angles.

Centreline of _ _-I
minor road •
2.5 0.75-1.0mR ..,.o
d
0.75mR
(min)
Edge of
major road
carria g ewa"y'-+3-_-"'-L---'<,.---¥ifrr_---,;L- -'---,_
Figure 6.29 Design of Channelizing Isiand
Minor Road Offset - d Width of Major Road Radius - R,

Inclination - 8" (m) Carriageway at (m)
Junction - w
70 1.5 (m)
$0 2.0
90 2.5 7.3 12
100 2.0
110 1.5 11.3 (Ghost Island) 14
17.3 (Single Lane Dualling) 22

Table 6.12 Channelizing Island Offset
Table 6.13 Design of Radius R,

6.7.19 Splitter/Right Turn Islands Traffic leaving the right turn lane should "Give
• Splitter/right turn islands may be used to

chanelize traffic flows and separate conflict
points within a junction.
Way" or merge with the major road traffic in
accordance with Clauses 6.7.4 or 6.7.14, or join
an added lane, depending on the major road
design speed, traffic flows and layout.
They have additional benefits of reserving 6.7.20 Drainage and Crossfall

space for signing and aiding pedestrian
movement by proViding a refuge at bUSy From considerations of surface water drainage
junctions. Refer to Figure 6.30. and driver comfort, the road camber on the
major road shall be retained through the junction
Corner radii and carriageway widths given in and the minor road graded into the channel line
Table 6.5 shall be used to construct the right of the major road. Checks shall be made for flat
turn lane. The raised island shall be areas at all changes of gradient. superelevation
constructed to give shy distances to travelled of crossfall. Refer to Section 8.
ways as illustrated in Figure 6.30.
Splitter islands are particularly useful at

signalized junctions where minor road right turn
traffic can be controlled by "Give Way" signs
and markings rather than signals.
Traffic shall be introduced to the right turn lane

by a nearside diverge or auxiliary lane in
accordance with Clause 6.7.13.
A = Inside Corner Radius

RW = Outside Corner Radius
W = Lane Width
r = O.5m Aadius
"i<r1 Hatched Marking
Edge of
Travelled
Figure 6.30 Typical Layout of Splitter Island

The need for, and layout of, traffic signs and

road markings is an integral part of the design
process and no junction design is complete
without these features having been inciuded.
•
Advance direction and warning signs shall be
provided, and care must be taken with the
positioning and size of signs at the junction
itself so that they do not interfere with drivers'
visibility requirements. These matters need to
be considered from the earliest stage as they
can fundamentally affect layout and hence iand
acquisition requirements. Advance signing on
minor roads may need particularly careful
consideration. Refer to the Qatar Traffic
Manual for details of signing and marking.
6.7.22 Road Lighting
•
Road lighting is normally provided at
major/minor junctions in rural areas only when
an intersecting road has lighting. When an
existing junction is being modified, the lighting
provision should be checked for suitability with
the new arrangement. Any alteration should be
carried out prior to, or at the same time as the
roadworks. Refer to Section 10.
.
13,'

.. 6.8 ROUNDABOUTS - GENERAL
This section defines the main types of

roundabouts that can be used for an at-grade
junction of any class of road.
may increase the potential for another. Design,
therefore is a trade-off between operational
efficiency, minimising delays at the junction, and
various safety aspects within whichever location
constraints apply. The latter are often the
dominating factor when designing
The requirements are defined in relation to the improvements to an existing junction,
.size of roundabouts, effect of approach speed, particularly in urban areas.
visibility, entry width, entry deflection and the
circulatory carriageway. Consideration of the need for, and layout of
traffic signs and road markings should be an
The recommendations for siting of roundabouts integral part of the design process. Reference
are given in Clause 6.1 .4. should be made to the Qatar Traffic Manual.
6.8.1 General Principles The provision of road lighting at roundabouts

should normally be regarded as an essential
The principal objective of roundabout design is safety requirement. Sometimes lighting
to secure the safe interaction of traffic between requirements may conflict with environmental
crossing traffic streams with minimum delay. considerations. However, it should be
This is achieved by a combination of geometric recognised that roundabouts are generally safer
layout features that, ideally, are matched to the than other forms of at-grade junctions and the
volumes of traffic in the traffic streams, their decision to use a roundabout should not be
speed, and to any locational constraints that abandoned solely because of lighting problems.
apply. In sensitive locations it may be possible to adopt
alternative lighting methods and other measures
There are two broad regimes of roundabout to make the roundabout more visible. When an
operation. The first occurs in urban areas with existing roundabout junction is being modified,
high peak flows, often with marked tidal the lighting layout should be checked for
variations and physical restrictions on the space suitability with the new road arrangement and
available. The second regime occurs in rural any alteration carried out prior to, or at the same
areas and is characterised by high approach time as the roadworks. It is important that
speeds, low tidal variation and few physical approaching drivers see and perceive that they
constraints. are approaching a roundabout and are not
misled by the projection of the lighting layout,
Entry width is an important feature that particularly at times of poor visibility.
determines entry capacity and often needs to be
larger in urban situations than in rural cases. 6.8.2 Types of Roundabout
On the other hand, the most important
determinant of safety is vehicle deflection Defin itions
imposed at entry because this governs the The preferred main type of roundabout to be
speed of vehicles through the junction. It is used in Qatar is the Normal Roundabout. There
particularly important whenever approach are other forms such as Mini and Double
speeds are high. Entry deflection is related to Roundabouts, and other variants of these basic
the entry path curvature and limiting this radius types, ie. Ring Junctions, Interchange
of curvature in the vicinity of the entry to 100m Roundabouts and Signalized Roundabouts.
maximum ensures that sufficient deflection will
be undergone by entering vehicles to limit Normal Roundabout
through speeds. A roundabout having a one-way circulatory
carriageway around a kerbed central island 4m
The characteristics of roundabout accidents and or more in diameter and usually with flared
their frequencies in relation to geometric layout approaches to allow multiple vehicle entry.
design and traffic flows have been studied in (Figure 6.31).
the UK by Transportation Research Laboratory
(TRL). The relationships derived from these The number of entries recommended is either 3
studies have provided insights into how various or 4. Roundabouts per10rm particularly well with
aspects of design interact to influence the types 3 arms, being more efficient than signals,
and frequencies of accidents at roundabouts. provided the traffic demand is well balanced
These relationships therefore, constitute the between the arms.
fundamentals of design for safety. As
relationships between aspects of design are not
always mutually compatible, minimising the
likely incidence of a particular type of accident

a Traffic deflection
Island
Figure 6.31 Normal Roundabout
If the number of entries is above 4, driver

comprehension is affected and the roundabout
becomes larger with the probability that higher
circulatory speeds wiil be generated.
Interchange Roundabouts
•
The foilowing examples of interchanges are
discussed in Section 7 Interchanges.
• Two bridge roundabout
• One bridge and two roundabouts

(dumbbell)
• Ring junction interchange.
Signalized Roundabout
As with Major/Minor Junctions, traffic signals
can be installed at roundabouts to improve
safety or traffic capacity. Traffic signals can be
used at one or more of the approach arms or
even on the circulatory carriageway on some
large roundabouts.

6.9 SAFETY AT ROUNDABOUTS • Design to encourage slow entry to the

junction and quick exit to leave the
6.9.1 General junction clear for the next users.
It is generaliy known from studies that fewer Measures to reduce accidents at existing
accidents occur at roundabouts than at roundabouts with poor safety records include:
signalized junctions of similar traffic flows. The
severity of accidents is also much iess than at • Repositioning or reinforcement of warning
other junctions. signs
Care must be taken in layout design to secure • Provision of map type advance direction
the essential safety aspects. The most signs
common problem affecting safety is excessive
speed, both at entry or within the roundabout.
The most significant factors contributing to high
• Making the "Give Way"
conspicuous.
line more
entry and circulating speeds are:

• Moving the central island chevron sign
• Inadequate entry deflection further to the right to emphasise the angle
of turn, placing another chevron sign
• A very acute entry angle which above the normal position, and placing
• •
encourages fast merging manoeuvres
with circulating traffic
Poor visibility to the "Give Way" line

chevron signs in the median in line with
the offside lane approach on dual
carriageways. Chevron boards can
impinge on circulatory visibility but the
effects can be minimised by positioning
• Poorly designed or positioned warning
and advance direction signing
the boards (and associated turn right
sign) 2m back from the central island
kerbline
• "Reduce Speed Now" signs, where
provided, being incorrectly sited • When approach speeds are low (usualiy
in urban areas), a ring of contrasting
• More than four entries leading to a large
configuration.
paving can be laid in a chevron pattern
inside the central island perimeter at a
gentle slope, refer to Clause 5.19.
Additional safety aspects to be considered in
designing a layout include: In rural areas it is not recommended to
instali raised kerbed. chevrons on
• Angle between arms: The accident roundabouts. Experience has shown that
potential of an entry depends on both the physical obstructions such as chevron
angle (anticlockwise) between its kerbing wili be hit inadvertently at night
approach arm and the previous approach time by vehicles whose drivers are not
arm, and the traffic flows. A high flow aware of the junction ahead. Chevron
entry should have a large angle to the signs should be placed in these locations
next entry, and a low flow entry a smalier only
angle in order to minimise accidents
• Landscaping where approach speeds are
• Gradient: Whilst it is normal to flatten high in urban areas can provide a useful
supplement
approach gradients to about 2% or less
at entry, research at a limited number of
sites has shown that this has only a smali
beneficial effect on accident potential
• Provision of "Yeliow Bar Markings" on fast
dual carriageway approaches has shown
that a 57% reduction in accidents can be
• Visibility to the left at entry: This has
comparatively little influence upon
achieved. This is from studies carried
out in the UK by the TRL
accident risk. There is nothing to be
gained by increasing visibility above the • Provision of appropriate levels of skidding
recommended level resistance on the approaches to
roundabouts and on the circulatory
• Crest Curves: Junctions should not be
sited on crest curves where the approach
carriageways
sight to the roundabout is impaired

It should be noted that at the speed of If entry problems are caused by poor visibility to
traffic on a circulatory carriageway, the left, good results can be achieved by
skidding resistance is derived from the moving the "Give Way" line forward in
surface texture of the aggregates which conjunction with curtailing the adjacent
form the surface of the road (the micro- circulatory carriageway by hatching or extension
texture). Particular consideration should of the traffic deflection island.
be given to ensure that the aggregates
used have skid resisting properties 6.9.2 Two Wheeled Vehicles
appropriate to the circumstances
Though roundabouts have an impressive
The deep surface texture (the macro- overall safety record for most vehicle types, this
texture) necessary for good skid does not apply equally to two wheeled vehicles.
resistance on high speed routes is not Research has shown that at four-arm
required for circulatory carriageways. roundabouts in the UK, injury accidents
Deep surface texture is required involving two-wheeled vehicles constitute about
however, on the approaches to half of those reported. The proportion of
roundabouts if the design speed of traffic accidents involving cyclists is about 15%,
is greater than 120 kph although they typically constitute less than 2%
of the traffic flow.
• Avoidance of abrupt and excessive
superelevation in the entry region The accident involvement rates for two-wheeled
vehicles, expressed in terms of accidents per
• Reduction of excessive entry width by
hatching or physical means
road user movement, are 10-15 times those of
cars, with pedal cyclists generally having slightly
higher accident rates than two-wheeled motor
• Provision of "Reduce Speed Now" signs
and/or "Count-down" markers
vehicles riders.
The study at four-arm roundabouts by the TRL

• Reduction of the circular width by in the UK has shown for example that, in 50 and
insertion of a central island collar. 60 kph posted speed areas, there are
differences in pedal cycie accident involvement
Care should be taken with the choice of kerb rates for different categories of roundabouts.
type for roundabout design. A safety probiem Engineers should be aware of the following:
can arise where certain specialist, high profile
kerbs are used around a central island as they • Normal roundabouts with small central
can be a danger to vehicles over-running the islands and flared entries have accident
entry. Observations have shown that these - rates which are about twice those of
kerbs can result in loss of control or overturning normal roundabouts with large centrai
of vehicles unless the approach angle is small islands and unflared entries. This
and actual vehicle speeds are low. Where relationship appears to apply consistently
high profile kerbs are to be used on for all types of vehicular road users. As
approaches, the kerbs can be hazardous for previously stated, analysis of accident
vehicles and pedestrians, and consideration data suggests that when all types of
should be given to the provision of pedestrian accident are considered, entry deflection
guardrails. Care shouid be taken to ensure that is the most important factor
visibility sightlines are maintained.
High circulatory speeds cause associated entry

• 70% of pedal cycle accidents at smaller
normal roundabouts are of the
problems and normally occur at large 'entry/circulating' type, for example, motor
roundabouts with excessively long and/or wide vehicle entering roundabout collides with
circulatory carriageways. Excessive circulatory pedal cycle crossing entry
speeds can also be caused at smaller
roundabouts by inadequate deflection at
previous entries. The soiution to high
• At dual carriageway roundabouts, the
accident involvement rate for cyclists is
circulatory speeds usually has to be fairly about two to three times greater than that
drastic, involving the signalization of problem at dual carriageway traffic signals, but for
entry arms at peak hours. In extreme cases cars, the opposite is true.
the roundabout may have to be converted to a
ring junction in which the circulatory
carriageway is made 2-way and the
entries/exits are controlled by Individual normal
roundabouts or traffic signals.

6.9.3 Large Goods Vehicles
The problem of large goods vehicles

overturning or shedding their loads at
roundabouts has an obvious solution in relation
to layout geometry. Whilst in the UK there are
only about 60 personal injury accidents a year
in this category, there are considerably more
damage-only accidents. Load shedding often
involves great congestion and delay, and is
expensive to clear, especially if occurring at
major junctions. Experience suggests that
roundabouts where these problems persist
usually exhibit one or more of the following
features:
• Inadequate entry deflection leading to

high entry speeds
• Long straight sections of circulatory
• •
carriageway leading into deceptively tight
bends
Sharp turns into exits
• Excessive crossfall changes on the

circulatory carriageway
• Excessive adverse
nearside lane of
crossfall on a
the circulatory
carriageway.
An incipient problem for some vehicles may be

present even if high speeds are not occurring.
Research has shown that an articulated, large
goods vehicle with a gravity height of 2.5m
above the ground can overturn on a 20m radius
bend at speeds as low as 24 kph. Particular
attention should be paid to ensure that
pavement surface tolerances are complied with
and that abrupt changes in crossfall are
avoided. It is good practice to make the exit
radii greater than the entry radii.

•
6.10 ROUNDABOUT ELEMENTS
6.10.1 Definitions
Entry Width: e, is measured from the point A

along the normal to the nearside kerb, see
Figure 6.32.
I' Average Effective Flare Length
Figure 6.33 Average Effective Flare Length
Inscribed Circle Diameter: D, is the diameter
A.Point of Maximum Entry

Deflection at Left
Hand End of Give Way
v. Approach Half
Width
r. Entry Radius
of the largest circle that can be inscribed within
the junction outline, see Figure 6.32. In cases
where the outline is asymmetric, the local value
in the region of the entry is taken.
•
Line D. Inscribed The Entry Angle: <p, serves as a geometric
D. Entry Width Circle Diameter proxy for the confiict angle between entering
and circulating streams. For roundabouts
having a curved circulatory carriageway,
Figure 6.32 Geometric Design Features
Approach to Half Width: v, is measured at a

point in the approach upstream from any entry
flare, from the median iine (or offside edge of
carriageway on duai carriageways) to the
nearside kerb, aiong a normai, see Figure 6.32
Average Effective Flare Length: I', is found as

shown in Figure 6.33. The iine GF'D is the
projection of the nearside kerb from the
approach towards the "Give Way" iine, parailel
to the median HA and at a distance of v from it.
BA is the iine aiong which e is measured (and
is therefore normal to GBJ), and thus D is at a
~ Entry Angle
•
distance of [e-v] from B. The iine CF' is parailel Figure 6.34 Entry Angle
to BG (the nearside kerb) and at a distance of
[e-v]/2 from it. Usuaily the line CF' is therefore
curved and its length is measured aiong the The line BC is a tangent to the iine EF, which is
curve to obtain I'. midway between the nearside kerbiine and the
median line or the edge of any median island
Sharpness of Flare: S, is defined by the on the offside, where this line intersects the
relationship: "Give Way" line. <p is measured as the acute
angle between BC and the tangent to A'D' at
S = 1.6[e-v]/1' the point of intersection between BC and A'D'
shown in Figure 6.34.
and is a measure of the rate at which extra
width is developed in the entry flare. Large For all other roundabouts, the construction is
values of S correspond to short severe flares shown in Figure 6.35. The iine BC is the same
and smail values to long gradual flares. as in Figure 6.34. The line GH is the tangent to
the line JK, which is in the foilowing exit,
midway between the nearside kerb and the

median line or the edge of any median island 6.10.2 Entries
• on the offside, where this line intersects the

outer edge of the circulatory carriageway. BC
and GH intersect at L. <IJ is then defined by:
¢ = 90-fangle BLG]/2 ie BLH/2

The design of roundabout entries is a complex
procedure, there are several variables which
need to be addressed to ensure a design which
is safe and has adequate capacity.
when the right hand side of the equation is The designer has fiexibility in the application of
. positive. the parameters to best meet the partiCUlar site
requirements and constraints. The variables
are:
Entry Width
Flare Length
Entry Angle
Entry Radius
Approach Carriageway Half Width.
Entry Anglo ~ Doflnod as (90~-'El/2) 6.10.3 Entry Width
It is good practice to add at least one extra lane

width to the lanes on the entry approach, but as
Figure 6.35 Entry Angle a general rule, not more than two lanes should
be added and no entry should be more than
When the right hand side of the equation is zero four lanes wide. The relationship between
or negative, <IJ=O. Angle BLG is measured on entry width and capacity is quite significant.
the "outside" of the roundabout, that is, on the Entry width is the largest single factor, apart
side facing away from the central island. from approach carriageway half width, affecting
capacity.
Entry Radius: r is measured as the minimum
radius of curvature of the nearside kerbline at There may be some cases, usually associated
entry, see Figure 6.32. For some designs the with low predicted flows, where increased entry
arc of minimum radius may extend into the width is not operationally necessary, but in
following exit, but this is not important provided these circumstances it is still recommended that
that a half or more of the arc length is within the two entry lanes be provided. This will give
entry region. added fleXibility at abnormal flow periods in the
future, a passing facility in the event of
Minimum Stopping Sight Distance: as breakdown, and will ease the problem of space
defined in Section 2. provision for long vehicles turning.
Entry Path Curvature: This is a measure of the Lane widths at the "Give Way" line shall be not
amount of entry deflection to the right imposed less than 3m. Lane widths should be tapered
on vehicles at the entry to a roundabout, see back in the entry fiare to a minimum width of
Clause 6.10.8. 2m. It is generally better to use wide lane
widths because they are more suitable for large
Traffic Deflection Island: a raised area goods vehicles. For example, at a 10m wide
(usually kerbed) on the carriageway, which is entry, 3 x 3.33m lanes are better than 4 x 2.5m
located and shaped so as to direct and also lanes.
separate traffic movements onto and from a
roundabout. The development of entry lanes should take
account of the anticipated turning proportions
Ghost Islands used for Subsidiary Traffic and possible lane bias since drivers often have
Deflection: a shaped area, fiush with the road a tendency to use the nearside lane. The use
surface, delineated by road markings, and of lane bifurcation where a lane widens into two
within the entry width of the approach to a should maximise use of the entry width. The
roundabout, so located to deflect and direct use of short offside lanes is not recommended.
traffic movements into the circulatory
carriageway.

•
The alignment of entry lanes is also critical. this the design becomes one of link Widening.
On rural roundabouts, where design speeds are Where the design speed is high, entry widening
relatively high, the kerbline of the deflection should be developed gradually, avoiding any
island (or central reserve in the case of a dual sharp angles. In urban areas the use of long
carriageway) should be on an arc which, when flare lengths is often not possible due to land
projected forward, meets the central Island constraints and capacity may have to be
tangentially. In urban areas, where design achieved using wider entries and shorter flares.
speeds are lower, this is less important, but
nevertheless should be achieved where As a rough guide, the total length of the entry
possible. Care should be taken to ensure that Widening (BG) should be about twice the
the resultant entry angle is not too low and that average effective flare length I' (Figure 6.33).
entry path curvature is not too great.
6.10.5 Entry Angle
For capacity assessment, the entry width
should be taken as the width which drivers are The effect of entry angle on entry capacity is
likely to use. Where the offside kerbline forms negative; as the angle increases capacity
a vehicle path which is tangential to the central decreases slightiy. However, care shoult;l be
islands, the entry width and effective entry width taken in the choice of entry angle since high
are the same. and low angles may result in increased accident
potential.
It is usual to consider design flows 15 years
after opening for highway schemes. This can
result in roundabout entries with too many lanes
for earlier year flows and lead to operational
problems. A design year layout will determine
The angle should, if possible, lie between 20
and 60 degrees. Low entry angles force drivers
into merging positions where they must either
look over their shoulders to their left or attempt
•
overall geometry and land requirements for the a true merge using their mirrors (with the
roundabout, but for the early years, it may be attendant problems of disregarding the "Give
necessary for the designer to consider an Way" line and generation of high entry speeds).
interim stage. This approach can result in
reduced entry widths and entry lanes. High entry angles produce excessive entry
Consideration can also be given to an interim deflection and can lead to sharp braking at
reduction of the circulatory carriageway width, entries accompanied by "nose to tail" accidents,
either by an increase in diameter of the central especially in rural areas. The best entry angle
Island, or by extending islands forward into the value is about 30 degrees. Figures 6.36 and
circulatory carriageway. 6.37 show two extreme cases.
6.1'0.4 Flare Design at Entry
Flares on the approach to roundabouts shall be

such that:
a) The maximum entry width shall not

exceed 10.5m for single and 15.0m for
dual carriageway approach roads
b) The average effective flare length shall

not exceed 100m, but it should be noted
Entry Angla ill Defined as (90".6/2)
that beyond 30 or 40m any expected
extra capacity is derived from
extrapolation beyond the bounds of
experimental data and should therefore
by treated with caution. Figure 6.36 Example of Too Low an Entry
Angle and also Substandard Entry
The capacity of an entry can be improved by Deflection
increasing the average effective flare length,
though this is of limited effect. A minimum
length of about 5m is desirable in urban areas,
whilst a length of 25m is considered adequate
in rural areas. Flare lengths greater than 25m
may assist in geometric layout but have little
effect in increasing capacity. Flare lengths
should not be areater than 100m. as bevond

+ Entry angle
Figure 6.37 Example of Too High an Entry

Angle and also Excessive Entry
Deflection
.' 6.10.6 Entry Radius
For small roundabouts entry capacity increases

with entry radius up to about 20m, higher radii
result in very little increase in capacity. The
minimum entry radius should be 6m, a good
practical design is about 20m. Where a
roundabout is designed to cater for large goods
vehicles in particular, the entry radius should
not be less than 10m. For large roundabouts
(40-60m diameter), large entry radii will almost
certainly result in inadequate entry deflection,
for example it will not be possible to achieve the
deflection standard if the entry radius is 100m
or more.
6.10.7 Entry Kerbing
As entries are almost always kerbed, hardstrips

should be terminated when entry widening
begins. The simplest procedure is to place the
kerbs at the back of the hardstrip and then
terminate the hardstrip edge line by profiling it
back towards the kerbs in a short smooth curve
or taper. (See Figures 6.38 and 6.39). This is
not appropriate where there is regular use by
cyclists who may wish to continue to the edge
of the circulatory carriageway by using the
hardstrip.

--.... --.... \
\
------\
a Kerbs '\\
\
b Edge Lines \
\
c Edge Line Profiled Back towards the Kerb
d Edge of Carriageway
Figure 6.38 Method of Terminating Edge Strip on Single Carriageway Approach to a Roundabout
...-
d _--.- -"=~
--- ...... ---- ----

-------------------
1m
1m
--------------------_ I
----- I
b ---\
-...... ............ ...... \
\
\
............ \
'" \
\
\
\
a Kerbs \
\
b Edge Lines \
c Edge Line Profiled Back towards the Kerb
d Edge of Carriageway
Figure 6.39 Method of Terminating Edge Strips on Dual Carriageway Approach to a Roundabout

6.10.8 Entry Deflection e) That the vehicle proceeds towards the
• Entry Path Curvature is one of the most

important determinants of safety
roundabouts. It is a measure of the amount of
at
entry deflection to the right imposed on vehicles

"Give Way" line, then:
- It proceeds towards the central island

of the roundabout passing through a
point not less than 1m from the
at entry to the roundabout. nearside channel or kerb, the position
of which relative to the starting point
For design purposes oniy, at both new and depends on the amount of approach
improved 'normal' type roundabouts, the vehicie flare to the right (Figure 6.40 and 6.41)
entry path shail be such that when inscribed in
accordance with the foilowing construction, the - The vehicle is then assumed to
tightest radius of the entry path curvature shail continue on a smooth path with its
not exceed 100 metres. centreline never passing closer than
1m from the central island (it may be
Construction of the Vehicle Path more in some configurations).
The method of construction and measuring the
entry path curvature is described beiow, and Draw, to a scale not less than 1/500 using a
shown in Figures 6.40 to 6.43. Figure 6.41 flexible curve of equivalent, the centre line of
shows an approach with negative curvature, the most realistic path that a vehicle would take
Figure 6.42 shows an approach with positive in its complete passage through the junction on
approach curvature, and Figure 6.43 a a smooth alignment without sharp transitions.
roundabout at a "Y" junction. More than one independent assessment of the
vehicle paths shail be carried out.
Assume:
This tightest radius shail be measured by
a) The entering vehicle is 2m wide and wiil means of suitable templates. See "To Measure
be taking the 'straight ahead' movement the Entry Path Curvature".
at a 4 arm roundabout and across the
head of the Tee at a 3 arm roundabout The exact path drawn wiil be a matter of
personal judgement and the results should be
b) That there is no other traffic on the examined for compliance and consistency with
approach and on the circuiatory the appropriate clauses in this section.
carriageway
One convenient method of construction of the
c) That the driver will negotiate the site reqUired path is to imagine the advance of ail
constraints with minimum deflections and the channel or kerb lines and centreline in the
that lane markings by the "Give Way" iine case of single carriageways (together with
wiil be ignored central islands and deflection islands) into the
carriageway by 1m.
d) The initial approach position for entry
path curvature measured from a point not The vehicle path wiil be the line of least
iess than 50m from the "Give Way" iine is resistance, whose centreline will normally, but
within the range: not always, be tangential to these construction
lines; in the entry, at the central island and in
- 1m from the nearside kerb the exit. Any reverse of curvature in the vehicle
path around the central island must be drawn so
- 1m from the centreline of a single that there is no sharp deviation between that
carriageway or 1m from the offside curve and the entry curve. Particular care in
kerb of a dual carriageway checking entry path curvature is required when
considering smail central island designs.
This will ensure that ail approach
alignments are examined and that no To Measure the Entry Path Curvature
vehicle path can exceed the The entry path curvature is measured on the
recommended maximum radius of curved length of path in the vicinity of the "Give
curvature Way" line (but not more than 50m in advance of
it) between points X and Y (see Figures 6.40 to
6.43) about 20m to 25m but not less than 20m
in length, over which the tightest radius occurs.

Figure 6.40 Determination of Entry Path Curvature
___ ..L ~~.-J'\\

•
~ ----
c ~~~ __ - ~ -- -- ~ ~ ~ Ir
---------
/'" x _----- '..... T1m min
./ ..... ,
}<:;--
\. ...~/ / '
.;\
•
Figure 6.41 Determination of Entry Path (On a Curved Approach Arm with Negative Approach
Curvature)

~- -
---
·T-----------~-
--- -----
------ X
c Y
1mmin
~---
---',
_L_
~~------~------_,r,
1m mm
\,
.
• Figure 6.42 Determination of Entry Path Curvature (On a Curved Approach Arm with Positive Approach
Curvature)
•
a. The radius should be measured over a distance of 20-25m;
it Is the minimum which occurs along the approach entry
path in the vicinity of the Give Way line but not more
than SOm in advance of it.
b. Commencement point 1m from the offside kerb for
02 or 1m from centre line for S2L, not less than Sam
from the Give Way line.
C. Vehicle entry path curvature.
Figure 6.43 Determination of Entry Path Curvature for a Roundabout at a "Y" Junction

6.10.9 Achieving Entry Deflection In urban areas, the restrictions on space

available coupled with the turning width
A good method for creating entry deflection on requirements of large goods vehicles may
new schemes where there are no other necessitate small normal roundabouts which
constraints is to stagger the arms, as shown in cannot proVide sufficient entry deflection to the
Figure 6.44. This will help with the overall right by means of the central island alone. In
design, reduce the size of roundabouts, these cases, deflection should be generated by
minimise land acquisition and assist with the means of enlarged traffic islands in the entry,
construction of "easy" exits. (Figure 6.45).
It is not good practice to generate entry

deflection by sharply deviating the approach
roads to the left close to the roundabout and
then to the right at entry. Approach curves
should be fairly gentle, but there are cases
when horizontal radii below the minimum for the
general design speed of the approach link may
be used, provided always that they are
proceeded by the "Roundabout Ahead" warning
sign as defined in the Qatar Traffic Manual.
However, tight radii will require large amounts of
verge widening to provide adequate forward
visibility and add to the verge maintenance
requirements.
II. C.ntr.lln. Off.. t H:;-20m (Noll 'E•• y· Exltl)
There is evidence to suggest that a gentle left
hand bend leading to a right hand deflection at
entry is more safe than a gentle right hand Figure 6.44 Entry Deflection by Staggering
bend. Approach Roads
Figure 6.45 Example Showing How Island Design can Increase Entry Deflection at an Existing
Roundabout

6.10.10 Visibility Forward Visibility at Entry

Drivers of all vehicles approaching the "Give
The forward visibility at the approach to a Way" line shall be able to see the full width of
roundabout shall be as indicated in Section 2 for the circulatory carriageway ahead of them for a
the appropriate design speed. This Minimum distance (measured along the centre line of the
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is measured to circulatory carriageway) appropriate to the size
the "Give Way" line as shown in Figure 6.46. of the roundabout (as indicated in Table 6.14).
The visibility shall be checked from the centre of
The following guidelines represent good the nearside lane at a distance of 15m back
practice concerning the provision of visibility from the "Give Way" line as shown in Figure
and, when subject to relaxation, there is a need 6.49.
for additional signing to alert drivers of all
vehicles to potential hazards. Circulatory Visibility
Drivers of all vehicles circulating on a
Eye and Object Heights roundabout shall be able to see the full width of
Visibilities, with the exception of visibility to the the circulatory carriageway ahead of them for a
left at entry and across the central island, shall distance appropriate to the size of roundabout
be assessed in accordance to Section 2. (as indicated in Table 6.14). This visibility shall
Visibility to the left and across the central island be checked from a point 2m in from the central
shall be obtainable from a driver's eye height of island as shown in Figure 6.50. It is often useful
1.05m to an object height of 1.05m, and the to improve the conspicuousness of central
envelope of visibility shall extend to 2.0m above islands by the use of landscaping, but this could
the road surface. obstruct circulatory visibility. The circulatory
visibility envelope will encroach onto the height
Where traffic and direction signs are to be of vegetation or surface treatment. In these
erected on a central reservation, verge, or situations, limited penetration into the visibility
deflection island within the envelope of visibility, envelope by vegetative growth of a dispersed
including to the left, the mounting height shall nature would not be unacceptable.
not be less than 2.0m above the carriageway
surface and the envelope checked on sites with Inscribed Circle Diameter Visibility Distance
changes of gradient. (m) (m)
("a" in Figure 6.49)
Visibility to the Left
<40 Whole Junction
Drivers of all vehicles approaching the "Give
Way" line shall be able to see the full width of 40·60 40
the circulatory carriageway to their left from the
60-100 50
"Give Way" line for a distance appropriate to the
sight stopping distance for the circulatory traffic > 100 70
(measured along the centreline of the
circulatory carriageway) as indicated in Table Table 6.14 Visibility Distance
6.14, and shown in Figure 6.47. This also
applies to roundabouts that have parapet walls Pedestrian Crossing Visibility
on either side of the circulatory carriageway. Drivers of all vehicles approaching a pedestrian
crossing across an entry shall have a minimum
This visibility shall be checked from the centre distance of visibility to it of the Stopping Sight
of the offside lane at a distance of 15m back Distance for the design speed of the link (see
from the "Give Way" line, as shown in Figure Section 2). At the "Give Way" line, drivers of all
6.48. Checks shall be made that crossfall vehicles shall be able to see the full width of a
design or construction and sign location do not pedestrian crossing across the next exit if the
restrict visibility. crossing is within 50m of the roundabout (see
Figure 6.51). In urban areas, adjacent roadside
It should be noted that excessive visibility at development may however prevent this visibility
entry or visibility between adjacent entries can splay being fully established.
result in approach and entry speeds greater
than desirable for the junction geometry.
Consideration shall be given to limiting in
particular the visibility of adjacent entries to that
from 15m back on the approach, and the
visibility along the approach to no more than the
stopping sight distances for the design speed of
the approach, by the selective use of
landscaping.

Visual Intrusions
Signs, street furniture and planting shali not be
placed within the visibiiity enveiopes so as to
obstruct visibiiity, but infringements by isolated
siim projections such as lamp columns, sign
supports or bridge columns can be ignored
provided they are less than 550mm wide. The
only exception to this will be positioning of
bollards on defiection islands and staggered
chevron boards on centrai isiands. Where
possible, care shali be taken to minimise the
effects of pedestrians on visibility requirements.

\
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E -.L \._. . . .-
. -- - - - - ---=::.=-::::::::::::::::::::::::==-'
~ I -___ _--_-
"'T
7 .3m Dual Carriageway
11.3m Single Carriageway
7.3m Single Carriageway
a::::Il Vehicle Position Centre of Nearside Lane

a Desirable Minimum Slopping Sight Distance (SSD) for Approach Road Design Speed
Figure 6.46 Measurement of Stopping Sight Distance

Area of circulatory carriageway over
«
which visibility shall be obtained--':--/
from viewpoint
3. Sight Stopping Distance for Circulating Traffic

b. Half Lane Width
Figure 6.47 Visibility to the Left Required at Entry (From "Give Way" Line)
Area of circulatory carriageway over --"

which visibility shall be obtained
from viewpoint <:{
<l. Sight Stopping Distance for Circulatlng Traffic

b. Half Lane Width
c. Limit of Vl51bility Splay
Figure 6.48 Visibility to the Left Required at Entry (15m back from "Give Way" Line)

- -- - --
Area of cirCUlatory carriageway over which
»
visibility shall be obtained
from viewpoint
a. Sight Stopping Distance for Circulating Traffic

b. Half Lane Width
c. Limit of Visibility Splay
Figure 6.49 Forward Visibility Required at Entry
Area of circulatory carriageway over which

visibility shall be obtained
from viewpoint «
a Distance Related to CirCUlatory Speed

b Limit of Visibility Splay
Figure 6.50 Circulatory Visibility

<SOm
,\
\
\
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,,
\
\
\
~/c/
~ I /'
\
, :.'_-----;=-.Jlll1IL- - - 7
\
\
, '"a
- -
--
\
c
a Minimum area over which unobstructed

visibility Is required from viewpoint
when crossing Is within SOm of exit
«
b Half lane width
c Limit of visibility splay
Figure 6.51 Visibility Required at Entry to Pedestrian Crossing at Next Exit

6.10.11 Circulatory Carriageway 6.10.12 Inscribed Circle Diameter (ICD)
The circulatory carriageway should, if possible, The following advice is based on the swept
be circular in plan, avoiding deceptively tight turning paths generated by a 16.5rn long
bends. articulated vehicle with a single axle at the rear
of the trailer. This is referred to below as the
The width of the circulatory carriageway shall "Design Vehicle".
not exceed 15m. However, block paving
'collars' around the central island can be used The turning width required by this type of
to provide additional width if long vehicle turning vehicle is greater than that for all other vehicles
movements need to be catered for on smaller within the normal maximum dimensions
roundabouts. permitted in the classifications given in Table
6.1, or likely to be permitted in the near future.
The width of the circulatory carriageway shall be The requirements for other vehicles (including
constant and lie between 1.0 and 1.2 times the a 12m long rigid vehicle, 12m long coach, 20m
maximum entry width. However, see Clause drawbar trailer combination, and a 16.5m
6.10.12 if small Inscribed Circle Diameters articulated vehicle) are less onerous.
(ICDs) are being contemplated.
The smallest ICD for a normal roundabout that
It is normal practice to avoid short lengths of will accommodate the "Design Vehicle" is 28m.
reverse curve between entry and adjacent exits It should be noted that it may be difficult, if not
by linking these curves or joining them with impossible, to meet the entry deflection
straights between the entry radius and the exit requirement with normal roundabouts which
radius. One method is to increase the exit have ICDs up to 40m. In this case
radius. However, where there is a considerable consideration could be given to the installation
distance between the entry and the next exit, as of a low profile central island which would
at three entry roundabouts, reverse curvature provide adequate deflection for standard
may result (see Figure 6.50). vehicles but allow overrun by the rear wheels of
articulated vehicles and trailers. Such islands
There may be situations where the turning should have the same profile as the circulatory
proportions are such that one section of carriageway with a maximum upstand of 50mm.
circulatory carriageway will have a relatively low
flow. In this case, there may be an over The turning space requirements for the "Design
provision in circulating carriageway width and Vehicle" at normal roundabouts from 28m to
an area of carriageway, usually adjacent to an 36m ICD are shown in Figure 6.52. For ICDs
entry deflection island, becomes unused. It above these values, and/or where low profile
would be possible to reduce the circulatory central islands are to be installed, the circulatory
carriageway width by extending the deflection carriageway width should be checked against
island and advancing the "Give Way" line. This Table 6.5. But usually the rule in Clause
method of reducing circulatory width may also 6.10.11 will provide more than adequate width.
be adopted as an interim measure in the early
years of a scheme. 6.10.13 Exits
For larger roundabouts, this reduction in The spacing of an exit and the preceding entry
circulatory width can be achieved by the use of shall not be less than that which results from the
hatch markings and is often associated with combination of the minimum entry radius (6m)
taking out of use the offside entry lane. If such and the minimum exit radius (20m), though
measures are to be considered as an interim desirable radii of 20m, and 40m respectively
geometric design feature for early years traffic should be used where possible. If an existing
flows, consideration should be given to the use roundabout is to be modified to include an
of contrasting hard surfacing for these areas. additional entry, care must be taken to ensure
that this does not affect safety at the proceeding
For smaller roundabouts it is more appropriate entry and following exit. It may be necessary to
to consider interim circulatory carriageway redesign the whole junction if adequate spacing
reduction by increasing the size of the central between adjacent entry/exit cannot be
island. If this is to be introduced from the achieved.
outset, a preferable measure would be the use
of contrasting hard surfacing but hatch markings The principle of "easy exits" shall be applied. A
could also be considered. nearside kerb radius of about 40m at the mouth
of the exit is desirable but for larger rural
roundabouts this may be increased to suit the

overall junction geometry. In any case, this

radius shall not be below 20m or greater than
200m.
At the beginning of an exit, its width, measured

normally to the exit radius, should, where
possible, allow for an extra traffic lane over and
above that of the link downstream.
For example, if the downstream link is a single

2 lane or wide single 2 lane carriageway, the
width at the exit should be 7.0m or 7.5m, and if
the link is a 2 lane dual carriageway, the width
should be 10m to 11 m. This extra width should
be reduced on the nearside in such a way as to
avoid exiting vehicles encroaching onto the
entering carriageway at the end of the traffic
deflection island. Normally, this would be at a
taper of 1:15 to 1:20, though where the exit is
on an up gradient, the local widening may be
extended to reduce intermittent congestion from
slow moving larger vehicles and to provide an
overtaking opportunity for faster vehicles.
Similarly, if the exit road is on a right hand
curve, it may be necessary to extend the taper
length and the length of the traffic deflection
island. Within single carriageway exits, a
minimum width of 6m, measured normally to the
nearside kerb, should be provided adjacent to
traffic deflection islands to allow traffic to pass a
broken down vehicle. Figure 6.53 shows a
typical single carriageway exit embodying some
of the above principles. On exits, the edge line
should continue along the line of the kerbing
once this is terminated (see Figures 6.38 and
6.39).

\
\
\
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
////
..-.-',"
------------_....... --
a Main central island
b Low profile subsidiary central Island where provided
C Remaining circulatory carriageway width 1.0-1.2 x maximum entry width
d Design vehicle
e 1m clearance minimum
f Inscribed circle diameter (ICD)
Central Island Diameter R1 R2 Minimum ICD

(m) (m) (m) (m)
4.0 3.0 13.0 28.0
6.0 4.0 13.4 28.8
6.0 5.0 13.9 29.8
10.0 6.0 14.4 30.8
12.0 7.0 15.0 32.0
14.0 6.0 15.6 33.2
16.0 9.0 16.3 34.6
18.0 10.0 17.0 36.0
Figure 6.52 Turning Widths for Smaller Normal Roundabouts

6.10.14 Crossfall and Longitudinal Gradient Normal crossfall for drainage on roundabouts
should not exceed 2% (1 in 50). Crossfall
Steep gradients should be avoided at should not exceed 2.5% (1 in 40). To avoid
roundabout approaches or flattened to a ponding, longitudinal edge profiles should be
maximum of 2% before entry. Crossfall and graded at not less than 0.67% (1 in 150), with
longitudinal gradient combine to provide the 0.5% (1 in 200) considered the minimum.
necessary slope that will drain surface water
from the carriageway. Thus, although the The design gradients do not in themselves
following clauses are for simplicity written in ensure satisfactory drainage, and therefore the
terms of crossfall, the value and direction of the correct siting and spacing of gullies is critical to
greatest slope must always be taken into efficient drainage.
account when considering drainage.
Superelevation is arranged to assist vehicles For Entries
when travelling round a curve. Its values, when Here, curves may be tightened, (see paragraph
used, are equal to or greater than those 6.10.9) and the degree of superelevation should
necessary for surface water drainage. be appropriate to the speed of vehicles as they
approach the roundabout but superelevation
Superelevation is not required on the circulatory should not exceed 5% (1 in 20). in cases where
carriageways of roundabouts whereas crossfall superelevation is used, it should be reduced to
is required to drain surface water. However, on the crossfall required merely for drainage in the
the approaches and exits superelevafion can vicinity of the "Give Way" line, since with
assist drivers to negotiate the associated adequate advance signing and entry deflection,
curves. speeds on approaches should be reducing.
To provide comfort and enable drivers to remain

in control, the maximum algebraic sum of
opposing crossfall gradients should not be
greater than 5%.
a Exit Radius 40~100m
Figure 6.53 Typical Single Carriageway Exit

a /
/
/
/
/
n ,,
,
, a ,,
/
/
,,
/
/
,
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/
/
t:>
/
a /
/
/
/
/
/
~
b
V
a Crown Line
b Smooth Crown
Figure 6.54 Typical Example of Crossfall Design Using One Crown Line Which Joins the Traffic
Deflection Islands by Straight Lines
For Circulatory Carriageway central island or away from it. This should only
Values of crossfall should be no greater than apply where vehicle speeds are relatively low.
those required for drainage, although it is good
practice at normal roundabouts, to arrange for For Exits
crossfall to assist vehicles. To do this, a cross Superelevation, related to the horizontal
line is formed where the entry and exit alignment, should be provided where necessary
carriageways meet the conflicting crossfall of to assist vehicles to accelerate safely away from
the circulatory carriageway. This line can either the roundabout. However, as with entries,
join the end of the traffic deflection islands from crossfalls adjacent to the roundabout should be
entry to exit (Figure 6.54), or divide the those required for surface water drainage. If the
circulatory carriageway in the proportion 2:1 exit leads into a left hand curve, superelevation
internal to external. The conflicting crossfalls at should not be introduced too quickly and to
the crown lines have a direct effect on driver such a value that vehicles tend to encroach into
comfort and may also be a contributory factor in an adjacent (dual or opposing single
load shedding and large goods vehicle roll-over carriageway) lane.
accidents. The maximum recommended
algebraic difference in crossfall is 5% although Adverse Crossfall
lesser values are desirable, particularly for Adverse Crossfall is crossfall that acts against
roundabouts with smaller ICD. Care needs to the desired movement of a vehicle when
be taken during detailed design and at the turning. It can lead to driver discomfort and
construction stage to ensure a satisfactory even safety hazards and should, if possible, be
carriageway profile, without sharp changes in eliminated from the paths of the main traffic
crossfall, is achieved. A smoothed crown is movements at normal roundabouts. Smaller
essential. normal roundabouts in urban areas are often
superimposed upon existing pavement profiles
In some cases with small ICDs it may be more and in these cases, the cross section of the
appropriate to apply crossfall across the full existing roads will influence crossfalls at the
circulatory carriageway width either towards the roundabout. T-Junctio'ns require particular

attention. Some adverse crossfall can be within it. Forward visibility throughout the
accepted in order to fit the existing levels segregated lane should be the appropriate
provided approach speeds are low. Limited stopping site distance for the design speed.
adverse crossfall at these roundabouts can Where the large goods vehicle proportion is
assist in making the form of junction more low, the lane width may be reduced to 3.5m but
conspicuous to drivers. should not be less than 3.3m. Where road
markings are used to create the lane
6.10.15 Segregated Right Turning Lanes segregation, the overall width of the marking
should normally be a minimum of 1.0m. Where
Segregated right turn lanes are a useful method the large goods vehicle content is higher, the
for giving an improved service to vehicles lane width must be checked to ensure that it
intending to leave a roundabout at the first exit can accommodate the swept paths of larger
after entry. Their use should be considered vehicles, especially where physical segregation
when more than 50 percent of the entry flow, or occurs. Further information on the widening of
more that 300 vehicles per hour in the peak lanes on curves is given in Table 6.5 and
hours, turn right at the first exit. However, when Section 3.
considering the use of these lanes, vehicle
composition should be examined. If the right It is not necessary to make allowance for
turn vehicles are predominantly light and there broken down vehicles. With segregation by
is a high proportion of cyclists and/or large road markings, such vehicles can be overtaken
goods vehicles leaving the roundabout, there with caution. Where physical segregation is
could be problems with differential speeds at introduced, this should not prevent a right turn
the merge, particularly if this is on an uphill at the roundabout in the normal way from the
gradient. If segregated lanes are to be used in non-segregated part of the approach.
these situations they should finish with a "Give
Way" line at the exit to the lane. These lanes have been observed to handle
1300 vehicles per hour with ease and for design
The use of these lanes in urban areas where purposes a maximum capacity of 1800 light
pedestrians are expected to cross should be vehicles per hour may be assumed where the
carefully considered. In no circumstances exit is free running. Segregated lanes need not
should pedestrians be expected to cross right be considered as part of the entry when
turn lanes segregated by road markings. calCUlating capacities for other traffic
movements.
If pedestrians are anticipated they should be
channelled with the use of guard rail to a safer The merging between vehicles from a
crossing point. If this is not possible the segregated right turn and other vehicles exiting
segregation should by a physical island of the roundabout should take place within 50m of
sufficient width to accommodate the anticipated the roundabout, where speeds are still
peak number of pedestrians. comparatively low. Ideally, there should not be
a forced merge. However, running the two
There are two basic types of segregated right streams alongside each other is only possible
turn lanes, namely segregation by road where the exit link can provide two lanes in the
markings and physical segregation. In both same direction.
types, vehicles are channelled into the right
hand lane by lane arrows and road markings In other cases the segregated right turning
supplemented by advance direction signs, and traffic has to merge with the other stream, giving
vehicles proceed to the first exit without having way where necessary. This merging length
to "Give Way" to others using the roundabout. should be at least 10m long. Segregation by
Segregation by road markings is more common, road markings is not recommended if vehicles
but is less effective because it is subject to have to give way at the merge point. Where
abuse. It is essential that the operation of the street furniture is placed on the island in the
segregated lane is not impaired by traffic vicinity of the merge, it should not obstruct
queuing to use the roundabout itself. The visibility.
designer should ensure that the approach
arrangements are sufficiently clear so that they In the improvement of an existing urban T-
are relatively self-enforcing. Junctions, the signing on the segregated right
turning lane must clearly indicate to drivers that
Segregated right turn lanes should not induce they have to "Give Way" to vehicles leaVing the
high speeds. The design speed should not roundabout.
exceed that of either the entry or exit link, and
any desirable speed reduction should be
achieved at the entry to the lane rather than

6.10.16 Road Markings
Road markings are used to channelize traffic

and, where required, to indicate a dedicated
lane. Lane indication arrows to reinforce the
advance map type direction signs at entries can
be beneficial where heavy flows occur in a
particular direction.
Lane dedication by arrows and markings on the

circulatory carriageway is not normaliy
recommended. Where a roundabout is
particularly extensive and partially signalled and
it is tending to a gyratory system, then some
degree of channelization by road markings may
prove beneficiai operationally.

6.11 U-TURNS - GENERAL The area of median in the vicinity of the U-turn
should be kept uncluttered and free from
The provision of U-turn facilities are appropriate obstructions that are over 1.0m high and wider
to a limited number of situations in rural than 500mm, with the exception of signs. The
locations on duai carriageways and when visibility requirements are given in Table 6.15.
combined with other forms of junction in urban
situations. We shali consider rural U-turn This measure will help to ensure that drivers
facilities only in this section. exiting from the U-turn are able to see vehicles
approaching from their right, and for them to be
Generaliy rural U-turns shouid be provided in seen by drivers on the major road.
advance of or beyond junctions as foliows:
U-turns, in a similar fashion to left turns,
• Beyond a junction to enable drivers to
return to an important junction if they miss
contribute to congestion by drawing slow
moving turning traffic into the offside lane. They
their turning also add to the accident hazard particularly
where U-turning movements are heavy or of
• Beyond a junction to accommodate left
turn traffic movements not otherwise
slow moving vehicles. However, U-turns often
afford the best economically available solution
catered for at the junction to a given problem.
• In advance of a junction where through

and other turning movements would be
6.13 U-TURN ELEMENTS
hampered by the U-turn movement 6.13.1 General
• To facilitate maintenance operations, use

by emergency services etc.
The main elements in the production of an
acceptable U-turn facility are:
One of the key requirements for a satisfactory • Median width

U-turn design is that the width of the
carriageway, including the shoulder or turning • The length of the median opening
bay, be sufficient to permit the turn to be made
without encroachment beyond the outer edges • Use of acceleration/deceleration lanes or
of the road pavement. The minimum median tapers
width for a U-turn is 11.6m. This aliows space
for physical islands each side of traffic waiting to • The nature of the turning traffic
turn. U-Turns should be positioned at least
400m in advance of or beyond any junction. • The design speed of the main road.
Figure 6.55 illustrates the standard U-Turn
layout. Figure 6.55 and Table 6.15 detail standard U-
Turn layout arrangements for rural locations.
Wherever a U-turn facility is to be provided,
consideration should be given to providing a 6.13.2 Direct Taper Length (d)
reciprocal U-turn. This enhances safety by
reducing the likelihood of any illegal turning The direct taper length is the length over which
movements that may have resulted from the the width of a left turning lane is developed. Left
provision of a single U-turn facility and presents turning lanes shali be introduced by means of a
a consistent layout to drivers. direct taper whose length is part of the
deceleration length and depends on the design
6.12 SAFETY AT U-TURNS speed. This taper length is given in Table 6.16.
Safety is a major concern at ali junctions, 6.13.3 Width of Physical Islands in the
particularly on high volume, high speed roads. Median
Where U-turn facilities are to be provided on
these roads, the hazard created by the turning The width of median at the turning point shali be
vehicles and their interference' with through a minimum of 11.6m including hardstrips. This
traffic must be minimised. Designs that enable width is sufficient to shelter most large goods
vehicles to be in a protected position while vehicles using the U-turn facility. The minimum
waiting to turn are safest. As are those that width of a physical island, usualiy located at the
make the turning vehicle cross and leave the end of the direct taper shali be 305m. The
opposing carriageway before returning to the minimum width of physical island separating the
near side lane with a standard merge storage lane from the through lanes shali be
movement. 1.2m or that necessary to incorporate signing.

6.13.4 Left Turn Lane 6.13.9 Road Lighting
The length of the left turning lane will depend It is particularly important that U-turns are
on the major road design speed and the clearly visible to through traffic. In all cases,
gradient. It consists of a median opening length, street lighting shall be provided. Refer Section
a storage/queuing length and a deceleration 10.
length. The deceieration length shall be
provided in accordance with Table 6.17, in 6.13.10 Traffic Signs and Road Markings
which the gradient is the average for the 50Om
length before the U-turn opening. U-turns shall be clearly signed in accordance
with the Qatar Traffic Manual. Consideration
6.13.5 Median Openings (a) should be given to providing additional signing
for the traffic on the through route to indicate
The opening in the median at the crossing point that vehicles may be crossing the road ahead.
shall typically be 11 .Om Wide, as shown on Fig
6.55. However this shOUld be adjusted to suit 6.13.11 Drainage and Crossfall
long vehicles or those with abnormal loads
when required. To allow for surface water drainage and driver
comfort, the road crossfall on the major road
6.13.6 Storage/Queuing Length (b) shall be continued through the U-Turn. Checks
shall be made for flat areas at all changes in
The storage/queuing length shall be determined gradient, superelevation or crossfall. Surface
in accordance with the requirements of the run-off shall not be allowed to collect in streams
Qatar Traffic Maunal. The queuing length shall and flow from the U-Turn across the major
be separated from through traffic by a physical through road, or to collect on or cross the U-
island on each side and the queuing lane width Turn lane so as to present a hazard to vehicles
shall be 5.0m. manoeuvring and braking. In addition, the rural
situation requires the engineer to carefully
6.13.7 Merging Length (e) consider the maintenance requirements of any
drainage system he adopts. Refer to Section
The merging length shall be constructed in 8.
accordance with Clause 6.7.14. The merge
length commences a minimum distance of 45m
from the inside radius of the median opening, or
if the major road design speed is 120kph or
greater, the merge nose taper commences at
this point. The distance of 45m is that required
for the design vehicle to be parallel to the major
road carriageway following the U-turn
movement.
The width of shoulder on the exit of the U-turn

shail enable the design vehicle to make the U-
turn without using excessive steering lock whilst
maintaining a 1m hardstrip from the outside
wheel to the edge of surfacing. To aid vehicle
direction, the shoulder should be marked or
studded to guide vehicles to the merging length.
6.13.8 Pavement Construction
The pavement construction for the entire U-turn

facility shall be a minimum of that used for the
major through road construction. Where
consistent heavy loading is expected, the
engineer should consider more durable
pavements. Refer to Section 9.

II b I· ' I d I
~~,~..::::::::::::::::_---_::::::::::::::::--:::_::::-::-:~
~
ll. Median opening
"mlo I . I b. Queuing length

c. Deceleration length + direct taper length
d. Direct I.. per length
c. MergIng length (nose length when required)
$1 and S2. Visibility distances
Figure 6.55 Typical U-Turn Layout
Design Speed S1 S2 Design Up Gradient Down Gradient

on Major Road (m) (m) Speed
(kph) (kph) 0-4% Above 0-4% Above
4% 4%
0-45 50 5.0
45 - 60 75 7.5 50 25 25 25 25
60 - 80 125 10.0 60 25 25 25 40
Over 80 175 10.0 70 40 25 40 55
80 55 40 55 80
100 80 55 80 110
Table 6.15 Visibility Distances 120 110 80 110 150
140 150 110 150 200
Design Speed Direct Taper Length
(kph) (m) Table 6.17 Deceleration Length - c (m) for
Dual Carriageways
50 5
60 5
70 15
80 15
100 25
120 30
140 35
Note. Roundmg shall be applied to the kerbllnes, typically
50mR.
Table 6.16 Direct Taper Length - d

6.14 URBAN ROAD - SERVICE ROAD . Avoiding long straight service roads
DIVERGE/MERGE
.. Providing satisfactory diverge/merge
Service roads should be provided in the urban lengths
situation where through traffic on a district
distributor or higher classification road will be .. Siting diverges and merges away from
significantly affected by traffic manoeuvres from other junctions or traffic generation points
developments lying adjacent to the through (both on the major and service roads).
road. The function of the service road is
therefore twofold: Figure 6.56 shows a diverge and merge for a
service road off an urban road of design speed
.. Collects connecting minor roads and 100 kph or greater. The spaci~g of diverge
concentrates the entrances and exits to a nose to merge nose is also fixed by the design
limited number of locations along the constraints of the facility. Major road
hardshoulders continue across the junction as
major road, thereby allowing major road
a painted hatched marking.
traffic to flow more freely
Figure 6.57 shows a similar diverge and merge
.. Provides road users with a safer for a service road off an urban road of design
environment adjacent to developments by speed 80 kph or greater but less than 100 kph.
separation from higher speed through The spacing of diverge nose to merge nose for
traffic. this design speed is fixed by the design
constraints of the facility. Major road
Service roads typically run parallel to the major hardshoulders are shown with 45' tapers at
road. However, their vertical alignment is often distances, set backs and shy distances shown.
governed by a lower design speed and can
therefore be used to match threshold levels in The minimum weaving length between merges
existing development situations. and diverges is given in Table 6.18.
Service roads should preferably be connected Design Minimum

to major roads using the major/minor junctions Speed Merge/Diverge
criteria listed earlier in this Section. However, (kph) distance
(m)
limited reservation space usually requires the
junction to connect at a skew to t[ie major road. 120 500
This creates the following undesirable situations 100 417
80 333
which the engineer should recognise in 70 292
preparing service road designs: 60 250
50 208
. Angled diverge off the main carriageway
encourages high speed entry into the
Note. Junction spacings may only be reduced below these
minima on the express approval of CEO Roads.
service road and consequent danger to Table 6.18 Minimum Merge/Diverge Weaving
other service road users Length
. Angled merge onto the main carriageway
requires the driver to make use of his
The minimum weaving length in metres
between successive Merge/Merge or
mirrors to effect a safe merge with major Diverge/Diverge measured between the tips of
road through traffic. the noses shall be:
The above points can be mitigated to some Weaving Length (min) = 3.75V
extent by:
Where V = design speed of main road (kph)
. Eliminating parking and providing
uncluttered visibility in the area of merges The distance given by the above formula may
and diverges be increased if the minimum requirements for
effective signing are provided.
.. Introducing a chicane type manoeuvre at
the entrance to a service road therefore Note: Service roads would generally be one
way in the same direction as the major road, the
slowing traffic entering the service road
major road always being a dual carriageway or
. Increasing the conflict angle where
vehicles entering and vehicles using the
minimum 11.3m wide single carriageway.
However, where space permits, a service road

service road meet may be two way with normal T-junction
entry/exits onto the major road.

Deceleration
Len th Y = 4.0m
..... (See Table 6.9)
Major Road
3m Shoulder
Service Road
One Way
Merging
Length
(See Tabie 6.10)
2Y~:3:::0:"==;;~Z;~Z22Z22Z
I-_M-,a3,,"jm°u..r.§Rc!J0.Qa!!dlc!!~r:.._LL.L..L.t.~:' _ ,zzzllllllll
Service Road
• One Way
Y = 4.0m
Figure 6.56 Service Road Diverge/Merge for Speeds;, 100kph
Deceleration
I .. 10 I(SeeLength
.... DrI
---Service Road
Table,6.9)
30'
One Way
Y=4.0m
Parking or Shoulder
Markr~ "I Merging Length

(See Table 6.10)
S
paint 15
I'" / "I'" 10 Dol Major Road
____ _0~51 /30'
:..\ - - - - - - -
3.0
Service Road
One Way
Y=4.0m
Figure 6.57 Service Road Diverge/Merge for Speeds;, 80 kph < 100 kph

6.15 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS traffic flow, for drivers on the minor road to fail
to obey the priority signing and drive through the
6.15.1 Residential Areas junction, thereby creating a hazard to traffic on
the major road.
In urban areas and, in particular, within
residential areas, where there is the likelihood The preferred form of vehicular crossing
of pedestrians crossing the road and where movement is the staggered crossroads.
parking may be on-street, careful consideration Wherever possible the offset should be to the
is required at road junctions. left so that vehicles making the cross-
movement first turn left then right. This is
The most commonly used junction to access discussed in Clause 6.2.3.
developments and the most appropriate is the
T-Junction. There are two basic forms of Roundabouts may be used at the junctions of
access layout. local roads with local roads and of local roads
with access roads.
In the first form, the major traffic flow is on the
through route (eg. a local road with access However, roundabouts are generally only
roads joining), as shown in Figure 6.58. required where the volume of traffic on the
minor road approaches is of the same order as
In the second form, shown in Figure 6.59, all that on the major road, and where the overall
traffic is distributed to the residential access level of traffic is such that vehicles on the minor
roads. This is the preferred method of treating road experience severe delay. If the residential
access roads, as the short lengths of straight, road network is properly planned, this should
combined with the turning movements required not occur.
at the junction, serve to restrict vehicle speeds
and the number of accesses onto and off the 6.15.2 Older Residential Areas
major route.
Many existing older residential areas in Qatar
have particular requirements. When considering
recoristruction of these roads, the following shall
be noted:
• Narrow road reservations giving rise to

poor visibility, especially at junctions
• High parking requirement
• Street system of ill defined through-ways,

crossroads and rat-runs
Figure 6.58 MUltiple Access Roads Joining a • Poor utility records and poor utility
condition
Major Road
• Highly variable threshold levels, often

adjacent.
r-----c--,- - - - - - - - - - - - ,---------,
• No existing surface water drainage
•
I-----SIC-----I
Existing development in low lying flood
areas
• Poor illumination.
Faced with this number of considerations, it is

essential that the engineer carefully plan the
revised road system to meet the requi rements
Figure 6.59 Access Roads Concentrated Prior of the area. Traffic should be restricted from
to Main Road Junciion areas where it is undesirable, rat-runs should be
closed, parking regulated and surface water
As already discussed in Clause 6.2.2, the use effectively collected. The following are typical
of 'simple' crossroads is not encouraged as actions:
there is a tendency, particularly in areas of low

• Close or partially close one or more legs • Provision of a sign posted alternative
of a crossroads cycle route away from a junction
• Introduce parking at every opportunity • Grade separation (eg. in urban areas) by

means of a footbridge or subway. This
• Close some minor access roads leading could be combined for use by both
Into the development from local or district pedestrians and cyclists.
distributors
If provision of any of these is not possible, then
• Identify areas such as schools, shops,
mosques, etc that may require specific
greater emphasis should be placed on safety
with carefully selected crossing places. At
consideration for parking or access roundabouts, where cyclists are always at risk,
motorists should be made aware of their
• Introduce one-way
appropriate
systems where presence by road markings and signing,
especially where segregated right turning lanes
are used.
• Introduce traffic calming if required
Pedestrian requirements at major/minor
• Introduce block paving as a road surface
to identify areas where pedestrian traffic
junctions including roundabouts should be
carefully considered.
Is a dominant factor
Although it is preferable to provide separate
• Introduce effective surface water removal pedestrian routes away from junctions, where
road crossing widths are less and traffic
• Consider utility requirements for future
developments and reconstruction
movements more predictable, this is rarely
practical.
• Introduce street lighting. Suggested facilities for improved pedestrian

safety at junctions are given below:
Many of the factors identified for older
residential areas can be satisfactorily applied to
any older area. Engineers should first identify
• Provision of a minor road central refuge
at an unmarked crossing place with
the area uses and needs and apply suitable dropped kerbs and tactile paving, if In a
solutions to arrive at a well thought out, safe busy pedestrian area
and useful environment.
• Provision of a pedestrian crossing, with or
6.15.3 Other Road Users without a central refuge. These should
not be of excessive length or angled to
The principle road users in Qatar are vehicles. the road
However, it is important that the' engineer also
considers the requirement~ of other users of the • Provision of displaced controlled
road system, particularly cyclists and pedestrian crossings
pedestrians, where major/minor junctions
including roundabouts present a particular • Provision of a subway or footbridge.
hazard.
At-grade pedestrian crossing points should not
Measures to improve cyciist and pedestrian be placed in the. mouth of the junction. Instead
safety are described below: they should be located away from the mouth
where the carriageway is relatively narrow. In
• Provision of cycle lanes adjacent to the urban areas, with low pedestrian flows, it is
running carriageway will go some way possible to provide a central refuge in the
toward protecting the cyclist. This lane hatched area of a ghost island junction, though
should be identified with the cycle lane it is important to check for the design vehicle
marking. At junctions the minor road movements.
"Stop" and "Give Way" lines should be
set back out of the way of cyclists If a crossing giVing pedestrians priority is
provided close to the entry/exit points of a
• Provision of a displaced cycle roundabout the safety of pedestrians will be
track/footpath for shared use by compromised and traffic operation problems
pedestrians and cyclists with uncontrolled may become evident with the roundabout.
or controlled crossings at junctions Where a crossing must be provided within the
layout of a roundabout, a non-signalized

pedestrian crossing is preferred. A signalized

pedestrian crossing may be confusing to drivers
approaching the "Give Way" line of a
roundabout. If a signalized pedestrian crossing
is provided, it should preferably be of the
divided crossing type to minimise delays at the
exits.
In urban areas, where iarge numbers of

pedestrians are present, pedestrian barriers
would prevent pedestrians from crossing
indiscriminately across the junction. They
should direct the pedestrians to a controlled,
safer place to cross. Pedestrian barriers should
be of the standard CED design and positioned
so that the drivers view of the pedestrians is
maintained and vice-versa.
The type of safety facility seiected for

pedestrians and cyclists at major/minor
junctions (including roundabouts) will depend
upon the expected volume and movements of
pedestrians, cyclists and vehicular traffic.

6.16 SIGNALIZED JUNCTIONS The lane width on the approach to the junction
shall be in accordance with Clause 5.2.
6.16.1 Introduction
The number of lanes at the stop line shall be
Design of signalized junctions brings together maintained across the junction to the exit lanes.
the highway engineer and the traffic engineer.
In Qatar this requires the close involvement of The possibility of introducing slip roads at the
the Civil Engineering Department - Roads corners of a junction should always be
Division. The highway engineer is responsible considered. These allow right turning traffic to
for the geometric parameters of the road design "Give Way" or "Stop" rather than wait for the
on the approaches to and through the junction. signals. They also provide larger turning radii
The traffic engineer is responsible for the than would otherwise be the case and can be
specific layout of the junction in terms of beneficial to pedestrians when provided with
capacity, turning movements, signing, marking, clearly defined crossing points.
pedestrian considerations, specification and
position of signals. If U-Turns are to be provided at the junction,
lane widths and turning movements of different
Reference shall be made to the Qatar Traffic vehicles should be considered and the position
Manual and a concept layout should be agreed of pedestrian refuge points checked against
with the Director of Civil Engineering possible conflict.
Department prior to proceeding with the
preliminary and detail design stages. It is preferable that left turn lanes and through
lanes are segregated by physical islands for the
6.16.2 Basic Requirements entire queuing length. It is also preferable that
entry and exit traffic on opposing carriageways
When designing traffic signal installations, care is segregated by a median or physical island.
should be taken to ensure the following:
Minimum visibility requirements to the primary
• Drivers have sufficient advance warning
to know exactly which direction to take at
signals are detailed in the Qatar Traffic Manual.
the junction
• Drivers are guided into the intended lane

or lanes by road markings
• Drivers have a clear view of the signals at

the junction itself
• The junction layout allows easy visual

recognition of correct exit lanes and
required vehicle trajectory.
• Movement from "Stop" line to exit lane is

a natural flowing movement and does not
interfere with other movements allowed at
the same time.
6.16.3 Typical Layout Features
It is impractical to deal with all possible

variations of junctions. The various features
mentioned is this clause may be considered for
most situations.
The size of traffic islands and pedestrian refuges

is important. Adequate clearance between the
kerb and any street furniture is needed to
prevent damage by vehicles having a lateral
overhang.

SECTION 7 INTERCHANGES c) To improve the alignment of a road
7.1 INTRODUCTION d) To standardise junction types when

upgrading a corridor to motorway status.
For new roads with high predicted traffic fiows,
consideration can be given to grade separation. 7.2 TYPES OF INTERCHANGE
Grade separation removes confiicts between
the major vehicle fiows thereby improving safety 7.2.1 General
and capacity of an intersection. For existing at-
grade junctions, grade separation can also be The decision to provide an interchange and the
considered to improve safety and capacity if type and detailed design of an Interchange will
these partlcuiar problems have been identified. be specific to a particular site. The seiection of
the most suitabie facility for a particular site and
It is important for the engineer to use the correct the associated design parameters depend upon
terminology. The principle definitions relating to a number of controliing factors which include:
grade separation are given below:
Safety
Intersection: The meeting point of two or more Road classification for the connecting
roads. routes
Design speed
Junction: The treatment of the road alignment Traffic volume and mix
at the intersection to enable traffic to negotiate Required junction capacity
the intersection in the defined manner. Number of junction legs
Topography
Grade Separation: Removes conflicts arising Land available, the type of land and its
from an intersection by the provision of a present use
bridge. Economics
Lighting
Interchange: When grade separation is used Environmental impact
but a connection is maintained between the Access to local communities
roads, this combination of grade separation and Pedestrians, farming and cyclists.
junctions is called an interchange.
Safety is always the most important factor
Interchanges may be complex and include followed by capacity.
extensive connecting roads and loops. They will
only be required for the highest range of traffic Layouts will vary for different locations. It is
flows. uniikely that the layout for one site could be
directly applicable for another. The traffic and
This section sets out the requirements for the topography are unlikely to be the same.
design, layout and size of Interchanges. It is However, it is desirable to standardise layouts
essential that the engineer produces safe
along a particular route wherever possible to
designs that provide adequate capacity.
attempt to reduce confusion to drivers and
thereby improve safety.
Interchanges are generally required between
primary routes and between primary and
The two forms of Interchange considered
secondary routes although they may be
provide a wide variety of types available to the
positioned at the intersection of any urban or
engineer. These have been classified into the
ru ral road. The major selection criteria are
following generic types for selection of the most
always safety and capacity.
suitable form:
Interchanges may be considered to improve an
existing junction for a number of different Full Interchanges
reasons. For example:
Full interchanges combine grade separation of
a) To remove a hazardous main at-grade major conflicts with slip or loop roads that begin
junction in order to improve safety and end with diverges and merges.
b) To eliminate traffic delays at a bottleneck Full cloverleaf interchange

caused by the volume of crossing and Directional interchange with variants
turning traffic 3-leg junction types including trumpets
Partial cloverleaf.

Compact Interchanges A typical full cloverleaf interchange is shown in

Figure 7.1. It is a 4 leg interchange which
Compact Interchanges combine grade provides free flow movements for all traffic. It
separation of major conflicts with connector completely eliminates all left turn conflicts.
roads that either begin or end with a form of Inner loop/slips are provided for the 4 left turn
junction other than a diverge or merge. movements and outer loop/slips are provided
Diamond junctions and variants for the 4 right turn movements.
Roundabouts and variants
Half cloverleaf and variants Advantages:
Compact 3 and 4 leg grade separation
a) All left turn movements are provided for
Junctions and Weaving Sections with one grade separated single structure
The main aim of grade separation is to remove
the conflicts between turning vehicles thereby b) All traffic movements are free flowing
improving safety and capacity. Therefore
particular attention must be paid to the design of c) The interchange may be built in stages
those areas of an interchange where this
conflict cannot be removed.
d) Traffic signals are not required.
Junctions are the areas of carriageway where
traffic joins or ieaves the main road and are the Disadvantages:
locations where accidents are most Iikeiy to
occur. a) Requires large land take
On a single carriageway road the length b) Weaving lengths on both routes are
between successive junctions is called the greatly reduced. A collector distributor
stagger distance. Refer to Section 6. road would help weaving by reducing the
On a dual carriageway the distance between traffic speed, but would increase the
any combination of successive junctions is structurai costs
called a weaving section. This is the length of
carriageway in which drivers change ianes in c) Multiple merges and diverges complicate
advance of turning off the main road. Due to traffic signing
lane changing, weaving sections must be
carefully designed in order to give drivers d) Short deceleration lane lengths for inner
sufficient time to make their manoeuvres safely. loops
Refer to Clause 7.4.9.
7.2.2 Full Interchange

e) The design speed of the inner loops is
generally low
This form of interchange provides uninterrupted
movement for all turning traffic by the use of f) Provision for U-turn movement is
interchange links. restricted until fully constructed
Full Cloverleaf Interchange g) Significant environmental impact due to

the size of the junction.
Trumpet Junctions
Trumpet junctions can be of varying forms.
Typical layouts are shown in Figures 7.2 and
7.3.
Advantages:
a) The layouts generally provide a relatively

high speed semi-direct connection for
large traffic flows
b) Only one structure is normally required
c) Successive merges and diverges are

avoided therefore no weaving lengths are
Figure 7.1 Full Cloverleaf Interchange required

b) Economic landtake and low construction

costs
c) Single exit slip road simplifies signing
d) No weaving lengths are required on the

major road
e) No acceleration or deceleration tapers

required on or under structures
f) Simple structures can be achieved
g) Can improve capacity of the at-grade

intersection by providing extra lane width
at entry, segregated turning lanes and Figure 7.5 Dumbbell Roundabout
traffic signals. Interchange
Disadvantages:
a) Lower capacity on the minor road due to

left turning movements
b) Many points of conflict on the minor road

increasing the accident potential. Traffic
signals will help reduce conflict
c) With the many turning movements at two

locations on the minor road, visibility and
intervisibility is difficult
d) Possibility of traffic turning the wrong way

down slip roads
e) Turning traffic from the primary route has Figure 7.6 Two Bridge Roundabout
to stop at the secondary route with the Interchange
possible requirement of wider lanes for
storage capacity Advantages:
f) Little possibility of future expansion of the a) The dumbbell roundabout is very

junction. economic with a signal structure and very
small landtake
Interchange with Roundabouts and Variants
Interchanges with roundabouts can provide a b) The two bridge roundabout, although not
more flexible junction arrangement than a so economic is safer with a less confined
diamond interchange. The roundabout element "Give Way" area
can cater for varying turning volumes, thereby
reducing the overall delay to vehicles in c) High standard merge and diverge can be
comparison with simple T-junction elements. provided in advance and beyond the
They are particularly useful when there is a structure
large percentage of left turning traffic.
d) Single exit slip roads simplify signing
The two most common forms of roundabout
interchange are the two bridge and the e) No weaving lengths are required on the
dumbbell type. The dumbbell type is the most major route
economic because of the single structure and
reduced landtake, however the two bridge type f) No acceleration or deceleration tapers on
is safer for larger volumes of traffic. These are or under structures
shown in Figures 7.5 and 7.6.
g) Simple structures can be achieved

h) Can improve capacity of two bridge

roundabout by providing extra lane width 4th QUlldmnt
at entry, segregated turning lanes and
traffic signals.
40m
20m R40m
Disadvantages:
a) The efficiency of the roundabout relies on

drivers being aware of how roundabouts
operate. Drivers must give way to traffic
on the roundabout to their left and must
not queue across the exits which would
2nd Quadrant
cause the roundabout to lock
b) Difficult to enter large, two bridge

roundabouts if circulatory speeds are
high. Figure 7.8 Variant of Compact Partial
Cloverleaf Interchange
Compact 3 and 4 Leg Partial Cloverleaf
Interchanges The objectives of compact partial cloverleafs
Compact partial cloverleaf intersections can be are as follows:
used in rural or urban locations. They are
simple, low speed versions of partial cloverleafs a) Provide a safe means of crossing a high
with the same advantages and disadvantages speed route
except that they have smaller land take and
lower cost. Typical compact partial cloverleaf b) Reduce the environmental impact of full
interchanges are shown in Figures 7.7 and 7.8. interchanges by providing a compact
junction layout
c) Regulate and maintain vehicle speed for
JI
lsI Quadraifnl 4th Quadrant minor route traffic through the junction at
Compact a level appropriate to the layout
Connector -....,
Road
standards
d) Remove the left turn manoeuvres from

the major route
===lr=~==~~===== e) Provide a junction with minimal land take

====Il=:---..;:=0::v,::=Z::======
f) Provide an operational, efficient junction
layout.
Compact
Connector
~l g) Provide an economic solution for
modifying an existing junction to grade
Road separation standards.
2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant
The only disadvantage is that high speed traffic

on the major route will exit on a tight loop
Figure 7.7 Compact Partial Cloverleaf radius. Adequate advanced signing, good
Interchange visibility and chevron signing at the exit point
will reduce the safety hazard. If all such
junctions along a primary route are the same
then drivers would be very aware of the
tightness of all such loops and would adapt
accordingly.
It is only when there is inconsistency in the

design standards and types of junctions that
drivers are confused and safety is
compromised.

7.3 SELECTION OF INTERCHANGE TYPE than the minimum weaving length as defined in
Clause 704.9.
7.3.1 General
7.3.4 Initial Information Requirements and
This section outlines the design procedures for Decisions
selecting a form of interchange most suitable for
a particular location. The geometric design of The following information must be collated to
the elements are covered in Clause 704. A form the basis for the selection of the most
series of preliminary designs shall be prepared appropriate type of interchange for a particular
for comparison before final selection and location.
production of a detailed design.
Required Information:
7.3.2 Traffic Flows and Design Year
a) Define the classification of the roads
The major factor influencing junction design is approaching the intersection
safety. However, for the road network to operate
efficiently, new junctions must have sufficient b) Define the carriageway cross-section of
capacity. It is not possible to ensure at the time the roads on each side
of design that a new junction has sufficient
capacity indefinitely. Instead, new and improved c) Define the design speed of the roads
junctions shall be designed on traffic levels
predicted to occur in the Design Year, typically d) Define the proposed opening year for the
20 years after the opening of the schemes, to new facility
ensure that they are free of congestion for a
reasonable period. e) Obtain the existing traffic volumes must
be obtained for the peak hour and apply
Predicted traffic flows shall be based on the growth factors.
existing, observed traffic flows growthed up to
model the Design Year flows. All Junctions and f) Define the location of any constraints to
Interchanges shall be designed using the peak the scheme. These include land
hour flows. The use of peak hour flows will ownership, existing and proposed
model the worst case for traffic congestion. Of utilities, planning constraints, topography,
particular ''l1portance to junction design is the dry wadi courses, flood plains and
volume of traffic undertaking each turning ground conditions.
manoeuvre. All predicted traffic volumes and
turning volumes for the Design Year shall be g) Define the environmental constraints.
agreed with CED Roads. These include proximity to dwellings,
severance of communities, plants of
7.3.3 Junction Spacing Within the Network particular importance, animal habitats
and reguiarly used animal tracks and
In deciding on the form of the interchange the migration routes.
engineer must consider the location within the
overall road network. The aim must be to Having collated the above information, the
produce a consistent junction strategy across following decisions must be made before
the network that maximises safety. Guidance on finalizing the form to be used.
the junction strategy for a particular location
shall be sought from CED Roads. Initial Decisions:
The minimum spacing of consec.utive junctions a) Agree the overall strategy with CED
on a multi-lane road is defined in Clauses 6.104 Roads
and 704.9, and is based on safety requirements
for weaving movements. This minimum spacing b) Agree predicted traffic volumes and
will also allow the design of effective traffic turning volumes with CED Roads
signing and lighting schemes for each junction.
These clearances shall be achieved between c) Decide which turning movements will be
the maximum extent of the consecutive merges accommodated
and diverges for each junction. In no
circumstances shall spacing between junctions
of consecutive interchanges be reduced lower

d) Decide which movements will be given g) Provision for non-motorway traffic and
priority with grade separation and high- non-motor vehicle road users
grade links, and which minor movements
will be accommodated by low-grade links h) Estimate of construction costs
and junctions
The engineer must also consider:
e) Confirm horizontal and vertical
clearances for structures. i) Method of construction
7.3.5 Type of Interchange for Preliminary j) Method of maintenance

Design
k) Environmental effects including
The type of facility must be selected before landscaping
preliminary designs are prepared. The various
types of junction and their relative advantages I) Lighting and signing principles
and disadvantages have also been discussed in
Section 6. For a given location two or more m) Provision of safety fences and barriers.
types of facility may be worked up into
preliminary designs for evaluation. Preliminary designs will be discussed with CED
Roads and approval granted before the
No fixed rules can be given for the selection due engineer progresses to detailed design. Certain
to the multitude of criteria that must be elements of the preliminary designs may need
considered. Each location will have different to be worked up into more detail at the request
governing criteria and it is for the engineer to of CED Roads to fully assess the relative merits
use his experience to select the most of the preliminary designs.
appropriate type for evaluation.
Safety will always be the highest priority.

However, adequate capacity is also important to
reduce congestion and thereby improve safety.
Refer to Section 6.3.
7.3.6 Preliminary Designs
Preliminary designs are prepared for alternative

arrangements to assess suitability and relative
costs. The main elements of the facility must be
defined in sufficient detail and at a suitable
scale to determine the landtake required.
The items to be defined in the preliminary

design include:
a) Safety implications for road users and

non-road users
b) Number of lanes required for each

movement
c) Radii of links and loops
d) Vertical and horizontal clearances for

structures and maximum carriageway
gradients
e) Lengths of ioop roads, slip roads and

merges and diverges
f) Lengths of weaving sections

7.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS Loop Road: A particular form of

connector road where the
7.4.1 Definitions carriageway turns through
an angle of approximateiy
0
Interchanges are made up of distinct elements, 270 in order to
each serving different purposes. Anyone accommodate the traffic
facility may have any number of these elements. movement.
The detailed design of each of these separate
elements is covered in this section. For Weaving Section: The length of carriageway
clarification, they are defined below: between successive
merges and diverges where
Main Road: The carriageway or traffic changes lanes in
carriageways that are given order to reach its chosen
priority, generally by nature exit.
of carrying the highest
volume of traffic. Physical Nose: The point where the
carriageway surfaces of the
Minor Road: The carriageway or main line and the merge or
carriageways that are not diverge separate.
given priority, generally by
nature of carrying iow Painted Nose: The length of chevron
volumes of traffic. marking from the physical
nose to the intersection of
Merge: The area of tapered the merge or diverge with
carriageway where traffic the main road travelled way.
joins the main road.
7.4.2 Design Speed
Diverge: The area of tapered
carriageway where traffic Design speeds for slip roads and link roads are
leaves the main road. related to the design speeds for the main road
as shown in Table 7.1.
Auxiliary Lane: An additional lane added
parallel to the main road and
used in conjunction with a Main Road Urban Rural
merge or diverge carrying Design a) 120kph (a) 140kph
b) 100kph (b) 120kph
higher traffic volumes to Speed
provide extra capacity. Type of Link Slip Link Slip
Connector Road Road Road Road
Connector Road: The length of road that joins Road
merges, diverges, "Give Design a)1200r100 a) 70 a) 140 or 120 a) 80
Way" or "Stop" junctions
Speed b)100orBO b)70 b)120or100 b) 80
within an interchange. Slip,
Link and Loop roads are
types of connector road. Table 7.1 Design Speed for Link and Slip
Roads
Link Road: A particular form of
connector road that joins Where two alternative design speeds are
diverges and merges within shown, the engineer may use the lower if it is
a full Interchange to provide considered that safety will not be compromised.
uninterrupted movement for Where transition curves are used between
design elements within the interchange, the
turning traffic.
transition curve relating to the higher design
Slip Road: The iength of carriageway speed must be used. The appropriate Stopping
between the end of the Sight Distance must always be used. Design
merge or diverge and the speeds on slip roads must not be reduced
"Give Way" or "Stop" line on below the stated values as they terminate with
the junction within the "Stop" or "Give Way" junctions and would
compromise safety.
overall interchange.

7.4.3 Lane Provision and Capacity Provision on Main Road
Lane provision for the main road, slip roads, link Hard Shoulder Edge Strip
roads and loops shall be based on the agreed Slip Terminate hard Continue edge strip
traffic flows as defined in Clause 7.3.2. For Roads shoulder opposite 10 10m before "Give
interchanges, the minimum number of lanes physical nose. way" or "Stop" line
Reduce at 1:30 to
provided on any particular element of the 1.0m edge strip.
junction shall be based on 1600 vehicies per Terminate edge
strip 10m before
lane per hour. The number of ianes shall be "Give Way" or
rounded up to the nearest whole number. "SlOp" line
Link Jf both main roads If both main roads

The engineer may wish to increase the lane Roads have hard have edge strips
provision above the minimum defined above for shoulders, continue continue them along
them along the link the link road.
operational reasons. The 1600 figure is based road. ff not,
on UK acceptabie congestion standards for all terminate hard
shoulder opposite
purpose roads and may not be suitable for all physical nose.
locations in Qatar. Reduce at 1:30 to
1.0m edge strip.
Lane provision for the main road or roads Loops As link roads As link roads
through the junction shall not be less than the
provision either side of the junction except with Table 7.2 Provision of Hard Shoulders and
the approval of CEO Roads. Edge Strips on Connector Roads
Where the minimum lane provision is one lane, 7.4.5 Merges and Diverges at Interchanges
the engineer may wish to add an extra lane to
reduce the potential for problems with broken Within interchange areas, merges and diverges
down vehicles blocking the carriageway or are the iocations where accidents are most
restricted space for maintenance. Any proposed likely to occur. It is essential for the engineer to
changes from the minimum lane provision shall pay particular attention to their layout. Traffic
be agreed with CEO Roads. should be able to leave or join the main road as
smoothly as possible. To this end, the speeds
For the majority of interchanges, the maximum of traffic joining or leaving the main road must
number of lanes provided for connector roads, be similar to that on the main road. Acceleration
is likely to be two. If the lane provision for any or deceleration to the appropriate speed should
particular connector road, is more than two, the take place on the slip road or link road before
engineer may have incorrectly defined which is the merge or after the diverge. The geometry of
the main road and shall refer to CEO Roads for the carriageway or other conditions in the
guidance. vicinity of the merge or diverge must not
impede this smooth flow. Queuing in the area of
7.4.4 Hard Shoulders and Edge Strips the merge or diverge must be avoided.
W here hard shoulders or edge strips Two aiternative types of merge and diverge
(Reference to Section 5.4 and 5.5) are provided shall be used depending on the volumes of
on the main road either side of the interchange, traffic as defined in Clause 7.3.2. They are the
they shall be continued through the interchange. standard taper and the auxiliary lane layout.
For connector roads, the provision of hard The auxiliary lane layout has an additional lane
shoulders or hard strips shall be in accordance parallel to the main road to increase capacity of
with Table 7.2. the merge or diverge taper.
On the main road, the hard shoulder or edge To select a merge layout, hourly flows for the
strip shall continue immediately after the merge and the upstream mainline are inserted
chevrons for the painted nose. into the nomograph Figure 7.9. The
intersection point of the merge and upstream
main line flows will fall within a segment of the
nomograph from which the number of lanes
required on the connector road, and need for
an auxiliary lane are determined.

To select a diverge layout, the procedure is

repeated using the hourly flows for the diverge
and the downstream mainline, and the
nomograph Figure 7.10. The mainline lane
capacity is based on a flow of 1600 veh/hour.
Generally the auxiliary lane layout is used in

locations with higher volumes of traffic. The
auxiliary lane shall be the same width as the
nearside lane of the main road but may be
reduced to a minimum width of 3.5m in urban
areas on approval of CED Roads.
Where the existing mainline lane capacity is

already at a maximum or where exceptionally
large merge or diverge flows are expected,
provision of a lane gain a lane drop may be
required. In these instances, the engineer
should refer to the "Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges, Volume 6 Road Geometry, Section
2 Junctions, Part I TD22192 Layout of Grade
Separated Junctions" and the merge and
diverge layouts should be agreed with CED
Roads.
The standard taper and the parallel taper merge

and diverge are shown in Figures 7.11, 7.12,
7.13 and 7.14. The geometric parameters for
setting out are shown in Table 7.3 for merges
and Table 7.4 for diverges.
Stopping Sight Distance in accordance with the

higher design speed from the adjacent elements
shall be provided over the whole length of the
merge or diverge

\
\
.\
\ ..
\\
...... ......\ \«\
\ ...<>\ . . ~- \--~- \
...••••...•• >•.<.>. \.. ... . ~\< ••....... ~
3000 \ \< 1\> 1\
\ <Y 1<\ I \
2500 .... ···N ·.Forvalues inlhi~area I· \
\ .• >~. ·.icllwgain sh~lIpe.< . I.. \
\~ .considered..Beferto. . \
I····
~
~
:J 2000 \
\ ·1D22/92 I .... . ..
\1> .• •. •.•.• \.1··> >.\
-
0
-'=
-'=
Ql \
G 1500
~
.Q
LL
\ B
'U
Ql
en 1Il
1000 o
~
Ql
0::: \
:;;; ... Q)
\
.s
()
C
1Il
....I \AI
500 Q)
c
c
\ I
o
()
\1
o
Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 3 Lane 4
Upstream Mainline
I I I I I I I
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Upstream Mainline Flow (Veh/hour)

A = Standard Taper
B = Auxiliary Lane
Figure 7.9 Merge Design

.~e b.
~i\~\\ \-?>~e ..\
..se?>~ e'?> \
\)\'S \-?>~. ... \ \
\-?>~e'l-\ \ .. \
.»\.
\ . .... . ....-..
.............. \.>
_ ..1\>
\
\ ..•.•..• --_ 1\ ...
....•
\
\
3000 \>. ·········>··>.··.X· 1\·· •.. ., \
\ ............\[ »\>.[ \
·····N ••• F'Q~valuesinthi~are'"..••[ .\
2500
\ ·~Ia:nedrop shaJlbe. . \
\~ .•.·co.nsidered.RefeHo .[\
2000 \; . T022/9~1[ •.·.·•·. >.>\.•. . .[ . . . \
\\ ••.•>
\ . . .\ \
1500
\... B
"C
1000 o
11I \ [
0:: ..... \ I
.... Ql
o C \
oQl
11I
...J \ A I
500
C
C
\ I
o
c..> \1
a
Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 3 Lane 4
Downstream Mainline
I I I I I I I
a 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
A =Standard Taper Downstream Mainline Flow (Veh/hour)

B =Auxiliary Lane
Figure 7.10 Diverge Design

Road Class Length of entry Taper for min Painted nose Min auxiliary Length of aux lane per
taper (m) angle at length (m) lane length (m) lane provided (m)
(1 ) physical nose (3) (4) (5)
(2)
Rural
140 kph 205 1:40 115 230 75
120 kph 150 1:30 85 190 55
100 kph 130 1:25 75 160 55
Urban
120 kph 130 1:25 75 160 55
100 kph 95 1:15 50 125 40
80 kph 75 1:12 40 100 40
Table 7.3 Geometric Parameters for Merges
Pointed Physical Painted Physical

Taper NOBO Noao Taper Auxiliary Lane Nose Nose
(1) (3) (2) (1) (4)& (5) IS) (2)
:
~~~~~-~--------
---------- -
Figure 7.11 Standard Taper Merge Figure 7.12 Auxiliary Lane Merge
Road Class Length of exit Taper for Painted nose Min auxiliary Length of aux lane per
taper (m) min angle length (m) lane length (m) lane proVided (m)
at physical (4) (5) (6)
1 lane 2 lane nose
(1 ) (2) (3)
Rural
140 kph 170 185 1:15 80 200 75
120 kph 150 150 1:15 70 170 55
100 kph 130 130 1:15 70 150 55
Urban
120 kph 130 130 1:15 70 150 55
100 kph 95 110 1:15 50 125 40
80 kph 75 90 1:12 40 100 40
Table 7.4 Geometric Parameters for Diverges
Physical Painted Physical Palnll,ld

Noso Nose Taper Nose Nose AuxllJary Lane Taper
(3) (4) (1) & (2) (3) I') (5)& (6) (1)& (2)
: =
-----
-------------------------
---------
Figure 7.13 Standard Taper Diverge Figure 7.14 Auxiliary Lane Diverge

7.5 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Detailed guidance on signing is provided in the

Qatar Traffic Manual. As a general point, the
7.5.1 Clearance and Headroom engineer must consider signing requirements at
the preliminary design stage. At this stage the
Clearances and headroom shall be designed in engineer can build in suitable locations and
accordance with Clause 3.7 and 4.6. The visibility splays for the signs.
engineer shall seek guidance from CED Roads
to define if any additionai clearance or 7.5.5 Lighting
headroom is required for specific structures to
accommodate abnormal load routes. Suitable roadway lighting greatly reduces the
potential for accidents throughout the road
7.5.2 Superelevation network. Lighting design is detailed in Section
10. As with signing, the engineer must consider
Superelevation and camber shall be designed lighting requirements at the preliminary design
in accordance with Clause 3.4. Special stage. Lighting columns can have very large
consideration shall be given to the bases which may need special consideration.
superelevation on adjacent design elements.
The engineer must ensure that the entire 7.5.6 Utilities
carriageway will drain efficiently and that there
is minimal risk of long vehicles grounding at Information must be obtained from the Utility
changes of superelevation. Authorities at an early stage of the design.
Diversion or modification to existing or
7.5.3 Safety Fencing proposed equipment can have a major impact
on the design and the cost of an interchange.
Safety fencing shall be provided at locations Utility Authorities may require service
defined in Clause 5.15. Special consideration reservations to be provided through the
must be given to measures at the physical nose interchange to accommodate future equipment
of diverges. High speed vehicles crossing the not yet detailed.
painted nose are at particular risk. The ends of
safety barriers at these iocations must be given 7.5.7 Emergency Vehicles
special treatment to reduce the dangers of
head-on impact. Consideration shall be given to At the preliminary design stage the engineer
the provision of energy absorbing terminations must consider how emergency vehicles could
for these locations. reach the scene of an incident, particularly if the
carriageway is blocked by other vehicles held
Direction and warning signs for interchanges up by that incident. Provision of additional
may be large and possibiy gantry mounted. lateral clearances at structures could be
Consideration must be given to the protection of considered along with emergency median
isolated signs and gantry legs. crossovers with demountable safety fences.
In addition to safety fencing designed to 7.5.8 Maintenance Provisions

mitigate accidents, consideration should be
given to provision of safety fencing to prevent Maintenance of the carriageway is an important
illegal movements within the interchange. long term objective for the network. The
lIiegal movements across the verges between engineer must consider the implications of
slip or link roads are highly dangerous to all maintenance strategies and traffic management
traffic and must be strongly discouraged. on the layout of the proposed interchange. He
must ensure that the facility will be safe to
7.5.4 Signing maintain and that turning movements can be
reasonably accommodated whilst maintenance
Effective and clear signing is essential for the is taking place.
safe operation of any junction. This is
particularly relevant to interchanges where 7.5.9 Environmentallssues
vehicle speed and traffic volumes are high.
Signs at such junctions will be large and Environmental issues shall be considered at the
possibly gantry mounted. Adequate clearance preliminary stage. All reasonable efforts shall be
must be provided for the large foundations made to design out unacceptable environmental
required. impacts. The remaining impacts shall be
mitigated as far as reasonably practical.

One main impact of interchanges is visual

intrusion due to their size. Carefui landscaping
can reduce the impact of large structures above
ground level. A combination of hard and soft
landscaping can usually achieve the best
results. Materials in keeping with the
surroundings should be used, with careful
consideration of colours, textures and styles. In
proposing soft landscaping, the engineHr must
consider how it could be safely maintained
throughout the year, including regular wQtering.
The design of hard and soft landscaping must

not interfere with the operational requirements
of the facility. No landscaping features shall
obstruct stopping sight distances, visibility of
signs or the effectiveness of roadway lighting.

SECTION 8 DRAINAGE Reduces the damaging affect

of pore water build up in the
8.1 INTRODUCTION pavement, formation or
subgrade
8.1.1 Functions of Highway Drainage
Prevents pavement weakening
The requirement for satisfactory road drainage due to ingress of salt lenses
has a direct bearing on the ability to use the from the lower subgrade layers.
road during and after a rainfall event, long-term
serviceability of the road structure, provision of . In the case of exceptional rainfall
an acceptable urban environment and events the road surface itself can be
minimising health risk caused by long term used as a storm carrier:
surface ponding.
Prevents damage to property in
Construction of a highway shall not be allowed flood prone areas
to increase the risk of flooding to properties.
Concentrates flood water to
The highway drainage system must therefore be discharge basins for easy
considered as providing four primary functions, removal.
which due to land use constraints are usually
dealt with differently in urban and rural The engineer shall undertake the following
situations, namely: minimum studies for each highway using the
criteria set out in the clauses in this section:
. Collect precipitation falling on the
highway reservation, adjacent side . Determine the total amount and rate (0)
roads and catchment and convey to a of storm water run-off reaching the point
suitable outfall: under consideration
Reduces the danger of . Select appropriate criteria on limits and

frequency of acceptable flooding
standing water to traffic
Maintains the use of all . Determine points of concentration,

trafficked lanes discharge and hydraulic controls,
together with method of entry into and
Reduces sediment build up at exit from the drainage system
the road side
. Determine the requirement for the
Reduces percolation into the provision of sub-surface drainage.
road structure.
. Guide surface water run-off safely

across or under roadways:
8.1.2 Minor and Major Systems
Drainage of highways is the joint responsibility

Minimises disruption to traffic of the Civil Engineering Department's Roads
Division and Drainage Division. Each Division
Minimises damage to the has defined responsibilities and procedures
pavement or embankment which shall be adhered to when designing
structure highway drainage. These are explained in the
following clauses.
Guides surface water run-off to
suitable discharge points Minor System
The Roads Division is responsible for the design
Minimises road impact on the of the Minor System, nameiy the road drainage,
natural surface hydrology in comprising gullies, soakaways, connecting
rural areas. pipework and storage areas required prior to
discharge into the Drainage Division Network.
. Remove water percolating through the
pavement, lower ground water and
The highway drainage system shall be
designed using parameters defined in this
prevent capillary rise: section. The point of discharge and discharge
parameters listed below, will be provided by the

CEO Drainage Division: For the purpose of highway drainage design the
country shall be considered as haVing the same
Diameter of trunk sewer rainfall characteristics for all regions.
Allowable discharge volume
Invert level of trunk sewer The Total Rainfall and Maximum Rainfall in 24
Location of trunk sewer hours data (Table 8.1a & b) provided from Doha
Acceptable method of discharge into International Airport Meteorological Station
the trunk sewer. provides the longest available rainfall record
and shall be referred to for design purposes.
Major System However, a more onerous review may be
CEO Drainage Division is responsible for the required in specific cases where flood damage
Major System which comprises all the drainage to strategic highways' or property would be
components beyond the agreed interface point severe.
with the minor system:
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Trunk. surface water sewer network Data regarding individual storm events in Qatar
Surface water pumping stations is scarce and generally inadequate. However,
Ground water control networks statistical analysis and comparisons by a
Surface water storage retention number of researchers has established an
areas/tanks. intensity - duration - frequency relationship
which is generally found to stand comparison
The preferred drainage method is by a positive with Bahrain data and to some extent. the
system. However should this not be practical Bilham FormUla. See Figure 8.1 a & b.
due to distance from a suitable discharge point
or economics, agreement to discharge water to 1=25.4 [(1.25 x TIN)"282 - O. 17
the ground or adjacent areas may be sought T
from the Director of the Civil Engineering Where
Department. I = rainfall intensity (mm/h)
T= duration of storm (hours)
8.2 DESIGN CRITERIA N= Probable number of
occurrences in 10 years
8.2.1 Hydrological Data
Run-off Coefficients (C)
Rainfall Characterization Typically. for densely built up areas. there is a
Long term rainfall records for Qatar commenced high run-off for all rainfall intensities. However.
in 1962 and are recorded daily. together with as development becomes more sparse or
other weather information, from a number of ground conditions more pervious the total run-
locations by the Civil Aviation and Meteorology off will reduce. Run-off is also affected by storm
Department of the Ministry of Communications intensity.
and Transport.
Calculation of surface water run-off shall be
Summaries of recorded data are issued made using Figure 8.2 which gives values for
regulariy. run-off coefficients which reflect the above
situations.
Qatar lies in an arid region and annual rainfall
may vary from 20mm to over 300mm per
annum. Individual storms occasionally as
intense as 124mm in a 24 hour period and
54mm in a 3 hour period. have been recorded.
Rainfall is therefore characterised by:
• High variability
• Severe thunderstorms of limited

geographical extent.

State of Qatar
Ministry of Communications & Transport
Department of Civil Aviation & Meteorology
Total Monthly Rainfall (mm)
Station: Doha International Airport

Lat: 25 15N Long: 51 34E Elevation: 11 metres
Year/Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Total
1962 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4
1963 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 106.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 1.5 115.0
1964 23.1 36.3 13.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 155.4 302.8
1965 5.0 1.2 0.0 68.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.0 0.0 87.3
1966 0.0 40.5 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 43.9
1967 0.0 2.0 3.3 13.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 19.2
1968 0.0 40.4 0.0 27.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 68.2
1969 101.8 0.2 0.0 15.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 117.1
1970 10.7 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.2
1971 0.6 5.8 0.0 6.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 15.0
1972 1.6 6.7 57.7 9.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 7.9 84.7
1973 22.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.2
1974 5.8 23.4 16.7 1.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.1 51.9
1975 31,3 46.3 1.1 1.8 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.4 64.9
1976 25.2 53.9 23.1 40.3 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 5.4 45.5 Trace 193.4
1977 41.4 17.9 0.5 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.3 5.1 3.1 90.6
1978 0.0 12.8 1.0 5.9 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 19.7
1979 5.7 0.1 68.9 Trace Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 27.2 101.9
1980 12.7 30.8 6.6 Trace 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 50.6
1981 6.4 2.4 23.4 Trace 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace \33.6
1982 2.7 16.7 102.3 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 20.3 21.2 167.3
1983 8.0 5.4 46.2 6.9 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 68.1
1984 Trace Trace 23.5 Trace 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.2 40.9
1985 1.7 0.0 0.5 Trace Trace 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 Trace 7.5 9.7
1986 4.7 7.4 5.7 32.6 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 27.6 78.0
1988 6.8 130.5 2.7 12.8 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 152.8
1989 Trace 2.0 12.6 2.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.2 43.2 69.7
1990 10.7 13.7 0.6 4.6 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.6
1991 0.3 1.3 26.2 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 31.9
1992 8.7 26.8 1.9 2.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.2 0.0 50.6 103.2
1993 12.1 74.4 2.3 6.4 2.6 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 97.8
1994 0.1 0.5 25.6 3.9 8.6 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 Trace 38.7
1995 0.0 32.4 141.6 6.6 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 60.3 260.9
Mean 12.4 18.7 19.7 8.4 3.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 13.4 80.1
Total 420.2 636.4 668.8 285.2 121.3 0.0 Trace 0.7 Trace 34.9 102.7 454.7 2724.9
Table 8.1 a Total Rainfall - Doha International Airport 1962 - 1995

(Data to be reviewed at regular intervals)

State of Qatar
Ministry of Communications & Transport
Depanmenl of Civil Aviation & Meteorology
Maximum Rainfall in 24 Hours (mm)
Station: Doha Inlernatlonal Airport

Lal: 25 15N Long: 51 34E
Year/Month JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JU, AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Year
1962 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
1963 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 64.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 1.5 64.0
1964 47.0 15.0 13.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 80.1 80.1
1965 3.0 0.6 0.0 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.0 0.0 30.0
1966 0.0 17.6 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.8
1967 0.0 1.5 1.5 6.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1
1968 0.0 25.0 0.0 14.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0
1969 58.0 0.2 0.0 6.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 58.0
1970 6.7 0.0 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.7
1971 0.6 5.B 0.0 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 7.4
1972 O.B 2.5 32.1 4.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 5.9 32.1
1973 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.0
1974 5.4 9.2 9.0 1.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 9.2
1975 20.2 29.3 1.1 1.3 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7 29.3
1976 23.2 23.2 9.4 94.4 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 3.6 45.5 Trace 45.0
1977 10.0 17.9 0.5 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.3 6.1 3.1 17.9
1978 0.0 9.5 0.5 5.6 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 9.5
1960 7.2 20.2 3.0 Trace 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 20.2
1961 6.4 2.4 12.7 Trace 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 12.7
1982 1.6 9.9 40.1 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace Trace 17.3 11.8 40.1
1963 6.0 4.1 17.5 5.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 17.5
1964 Trace Trace 15.2 Trace 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.2 16.2
1985 1.7 0.0 0.5 Trace Trace 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 Trace 3.B 3.B
1986 3.7 6.2 3.4 17.1 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 16.0 17.1
1988 4.1 41.3 2.3 6.7 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 41.3
1989 Trace 1.3 5.0 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 34.9 34.9
1990 7.5 6.B 0.6 2.3 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5
1991 0.2 1.3 14.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 14.7
1992 3.0 20.5 1.6 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.2 0.0 32.7 32.7
1993 5.5 44.6 1.9 2.0 1.6 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Trace 44.6
1994 0.1 0.5 B.B 2.0 B.6 0.0 0.0 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 Trace B.B
1995 0.0 12.0 58.2 3.1 Trace 0.0 Trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.6 58.2
Highest 58.0 44.6 58.2 34.4 64.0 0.0 Trace 0.7 Trace 17.3 45.0 80.1 80.1
Table 8.1 b Maximum Rainfall - Doha International Airport 1962 - 1995.

(Data to be reviewed at regular intervals)

0
N N
jj
..c: '"<'Il
~
1/ E
Q)
>-
J14 J
r ~
-
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/ / 0 a.
11 if ""
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II)
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/
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/ jj
/ 1/ / VI I N
/ j 0
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/ / I /
/
1/ 1/ V
II o
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N N ~ ~
(4/WW) Al!sUalullleJu!e~
Figure 8.1 a Bilham Formula, Intensity - Duration - Frequency Chart (O-4h)

I
J If
/ / I
1/11
/ / / / j
/ ///
/
/ / //j'/
----- ~ ~ ~/ a
C")
a
N
(4/WW) AllsualUI neJuletJ
a
Figure 8.1 b Bilham Formula, Intensity - Duration - Frequency Chart (1-24h)

1.0
• -,0 IRoof Can rete, Surf cinQ

0.9
"'~ ••s Fully Built up
./ C\\'i
.0. ROc .-I -
./ S~ P'\3 \\'I.A~
~ ~ ~
j....---"
,~
---.
Co
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,... l...----"
~
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~r«l w '0,' t:lY ~ \\eo ~
/ [V ,"clP' ~~ .~'f:o.
V
0.7
/ ~, ISP .." ~ ~vv
/
1'7 ,i.<'.?< ,,'1 /' ,,' .-

0 I / k-/ ~1f
/: 0'" 6.0\\..... V
I 1/ ~
.;, ;. 'e>
LL
LL 0.6 • /'
,"'
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0 I I ~ e;.'~oI .....00 '<'- 1>9 0 5"
Z
::J / / IV - ~ V~~ 0 ~ p"
a:: / V ~-a " c~
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0.5
(/)
..... I I
Z
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I / / 0;,"
I I ./
~
LL I I / ./
LL 0.4
W /
0
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I / V
I V
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/ /
/
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0.1 "
II
0.0
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Bo 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
RAINFALL INTENSITY (I) mm/h
Figure 8,2 Run-off Coefficients for Urban Catchments
January 1997 Page8n

Catchment Area (A) At a chosen point the peak flow generally

occurs at the instant all parts of the catchment
Rural are contributing to the flow.
The area to be considered shall incorporate
two parts: The Time of Concentration (Te) is defined as
the interval in time from the beginning of the
• The area of the road corridor subject to rainfall to the time when water from the most
direct precipitation remote part of the catchment reaches the point
under consideration by the engineer.
• The broader naturai catchment area
within which the road runs. The Time of Concentration is a function of the
Specifically, the effect the road may average slope, length 'and roughness of the
have on the natural surface and sub- catchment.
surface drainage of the area.
A number of equations have been developed for
Reference to topographic mapping should be computation of the Time of Concentration for
various methods of flood analysis. However, it
made to assess the catchment area.
is recommended that where the Rational
Method is employed, Manning's equation is
Urban
used for the calculation of flow velocity in
The area to be considered shall incorporate two
gutters, drainage channels or pipes.
parts:
Manning's Equation:
• The area of the road corridor subject to
direct precipitation V= R;;S~
n
• The additional adjacent area assessed
by reference to the Development Plans
Where
and topographic mapping for the area.
V = Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
n = Manning's coefficient of
roughness
The additional area will be dependent on R = Hydraulic radius (metres)
factors such as intensity of development, S = Slope (percent)
provision of flood storage areas, and
contribution from adjacent roads and Time of Concentration:
developments.
Te = -L
Surface Run-off (Q) V
Highway drainage areas to be considered in Where
Qatar are typically less than 50 Hectares. For Te = Time of Concentration
these areas surface run-off (Q litres/second) (seconds)
shall be calculated using the formula: V = Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
L = Length of flow path from the
Q=2.78CIA point of consideration to the
Where furthest catchment extremity
C = Run-off coefficient (metres)
I = Rainfall intensity (mm/h)
A = Area (hectares) For easy reference, when preparing drainage
computations to the Rational Method, the
For areas larger than 50 Hectares, mostly rural engineer may use the nomograph given in
conditions, consideration should be given to Figure 8.3.
assessment of run-off by a combination of
historic observation and generation of storm When considering short duration storms the
hydrographs. The method used shall be rainfall intensity changes rapidly with only a
agreed with CEO. small change in storm duration, (Figure 8.1 a).
Therefore it is important that for small drainage
Time of Concentration (Tc) areas an accurate assessment of Time of
The engineer wishing to size a drainage system Concentration is made. However, due to the
must ascertain the peak rainfall run-off from the necessity for the surface to receive rainfall and
catchment under consideration for the reach a flowing condition the Time of
designated design storm return period. Concentration shall not be reduced to less than
3 minutes.

Permeability (P) The run-off that a positive highway drainage

Permeability of the ground shall be determined system shall be designed for is determined by
by in situ geotechnical testing as described in the Time of Concentration and reference to the
Appendix B of this manuaL acceptable frequency limits provided for the
different highway classes in Table 8.3.
Ideally the permeability will be assessed at a
number of locations aiong a project site and Highway Situation Storm Return
soakaway sizes optimised on the basis of the Classification Period
test results. (years)
Primary Rural 1 in 10
Should geotechnicai data not be available then Urban 1 in 10
reference to Table 8.2 and to records heid by
CEO Roads and Drainage Divisions should Secondary Rural 1 in 5
Urban 1 in 5
assist the engineer. However, where existing
records are used, this shouid be verified by site Tertiary Rural 1 in 2
permeability testing during construction in order Urban 1 in 2
to confirm the design values used.
Table 8.3 Design Return Period - Positive
Soil Type Permeability
System
(m/s)
Where a positive drainage system is not
1 available and drainage is to soakaways, then
Clean gravels
10,1 the 24hrs total rainfall figures given in Table 8.4
shall be used.
10-2
Clean sands Area Description Rainfall
and sand~ 10~
gravel mixtures Residential Areas & 12mm in 24 hours
10~ Minor Roads
Desiccated and
fissured clays Major Roads & 18mm in 24 hours
Very fine 10-5 Commercial Areas
sands, silts and
clayMsilt 10'
Table 8.4 Design Total Rainfall - Soakaway
laminate
System
. 10-7
Where the highway is required to cross a water
1O-e
Unfissured clays and clay-silts
course, the acceptable frequency limits against
(>20% clay) 10-9 flooding and damage from natural water
courses given in Table 8.5 shall be maintained:
. Special measures required In thiS range.
10- 10
Highway Situation Storm Return

Table 8.2 Typical Permeability Classification Period
(years)
8.2.2 Design Return Period Primary Rural 1 in 50
Urban 1 in 50
The design of an economic surface water Secondary Rural 1 in 20
drainage system is related to the acceptable risk Urban 1 in 20
Tertiary Rural 1 in 10
against flooding. Though Qatar is an arid Urban 1 in 10
country, when storms occur, the disruption and
damage caused can be considerable. However,
to provide a complete, risk free, surface water Table 8.5 Design Return Period - Natural
drainage system would be prohibitively Surface Run-off
expensive. The following Design Return Period
tables list the minimum storm return periods to
be used in the design of surface water systems.
The engineer may chose a reduced level of risk

if a specific project requires this.

If there is a requirement to utilise the road as a • Catchments where the contributing

storm run-off carrier in the case of a major area does not increase uniformly with
rainfall event then advice regarding the time can produce erroneous results.
acceptable frequency limits for individual
situations should be obtained from the CED Hydrograph Methods
Drainage Division. This will typically reflect Suitable for larger urban catchments where
those shown on Table 8.6. storage in pipes and above ground becomes
significant, and for calculation of overland flow
Classification of Area Subject to Flood Storm in larger rural catchments for the sizing of
Return culverts and retention ponds.
Period
Hospital/Airport 1 in 100 Storm hydrographs should be built up from

Industrial 1 in 50 existing known storm data. However, this
Prestigious Commercial 1 in 20 information is currently not widely available in
Government Offices and Private Offices 1 in 20
Residential & Light Commercial 1 in 10
Qatar and hydrographs such as a UK summer
storm are considered generally equivalent to
Qatar storms and therefore suitable for use in
Table 8.6 Design Return Period - Areas hydrograph models.
If an area forms a boundary with no natural Design of larger diameter piped systems should
outlet for surface run-off then higher acceptable take account of pipe storage and proprietary
frequency limits may apply. CED Drainage computer software models should be used at
Division should be consulted further for advice. the direction of CED Roads to optimize system
design.
8.2.3 Design Method
Retention ponds, storage tanks and hydraulic
Surface water drainage design should be restrictors shall be modelled using methods as
submitted to the CED Roads Design Section for agreed with CED Roads.
approval as part of the project detail design
report. Detail design should utilise the Soakaway Design
information provided within this Design Manual. Soakaways should be considered for surface
Basic design methods to be used are as follows: water drainage in areas where a positive
system is not available or economics preclude
Lloyd Davis Rational Method the use of a positive system.
Suitable for the majority of surface water
drainage systems enVisaged in Qatar, ego Minor However, areas of high groundwater table shall
branch connections to a major trunk sewer not be considered suitable for soakaways. In
designed by others. The relevant storm and these areas positive systems shall be provided
catchment parameters given in this section are with outfalls to EFA's, storage/retention tanks or
used to calculate surface water discharge flows pumping stations.
and the piped system is sized to suit these flows.
Where permeability has been accurately
A standard calculation sheet to be completed assessed with confidence and where its long
and submitted with designs is given in Figure term availability through maintenance is without
8.4. doubt, then ground permeability can be
considered within the design of the soakaway.
A number of important points need to be In all other situations the soakaway shall be
considered by the engineer utilising this method. considered a storage chamber and shall be
capable of storing the total rainfall requirement
• Simple to use of Table 8.4, below carriageway formation level.
• Larger catchments can provide

conservative results, typically when
Each gully shall be connected to an individual
soakaway, except at junctions where areas to
chosen pipe diameters exceed 600mm be drained are reduced due to gully/channel
requirements.
• Care should be taken in selecting run-off
coefficients and rainfall intensities for Soakaways shall be positioned in accordance
use in the equations. with the reservation cross-sections given in
Section 5.
January 1997 Page 8110

Soakaways can introduce localised subsidence

due to wash out of fines. As such, they shall not
be positioned under the carriageway, shoulder or
parking area or within 5m of a structure (subject
to geotechnical advice).
Soakaways shall be sized and located so as not

to introduce water to the pavement construction.
Soakaways should be constructed with a rising

piece to enable shallow utilities to pass above
the main chamber.
In particular situations the engineer can consider

linking soakaways by pipe connections at invert
or intermediate levels. However, he should
ensure that this is not going to merely
concentrate the surface water at the road valley
point.
Where the existence of a perched water table

has been established by geotechnical
investigation, CED Drainage shall be consulted
regarding the use of combinations of boreholes
and soakaways to discharge to lower aquifers.
It should be noted that in some areas lower
aquifers may be under a piezometric head or
utilised for potable water purposes.
When a road is reconstructed or a piped

drainage system is installed in an existing road,
the original soakaways are unlikely to be either
efficient or undamaged by corrosion and will
need to be removed or renovated.

o
o
o
1\ 1\
1\
1\ 1\ 0
0
1\ 1\ '"
1\
1\
E
1\ 1\ 1\ 0
0
N
S
1\ 0
1\ ....J
1\ 1\ LL
0 0
1\ 0 Z
1\ ~
«
....J
~
1\ 1\ 1\1\ 1\ W
0
0 >
o 0
~o 0
'" 0
P., o~ ~r< r\ LL
0
}:: 1\ 1\ 1\ I
1\ I-
0
I~ N <.9
1\ 1\ 1\ Z
<iJ W
....J
0
~
1\
'"
~
~ c:
~
~
E
N
V W
U
'" «
LL
... ~
r>' ::J
'" (j)
~
... W
>
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0
....J
itt;~. W
~~
>
«~
0
~
N l-
LL
0
0
'" W
V ...
0
0
::;];
I-
'"0
<0
Figure 8.3 Time of Concentration - For Use with Rational Method

t..
III
::l
<:
III
J:!
<0
c
Cil
"~
~ :lJ
'<
~ '"
:.. ::r:
l5
'"'"
--l
(f)
0- STORM SEWER DESIGN COMPUTATIONS ::r:
~o
:3 Location of Pipe Diff. in Length Pipe Velocity Time of Time of Rainfall Impermeable Area (Ha) Flow Pipe papaclly Flow Velocity Velocity Femark
(f) Dia
ro Level Slope Flow Conc. Intensity !capacily Full
:;: From To (m) (m) (m/s) (min) (min) (mm/h) Roads Cut Other Total (m'/s) (mm) (m'/s) Velocity (m/s)
ro
~
m
(f)
0
ro l5
w
cO·
z
::J :s:
0 >
z
0
3 c:
"0
C
>
,...
§:
o·
:J
-n
0
:3
(f)
'1J m
III
to
C1l
g
oZ
~
ex>
'"
8.3 URBAN DRAINAGE 8.3.2 Urban Catchment
8.3.1 Introduction Urban development causes changes to the run-

off process by both altering the route and
Drainage of highways in urban areas of Qatar is surface characteristics over which the run-off
achieved using the major and minor systems flows.
described in Clause 8.1.2 and constructed and
maintained by the CED Roads and Drainage Highways form a part of the urban catchment
Divisions. and the highway engineer must carefully
consider adjacent development and its
Highway drainage shall be provided for all discharge points and Gharacteristics in order to
urban roads. accurately assess the total catchment that may
be contributing to the highway drainage system
Rainfall falling within the catchment area shall under design.
be collected and disposed of within the highway
limits or to a designated outfall point. Surface The urban catchment provides the engineer
run-off shall not be allowed to shed outside the with further points for consideration; that of
highway reservation unless to a specified availability of discharge points for the collected
discharge point. Surface water shall not be water, and the environmental damage due to
allowed to stand within the highway reservation increasing build up of pollutants washed into the
for an extended period of time so as to cause highway drainage system.
public nuisance or a health hazard.
8.3.3 Positive Drainage
It is important that the highway drainage
requirements are established early in the design
process to ensure that adequate reservation Positive drainage is preferred in all urban
space is provided and service utilities routed to situations. Water collected is piped or
avoid possible clashes, particularly with channelled to a discharge point from whence it
soakaways. Refer to typical cross-sections in can be collected and discharged away from
Section 5. roads and developed areas.
Drainage problems can often be alleviated by Highway drainage by positive means involves
the engineer considering the layout of the road discharging run-off to a point advised by the
system and planning of a new development in CED Drainage Division for onward transmission
harmony with the natural drainage of a by the Trunk Sewer System.
catchment.
The roadway can be used to provide the
following functions: Rain falling on the road surface builds up and
presents a hazard to vehicles both during and
• Guide overland flow after storms. It is therefore necessary to
provide drainage to the carriageway by a
• Isolate drainage catchments into combination of transverse and longitUdinal
manageable sizes gradients, shedding to water collection points
and a distribution system.
• Increase the drainage path and hence
time of concentration Typical topography in urban areas of Qatar,
where roads are kerbed, requires slack
• Provide additional flood storage area gradients to minimise the appearance of a roller
coaster road and reduce fill requirements. The
• Provide a drainage reservation to the
area discharge point.
minimum gradient criteria to be used are given
below:
Open areas such as parks, school yards, car

parks etc. can provide storage areas should the
• Transverse gradients of 2% are
provided as normal for drainage off the
drainage system be unable to cope with area travelled way to the channel
surface water run-off. Their location should
therefore be carefully chosen at the planning
stage to make the best use of topography and
drainage constraints.

• Minimum longitudinal gradients of 0.3%

should be provided to drain the edge of
To maintain gully performance under the
influence of wind borne debris and dust and to
a travelled way to a discharge point improve collection under the effect of high
rainfall intensity, it is preferred that gullies are
However, a desirable minimum constructed as pairs.
longitudinal gradient of 0.5% is to be
provided, where practical Valley points of large catchments should be
located in areas where flooding would present
• Care shall be taken at junctions and
areas of superelevation to ensure that
minimal hazard or disruption, or where
additional water storage or dispersion is
the combination of transverse and available. ie Emergency Flood Areas (EFA),
longitudinal fall does not create a flat parks and gardens, trunk storm sewers etc.
zone in the carriageway
Gullies shall be linked to the disposal system,
• In particular cases, a rolling crown may
be used as an alternative to
by piped connections.
superelevating channel lines to avoid The preferred minimum gradient for gully
flat zones, Figure 8.5. The length of the connections is 1%. However, gradients of 0.5%
rolling crown is determined using the are acceptable should situations dictate.
same formula as that for applying
superelevation (refer to Clause 3.4). Maximum gully connection length is 36m.
Should longer lengths be required then
intermediate manholes or catchpits shall be
~_-,r,------,Smooth crown included in the scheme to facilitate cleaning.
Utilities shall be located so as not to provide a

x-x hindrance to the drainage system installation
and maintenance or increase the chance of
damage during utility maintenance works.
Storm sewer design shall be in accordance with

CED Roads and Drainage Divisions' design
gUides and specifications. Storm sewers shall
cater for the flows computed from the design
criteria in this Section and any additional flows
advised by CED Roads or Drainage Divisions at
the project commencement.
Figure 8.5 Typical Detail of a Rolling Crown
Across a Single Carriageway
Drainage collection points in urban areas should

typically be prOVided by gullies located along
the channel or gutter. On gradients of 0.5% or
less the flow of water to the gullies can be aided
by the use of channel blocks. Gully spacing is
a function of grating size, road gradient and
crossfall and acceptable flow width at the
channel. Standard gully spacings and criteria
are given in Figure 8.6.
Where standard criteria do not apply, the

engineer should consider reducing the gully
spacing or referring the specific case to more
detailed calculation procedures.
On roads with longitudinal falls, valley points

shall be provided with double gullies to aid
water collection.

200
NOTE
190
Graph depicts
Longitudinal gradient
180 at channel given as %
- Flood width of 1.0m
170 - Crossfall2%
- Heavy Duty Grating
160
150
\
140
\ \
130
\ \
120 \ 1\
\
E \
(') 110
z
0
« 100
\ 1\
50~
0..
(j)
>-
...J 90
\
\
...J
::::>
""I~
(')
80
70
1\
\
'" 1'-"" ""
2~
...........
60
50
\
"\ ~
----
~
40
30
"""i'--
0.3%
...........
---
20
-----I--r-..r--
10
0
2 3 '" 4 5 ",6 7 8 9 10 11 12
<D <D
'"r--
'" '"
IMPERMEABLE WIDTH (m)
Figure 8.6 Gully Spacing

8.3.5 Drainage of Medians, Footways and They are to be used in situations where run-off
Verges from sizeable catchments would become
trapped at a valley point and consequential
Medians flooding would cause damage to adjacent
Medians in urban areas are normally paved or properties or render a road impassable with no
landscaped with planting. Paved medians shall equal adjacent route available for detours.
be sloped to shed run-off onto the adjacent
carriageway for collection by the carriageway Water should not be allowed to pond for
drainage system. Landscaped areas in extended periods so as to cause a health
medians shall be edged so as to prevent run-off hazard.
from these areas taking soil and plant debris
onto the carriageway. Emergency Flood Areas shall therefore be
prOVided with:
Footways
Footways shall normally be sloped at 2% . A location where water can be easily
towards the carriageway to shed run-off onto pumped by tanker or temporary
the carriageway. pumping station.
Where new highways are to be constructed in .. Borehole soakaways to aid discharge to

areas of existing development, care must be the ground water table, where
taken to ensure road levels are set to allow the investigation has shown this is
footway to slope from the property threshold to achievable.
the carriageway. Areas of wide paving may
require sloping to additional collection points .. Permanent surface water pumping
away from the carriageway. These collection station and rising main connected to the
points must be suitable for pedestrian traffic to trunk sewer system.
cross without risk of injury and must be situated
so as not to be a hindrance to maintenance In order to make the best use of land in
access. developed areas it is normal practice to design
EFA's as sports fields, parks, playing fields, car
It is the duty of adjacent property owners to parks etc.
prevent significant run-off across the footway by
the introduction of collection channels. This is EFA's that are not landscaped or utilised for
particularly relevant in the case of polluting run- other purposes have a tendency to collect
off such as from petrol station forecourts. rubbish and become an eyesore.
Collected water may be added to the highway EFA's should be considered a potential
drainage system once cleaned of grit, oil and drowning and disease hazard. Where possible
other pollutants. they should be kept shallow and spread over a
large area. This helps evaporation and
Verges dissipation and presents a less deep water
Verges with hard landscaping shall be sloped to hazard. Side slopes should be gentle to allow
shed water towards the carriageway. Where easy exit and marker posts should be located
soft landscaping is prOVided then it shall be around the rim to identify the deeper area in
edged and sloped to prevent run-off from times of heavy flooding.
depositing soil and plant debris onto the
adjacent pedestrian or trafficked surfaces, or Prior to designing EFA's the prevailing
into property thresholds. Areas of raised groundwater table should be ascertained to
planting which incorporate drain holes shall ensure the excavation does not allow standing
incorporate a filter membrane to prevent water to remain. Soakaways or boreholes can
washout of soil onto adjacent areas. be constructed in the base of the EFA to
encourage water dissipation.
8.3.6 Emergency Flood Area (EFA)
Emergency Flood Areas are portions of land set

aside, within or adjacent to the highway reserve,
that are used for additional storage of
exceptional run-off generated by storms greater
than those normally designed for.

8.3.7 Maintenance Strategy 8.4.3 Drainage of the Carriageway
All highway drainage systems shall be designed In order to reduce surface build up of rainfall
with future maintenance procedures being and the consequent hazard to vehicles both
considered. during and after storms, it is necessary to
provide drainage to the carriageway by a
Routine maintenance will be required due to combination of transverse and longitUdinal
build-up of wind blown debris and settled gradients shedding onto the verge and adjacent
sediments in gutters, gullies and pits. land:
Exceptional maintenance should be limited by

good design and construction practices.
• Transverse gradients of 2% are
provided as normal for drainage of the
travelled way.
CEO Highway Maintenance Section are the
responsible authority for the maintenance of the • Longitudinal gradients are not
highway drainage system, including EFA's and considered for drainage purposes on
storage areas not in the Trunk Storm Sewer unkerbed roads. However, care must
System. be taken during the design of
superelevated sections to avoid flat
CEO Drainage Division are the responsible zones in the carriageway.
authority for maintenance of the Trunk Storm
Sewer System. In areas where carriageway edge run-off could
damage verges or steep embankments then
8.4 RURAL DRAINAGE edge kerbing or edge channels shall be
provided to collect water to discharge points.
8.4.1 Introduction
Discharge points would include gullies and
Drainage of highways in rural areas of Qatar precast channels.
can be considered as two cases:
8.4.4 Drainage of Medians and Verges
• Drainage of rainfall falling onto the road
and highway reservation Medians
Medians in rural areas would normally be
• Drainage of natural overland flows. unkerbed and unpaved.
Drainage of run-off from the road and highway The median should be sloped away from the
reservation shall normally be achieved by carriageway to prevent run-off washing soil
shedding onto adjacent land. debris onto the road.
8.4.2 Rural Catchment Where run-off is collected from long sections of

gradient, median outlets should be provided at
The engineer is not usually faced with the wadi and valley points to prevent water ponding
problem of catching and dissipating rainfall as in and flooding onto the carriageway. Alternatively
urban situations, but is allowing run-off to flow the median may be broken into individual
generally unimpeded on its natural course. catchment segments and surface water allowed
to percolate into the embankment or evaporate.
Rural catchments are often extensive and can Median ditches, if required, should have a
build considerable volumes of water in their maximum side slope of 1 in 6 and shall be
lower reaches during even moderate storm designed such that water in the ditch cannot
events. percolate into the road construction, see Figure
8.7.
Considerable care should be taken in assessing
the size, slope and surface characteristics of the Where ditches are required to facilitate
catchment (refer to Figure 8.2) and applying the subsurface drainage, it is important to ensure
appropriate design storm (refer to Table 8.5). that adequate outlets or storage volume is
provided.

In areas of steep cutting, ditches should be

located so they are not filled with loose debris
from the cutting. In areas where natural surface
------.,If-' -"'M"'.dria"'n'----~ _ _ ____if---- run-off is high it may be necessary to install a
I slo
, I ditch setback from the top of cuttings to prevent
rainfall damaging the cutting face.
2~.L J~
"LJ ~ ~ "
17% 17% u 8.4.5 Natural Surface Drainage
-P=j~:----",2.",5-'-I."I---'2",.5'------<:F+ Where a highway crosses a wadi, the wadi
Ditch1profile
SL column catchment characteristics, design storm and
typically class of road will determine the type of road
--"''''-~~~~T~O~PyOf=D~i~!C~h==:c;r-lJ~5~~8omcle crossing required. It is normal practice to allow
ar~ge~~:~~:::§::::::-
run-off even from small catchments, to cross
Longitudinal Section
on Centreline Rainwater storage under the road so as to minimise disruption to
the natural surface flow.
Culverts
Fig 8.7 Typical Median Ditch A culvert is a covered channel or pipeline used
to convey a watercourse under the road. It
Verges and Ditches consists of an inlet, one or more barrels and an
Verges in rural areas shall be sloped to shed outlet.
water away from the carriageway.
Typically, culvert barrels will be constructed
At the back of the verge a shallow ditch may be from concrete or steel pipes or boxes. Inlets
provided to both collect and transport and outlets may be constructed with gabions,
carriageway run-off and catch minor area run- mattresses, stone pitching or concrete.
off for transport to wadiis along the route.
The hydraulic characteristics of a culvert are
The designer shall ensure that ditches are not complex due to the number of flow conditions
located so they can introduce surface water to that can occur. The highway engineer shall
the pavement construction. Normal practice is consult specialist literature in his design of
to ensure the ditch invert is a minimum of O.3m culverts and shall choose the most appropriate
below the carriageway formation level at the culvert for the specific purpose considering the
outer edge of the carriageway. following general constraints:
Ditch dimensions and shape shall be designed

following consideration of its location and
• Preferred minimUm pipe culvert
diameter 800mm
impact on highway safety together with the
following hydraulic considerations: • Minimum pipe culvert diameter 450mm
contributing catchment
appropriate storm duration
• Flooding against embankments is
acceptable short term. Freeboard to
gradient edge of carriageway to be a minimum
roughness coefficient of lining/surface of O.5m for the design storm.
In most cases it is expected that rural ditches

will be unlined. Permissible depths of flow for
• Embankment slopes of 1 in 6 or greater
do not normally require protection
unlined channels are given in Figure 8.8. against washout due to short term
ponding. Long term ponding may
Shallow side ditches are not normally graded to require embankment slopes of 1 in 10.
proVide a fall but follow the road profile.
The engineer shall balance embankment height
Ditch slopes should not present a significant with culvert height to provide a satisfactory
hazard to traffic leaving the road during an technical and economic solution.
accident. Side slopes of 1 in 6 or shallower
should suffice for this.

Fords
Where wadi flows are exceptionally high or the
road requires a low storm design return period
and is lightly trafficked, culverts may prove
impractical. The engineer may therefore
consider incorporating a dry ford or vented dry
ford. In designing a dry ford, care must be
exercised to ensure driver awareness of the
potential hazard. Guide posts should be
positioned adjacent to the carriageway to assist
traffic positioning and advance signing shouid
be used to indicate the dry ford to approaching
drivers.
Specific attention must be paid to minimising

scour and the prevention of carriageway
surfacing and edge loss. Verges, medians and
embankment slopes should be protected by
impervious layers or rock. Washout of
embankment fines should be prevented by the
use of filter layers or impermeable membranes.

I
o
Cf)
/ ......
c
/
/ o~
N
-CO
( /)
(/)
Q)
0::
/ I
c
I o
II
Q)
- (/)
0
/ eft. Q.. '-
10 0 W
OCf)
,/ / Q)
, c
1/
/ ~c
I o CO
C'!.c: o
I O() Cf)
/ Q)
/ o~ .Q
I "<'"""
"0
I I
o o
'-
/ W
/ /
I 1/
/
eft.
"<'"""
"<'"""
o•
00
o
o
(w) '4ldea MOl.:! WnW!Xel/\l
Figure 8.8 Permissible Depths of Flow for Unlined Channels

8.5 JUNCTION DRAINAGE Lightweight Glass Reinforced Concrete (GRC)

embankment channels are easily installed to
8.5.1 Introduction prevent washout of embankment slopes at
areas of run-off concentration such as at kerb
Effective drainage of the carriageway at ends.
junctions is particularly necessary for two
reasons: 8.5.2 Drainage at Junctions
• The need to retain surface grip to Carriageway crossfalls and longitUdinal

enable the safe stopping, starting and gradients at junctions are used to channel
turning manoeuvres routinely water to collection points. The following are
undertaken by vehicles at these examples of satisfactory crossfall layouts with
iocations. typical collection points:
• The need to maintain the traffic system

capacity, particularly at major junctions
T-Junctions (Figure 8.9)
makes it essential that flooding of lanes • Constant camber maintained on major

and reduction in junction capacity is road
avoided.
The following criteria must be considered to

• Longitudinal gradient on major road
maintained across minor road throat
satisfy the above requirements:
• Longitudinal gradient maintained on
• Satisfactory transverse gradients must
be maintained, particularly on the
minor road to major road channel line
approach to "Stop" or "Give Way" lines • Constant transverse gradient on minor

road maintained to radius tangent
• Longitudinal gradients must be carefully
chosen to keep slack sections of
points
channel to a minimum • Gully positions chosen to prevent flow

crossing the minor road entry/exit.
• Where slack gradients are unavoidable
the transverse gradient should be a
minimum of 2%
• It is preferred to maintain the major
carriageway transverse gradients
through cross roads or small signalized
• Collection points must be carefully sited
to avoid ponding or run-off across
junctions.
carriageways from one channel to

another
MAJOR ROAD
• Collection points must link to an easily

-}---------,t--------{-
maintainable disposal system with
adequate capacity. --r?
Junctions should preferably be situated away ~
from valley points for large catchments to
,I
prevent flood concentration at these points. I MINOR ROAO
Locating junctions adjacent to trunk sewers or
EFA's to provide additional drainage facilities
should also be considered.
EI GULLY I
Urban junctions should always be kerbed and l ..... DIRECTION OF DRAINAGE
are therefore drained by gullies to the disposal

system.
Rural junctions would normally be kerbed Figure 8.9 Typical Drainage at T-Junctions
however an economic collection and disposal
method may be achieved by flush kerbs located
at collection points with shallow lined channels
removing the water to the adjacent ground.

Large Signalized Junctions (Figure 8.10)
.. Transverse gradients to be maintained

at approach to "Stop" lines & pedestrian
crossings
.. Longitudinal gradients to be satisfactory

to prevent a large flat area being
created at the intersection point
.. Transverse gradients on right turn slips

to provide superelevation
.. Valleys created in siips to have

adequate collection and disposal points
.. Additional guliies placed at collection

points serving a large surface area
.. Gully positions chosen to prevent flow

crossing carriageways.
Roundabouts (Figure 8.11)
.. Transverse gradients maintained at

approached to "Give Way" lines
.. Longitudinal gradients to continue to be

maintained on approaches and
departures
.. Channel of central island to fall to one

collection point
.. Transverse gradients provide

superelevation for right turners or those
circulating
.. Gullies positioned to prevent cross

carriageway run-off.

--I Ill! GULLY
t
-.. DIRECTION OF DRAINAGE
t t l t t
,
- - ~---;m - F~-+ --§=J- -'- / - - -
, , ,
Figure 8.10 Typical Drainage at Large Signalised Junction
• GULLY
. . . DIRECTiON OF DRAINAGE
/ ,,
/
," ,
/
;f
t
---
+
-- +
, '- ;f
",,
/
/
/
-f-
I
Figure 8.11 Typical Drainage at Roundabouts

8.6 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE . Tidal coastal areas where the water

table varies close to the surface.
8.6.1 Introduction
It is preferred that a soils investigation is
Water can be introduced to the pavement by: undertaken to assist in deciding the need for
subsurface drainage.
. Rainfall permeating
wearing and base
through
courses
the
(old 8.6.2 Subsurface Drainage Methods
pavements)
. Rainfall permeating through the verges

and medians
High Groundwater
In areas of existing developm~nt where high or
rising groundwater is likely to bring moisture to
the formation level, a collection and disposal
. High groundwater table at the formation system shall be installed to lower the water
due to natural water table or seasonal table.
ponding
It is normal practice that this is performed by the
.. Capillary rise from groundwater near installation of a perforated land drain below the
the formation. carriageway, together with a positive surface
water drainage system. This would normally be
Where these situations are present, subsurface undertaken by the CED Drainage Division as
drainage is required to prevent build up of pore part to the Trunk Sewer Network. In these
water within the pavement, formation and locations, soakaways shall not be used for
subgrade. Increase in pore water can weaken drainage.
the pavement by:
Alternatively, in rural areas, the provision of side
. Transferring loads to lower (weaker)
sections of the pavement through
ditches can serve the dual function of
intercepting overland flow and aid in the
increase in pore water pressure lowering of groundwater local to the road
structure.
. Washout of fines by movement of pore
water Coastal Areas
. Increase in salt content in pavement

layers and subsequent swelling due to
In tidal coastal areas, sabkha is likely to be
present as an indication of a high groundwater
table.
capillary rise when appreciable
quantities of salt are present in the In these situations capillary rise of up to 1.0m
sUbgrade can draw saline water up to the road formatioA
. Swelling in susceptible material,

followed by shrinkage or drying out.
ievel, depositing salt lenses and increasing pore
pressure.
This is generally prevented by:

SubSUrface drainage is not normally detailed in
Qatar as it is rarely a problem. Low lying areas .. Construction of high embankments
are normally filled prior to development to raise
them sufficiently above the groundwater table. .. Introduction of a granular capillary
Roads are generally constructed on break layer below the formation.
embankments in areas of high groundwater as
they are usually subject to flood inundation General Design Consideration
during storms. The highway engineer should consider the
introduction of water to the formation as likely to
Subsurface drainage is therefore only happen due to annual rainfall and irrigation of
considered necessary in the following plants in the median and verges.
situations:
. Areas of existing development and

rising groundwater levels
In most cases the dry granular nature of the
typical Qatar subgrade layers means the pore
pressure rise due to percolation is slight.

However, to provide an additional safety factor

against this occurrence, the following measures
• Slope the formation to drain away from

the carriageway to the verge or median
• Avoid steps in the formation that could

lead to water concentration points
• Keep planting areas separated from the

pavement construction to prevent
moisture transfer
• Ensure planting area watering is

effectively controlled to prevent over
watering
• Utilise surface water drainage details

that will reduce the chance of
accidental damage and maintenance
problems
• Ensure soakaways do not introduce

water to the pavement construction.

SECTION 9 PAVEMENT DESIGN The sub-base is a granular layer to support the

roadbase and its thickness is determined by the
9.1 INTRODUCTION strength of the underlying subgrade. In addition
to providing adequate support to the roadbase,
9.1.1 General the sub-base must be able to carry construction
traffic without developing excessive ruts.
The pavement designs described in this manual
replace those given in the 1989 Highway The subgrade is the top layer of the earthworks
Design Manual issued by the Civil Engineering and depending on the road geometry, will be
Department of the Ministry of Public Works. either cut or fill.
Unlike the previous designs, based on the road
hierarchy and a standard subgrade, the new In rigid pavements, the asphalt wearing course
designs described in this section are based on and roadbase are replaced by a high quality
the cumulative traffic over a definite design life concrete slab, with or without reinforcement.
(normally 20 years) and three subgrade The sub-base is normally cement bound rather
strengths. The designs are set out in catalogue than just granUlar, to ensure a robust surface on
format and the technical basis for these is which to erect side forms and joint assemblies
described in an Annex at the end of this section. and to minimise any pumping of fine material
through slab joints.
All materials, methods of construction and
tolerance used for road pavements must be in FleXible-composite pavements consist of a
accordance with the Qatar Construction cement bound roadbase with asphalt surfacing.
Specification (QCS). The Civil Engineering As the cement bound material normally cracks
Department (CEO) laboratory should be transversely due to shrinkage and temperature
consulted during both the design and warping, the surfacing must be thickened to
construction stages of any project to ensure that provide insulation, to reduce the temperature
the latest material specifications are being gradient in the roadbase, and to prolong the
used. period for crack development through the
surfacing.
The various types of pavement constructions
described herein may be used for kerbed or un- In pre-cast block paving, the asphalt surfacing
kerbed roads, in locations with or without is replaced by a layer of concrete blocks
positive drainage. Any requirement for kerbing bedded on a course of sand. This pavement
and drainage will depend upon the exact nature type is only used in areas of low speed traffic,
and location of the road - refer to Section 8. typically in parking areas, or when a contrasting
appearance is required for areas such as
9.1.2 Typical Pavement Structures median strips.
A typical flexible pavement structure is shown in 9.1.3 Road Deterioration

Figure 9.1. It comprises a wearing course laid
upon roadbase and sub-base layers, and the Generally, pavements gradually deteriorate with
subgrade. time under the influences of environment and
traffic. The environmental deterioration can take
The wearing course must provide a skid the form of hardening of the bitumen in the
resistant running surface and should be both surfacing which can lead to excessive
crack and rut resistant. However, due to its brittleness and cracking, or to salt damage of
exposure to the extremes of temperature and thin surfaced roads built on or with salt-rich
high wheel load shear stresses, the wearing materials. Poorly designed or maintained
course will probably deteriorate and require drainage can lead to weakening of pavement
replacement before the rest of the pavement. layers or the foundation which then deforms
Resurfacing is likely to be required at intervals under traffic loading. Traffic-related
of approximately 6-8 years during the life of the deterioration can take many forms including the
road. development of ruts, general unevenness of the
road surface, with a consequent loss of riding
The roadbase is the main structural layer of the quality, and cracking which can lead to pop-outs
pavement and may consist of either asphaltic and potholes.
concrete or granular material (gravel or crushed
stone) for medium traffic levels, but only
asphaltic concrete for high traffic levels. Its
thickness is determined by the amount of traffic
which is expected during the design life.

~I
Wearing Course (40mm layer of asphalt concrete, Gabbro aggregate)
~
Roadbase (Generally, asphalt concrete, Limestone aggregate 110 - 230mm thick
dependant on traffic. For traffic less than 5 million standard axles,
- granular material can be used for part of this layer)
",r
m" Sub-base (Granular layer, varying between 100 and 200mm
depending on subgrade strength)
, Formation
, ,, ,"'.9
,'.' '.'
, , ,, , , Subgrade (In-situ or imported, CBR > 15%)
, ,, ,
,'.'
, ,,,, , ,,
Va'"
,, , ,,
,
Figure 9.1 Typical Pavement Layers
Determining when a pavement has "failed" or is rarely so. The importance of good practice in
no longer providing the intended level of service quarrying, material handling and stockpiling to
is not simple. Generally the deterioration is very ensure this randomness and also to minimise
slow and variable. Criteria for "failure" can be variations themselves cannot be over
set such as rut depth, roughness, deflection or emphasised.
even the level of maintenance expenditure or
total quantity of patching. Sometimes a road fails to carry traffic
satisfactorily to the end of its design life
Occasionally, major deterioration can occur because the traffic is considerably greater than
over a relatively short period of time when, say, predicted. Proper axle load assessment and
a low quality, moisture susceptible sub-base reliable traffic forecasting are essential to
becomes wet due to surface cracking or a rise prevent this. However in some circumstances
in groundwater level. However, distress at the this is very difficult and either a generous
surface of the pavement does not necessarily contingency will have to be provided or the
indicate the structural failure of the road. traffic and/or pavement regularly monitored so
Surface cracking and rutting within the wearing that strengthening can be carried out before the
course material may be treated without the pavement is seriously weakened.
need for major structural maintenance, as the
main structural layer of the road, the roadbase, 9.2 TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
could be completely undamaged.
9.2.1 Introduction
9.1.4 Variability in Materials and Road
Performance Pavement deterioration under trafficking is due
to both the magnitude of the wheel loads and
Road pavement performance is a ve ry variable the number of times the load is applied. For
process due to a number of factors. Variations pavement design purposes, it is essential to
in the thickness and quality of the pavement consider not only the number of vehicles that
layers and variations in the strength of the will use the road over the design life but also
foundation all contribute to this, even though the axle loads of these vehicles. This is done
materials may comply with the relevant by converting each axle load to an equivalent
specifications. Also, uncontrolled factors such number of "standard axles" of 80 kN using an
as the long term ageing of the bitumen cause empirical relationship and totalling these over
variations in performance. the life of the pavement. The conversion to
standard axles is described in more detail in
The random nature of variations in each layer Clause 9.2.5. Light vehicles cause negligible
should ensure that most deficiencies in damage - an axle load of 10 kN (1 tonne) has a
thickness or strength do not coincide, or very damaging effect of only 0.00024 standard axles

compared to the normal maximum axle load of At the end of the 20 year design period, the
130 kN (13 tonnes) which has the effect of 6.45 great majority of pavements will continue to be
standard 80 kN axies. used, but will probably require strengthening.
The precise works will be determined by
The pavement designs in this manuai are evaluation as described in Clause 9.6, but will
selected on the basis of the cumulative traffic to probably take the form of an overlay of 50 to
be carried over the design life expressed in 150mm, with or without planing the existing
standard axles. The determination of this surfacing. Outside urban areas, with minimal
number is done in three stages: kerblng and ironware and generous shoulders
or verges, a raised road surface will not present
1 The traffic for each class of vehicle any significant problems. However, in urban
which is expected to use the proposed areas or adjacent to and under over-bridges,
road, both at opening and subsequentiy raised surface levels coLlid be difficult or
over the design life, must be forecast expensive to accommodate. In these areas, an
increased initial pavement thickness would
2 The axle loading of each class of allow inlays to be used and thus avoid the need
vehicle over the life of the road must be for overlays and changes in level.
estimated
9.2.3 Traffic Forecasting
3 The cumulative number of standard
axles to be carried over the design life This is an uncertain process, particularly in a
must be caicuiated from stages 1 and country with a developing economy such as
2. Qatar. To forecast traffic growth, the following
three traffic categories must be considered.
These stages are described below. Anyone of these could be dominant or
insignificant, depending on the site.
9.2.2 Design Life
1 Normal traffic, which would pass along
The design life for the majority of pavements the route even If no new pavement was
will normally be 20 years. In this period it provided
shouid not be necessary to either strengthen or
reconstruct the pavement provided that the 2 Diverted traffic, which is attracted to the
traffic volume and axle loads have been as route because of the improved
forecast. At the end of the design period the pavement
pavement should still have sufficient integrity to
allow overlaying, rather than full reconstruction, 3 Development traffic, which arises from
to extend the life for further service. However, either planned or unplanned
some surface deterioration, generally rutting or development along the road corridor.
cracking, will occur in this period. The ruts (The latter type is sometimes termed
couid be caused by slow or stationary vehicles generated traffic).
(at junctions), high temperatures and over-rich
mixes (where the mix parameters have drifted Normal traffic can be assumed to continue to
to high bitumen or low voids within the specified grow according to current trends, either as a
limits) and couid develop early in the pavement fixed number of vehicles per year or as a fixed
life before the bitumen has aged and stiffened. percentage of the current total. Diverted traffic
Cracking will normally arise (after 10 years) as can be considered from an economic
a result of ageing of the bitumen in the high perspective. It can be assumed that all vehicles
temperature environment. Depending on the which would save either time or money by
status of the road and the extent and degree of switching from an existing route to the new
surface deterioration, resurfacing by a thin pavement would choose to do so. Diverted
overlay (40mm) or inlay (planing off and traffic is normally forecast to grow at the same
replacing the surfacing) may be necessary rate as the traffic on the road from which it has
within the design life. been diverted. The quantity' of planned
development traffic can be estimated from the
There may be situations where the future traffic details of policy plans. The quantity of
loading may be very uncertain depending, say, unplanned development traffic, sometimes
on the siting or timing of some major called generated traffic, will be far more difficult
development. In this case it may be prudent to to predict but will be influenced by the
consider a shorter design period and make availability of land for such development and by
provision for possibie strengthening overiays experience from previous road projects.
when plans are more definite. The CED should Allowance must also be made for the
be consulted in cases where a design period construction traffic which will be associated with
different to 20 years appears appropriate. both types of development.

Traffic forecasting must differentiate between be factored up to obtain 24 hour totais

light, medium and heavy goods vehicles as their
growth rates may be different and their
pavement damaging effects are very different.
• The average of the six 24 hour counts
(total or vehicle class) in each direction
Whilst most routes will have approximately should be considered to be the one-
similar traffic in both directions over a period of way Average Daily Traffic (total or
time, checks should be made for any directional vehicle class)
effects.
• On important road schemes, the six-
9.2.4 Traffic Counts day counts should be repeated several
times throughout the year to ensure
The requirement for counts of present traffic will accuracy in the ADT values.
depend on the type of road project being
considered and the relative magnitude of the 9.2.5 Standard Axles
three types of. traffic expected to use it.
Forecasting normal and diverted traffic will For pavement design purposes the damaging
require knowledge of the flows and vehicle effect of vehicle axles is expressed in terms of
composition on existing roads running parallel a "standard axle". This was originally defined
to, or in the vicinity of, the proposed road. as one carrying 18,000 Ib (8,160 kg), in the
Obviously, development traffic cannot be AASHTO road trial in the USA in 1956-8
counted, but traffic resulting from planned (Croney and Croney, 1991). Subsequently this
development should be quantifiable if the load has been rationalised in SI units to 80 kN
general details of the planned residential, (eqUivalent to 8,157 kg). In order to determine
commercial and industrial projects are known. the cumulative axle loads over the design life of
For most roads it is likely that there will be some the pavement, it is necessary to convert the
relevant traffic data available but this will numbers of each class of heavy vehicles that
probably have to be augmented or updated by will use the road, to an equivalent number of
further counts. 80kN standard axles. Axle loads are related to
the standard axle using the following
Conventional traffic counts, to justify or to relationship:
geometrically design a road project, are usually
based on manual or automatic methods where Standard Axles ~ (Axle Load(kg)/
all vehicles are combined to produce a single 8157
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) figure. The ADT is
defined as the total annual traffic summed for For example, axle loads of 5, 8, 10 and 13
both directions and divided by 365. However, tonnes are equivalent to 0.14, 1.00, 2.26 and
for pavement design purposes, it is essential 6.45 standard axles, respectively.
that classified counts are carried out so that the
heavy goods vehicles which cause most of the Class Type No. Wheels Average No.
pavement damage can be clearly quantified. of (on each of Standard
Axles side of the Axles per
The counting process must yield separate ADT vehicle) Vehicle
values for each vehicle class. Also, for 1B00Nf
pavement design it is the traffic in one direction 3 Mini-bus 2 1+1 or 1+2 0.2- 0.5
or individual lane, rather than the two-way flow,
4 Bus/Coach 2 f+2 0.7 - 5.0
which is of interest.
5 P/U Truck 2 1+1 or 1+2 0.1-3.0
Manual classified counts should be carried out 6 Riaid Lorrv 2 1+2 0.4-7.0
using the Qatar standard 16 classes indicated 7 Riaid Lorrv 3 1+2+2 1.5·6.0
in Table 9.1. In order to ensure that the ADT
8 Arctic. LorN 3 1+2+2 0.6-10.0
and composition percentages are
representative of the yearly traffic, the following 9 Arctic. Lorrv 4 1+2+22 1.5·10.0
method is suggested: 10 Arctic. Lorrv 5 1+2+222 2.5·7.0
11 Arctic. LorN 4 1+22+2 1.5·7.0

• Traffic counts are performed on six
consecutive working days (excluding 12 Arctic. Lorrv 5 1+22+22 2.0 - 7.0
Fridays), for both travel directions 13 Arctic. Lorry 6 1+22+222 1.5·7.0
• Times of abnormal traffic activity should

be avoided such as public holidays, etc.
14
15
Trailer
Trailer
3
4
+2+22
+22+22
2.0 - 7.0
2.0- 10.0
Nole. Refer also to Table 6.1
• During the six days at least two counts

should be for a full 24 hours. The
Table 9.1 - Qatar Standard Vehicle Classes
For each vehicle class, a representative number
count totals for the other days should

need to be weighed and the average number of speed of the vehicles, the transverse position of
standard axies for that class determined. This the vehicle wheel and the smoothness of the
is then 'appiied to ail the vehicles of that class road surface. In UK, trials of WIM systems
for the design period. The values can vary have shown substantial unexplained variations
considerably depending on the proportions of in average vehicle loads between sites with
the various vehicle classes and the degree of similar traffic. Moderate errors in weight
loading. On some routes, the loading is very measurement will be converted to much larger
directional, eg the approach to a quarry may errors in the equivalent standard axle values. If
have similar vehicle flows in both directions, but WIM systems are used, it is strongly
empty lorries in one and fully laden in the other, recommended that check weighing of a sample
hence axle load surveys are essential. of the heavy vehicles be carried out using
conventional weighbridges, either permanent or
At present, Qatar has no legal iimits on either portable types. This is in addition to the
axle or gross vehicle weights. A considerable caiibration already mentioned.
amount of overloading, relative to the designed
vehicle weights occurs. Local surveys have 9.2.6 Determination of Cumulative
found extreme cases of vehicles being loaded Standard Axles
to nearly twice their designed gross vehicle
weights. Overloading causes a big increase in In order to determine the cumulative "standard
wear to the pavement. In the case of a 5-axle axles" over the design life of the road, the
articulated truck, this can increase from about 4 foilowing procedure should be followed;
equivalent standard axles, for the designed
weight iimit, to 160 for the overloaded case. 1. Determine the daily traffic flow for each
Obviously, not all vehicles will be overloaded to class of vehicle weighed using the
this degree, but the average number of results of the traffic survey
equivalent standard axles per vehicle for each
traffic class wiil generaily be higher than in 2. Determine the average daily one-
places where legal iimits, related to the vehicle directional traffic flow for each class of
design, are imposed and enforced. An vehicle
indication of the likely range of average values
for Qatar in each of the classes is shown in 3. Make a forecast of the one-directional
Table 9.1. (Classes 1 and 2, consisting of cars, traffic flow for each class of vehicle to
4-wheel drive vehicles, iight pick-ups and taxis determine the total traffic in each class
cause negligible pavement damage and have that will travel over each lane during the
been omitted.) The wide ranges are due to the design life
varying proportions of loaded, part loaded and
empty vehicles and the extent of overloading. 4. Determine the mean equivalence factor
The mix will vary with vehicle class and route. for each class of vehicle and for each
direction from the results of the axle
Axle load surveys, using portable weighbridges, load survey
should be carried out to determine the axle load
distribution of a sample of the heavy vehicles in 5. The products of the cumulative one-
the vicinity of the road. Data coilected from directional traffic flows for each class of
these surveys can then be used to calculate the vehicle over the design life of the road
mean number of standard axles for a typical and the mean equivalence factor for
vehicle in each class. These values can then that class should then be calculated
be used in conjunction with traffic forecast to and added together to give the
determine the predicted cumulative standard cumulative "standard axle" loading for
axles that the road will carry during its design each direction. The higher of the two
life. Alternatively, there may be data available directional values should then be used
from the CEO, who should be consulted on the for design.
need for specific load surveys.
For dual carriageways it should be assumed
Axle loads can also be measured and counted that the slow lane will carry ail the heavy
by weigh in motion (WIM) systems. These vehicles unless local experience indicates
involve the embedment of load sensitive strips otherwise or the one-way ADT traffic flow
or pads, flush with the road surface, across the exceeds 13000 vehicles per day. In the latter
wheel path. These systems are very attractive case 90% of the heavy traffic should be
because axle loads are measured while assumed to travel on the slow lane. All lanes of
vehicles travel at normal speeds. However, the carriageway should be designed for the slow
WIM systems require careful, regular calibration lane traffic. Each carriageway can be designed
and the measurements are affected by the for a different number of standard axles.

However, the differences would have to be at Accordingly, the present pavement designs
least 50% before pavement thicknesses were include three classes of subgrade defined by
altered significantly. In practice, the largest CBR:
number of standard axles in either slow lane
would determine the design for all lanes. S1: > 15% and <25%
S2: > 25% and < 50%
9.2.7 Design Traffic Classes 83: > 50%
Accurate calculations of cumulative traffic are The CBR values are measured using the BS
difficult to make due to inaccuracies in the traffic 1377 method, on soaked subgrade samples
forecasts and average numbers of standard statically compacted to 95% of the maximum
axles for each vehicle type. Consequently the dry density (MDD), determined using the BS
pavement designs are provided as a set of 1377 4.5 kg rammer method. There are also
discrete thicknesses for defined ranges of traffic grading and Atterberg Limit requirements,
rather than as a graph of thickness versus detailed in the QCS. The in situ subgrade must
cumulative standard axles. Each range of also be compacted to the same relative
cumulative axles is termed a class and these compaction, namely 95% of MDD (4.5 kg
are summarised in Table 9.2, expressed in rammer).
millions of standard axles (msa). For
comparison, the pavement classes used in the The specified subgrade strengths must be
previous design manual are also shown. When sustained for a depth of at least 300mm and the
the forecast number of axles is considered fairly material below this must have a CBR, at the in
reliable, and is within 10% of one of t'le class situ density, of at least 10%. This can be easily
boundaries, it is acceptable to use a design confirmed using a simple hand operated
based on the average of the adjacent classes. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (Kleyn and
Savage, 1982), rather than the much more
Traffic Class T1 T2 T3 T. T5 T6
labourious method of recompacting laboratory
samples to the same density.
Design Traffic <1 1·2 2·5 5 10 20
(msa)
10 20 50 Where the above conditions are not fulfilled,
Previous Tertia""
either some of the subgrade material must be
Pavement replaced with higher quality material, or the
Classification Secondarv
amount of cover (fill height) increased. The
Prima'" necessary replacement or cover thickness can
be determined on the basis of providing the
Table 9.2 - Design Traffic Classes same stiffness at formation level (top of the
earthworks) as for the standard CBR 25%
9.3 PAVEMENT MATERIALS subgrade. Details for this procedure are given
in the Annex to this section. The proposals for
9.3.1 Qatar Construction Specification these non-standard subgrade situations must be
(QCS) discussed with the CED.
The full details of the materials to be used in 9.3.3 Granular Material for Sub-base and
pavement construction and the subgrade are Roadbase
given in the QCS together with the applicable
test methods, based mainly on British The same material is used for both layers and
Standards. Brief descriptions of these materials may consist of either crushed stone or gravel, or
are given below. natural gravel, or a mixture of these. There are
requirements for aggregate hardness, durability,
9.3.2 Subgrade cleanliness, grading, shape and strength, given
in the QCS. The principal requirement is for the
Qatar generally has high strength natural soils material to achieve a CBR value of not less than
consisting of weathered limestone or sands. 60% when compacted to 100% of the maximum
Historically, it has been possible to construct dry density (MDD) determined using the BS
earthworks, or at least the upper layers, using 1377 4.5kg rammer method. This material is
material with a minimum soaked California used as sub-base for all pavements, except the
Bearing Ratio (CBR) of 25% and the previous concrete slab designs, in thicknesses ranging
pavement designs were based solely on this from 100 to 200mm, depending on subgrade
strength. However it is becoming impractical or strength. The in situ sub-base must be
expensive to always provide this standard. In compacted to the same density as the CBR test,
some locations, such as cuttings, a significantly namely 100% of MDD (4.5 kg rammer).
higher strength of in situ subgrade is possible.

9.3.4 Roadbase - Asphalt Concrete The required grade of bitumen is 60/70 Pen with
a binder content typically between 4.0 and
The standard form of pavement construction 5.0 %. Compaction requirements are the same
uses a type MD1 asphait concrete roadbase as for asphalt concrete roadbase and the laid
between 100 and 230mm thick depending on material should have voids of about 5 to 6 %
traffic loading. This material must comply with before trafficking.
a given grading envelope (maximum particle
size 37.5mm) and will be proportioned using the 9.3.7 Concrete for Rigid Pavements
Marshall Design method to meet the following
criteria: Rigid construction is included for use in local
areas with a high risk of rutting. It may be
Minimum Stability: 8 kN adopted more widely in the future. Concrete
Maximum Flow: 4mm slab pavements require high quality concrete,
Air Voids: 3to 6 % sometimes termed pavement quality concrete
Voids Filled with Bitumen: 60to 75 %. (PQC), with a 28 day cube strength of 40N/mm 2 •
High quality mix constituents, good quality
The required grade of bitumen is 60/70 Pen control and thorough curing are necessary to
with a binder content typically between 3.2 and ensure that the required standard is achieved.
5.0%. The QCS specifies additional
requirements for particle shape, soundness, In order to reduce the risk of cracking due to
particle strength, water absorption and abrasion imperfect curing or joint construction, reinforced
resistance. jointed slab construction has been adopted.
LongitUdinal reinforcement to BS 4483 is
The criteria for compaction on the road will required at the rate of 600mm 2/m width. The
result in average voids from 5 to 6 % in the laid reinforcement also reduces the slab thickness
material before trafficking. compared to an un-reinforced slab and reduces
the number of transverse joints. The
9.3.5 Cement Bound Material reinforcement is placed with 50 to 60mm of
cover below the slab surface and maintaining a
This is used as sub-base in the concrete slab minimum cover of 30mm below any longitudinal
pavements and as roadbase in flexible joint sealing groove. Longitudinal joints must be
composite pavements. A fairly wide grading provided to limit slab widths to less than 5.Om
envelope is specified for the material which may for limestone aggregate. Most other aggregates
consist of, any or all of, sand, gravel or crushed with higher coefficients of expansion must be
rock. This is mixed with cement either in-place limited to 4.0m. Transverse expansion and
or in an off-road mixer. A modest cube strength contraction joints must be installed alternately at
of 7.5 N/mm 2 at 7 days, is specified. 15m intervals and proper transitions provided
between sections of concrete and asphalt
This material has not previously been much construction. Details of these features, derived
used in Qatar, but is now included for use as from the UK Highway Construction Details
sub-base for concrete slab pavements and it (DoT, 1991), are provided in the QCS.
may also provide a cheaper roadbase. Limits
on grading, cleanliness and durability are given 9.3.8 Precast Paving Blocks
in QCS. For both sub-base or roadbase use,
this material must be compacted to 95% of These are manufactured from Portland Cement
MDD (4.5 kg rammer). concrete in two thicknesses, 60 and 80mm.
The thickness to be used depends on the level
9.3.6 Wearing Course of traffic. The average compressive strength
must be not less than 40 N/mm 2 and individual
A standard surfacing of MD4 asphalt concrete, blocks not less than 35 N/mm 2 • Other
laid as a 40mm course, is used on all flexible requirements, including preferred shapes and
and flexible-composite designs. The nominal dimensional tolerances are given in QCS.
maximum aggregate size is 14mm and the mix
proportions are determined in a similar manner The paving blocks are laid on a compacted
to the asphalt concrete road base, but with the course of sand, normally in simple herring-bone
following difference. Imported gabbro bond. The laying course sand may be either
aggregate must be used for the coarse fraction, natural sand or crushed rock fines, complying
to provide adequate skid resistance and with the grading envelope in Table 9.3. The
resistance to polishing. This last requirement sand is laid so that after compaction it forms a
raises the cost of the material considerably, and layer 30mm thick. After placement, the blocks
justifies the thickness of only 40mm. are compacted using a Vibrating plate
compactor and finally, sand is vibrated into the
joints.

These pavements do not satisfy conventional

Nominal % by mass passino
sieve size
analytical strain criteria but have performed
(mm) Laying Course Jointing Sand satisfactorily in other areas of high
Sand temperatures. The designs in Figure 9.3 are
10 100 100
based on those in Figure 9.2, but with some of
the asphalt concrete thickness replaced by
5 90-100 100 twice this thickness of granular roadbase. This
2.36 75-100 95-100 is in accordance with the structural number
concept of the AASHTO design method (1993)
1.18 55-90 90-100 in which the reduction in thickness of one layer
0.6 35-70 55-100
is compensated by increasing another, in
proportion to the material coefficients. In this
0.3 8-35 15-50 instance the granular layer (CBR 60%) has a
0.15 0-10 0-15 coefficient of 0.13 whilst the asphalt (stiffness
1.0 GPa) has one of 0.26.
0.075 0-3 0-3
9.4.4 Flexible-Composite Roadbase
Table 9.3 - Sand Gradings for Block Paving (Figure 9.4)
Full details of the laying procedure are given in This type of pavement has not previously been
the QCS, based on BS 6717, Part 3. used to any great extent in Qatar although it is
very common and successful In some
9.4 DESIGN CHARTS countries. The cement bound layer will crack
transversely soon after construction through a
9.4.1 General combination of drying shrinkage and thermal
gradient warping. The successful performance
The designs for the various types of of this type of pavement depends on the
construction are presented as a series of charts, shrinkage of the cement bound roadbase being
Figures 9.2 to 9.6. Knowing the subgrade class small and the asphalt roadbase being tolerant
(refer Clause 9.3.2) and the traffic class (refer of the cracked roadbase. The low strength of
Clauses 9.2.6 and 9.2.7) the thicknesses of the 7.5 N/mm2 and the use of limestone, with a low
layers can be easily read for each pavement coefficient of thermai expansion, should result
type. Not all types of pavement are considered in narrow roadbase cracks. The high
appropriate for every traffic class. temperatures are likely to assist the asphalt
surfacing in resisting the development of
Pavement construction should be constant reflection cracks.
across all running lanes as the savings to be
made by reducing the roadbase thickness are Thick asphalt surfacing will reduce the
not great. In rural situations, where the hard development of cracking by insulating the
shoulder/edge strip is not expected to have cement bound layer and reducing the
heavy usage, its pavement thickness may be temperature gradient and warping stresses.
reduced. In urban areas, where parking is
expected, a reduction of the pavement The material thicknesses shown in Figure 9.4
construction for the hard shoulder is not are based on UK practice. However, it is
recommended. probable that the asphalt surfacing thickness
could be reduced in future designs, after some
The design requirements for staged experience of satisfactory performance is
construction is dealt with in Clause 9.5. obtained.
9.4.2 Asphalt Concrete Roadbase 9.4.5 Reinforced Jointed Concrete Slabs
(Figure 9.2) (Figure 9.5)
This type of construction will suit all classes of Rutting of conventional asphalt pavements at
traffic and is similar to past pavement practice in the approaches to junctions or at roundabouts
Qatar. The basis of these designs are is a significant problem in Qatar. It results from
discussed in the Annex to this section.
the high ambient temperatures, inherent
properties of the asphalt concrete and high axle
9.4.3 Asphalt and Granular Roadbase
loads. Although it may be possible to reduce
(Figure 9.3) deformation by mix re-design, or by the use of
bitumen modifiers, there will be uncertainty
This type of construction is restricted to roads
over performance and the increased stiffness
expected to carry no more than 5 million
may could cause other problems in later life.
standard axles and with only a small proportion
of heavily loaded vehicles.
Concrete slab pavements at these problem

locations will provide guaranteed, rut-free
performance. Concrete pavements require
considerable attention to mix quality, placement,
joints and curing to be successful. Jointed
reinforced concrete slab construction has been
selected in preference to un-reinforced slabs as
the reinforcement will provide more tolerance to
any workmanship deficiencies and wiil also
reduce the slab thickness and number of joints.
The designs shown are based on UK practice

(DoT, 1994) which is based on the work of
Mayhew and Harding (1987). The concrete slab
(40 N/mm', 28 day cube strength) rests on a
cement bound sub-base (7.5 N/mm', 7 day
minimum cube strength). This is to ensure that
there is a robust surface on which to erect side
forms and joint assemblies, and that pumping of
sub-base or subgrade fines through joints is
minimised. Joint details and reinforcement
around openings shail be as shown in the UK
Highway Construction Details, Series C (DoT,
1993) or as specified by the CEO.
The UK un-reinforced slab designs agree

closely with USA practice (Portland Cement
Association, 1984). It has not been possible to
directly verify the reinforced slab designs as the
Portland Cement Association manual does not
cover this type.
If properly constructed, concrete pavements

should last longer than asphait pavements and
';e cheaper to maintain because they should not
require resurfacing or re-texturing for at least 30
years. However the joints wiil probably require
periodic resealing at 15 year intervals.
9.4.6 Precast Block Paving (Figure 9.6)
Block paving may be used for the construction

of car parks or parking bays, median strips and
verges, laybys and access roads. Selection of
the appropriate design will be on the basis of
both total traffic and the incidence of heavy
vehicles. Granular roadbase has been selected
as this will be a more practical material than
asphalt for working in smail areas, which wiil
often be the case with this type of roadwork. In
addition, any fuel or oil spillage wiil not affect the
structural layers.
The designs are based on German practice

(Roads and Traffic Research Association, 1986)
and are only suitable for the stated levels and
types of traffic. Where block paving is required
for locations with substantial numbers of heavy
vehicles, such as ports or industrial areas, other
designs such as those of the British Ports
Association (1994) should be used. The
proposed designs for such situations should be
discussed with CEO.

Traffic Classes T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Standard Axles
(millions) <1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10~20 20-50
Subgrade
40
Class S1
250
CBR,
greater than
15% 200
and lass than
25%
300+
Subgrade 40
Crass 52
250
CBR,
greater than
25% 150
and les8 than
50% 300+ . •...•
·...·.... .... ;.:.
".< . 300+
.' .
...... 300+
300+
.. " .'".. ···.- 300+
Subgrade 40
Class 83
250
CBR,
greater than
50% 100
300+
·.-.....·........ 300+
·· ..
.. • -w
300+
Layer definitions Notes
1. Standard Axles are 80 kN.

Wearing Course (Asphalt Concrete MD4)
2. All thicknesses in milllmetres.
Roadbase (Asphalt Concrete MD1)
3. These diagrams afe expected to have the widest
application and are similisr to the past practice.
Sub-base (Granular Material)
4. Roadbasa thicknesses greater than 130mm
Subgrade (CBR at 95% of MOD should be laid in two courses.
(BS 1377, 4.5Kg rammer, soaked»
Figure 9.2 Asphalt Concrete Roadbase Designs

Standard Axles
(millions) , <1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-50
Not 40 Not Not Not

Subgrade
Class S1 Considered 90 Considered Considered Considered
Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable
CBR, 150
greater than
15%
and less than
200
25%
300+
Subgrade 40
Class 82 90
CBR, 150
greater than
25% 150
and less than
50%
300+
Subgrade 40
Class 83 90
CBR,
100
greater than 120
50%
., ..
'."
300+
. 300+
. ' ".
• '",
., .
,
' '.

2. All thicknesses in millimetres,
Upper Roadbase (Asphalt Concrete MD1)
3. These designs are only to be used when the
proportion of goods vehicles, with equivalent
Lower Roadbase (Granular Base Material) standard axles of 12 or more, does not exceed
5% of all vehicles.
Sub-base (Granular Material)
........... Subgrade (CBR at 95% of MOD

(BS 1377, 4.5Kg rammer, soaked))
Figure 9.3 Asphalt and Granular Roadbase Designs

Standard Axles
(millions) <1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-50
Not Not Not Not 40

Subgrade
Class 81 Economic Economic Economic Economic 150
CBR, 270
greater than
15%
and less than 200
25%
300+
40
Subgrade
Class 52 150
CBR, 270
greater than
25%
and less than 100
50%
"',."
<0 • • ......
,," ~.
: .. :" 300+
.. ...
~
.
.""" 300+
.. '."
40
Subgrade
Class 83 150
CBR, 270
greater than
50%
300+
Layer definitions Noles

2. All thicknesses in millimetres.
Upper RoadbasB (Asphalt Concrete MD1)
3. The asphalt concrete inhibits the
Lower Roadbase (Cement-bound Material development of reflection cracking.
cube strength of 7.5 N/mm 2 at 7 days)
4. A low strength Cement-Bound
Sub-base (Granular Material) Malerial has been selected to
minimise reflection cracking.
SUbgrade (CBR at 95% of MDD
(BS 1377, 4.5Kg rammer,soaked» 5. The cost of this form of construction
is similiar to Asphalt Concrete
Roadbase, but could vary depending
on local circumstances.
Figure 9.4 Flexible-Composite Roadbase Designs

Standard Axles
(millions) <1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-50
SUbgrade Not Not

Class S1 Economic Economic 200
CBR,
greater than 150
15%
and less than
25% 300+
Subgrade Same Same Same Same

Class 82 as 81 as 81 as 81 as 81
CBR,
greater than 25%
and less than
50%
Subgrade Same Same Same Same

Class 83 as 81 as 81 as 81 as 81
CBR,
greater than
50%

Concrete Slab (40 N/mm~ cube strength at 28 days
with 600 mm 2/m of longitudinal reinforcement 2. All thicknesses in millimetres.
to BS 4463)
3. Transverse joint spacing shall be not greater
Cement-bound Sub-base than 15m.
(7.5 N/mm 2 cube strength at 7 days)
4. These pavement designs are intended for use
Subgrade (CBR at 95% of MDD at junctions or other areas with a high risk
(BS 1377, 4.5Kg rammer, soaked» of rutting.
5. The design given for Class T3/S1 provides the

minimum construction thicknesses to be used.
Figure 9.5 Reinforced, Jointed Concrete Slab Designs

Traffic Classes TO T1
Standard Axles
(millions <0.5 0.5 -1
80
Subgrade
Class 81
30
CBR, 200
greater than
15%
and less than 200
25%
300+
Subgrade 80
Class 82 30
CBR, 200
greater than 25%
and less than
50% 150
300+
SUbgrade 80
Class 83 30
CBR, 200
greater than
50% 100
300+
·•.'O..."
w._ •
~.: ~ 300+
· ..
• • • w"

Precast blocks (60 or BOmm)
2. All thicknesses in miIHmetres.
30mm sand laying course
3. TO Traffic Class includes residential roads and
Roadbase (Granular Material) parking areas with minimal heavy vehicles.
Sub-base (Granular Material) 4. T1 Traffic Class includes laybys, dual

carriageway median strips and areas
with appreciable heavy vehicles.
Subgrade (CBR at 95% of MDD
(BS 1377, 4.5Kg rammer, soaked))
Figure 9.6 Precast Block Paving Designs

9.5 SPECIAL PAVEMENT SECTIONS Pavements for temporary roads can often be
constructed to lower standards than
9.5.1 Staged Construction (Single Layer conventional pavements because performance
Construction) expectations will be lower (deeper ruts or more
cracking will be tolerable). However, the
Sometimes it is appropriate not to construct the following should also be considered:
full pavement thickness at one time for one of
the following reasons: . Design period may be very
unpredictable
.. A road may initially be required to carry
only limited traffic. After the . Design traffic may also be very
completion of related development unpredictable
(other roads or industrial or residential
projects) traffic volumes will increase . Savings may not be very substantial.
A new road may carry construction 9.6 PAVEMENT EVALUATION

traffic in the first few years of its life
and thereafter normal traffic. The 9.6.1 Introduction
application of the wearing course could
be delayed until after the construction As the road network reaches maturity, there will
traffic has ceased to avoid rutting of be fewer new roads to design but more existing
the final surfacing pavements to rehabilitate. Increasingly
pavement engineers will be required to evaluate
.. An anticipated change to traffic flow existing pavements and devise appropriate
patterns may require extensive resurfacing or strengthening measures.
changes to road markings. Pavements deteriorate in different ways and at
different rates depending on traffic, pavement
Assessments should be made in each case of thickness, material quality, drainage etc. The
the traffic over the whole design life and in the visible deterioration does not always give a
initial period. The sub-base would be designed reliable indication of the underlying cause(s)
for the whole life but roadbase and surfacing and some investigation is needed. A four-
would be matched to the initial level of traffic. stage, highway pavement evaluation procedure
The balance of the asphalt would be added in is outlined below:
due course.
1. Routine Monitoring
However, other factors must also be
considered: 2. Detailed Survey
.. Any ironware in the carriageway will
have to be lifted when the overlay is
3. Detailed Investigation (Planning,
Execution and Interpretation)
applied
.. Kerbing, if present, must either be

installed high or also raised when the
4. Interpretation and Remedial Works
Design.
overlay is applied 9.6.2 Routine Monitoring
.. Depending on the status of the road,
the initial top course of asphalt may
The objective of routine monitoring is to identify
those parts of the road network which are
have to be a conventional wearing
showing signs of surface or structural
course containing gabbro aggregate.
deterioration and require further investigation
This will involve extra cost to provide
and possible maintenance. Routine monitoring
two, rather than one, asphalt courses
of most of the network should be carried out at
with superior aggregate
intervals of 2 to 4 years, depending on the age,
. Sufficient overbridge headroom must
be provided to allow for the overlay
condition and importance of the road, and the
traffic usage. The monitoring will be by visual
surveys with written records of the condition
thickness
supplemented by photographs or video tapes.
. The approaches to underbridges
should be constructed to full thickness
Some indicative rut measurements should be
made. In rural areas the survey will normally be
to avoid either overlaying the structure carried out during a slow (20 kph) drive-through,
or full depth reconstruction of the with occasional examinations on foot at
approaches. junctions, structures or any locations with
serious defects. In urban areas the surveys will

be carried out mainly on foot, from the verges not already been carried out at the Detailed
or footways. The results of all Routine Survey stage, it should now be carried out.
Monitoring should be stored in the Pavement
Management System (PMS) being The investigation must be properly planned and
implemented by the CED in 1996. effort concentrated at locations to produce data
which will be relevant to explaining the
9.6.3 Detailed Survey deterioration. Before planning the investigation,
as much background information as possible,
Where any significant pavement deterioration applicable to the length of interest, should be
is discovered, a Detailed Survey should be assembled:
carried out over the affected length and
adjacent area. The objectives of this survey • Original construction details, including
are to obtain a good description of the specifications
deterioration (type, degree and extent) and an
indication of the likely causes. The survey will • Local subgrade and drainage
consist of a more detailed visual survey carried conditions
out on foot, including rut measurements. Non-
destructive testing of these pavement lengths, • Maintenance history
using either Benkelman Beams or a Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD), may also be • The results of any previous pavement
useful at this stage. Deflections can be used to surveys or investigations
check if there is any change in pavement
stiffness between a sound and deteriorated • Past and current traffic flows and
section and should assist in deciding whether composition.
the deterioration is confined to surface layers or
affects the whole pavement structure. The Some or all of this information should be
FWD will give more detailed structural available from the CED Pavement Management
information as it measures the deflections bowl System. If there are major omissions in this
of the pavement in response to a dynamic load. information, then the Detailed Investigation may
Using appropriate software, it is possible to need to be expanded to include tralfic counts
back-calculate the stiffnesses of the pavement and additional cores or test pits. Where
layers, provided that the thicknesses of these thicknesses are unknown, ground penetrating
are known. In order to produce consistent radar may be of assistance but this technique
measurements and layer stiffnesses, the needs careful calibration against known
recommendations given in the FEHRL (1996) thicknesses for each type of pavement being
publication should be followed. The stiffness of surveyed.
asphalt layers are strongly influenced by
temperature and the results of all deflection The standard investigation strategy is to
measurement must be corrected to a standard compare deteriorated and sound section$ of
temperature. To do this, temperatures in the pavement (20 to 100m in length) carrying
asphalt layers must be measured at the time of similar traffic and of similar construction (the
test. selection of such sections, itself, can sometimes
indicate a possible cause of deterioration).
Where the deterioration is considered serious Appropriately sited cores and/or test pits should
or is worsening, strengthening or resurfacing reveal any differences in material qualities or
work will be necessary. However, a Detailed thicknesses which may explain the different
Investigation will be required to provide further performance. Depending on the variation of
information to decide precisely what work is traffic and construction within the length of
necessary. If the pavement condition is not too interest, a number of pairs of comparison
serious, it may be appropriate to merely repeat sections may be necessary. Where available,
the Detailed Survey after, say, one year. deflection and FWD data may be used to select
pairs of sections with high and low deflections.
9.6.4 Detailed Investigation However, adequate explanati·ons for the
different stiffnesses are not always found. The
The objective of the Detailed Investigation is to majority of cores or pits should be in the
explain the pavement deterioration, including deteriorated sections, sited right on the
the identification of the layer(s) responsible for deterioration (cracks, ruts etc) to determine
the deterioration and thus provide information exactly which layers are affected. In the case of
to enable any strengthening to be economically cracking, it is important to know the depth of
designed. It will normally involve coring and crack propagation and for rutting, whether or not
test-pitting of selected areas of the pavement this is present in both the asphalt and
together with in situ and laboratory testing of underlying granular layers. To determine which
the pavement layers. If deflection testing has layers are contributing to a rut, or other

deformation. will require a set of three or more 9.6.5 Interpretation and Design of
cores. straddling the rut. Remedial Works
The foilowing points should be considered The interpretation of the data from the
when planning and executing the investigation: investigation must address the following issues:
. The cores and test pits are

fundamentai to the whole investigation
.. What is the nature. extent and degree
of the deterioration?
and should ail be carefuily examined
and logged by a competent materials .. Is only the surfacing or the whole
or pavement engineer. The core log pavement affected?
sheets should include a photograph
with a scale. fuil details of asphait .. What has caused it?
thickness and condition. including
texture. segregation. voids. iayer .. What remedial treatment is needed?
bonding. width and depth of cracks.
stripping. soft or otherwise deleterious Provided that the Detailed Survey has been
aggregate. bleeding and any other thorough and the Detailed Investigation has
peculiarities been properly planned. the first two issues
.. Granular layers (sub-base and
subgrade) can be rapidly and cheaply
should be answered by a proper presentation of
the survey/investigation data.
assessed by in situ testing using either Answers on the causes could be very obvious
a hand operated Dynamic Cone such as an under-designed pavement. poor
Penetrometer (DCP) (Kleyn and
quality asphalt containing segregated aggregate
Savage. 1982)(Jones and Rolt. 1991)
and voids. or soft and friable sub-base. In other
or a portable dynamic plate bearing
cases the causes may be more subtle requiring
tester (PDPBT) (Roads and Traffic
detailed laboratory testing to identify. In
Research Association. 1992). The
DCP test can be carried out through a practice. interpretation should commence with
core hole but the PDPBT will require a the completion of the Detailed Survey and
test pit to expose an area of 0.5 by continue during the planning and execution of
0.5m. the Detailed Investigation to ensure that
relevant and sufficient data is obtained to
. Static plate bearing tests or in situ
California Bearing Ratio tests could
answer the main questions. Successful
interpretation leading to robust conclusions
also be carried out in place of the DCP depends strongly on having carried out the right
or PDPBT but are slower. more costly field work. sampling and testing in the first
and technically no better than these place.
hand methods
In addition to evaluating the existing pavement.
. Decisions on the number and type of
laboratory tests should be made after
the future design traffic must be estimated
before deciding what thickness of overlay will be
the assessment of the field data. required. The methods described in Clause 9.2
Samples of suspect foundation for new roads are appropriate. Normally.
material should be obtained during the pavement strengthening should be designed for
excavation of the test pits. but not a 20 year life. subject to the comments made in
necessarily tested. Decisions on what Clause 9.2.2.
laboratory tests should be carried out
would be made after the field data has A possible method of determining overlay
been reviewed thicknesses is to compare the existing
. Density testing of sub-base or

subgrade layers wiil be helpful where
pavement thickness with that required to carry
the total of past and future traffic (AASHTO•
1993). The overlay will provide the difference in
the strength of these layers is thickness between the existing pavement.
unexpectedly low and low compaction Allowance should be made for any difference in
is suspected to be the cause. A quality of existing material and the current QCS.
maximum dry density value due either to deterioration or a lower original
(determined in the laboratory) wiil also specification. Defective or deteriorated wea(ng
be necessary to determine relative course should be replaced before overlaying.
compaction. Roadbases with moderate deficiencies could be
retained but with a reduced allowance of
thickness.

In cases where reconstruction is proposed, this PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION (1984).

should be designed in accordance with the Thickness design for concrete highway and
requirements of the rest of this section. street pavements. Skokie, Illinois, USA.
Granular sub-base is not subject to fatigue and,
provided that it complies with the current ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY (1970). A
specification, is unlikely to require replacement. guide to the structural design of pavements for
new roads. Road Note 29. HMSO, London.
9.7 REFERENCES
ROADS AND TRAFFIC RESEARCH
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE ASSOCIATION (1992). Technical test
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION specification for soil and rock in road bUilding,
OFFICIALS (1993). AASHTO Guide for design Part B 8.3, Dynamic plate-load test using the
of pavement structures. Washington, DC. light falling-weight device. (In German.)
Cologne.
BRITISH PORTS ASSOCIATION (1994). The
structural design of heavy duty pavements for TRANSPORT and ROAD RESEARCH
ports and other industries, 2nd edition. London. LABORATORY (1990). A users manual for a
program to analyse dynamic cone penetrometer
CRONEY D and P CRONEY (1991). The data. TRRL Overseas Road Note 8.
design and performance of road pavements, Crowthorne: Transport and Road Research
2nd edition. McGraw Hill International, Laboratory.
Maidenhead, UK.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT (1991).

Manual of contract documents for highway
works, Volume 3, Highway construction details,
HMSO, London.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT (1994).

Design manual for roads and bridges, Volume
7, Pavement design and maintenance, HMSO,
London.
FEHRL - FORUM OF EUROPEAN NATIONAL

HIGHWAY RESEARCH LABORATORIES
(1996). Harmonisation of the use of the falling
weight deflectometer on pavements, Part 1.
FEHRL Report No. 1996/1. Crowthorne:
Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
JONES CR and J ROLT (1991). Operating

instructions for the TRL dynamic cone
penetrometer (2nd edition). TRL Overseas
Centre Information Note. Crowthorne:
Transport Research Laboratory.
KLEYN, EG and PF SAVAGE (1982). The

application of the pavement DCP to determine
the bearing properties and performance of road
pavements. Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Bearing Capacity of Roads and
Airfields. Trondheim.
MAYHEW, HC and HM HARDING (1987).

Thickness design of concrete roads. Research
report 87. Crowthorne: Transport and Road
Research Laboratory.
MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS of the

KINGDOM of SAUDIA ARABIA (1990).
Highway Design Manual. Riyadh.

ANNEX9A BASIS OF THE DESIGN methods are sometimes used to extend the
METHOD FOR ASPHALT empirical results to wider ranges of traffic or
ROADBASE layer thicknesses, or to slightly different
pavement types.
9A.1 DESIGN METHODS
The design documents produced from empirical
Analytical and empirical methods can both be performance studies are usually in "catalogue"
used to determine the thicknesses of pavement format with the exception of the AASHTO
iayers to carry a specified amount of traffic. In method In which traffic, pavement thickness and
the first, the materials to be used in the material quality are related by an empirical
pavement are characterised by their stiffnesses equation.
and fatigue laws, ie. the relationship between
strain and the number of load cycies to produce In practice, design by either method is often
failure. The pavement is then proportioned so checked to some degree by the other.
that strains at critical depths, due to standard
wheel loads, do not exceed permissible values 9A.2 DESIGN STRATEGY
for the required number of load repetitions (the
horizontal strain at the base of the roadbase Conditions in Qatar differ from the temperate
and the vertical strain at the top of the environments, where both the analytical and
subgrade are normally considered to be the empirical methods have been most practised,
critical criteria). The design documents and need to be reflected in any design for local
produced from analytical methods may consist use:
of either a detailed calculation procedure or an
easily read "catalogue" of diagrams or graphs • Qatar has a much hotter climate which
relating layer thicknesses to traffic and layer will greatly affect the stiffness of any
properties. asphalt and will affect bitumen ageing
Although the analytical method is technically • Subgrade strengths are generally high
due to the prevalent limestone and
attractive, there are considerable practical
difficulties: sand, and many roads are constructed
on low embankments of good fill
• Determining stiffness values is material
complicated. Asphalt stiffness varies
with temperature, rate of loading and • A significant proportion of heavy
vehicles are overloaded causing
age of the bitumen. For unbound
materials, the stiffness varies with significantly more damage than the
moisture, stress history and confining same types of vehicle elsewhere.
stress
The material standards in Qatar are similar to
• There is no standardisation of fatigue
measurement and a wide variety of
mainstream practice elsewhere. '
tests are in use, hardly any of which 9A.3 APPLICABLE METHODS

are compatible (Tangella et ai, 1990).
Consequently, each analytical design The first stage in determining asphalt roadbase
method has its own load cycles/strain pavement designs for Qatar was to review
relationship based on a specific fatigue established methods or "catalogues" which
test method could apply to the hot conditions, either because
they were empirically derived from the
• The field evidence of fatigue failure, in
the manner assumed in the analytical
performance of pavements in a hot climate, or
allow the input of low stiffness values. The
method, is not conclusive. methods reviewed are listed in Table 9A.1.
In the empirical method, the performance of The methods all quantify cumulative traffic on
trial pavements is monitored to determine the the basis of equivalent 80kN (or 8 tonne)
amount of traffic which can be carried before standard axles using a 4th power law. The first
the condition is considered unacceptable. three methods do not require specific
Sometimes the traffic is accelerated by temperature or asphalt stiffness input but the
continually trafficking by heavy vehicles, as in last three do.
the AASHTO Road Trial, or occurs normally, as
in the trials carried out in the UK on public
roads. The latter method is the more reliable,
however, the trial results are only strictly
applicable to the trial conditions. Analytical

No 9A.4 SPECIFIC METHOD FOR QATAR

Temp. APpli~~~e Design Method
Inout Count
1 No Tropical and A Guide 10 the Structural The second stage in determining asphalt
Sub-Tropical Design of Bitumen-Surfaced roadbase thicknesses was to set these slightly
Countries Roads in Tropical and Sub-
Tropical Countries (TAUOD~':l\ greater than the 110 to 270mm values and then
Overseas Road Nole 31, 1993
adjust to ensure that the roadbase and
2 No South Alrica Structural Design of Interurban subgrade strains did not exceed permissible
and ~~~al Aoad ~:ivements.
TRH4 CSJR, 1985 values. The fatigue laws from the Austroads
manual were used for this because:
3 No Saudia Arabia Highway Design Manual
4 USA AASHTO Guide for Design of

• The manual reflects more recent
V"
Pavement Struclure;11993\ experience
5 V" International ~he!~iavement Design Manual
1978 • Many Australian pavements are built in
6 Va, Australia ~avemenl DeSiT,n\
a fairly hot climate
Austroads. 1992
Table 9A.1 - Design methods

• The Austroads manual produces
designs for hot climates which accord
reasonably well with performance.
The Shell method, No.5, gives temperature
data for Bahrain which is applicable to Qatar. The fatigue laws are:
The weighted mean monthly air temperature is
given as 28°C which results in an effective Transverse strain at the bottom of the roadbase
pavement temperature of 40°C for a 200mm
thickness of asphalt. Two methods of J1eh = (6532)/(I"P2) for asphalt with a stiffness
determining asphalt stiffnesses at this high of 1.0 GPa, and
effective pavement temperature have been
considered: Vertical strain at the top of the subgrade
• The standard stiffness nomographs

(Van der Poel, 1954 and Bonnaure et
Jlf:,= (8511)/([lf14)
ai, 1977) indicate stiffnesses between 1 ( Jlf: = microstrain and N = number of load
and 3 GPa for MD1 asphalt roadbase repetitions. )
• Back calculation of falling weight

deflectometer data from Qatar indicates
The layer stiffnesses and Poisson's ratios used
to determine the strains are shown in Table
an average roadbase stiffness of over 3 9A.2.
GPa for mature asphalt. Similar
analysis of data from 18 month old Description CBR% Stiffness Poisson's
Malaysian pavements indicates asphalt (GPa) Ratio
roadbase stiffness of 1.5 to 3.5 GPa at
Asphalt 1.0 0.35
40°C. Stiffness
Granular 60 0.200 0.35

These are appreciably higher than the values of Sub-base
only 0.3 to 0.6 GPa indicated in the Shell
method, which are considered to be too low. Subgrade 50 0.170 0.45
Partly as a consequence of these low Subgrade 25 0.125 0.45
stiffnesses, the Shell method indicates much
greater pavement thicknesses compared to all Subgrade 15 0.100 0.45
the other methods except for Saudia Arabia. Subgrade 10 0.075 0.45
The satisfactory performance of roads in hot
environments with much thinner asphalt Table 9A.2
roadbases than the Shell designs suggests that
the method is conservative for these conditions. (5% voids, 4% of 60170 Pen bitumen at a
temperature of 40°C)
An asphalt roadbase stiffness of 1.0 GPa has
been used in the AASHTO and Austroads
(1 GPa = 1 Gigapascal = 1x1 0' N/rrf and 1 MPa
methods. The South African, AASHTO and = 1 Megapascal = 1x1 0' N/ni)
TRL Overseas methods all indicated very
similar thicknesses of 110 to 270mm of asphalt
The standard approximate relationship for
for 1 to 50 million standard axles. All the others,
subgrade stiffness, E (MPa) = 10 x CBR (%),
in varying degrees, were thicker. only applies to low strength material. The above

values are based on those determined either Capping material of greater strength may be
from plate bearing tests or back analysis of used. However, in determining the thickness,
falling weight defiectometer data. higher stiffness values should be used with
great caution as the in situ stiffness is
In ali cases, asphalt fatigue was found to 'be the dependent not just on the quality of the capping
critical criterion. but also on the stiffness of the underlying
material.
9A.5 WEAK SUBGRADES
9A.6 REFERENCES
In Clause 9.3.2, the minimum subgrade strength
included in the design charts was set at a CBR
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE
of 15% at in situ density which is generally
achievable. However, in the smali number of HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION
cases where the in situ subgrade strength falls OFFICIALS (1993). AASHTO Guide for design
below this, it will be necessary to provide a layer of pavement structures. Washington, DC.
of stronger material calied "capping" between
the subgrade and the sub-base. The capping AUSTROADS (1992). Pavement design - a
wili normally be either the 15% or 25% CBR guide to the structural design of road
subgrade material used in the standard designs pavements. Sydney, Australia.
and wili have the same stiffnesses as above. In
cuts or where the road surface is close to
ground level, some of the subgrade will have to BONNAURE F, G GEST, G GRAVOIS and P
be removed and replaced with capping. In fili UGE (1977). A new method of predicting the
situations, the upper earthworks layers must be stiffness of asphalt paving mixtures.
constructed with the capping material. A Proceedings of the Association of Asphalt
method of determining the necessary capping Paving Technologists, Vol. 46.
thickness for either case may be based on the
surface stiffness at formation level, ie COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL
immediately below the sub-base.
RESEARCH (CSIR) (1985). Structural design of
The minimum strength standard subgrade interurban and rural road pavements. Technical
(Class S1) consists of at least 0.3m thickness of recommendations for highways (TRH 4).
CBR 15% material (or stronger) resting on Pretoria, South Africa.
material with a CBR of at least 10%. A 40kN
single wheel load at formation level wili produce SHELL INTERNATIONAL PETROLEUM CO.
a surface deflection of 1A9mm. The thickness (1978). Sheli Pavement Design Manual,
of the capping layer required for a weaker London.
subgrade will be that which produces the same
deflection for the same load. The thickness will
be determined by trial and error using an elastic TANG ELLA SCSR, J CRAUS, JA DEACON and
layer programme to model the stiffnesses of the CL MONISMITH (1990). Summary report on
subgrade layers. For the cases of subgrade fatigue response of asphalt mixtures. Strategic
CBR values of 7%, 5%, and 3%, the required Highway Research Program, Report f>HRP-
thicknesses of CBR 15% capping wili be 0.5, A/IR-90-011. National Research Council,
0.9 and 1.9m. For the weaker subgrades of Washington, DC, USA.
CBR 5% and 3% it wili be more effective to use
the stronger CBR 25% capping in thicknesses
of 0.35 and 0.7m respectively. Other capping TRANSPORT and ROAD RESEARCH
thicknesses are possible depending on specific LABORATORY (1993). A guide to the structural
strengths or stiffnesses, but for practical design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and
reasons the thickness should not be less than sub-tropical countries. Overseas Road Note 31,
0.2m. fourth edition. Crowthorne: Transport and Road
Research Laboratory.
The stiffnesses and Poisson's ratio used in this
analysis are shown in Table 9A.3. VAN DER POEL C (1954). A general system
describing the visco-elastic properties of
Descriplion CBR% Stiffness Poisson's
(MPa) Ratio bitumen and its relation to routine test data.
Journal of Applied Chemistry; VolA.
Capping 25 125 0.45
Capping 15 100 0.45
Subgrade 'A 75 0.45
Subgrade 7 65 0.45
Subgrade 5 50 0.45
Subgrade 3 30 0.45
Table 9A.3

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SECllON10
SECTION 10 ROADWAY LIGHTING measured in terms of reduction in

personal injuries, fatalities, property
10.1 INTRODUCTION damage, and other costs to society.
More effective usage of the road and
10.1.1 Reasons for Lighting the possible increase in its capacity are
also considered.
Highway lighting is provided to aid the safe and
orderly movement after dark of all road users, 10.1.3 Scope
both vehicular and pedestrian.
This section of the Manual sets out the
For the driver, properly designed lighting will performance requirements and standards which
increase his range of vision, reveal hazards shall be adopted for the design of lighting on all
more effectively, reduce fatigue and particularly types of highway in Qatar, except for those
in the case of high-speed roads, increase the footpaths which are separated from vehicular
traffic carrying capacity. Pedestrians will be routes.
able to orientate themselves and to detect
vehicular and other hazards. From the police 10.1.4 Complementary Standards
point of view, crime directed against the person
and property will be discouraged, whilst This section of the Manual requires the use of
surveillance and recognition will be greatly BS 5489 : Road Lighting: Parts 1-10 : 1992.
enhanced, particularly if good colour rendering
is provided. 10.2 PERFORMJl.NCE REQUIREMENTS
10.1.2 Justification 10.2.1 Summary of Road Classifications in

Qatar
In considering whether a road should be lit,
from an engineering point of view, the following Individual roads in the State of Qatar each fulfill
factors should be considered. certain functions within the overall network. A
hierarchy exists which defines their various
.. The nature of the road (eg. motorway roles and the position of a road within this
or mixed traffic road) as determined by hierarchy is a measure of its national
its geometry and also by its night traffic importance. Route classification is discussed at
accident rate. the front of this manual. Table 10.1 shows the
relationship between the classification used in
.. The traffic intensity and composition this manual and the classification used by
(eg. fast traffic only or mixed traffic). Ministry of Electricity and Water, Street Lighting
Section.
.. The danger points and other special
situation, such as junctions, crossings
Category Description Highway Class
for cyclists and pedestrians and other (Refer Talile 1)
interruptions in driving continuity which
may present drivers with unexpected Class 'A' MOIO/ways or Express P1, P2
Roads (eg Doha-Ruwais
situations. Road, Doha - Abu Samra
Road)
.. It is particularly important to avoid
sudden changes in the visual field of Class 'B' Ring and Radial Roads P1. P2, S2
the drivers as far as determined by the

Class 'C' Commercial and Shopping S2, TR1. TR2
lighting and to allow drivers to prepare Sireets
themselves well in advance for
manoeuvres which suit the situation to Class '01' Distributor Roads TR1. TR2
be met over the next stretch of road.
Class '02' Local Sireets, Residential TR3, TR4, TR5
. Factors such as traffic volume, speed,

road use during the night, night
Roads or Access Roads
Refer to Table 1.1 for full descnptlons of the Highway
Classification.
accident rate, road geometry, and
general night visibility conditions are Table 10.1 Road Classifications in Qatar
important when considering highway for Roadway Lighting
lighting.
.. Justification for lighting is also based

on the economics of lighting as
compared to the cost of not lighting.
Economic returns for lighting are

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SECllON10
10.2.2 Lighting Performance Light Pollution

Recommendations Another effect of lighting is 'sky glow' which
occurs when upward stray light is reflected back
Minimum designed performance levels for the to earth. Although some sky glow from major
various classes of road are given In Table 10.2. conurbations is unavoidable, special care
should be taken when designing road lighting in
Category Maintained Overall Longitudinal Me< areas where little exterior lighting exists, to limit
Average Unlformity Uniformity Threshold the amount of upward or stray light. Such areas
(Class) luminance Ratio Uo Ralio Ul Increment
LAV cd/m~ TI% should be considered to be environmentally
sensitive at night and special light control
'A' 2.5 0.4 0.7 10
lanterns specified. As well as hindering
'B' 2.0 0.4 0.7 10 astronomers, many people feel that this form of
light pollution diminishes the aesthetic
'C' 2.0 0.4 0.7 20 properties and value of the dark night scene.
'01' 1.25 0.4 0.5 20
10.3 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE
'D2' 0.75 0.4 0.5 30
10.3.1 Decisions Prior to Design
Table 10.2 Lighting Requirements for Arrangement and Mounting Height

Traffic Routes Lantern arrangement and mounting height shall
be in accordance with the options set out in BS
For slip roads and shoulders on Class 'A' and 5489 : Part 2 within the local geometric,
Class 'B' roads, maintained average luminance maintenance and environmental constraints that
values of 2.0 and 1.25 respectively will be apply. Greater mounting heights shall be
acceptable, but the other parameters should considered, particularly for wider carriageways.
remain unaltered.
Limitation of Glare
10.2.3 Limitation of Glare and "Light The performance requirements of Clause 10.2
Pollution" shall be met by the selection of lanterns as
described in BS 5489 : Part 2.
Disability Glare
Disability glare, defined and discussed in BS In order to limit the glare factor on roads Class
5489 : Part 1, reduces the contrast between 'A' or 'B' where the surrounds are dark, lanterns
objects and their background, so that their must be flat glass type with a distinct cut-off
visibility is decreased. An object that is just limiting the visual aspect of the light source to
visible (that is at the threshold of visibility) when an angle of 30' from the horizontal. Lanterns
there is no disability glare will, in the presence of will be mounted at a minimum height of 12
disability glare, merge into the background. The metres from the road surface.
percentage by which the background luminance
has to be increased to render the object just For Class 'C' roads where the surrounds are
visible again is known as the threshold mostly bright, the mounting height will be a
increment (Tl). This provides a notional minimum 10 metres and either cut-off lanterns
measure of disability glare from installations. or lanterns having a prismatic controller will be
permitted.
The value of the Tl depends on the light
.distribution from the luminaire between 70' and Class '0' roads where the decorative and
900 in elevation in the vertical plane at which the aesthetic aspect dominates (e.g. Pole top
luminaire is observed, usually within 10' of lanterns) should use diffusers to eliminate both
azimuth of the transverse axis of the luminaire. discomfort and disability glare. The mounting
It also depends on the road luminance, the height for such lanterns shall be from 3 to 8m.
layout of the luminaires, the mounting height and
the observer position. Overhang
Overhang shall be in accordance with the
Discomfort Glare options set out in BS 5489 : Part 2. Bracket
Control of the Tl within the limits recommended projection generally shall be as small as
in Table 10.2 will generally ensure that possible in order to minimise vibration effects
discomfort glare, defined in BS 5489 : Part 1, will on both the lamp and the column itself.
be adequately controlled.
For aesthetic reasons, the bracket arm is
usually limited to one quarter of the column
height (ie. H/4), as longer arms can give the
impression that the column is top heavy.

The Light Source (inciuding service roads) constructed at

In order to conserve energy and achieve high different levels.
efficiency, Qatar has standardised on high
pressure sodium lamps for Class 'A' and 'B' The presence and location of existing road
roads and high or iow pressure sodium lamps for furniture and service utilities such as power
Class 'C' roads. Class 'D' roads may be lit with distribution lines, telecommunications, and
sodium, high pressure mercury, metal halide or various underground services may impose
linear compact fluorescent. certain constraints on the lighting layout.
Maintenance Factor The location and form of major intersections,

Maintenance factors, as defined in BS 5489 : median openings and other traffic facilities such
Part 2, shall be taken for designs from Table 4 of as pedestrian crossings and bus stops must
that Standard. also be considered.
The necessity for lantern cleaning at more Thus the road lighting designer must be
frequent intervals than lamp changing will be completely familiar with the section of road to
avoided if a minimum degree of ingress be lit and equally important, he should have a
protection rating of IP65 is specified. good understanding of traffic operations that
occur particularly during night time. It is only
Road Surface with this knowledge that he can arrange the
Design tables based on the 'representative lighting layout to best meet the many controls
British road surface' as given in Table 3 of BS and demands of individual sites and achieve
5489 : Part 2 may be used. the maximum lighting effectiveness at
reasonable cost.
However a more economical lighting design is
possible if a concrete road surface is to be The general lighting arrangement will of course
provided. If at a later stage the concrete surface be dependant on the roadway width, luminaires
may be overlaid with bituminous material then available and the desired mounting height in
the lighting shall be designed for this initially. accordance with the design rules and
procedures as set out in BS 5489 : Parts 2 and
Where design calculations are carried out by 10. However, a choice of several layouts will
computer, a range of characteristic road surface usually be available to the designer.
reflection tables may be input from Publication
CIE No. 30-2 : Calculation and Measurement of On dual carriageway roads any of the following
Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting. arrangements of luminaires may be
Most proprietary lighting calculation programs appropriate:
will contain data files for one or more of these
standard road surfaces. a) Single Sided Arrangement.
10.3.2 Standard Lighting Geometries for Single sided arrangement on each carriageway
. Different Road Profiles with luminaires mounted on the right hand side.
In some cases the mounting height possible
Road authorities are primarily concerned with even with special brackets will be inadequate
road lighting for its accident reducing potential. for the width of carriageway and an alternative
However, these benefits can be seriously arrangement will be required.
diminished if insufficient attention is given to
reducing the hazard created by lighting poles b) Opposite Arrangement.
near the roadway.
On dual carriageway roads, an opposite
Whilst the development and application of arrangement involving poles mounted along the
geometric standards for roads and streets has right (footpath) side of each carriageway may
reduced the variation in roadway layout for be appropriate where the carriageways are not
various classes of roads, the road lighting too wide and the median is narrow.
designer is nevertheiess confronted with a large
number of road layout features and conditions c) Twin Central.
which will influence the lighting design.
This arrangement provides the designer with
Divided or Dual Carriageway Roads the greatest flexibility in locating luminaires but
This type of roadway layout is most common for requires the minimum median width to be at
high volume urban and rural arterial roads. least 1.8m and preferably wider. The choice of
Such roads may involve cross sections with mounting height is flexible, as clearances to
service roads on one or both sides of the main overhead distribution lines will generally not be
carriageways, a great range of median and outer a problem.
separator widths and often with carriageways

This layout can be considered the most suitabie forgo the use of the sighting gauge and simply
for dual carriageway arterial roads, particulariy close up the spacing slightly to raise the
those with carriageway widths greater than 10m, general ambient light level to compensate.
because of the following advantages:
It should be remembered that true silhouette
.. The number of poles can be minimised vision against the road pavement as
by selecting the highest practical background will generally not be achieved on
mounting height. curves and drivers will be seeing by either
direct vision or by silhouette vision against
.. The installation cost is often lower than fences, buildings and trees, etc. along the
other layouts because of less verges.
underground cabling and oniy one row
of poles. Crests
The designer will generally follow normal 'even-
.. This layout provides excellent route grade' procedures when crests are encountered
guidance. on the section of road to be lit. However, if the
crest is relatively sharp, as might exist where
.. It is often feasible to install guard fences the road overpasses another road,
at hazardous locations where vehicle consideration should be given to the use of cut-
collisions with poles become a problem. off rather than semi-cut-off luminaires. Often
this should involve only one or two luminaires at
Undivided Roads the top of the crest.
Undivided roads form the major length of urban
traffic routes. They are usually bordered by 10.3.3 Lighting Columns as Hazards
relatively narrow verges and footpaths which
may contain overhead power distribution lines. Road accidents involving fixed objects beside
the roadway are a considerable concern to
On these roads the designer is often confronted everyone involved with roads and traffic.
with constraints such as clearance of power
distribution lines, location of underground Table 1 of BS 5489 : Part 1 recommends
services, location of driveways and commercial minimum clearances between columns and
entrances and often the presence of trees etc. edge of carriageway for a range of design
which will make an optimum layout difficult to speeds.
achieve.
10.3.4 Typical Lighting Layouts at
In general, single sided arrangements will rarely Junctions
be practical and depending on the width to be lit
and mounting height available, a staggered or Junctions are particularly important elements of
opposite arrangement must be selected. the road system both from the point of view of
efficient traffiC operation and of road safety.
On wide undivided roads (and sometimes on The latter is evidenced by the fact that at least
dual carriageway roads) there is a tendency by 60% of casualty accidents in urban areas occur
lighting designers to locate the luminaires well at these locations.
out over the carriageway, in an attempt to
achieve a single sided arrangement. Such It is especially important, therefore, that the
layouts are generally unsatisfactory because of lighting standard at junctions be at least as
.the 'flash' produced as vehicles pass directly good and preferabiy somewhat better than that
under the luminaires and more importantly, the on the intersecting roads. In addition, the
verge and footpath area is often poorly lit as a importance of minimising the number of poles
result of the overhang exceeding H/4, refer to and/or locating them clear of vulnerable areas
Clause 10.3.1 Overhang. cannot be overstressed.
Curves BS 5489 Part 3 makes specific

BS 5489 : Part 2 sets out the requirements for recommendations in respect to the positioning
spacing luminaires around curves. This usually of key luminaires at simple intersections and
calls for the luminaires to be located on the the engineer should conform with these
outside edge of the curve which is in conflict with requirements as far as practical.
normal road safety requirements to avoid
locating obstructions at such locations. The large variety of channelization layouts,
each designed to meet the specific site and
It is suggested that unless the curve is quite traffic conditions at any particular location,
sharp (which would be unusual on a traffic route makes it difficult to set down standard luminaire
of reasonable standard) the designer should arrangements. However, some rules relating to

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SEC110N10
luminaire arrangement can be formulated to .. At roundabouts in the small approach

guide the lighting designer in the achievement of splitter islands, on the central island
good design practice: opposite entry roadways and on the
right hand side immediately
.. At the outset, the engineer must downstream of an entry point to a
recognise that seeing by silhouette roundabout.
vision is unlikely to occur at junctions
and as a result, the layout should aim at Figures 10.1 to 10.6 show typical lighting
illuminating the conflict area and the layouts recommended for standard junction
objects in and around it, such as designs in Qatar.
pedestrians, cars, kerbed islands,
pavement markings and signs etc. so
that they are seen by direct vision i Appr.
I
. The level of illumination and its

uniformity should be such that the layout
I
I
1/3 S I
I
I
I D
1/2 s ,
I-~
I
of the islands and the various I
I
Appr.
carriageways and turning roadways are I 1/2 5
clearly discernable by drivers B A: c
approaching on the intersecting roads "-
and negotiating the required movements
within the junction
•
. Luminaires must be placed to provide
the best possible illumination of
A
Note: S = design column spacing on the main road.
pedestrian crossing areas
Figure 10.1 Typical Layout for T-Junction
.. The luminaire layout as seen in
perspective should not confuse but
enhance the route of through traffic. A
good layout will provide route guidance
to lead traffic through the junction
.. Care should be taken to ensure that

points where traffic streams merge and
diverge are well lit
.. The number of lighting poles near the

conflict area should be minimised.
Where traffic signals are installed or
being installed, joint sharing of the
pedestals should be achieved wherever
possible. Where large channelizing
islands exist, consideration should be
given to the use of high mast flood
lighting techniques to reduce the
number of poles around the junction.
It is very important to avoid locating poles:
.. Close to the approach ends of narrow

residual medians and median islands
.. In the nose area of islands where traffic

streams diverge
.. In areas where the poles might obstruct

the sight lines of drivers waiting to enter
or cross another traffic stream
.. In the vulnerable areas along the

outside of curved slip roads

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL SECl10N10
10.5.6 Safety Standards Most road lighting maintenance is carried out

using elevating platform vehicles (EPV). These
Engineer's Responsibilities are available in various sizes to service up to
In order to promote safe working practices for about 21 m mounting height, but are expensive
both construction and maintenance, the design to purchase or hire.
engineer shall carry out Risk Assessments for
any activities which may endanger personnel or On most lighting installations, the maintenance
property, including the following where relevant: vehicle will stand on the carriageway directly
underneath the luminaire, thus reducing the
Working at height trafficable width available during maintenance
operations.
Use of mobile elevating working
platforms Where the mounting height is 12.5rn or less and
the EPV can be positioned directly beneath the
Storage and use of liquid propane gas luminaire, outrigging stabilizers may not be
required. In other situations, the use of
Storage and use of highly flammable stabilizers will be necessary and will further
liquids considerably reduce the trafficked width
available.
Slinging of loads
Depending on the nature of the road in question
Use of lifting equipment and the traffic demands, it will be necessary to
implement appropriate traffic control measures
Use of hand tools and possibly even schedule the maintenance
work to periods of low traffic flow.
Use of compressors and pneumatic
power tools These arrangements can be both inconvenient
and costly and the alternatives available should
Use of portable electrical equipment be properly evaluated. The alternatives may
involve a different luminaire arrangement at a
Electrical work up to 415 volts lower mounting height, the use of hinged poles
(which are now available at relatively little
Installing/replacing luminaires additional cost) or the use of a fewer number of
greater mounting height columns with luminaire
Electrical testing and commissioning lowering gear (high masts).
Disposal of discharge and fluorescent 10.6.2 Quality of Equipment

lamps
When comparing costs of alternative items of
Disposal of waste materials equipment, the "whole life" cost ,of the
installation should be considered rather than
Work in the vicinity of underground just the initial construction cost. It will often be
services found that more expensive, high quality
equipment requiring less maintenance attention
Work in the vicinity of overhead electric will be cheaper in the long run, as well as
cables causing less inconvenience to the road user in
terms of obstruction to the highway during
Work in and with excavations maintenance operations. There may also be
safety benefits in using high quality equipment.
Roadworks
Guidance on luminaire maintenance factors is
Minor demolition and breaking out of given in Table 4 of BS 5489 : Part 2.
services.
10.6.3 Inventory and Fault Reports
10.6 MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION
In order to obtain the most cost effective service
10.6.1 Design Implications from a lighting installation, adequate procedures
for the reporting and logging of faults, and the
It is often important to consider the implications planning of maintenance programmes need to
of the lighting maintenance operation during the be established.
planning and design of a road lighting
installation. This is particularly so in respect to An essential requirement for these activities is
lighting on motorways and other high traffic the provision of an accurate, comprehensive,
volume and/or high speed roadways. easily accessible inventory system, nowadays

usually installed on a desk-top computer or PC The frequency of inspection for

network. A large amount of manual survey and electrical safety.
logging work is involved initially, but this will be
repaid within a fairiy short time by It will normally be found that lantern cleaning,
improvements in efficiency of management. which is a costly, labour-intensive activity, can
be restricted to coincide with the lamp-changing
It is of great benefit when logging fault reports, operation if a luminaire with enclosure
which may often originate from persons with no protection to at least IP65 is installed.
technical knowledge, to be able instantly to view
details of the installation on a visual display 10.6.5 Frequency of Inspections
screen.
It is recommended that visual, structural and
10.6.4 Cleaning and Lamp Replacement mechanical inspections of street lighting
equipment should be undertaken annually with
It is essential that cleaning and lamp full electrical testing every five years.
replacement routines should be closely followed
to maintain the installation. Maintenance 10.6.6 Hours of Operation
programmes should include lamp replacement,
luminaire cleaning, renewal of failed parts, Road lighting is required during all the hours of
checking of gaskets and optical components, darkness, independently of traffic flow, and
lubrication, painting and night inspections. should normally be in full operation from about
30 min after sunset to about 30 min before
Apart from the deterioration of luminaire parts, sunrise.
which can be corrected by cleaning, there is
also a longer term deterioration which is Questions of local policy are outside the scope
permanent and cumulative. Restoration of of this guide, which deals only with technical
photometric performance may, therefore, matters. However, it should be noted that
require replacement of optical systems or even lighting serves emergency services, public
the whole luminaire. Site tests should be security and pedestrians as well as drivers and
carried out at intervals of not more than five that extinguishing lighting during the hours of
years to check that performance is acceptable. darkness is detrimental to these interests.
The procedure according to which lamps are The practice of extinguishing certain luminaires
replaced is a matter of local policy, cost and when the traffic flow is small does not fulfil the
lamp type used. The cost of replacing lamps lighting needs of vehicular traffic and may
on demand should be compared with that of increase the likelihood of collision with columns.
group replacement. In making the comparison,
the following factors are among those that
The shape of the lamp survival curve

for its environment
The lamp lumen depreciation curve
Ease of access, e.g. extent of signing

and coning required
Interference with traffic
The required frequency of patrolling for

outages
The frequency of need for cleaning of

luminaires
The overall proportion of outages that

can be tolerated
The grouping of outages that can be

tolerated

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A SURVEYS A2 SURVEY IN QATAR
A1 INTRODUCTION Survey in Qatar is controlled by the Ministry of

Municipal Affairs & Agriculture (MMM) and the
Survey is a specific discipline, the results of Centre for Geographic Information Systems
which are utilised for a great many purposes (CGIS) who obtain, update and keep the
from planning to construction. current survey data, and set the criteria by
which survey data is recorded and presented.
With regard to road design, the purpose of
survey is twofold. The Qatar Survey Manual, issued in 1989 by
the Ministry of Industry & Public Works,
Firstly, it is required to establish the roadway line (subsequently replaced by the Ministry of
within the context of existing land ownership or Municipal Affairs and AgricUlture) and
planning requirements, thus fixing the available amending circulars, deal principally with
corridors for the roadway and associated cadastral, control, engineering and
utilities. hydrographic survey. This includes the
specifications, accuracy and working
Secondly, it is required to identify elements procedures to be used when undertaking these
which exist within and adjacent to a corridor in types of survey relating to the Qatar National
order that a satisfactory road design can be Grid (horizontal position) and Qatar National
affected. Height Datum (level).
To complete this function it is important that the In addition to survey controlled by the MMAA,
survey contractor provides all the information the Centre for GIS produces and maintains the
the engineer needs and that the engineer makes Geographic Information System(GIS) for Qatar.
full use of all the survey information available.
For convenience, this appendix lists the various
Survey work in Qatar is controlled by its own survey bodies that offer services and functions
comprehensive specifications and regulations. useful to the highway engineer. The
As such, this appendix is not intended as a organizations are illustrated in Figure A1. Each
survey manual but as an aid to the highway organization operates its own specific
engineer, to enable the production of procedures and methods that should be
comprehensive designs whilst having due adhered to if interfacing with it.
regard for existing and proposed site features.
Items specifically covered are:
• Government bodies controlling survey

within Qatar
• Survey information useful to the

highway engineer that is currently
available from each organization
• Survey information that should be

collected for use on road design
projects
• Procedures required by the Civil

Engineering Department for survey
work associated with road design
projects.
Survey during road construction is not covered

within this appendix. However, the general
requirements of as-built surveys are discussed.
January 1997 Page A/1

Centre
for
GIS
_._- -_.
Q
1
Land
P!anning !
• Department i Information
i Centre
_~~ "~J
_,_ _1_ _- - ,
Mapping & General ! I-lighway

Positioning - - - - - - - - Survey ~, Design
Section Section I Section
1_. ,---------'
CEO
Survey
Unit
Figure A1 MMAAlCGIS - Survey Related Organizations
January 1997 Page AJ2

A2.1 Centre for GIS - Mapping and National Control and Benchmarks
Positioning Services The 1" - 41h order survey control points and
benchmarks situated around Qatar provide co-
The Centre of GIS was established in 1990 with ordinate and level information for the entire
the target of setting up, operating and country. A greater density of control is given in
maintaining a Geographic Information System the urban areas.
for Qatar.
Orthoimagery
The Geographic Information System is an easily Orthoimagery comprises digital aerial
accessible digital library of all surface and photography that is assembled to form a visual
subsurface features in Qatar. It is therefore an picture of the landscape. It has an accuracy of
important tool for planning and co-ordinating all ±500mm with a greater resolution in urban
developments in Qatar. areas. The digital orthoimagery database is not
generally made available due to the amount of
Because of the link GIS naturally forms with all information contained within the files (typically
bodies associated with development, each 60MB/sheet).
government discipline that encompasses
construction of new features includes a GIS co- • 1:1000 orthoimagery is available for
ordinator. In addition, the Centre for GIS urban areas of Doha, Wakrah and
employs survey teams who check and collect Dukhan. This is useful for engineering
new features for inclusion within the digital studies and as a check on field data
database.
• 1:10,000 orthoimagery is available for
Functions of the Centre for GIS useful to the the whole of Qatar. This is useful for
highway engineer are listed below. engineering studies, particularly
relating to the identification of drainage
Topographical Database catchments and wadi locations.
The digital topographical mapping database is
available at nominal scales of 1:500,000, Digital Elevation Model
1:200,000, 1:50,000, 1:10,000 and 1:1000 The digital elevation model consists of
(urban areas only). accurately recorded spot heights for the whole
of Qatar.
The 1:10,000 and 1:1000 high resolution
databases are stereo-compiled from aerial Levels are related to the Qatar National Height
photography and form Qatar's GIS Digital Base Datum and quoted to two decimal places.
Map Database (DBMD).
Satellite Imagery
The larger scale digital mapping was created by Available in digital format and posters for the
digitizing existing maps. whole of Qatar. Satellite imagery is not
generally used in highway design but is useful
The DBMD is constantly updated sheet by sheet for specific studies because additional
from aerial and ground observations. information that is not available on the digital
mapping or orthoimagery is presented.
• 1:1000 mapping has an accuracy of
±500mm which is acceptable for most Aerial Photography
studies and concept road design and is The earliest black and white photography taken
useful as a back-drop for illustration of in 1947 is still available. Complete
areas adjacent to the route under photographic cover of Qatar dates from 1977
consideration and colour photography is generally available
dating from 1980.
• 1:10,000 mapping has an accuracy of
±3m which is suitable for location plans Aerial photography for the whole of Qatar is
and diagrams. presented at scales of approximately 1:40,000
and is useful for route and development
• 1:50,000 mapping has an accuracy of
±25m and is suitable for presentation-
planning and engineering studies. Wadi
conditions, areas of high water table and
style diagrams. flooding are clearly identifiable from the aerial
photography.

Old Mapping Approval of Survey Companies

Early map series are available on film or paper The GSS is responsible for the approval of
sheets from archives. The mapping was private survey companies who can access
produced from aerial photography taken during cadastral information and undertake cadastral
1971,1973,1977,1980 and 1987. Scales of survey work for private or government bodies.
1:200,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:20,000,
1:10,000, 1:5,000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500 Approval of Corridor Intersection Points
have been prepared, though not all areas of For new corridor alignments the calculation of
Qatar are covered by each scale. The engineer corridor intersection points and curve
should refer to the Qatar Survey Manual for parameters shall be made by the highway
further details of coverage and series. engineer or surveyor based on adjacent
cadastral information.
Old mapping is useful for identifying features
such as sink holes, shore lines and low areas Where there is no existing adjacent cadastral
since covered by development. information, corridor IP's and curve parameters
shall be computed from Planning Department
Global Positioning System (GPS) policy plans. Existing site features such as
The global positioning system provides position walls, pylons, posts etc may be used to define
and level of any place in the world from satellite- boundaries reflected on the policy plans. The
generated location information. A minimum of computed corridor IP's and curve parameters
3 satellites need to be operational over the shall, in this instance, be reported for the
locality. GPS equipment may be small enough approval of the General Survey Section.
to be hand-held. Varying levels of horizontal Companies that are approved for cadastral
and vertical accuracy are available, depending survey work by the General Survey Section
on the number of satellites read and the shall be employed to compute and report these
occupation time at the station. points.
The Centre for GIS broadcasts VHF correction Highway engineers are reminded that road
information for use with GPS equipment within alignments shall be developed in accordance
Qatar to provide real time outputs. with the relevant sections of the QHDM.
Alignments are therefore not defined by the
GPS has much use in route finding and strip corridor centreline (Refer to Section 5).
level surveys in areas where more accurate
control is not available. However, in Qatar A2.3 Planning Department
where accurate control is widespread across the
whole country, its uses are limited by the cost The Planning Department is responsible for the
required to achieve the accuracy necessary for co-ordination of all land planning in Qatar
highway design. including the outline approval of private
developments.
A2.2 Land Information Centre - General
Survey Section (GSS) Functions of the planning department useful to
the highway engineer are listed below.
The Land Information Centre was created in
1994 and incorporates the General Survey Policy Plans
Section. The Planning Department can provide current
policy plans illustrating information regarding
Functions of the General Survey Section useful land use allocation for the whole of Qatar.
to the highway engineer are listed below.
Policy plans are available at scales of 1:1000
Cadastral Database for urban areas and 1:2000 for rural areas.
The GSS maintains a database of registered co-
ordinates relating to land ownership boundaries Paper copies of policy plans are available
for the whole of Qatar. The information is illustrating the up-to-date land use planning.
available in the form of co-ordinated points in Digital copies of the policy plans are updated
text files. every three months, and are also made
available for general use.
Cadastral information shall be used by the road
designer for the production of road corridor and
network plans and in the computation of road
intersection points and centrelines.

A2.4 CEO Survey Unit A3.2 Services Surveys
The CED Survey Unit operates exclusively for Services survey shall be undertaken utilising
the Roads Division. Its main activities are listed electronic radio-detection methods. Line and
below: level of existing services apparatus shall be
recorded on services survey plans.
• Topographical surveys for in-house
design work Services survey drawings shall be prepared at
1:500 scale for urban areas on A1 sheets and
• Setting out for grading schemes in digital format. Scales for use in rural areas
undertaken by the Direct Labour should be chosen to reflect the amount of detail
Organisation. required. Layer numbering, line types and
symbols shall be in accordance with the Civil
Functions of the CED Survey Unit useful to the Engineering Department standard. The
highway engineer are listed below. horizontal accuracy of the services surveyed by
electronic radio-detection shall be to ± 250mm,
Road Intersection Points with vertical accuracy to ±100mm. Where
The CED Survey Unit maintains a database of services are located by trial pits they shall be
road intersection points. surveyed to an accuracy of ±5mm horizontally
and vertically.
IP's computed by the highway engineer from
cadastral information shall be submitted to the Location of services lines are to be
CED Survey Unit for review. determined by the co-ordinate of points
along the lines.
Topographical Surveys
Topographical surveys for CED Roads projects Co-ordinates may be derived from
are subject to CED Survey Unit review and measuring:
approval.
a) angle/bearing and distance
As-built Surveys from known control points.
As-built drawings are prepared by contractors b) offset and chainage from
with the assistance of supervising consultants known/co-ordinated lines (eg.
and private survey companies. They are road centreline)
recorded in digital and map sheet form and are c) distances from 2 or more
archived in the CED Prime Document Storage. known points.
As-built surveys are reviewed by CED Survey • Level shall be recorded on the survey
Unit on an ad hoc basis as required. plans to national datum at specific
points along utility routes. Points shall
A3 SURVEY WORK PROCEDURES be levelled and recorded at bends,
junctions and at 25m intervals along
In order to maintain consistency between straights.
projects, specific procedures are to be followed
in surveying, recording and presenting survey All radio-detection survey operators shall be
information for highway design projects. approved by the Civil Engineering Department
prior to commencement of the services survey.
Typical survey requirements for highway design
projects are listed below. The results of radio-detection surveys shall be
corroborated by manual excavation of trial
A3.1 Topographical Surveys holes at selected sites In accordance with
service authority procedures.
The topographical survey shall cover the full
extent of the works to be designed and include A3.3 As-built Surveys
tie-ins to all existing features.
On completion of construction, as-built survey
Survey data recorded shall be sufficient to drawings shall be produced by the project
enable preparation of survey drawings and shall contractor.
be prepared in accordance with the specification
given in AS. As-built utility information shall be collected
during site works by the contractor and
recorded in digital format for line and level by
January 1997 PageA/S

the supervising consultant. All as-built For road corridors, cross section levels to the
information shall be collected in a digital format edge of the reservation or agreed extent shall
compatible with CED's highway design and be taken at 25m intervals.
draughting software.
A5.2 Preparation of Survey Data
As-built survey drawings of principal alignments
and visible features shall cover all of the works The Contractor shall prepare and submit the
installed under the contract including utilities, data observed as survey plans in the following
services and all finished alignments and levels, format:
both above ground and subsurface.
As-built surveys shall be undertaken by

• Topographical survey drawings shall
be produced at 1:500 scale for urban
companies approved by the General Survey areas. Larger scales of 1:200 or 1:100
Section and shall be in the format approved by shall be used for areas requiring
the Civil Engineering Department. The greater detail such as major junctions.
construction contract is not normally considered In rural areas, where few features are
complete until the as-built surveys have been present, the survey drawings shall be
submitted to CED and approved. produced at 1:1000 scale or as
otherwise agreed
A.4 APPROVED SURVEY COMPANIES
The General Survey Section is responsible for

• Surveys plans shall be contoured at
0.5m vertical intervals. Additional spot
the approval of survey companies in Qatar for levels shall be indicated at low and
cadastral survey work. high points and across flat areas
without contours
Companies undertaking topographical survey
work for road designs shall also be from the • Levels at 25m intervals shall be
indicated on the survey drawings. In
GSS approved survey company list.
larger open areas a grid of levels at
A5 SPECIFICATION FOR 25m centres can be used
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
In addition, the data collected and survey
A.5.1 Features to be Observed procedures used shall be submitted in the
following format:
The survey contractor shall undertake a detailed
topographical survey of the subject areas. The • AutoCAD" .DWG or .DXF plot file of
the topographical maps
following features shall be observed:
Building extents (including overhangs, • Printout of Easting, Northing, Level,

and Code of all points
walls, fences, gates and entrances)
Kerbs, bitmac edges, tracks, footpaths
and parking areas
Service posts/poles (eg. telephone,
• Comma-delimited DOS text file of
points containing:
electricity, lighting, signals) a. Point Number
Road signs (street names, traffic) and b. Easting
billboards c. Northing
Manholes, gullies, hydrants, culverts, d. Level
service boxes and markers e. Code
Overhead and buried cables/lines
Trees, plant boxes, landscaping limits
Water channels, culverts
• Printout of raw data
topographical survey
for the
Surface type changes (eg. between

natural ground and concrete paving) • Field data,
descriptions
computations
for new
and
control
Slopes, escarpments
Spot levels at every 25m and at: stations/benchmarks
a. Gates and entrances
b. Services covers, gullies, culverts • Job Report describing the work
undertaken which includes:
c. Isolated high and low points
d. Abrupt grade changes. a. Location and project limits
b. Dates of survey

c. Methods and instruments used For multi-sheet drawings, sheet limits

d. Details about new control shall be plotted with the current sheet
points/benchmarks, where highlighted.
established.
5. Survey Drawing
All digital data shall be submitted on 3.5" floppy
disks. All surveyed features shall be plotted.
Lines shall be labelled when not
AS.3 Specifications specifically identified in the Legend,
(Table A5.4). Point features shall be
The Contractor shall comply with the following represented by standard symbols and
specifications: annotated accordingly.
• Survey works shall be tied to the Qatar

National Grid and Height Datum or the
North point symbol and grid co-
ordinates shall be plotted such that no
QND 95 co-ordinate system. part of the drawing is written over.
• Establishment of new control stations

and benchmarks shall be in accordance
For multi-sheet draWings, match lines
and appropriate notes for adjoining
with Section 2 of the "Qatar Survey sheets shall be provided.
Manual". Levelling closure errors must
be better than 15mm .fK, where K is the Layers shall be used in the preparation
length of the level route in km. of digital drawings. Each layer shall
Traverses shall have relative contain only one feature type and shall
accuracies of 1/25,000 or better be appropriately named in accordance
• Eastings, northings and levels of detail
points shall be within 10mm accuracy
with the typical layering given in Table
A5.5
• Topographical maps shall be of the

format shown in Figure A5.1 and shall
AS.4 Checking and Verification
contain the following information: All works and resulting survey data shall be
subject to the checking and approval of the
1. Project Details CED Survey Unit.
Contractor's name, project reference
number, surveyor's name, dates of
survey, sheet contents, drawing
number, plan scale.
2. Notes
Details relevant to the survey work

done (eg. reference system, datum,
methods and equipment used).
3. Legend
Listing of line types, symbols and codes

used and corresponding descriptions.
Tables A5.1, A5.2 and A5.3 list
standards for CED survey drawings
while Table A5.4 is a typical legend
listing.
4. Location/Sheet Index Map
Drawing (typically at scale 1:10,000)

showing the area surveyed, name of
major roads/streets, grid markers, co-
ordinates and north point symbol.
January 1997 PageA/7

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Line Description Use

Standing kerb line, step, planter, concrete
Solid line paving, SIS limit and other features not
otherwise listed.
Solid line, a.25m Cadastral plot boundary
Solid line, a.35m Building line
Two solid lines Wall (line separation equals thickness of wall
.
----------------- Short dashes Edge of bitmac, flush kerb, change of surface
,---------_ ... _--_ ..- Short dashes, a.35m Building overhang
................... Dots Top/bottom of bank, change of grade
A' 1/ it .- Solid line and slash Picket fence, railing, crash barrier
_._._._.- Dash-dot Road Centreline
------- Long dash-short dash Overhead cable/line
0_"_"-,,-,,-
Long dash-dot-dot Underground cablelline
All lines are a.2mm, thick unless otherwise specified
Table A5.1 - Survey Map Line Types
Symbol Description Use

c:=-<::J Scaled size Gate (length equals gate width)
U/G cable/duct marker, services and fire
0 Box, 1.2mm.square
hydrant covers not more than a.5m.square
Borehole, gully and circular MH cover not
0 Clrcle,1.2mm.diameter
more than a.5m. diameter
0 Solid circle,1.2mm.diam. Bollard, marker post not more than a.5m.
• Solid box,1.2mm.square diameter
Triangle, 1.2mm.sides Triangular MH, sides not more than a.5m.
'"
Services post/pole (electricity, telephone, street
0 Solid circle, 2mm.diam. lighting, traffic signal); road sign and
sign board supported by single post
. Solid box, 2mm.square

Electricity junction/traffic controller box and
telephone booth not more than 1m.square
&. Double triangle, 1.2mm. Survey control or benchmark
*
Scaled size Palm tree
0 Scaled size Tree, general
To be drawn using a.2mm.pen

Notes: 1. Features exceeding prescribed dimensions shall be surveyed as polygons and plotted
with solid lines a.2mm. thick.
2. Signs supported by more than 1 post shall be plotted as solid lines a.2mm. thick.
Table A5.2 - Survey Map Symbols

Annotation Description
B - Bollard
BH - Borehole
CB - Cadastrai boundary
EP - Electricity post
FH - Fire hydrant
G - Gully
GV - Gas valve
IC - Inspection chamber
JB - Electricity junction box
LP - Lamp post
MH - Manhole; type unknown
MHO - O-Tel manhole
MHS - Sewerage manhoie
MP - Marker post
PB - Post box
PC - Pipe culvert
PPB - Pedestrian push button pole
RS - Road sign (street name)
SIS - Electricity sub-station
SB - Sign board
SC - Stopcock
SM - Underground service marker
SV - Sluice valve
TCB - Traffic controller box
TEL - Telephone booth
TP - Telephone post
TSP - Traffic light/signal post
TS - Traffic sign post
WT - Water tank
WV - Water valve
Notes: 1. Annotations shall be plotted alongside corresponding symbol, line or polygon in

the drawing area and listed with appropriate description in the legend section.
2. The following features shall be additionally annotated with heights:

-MH covers -Top and bottom steps
-Guliies -Pipe culverts
-Gates and entrances
Table A5.3 - Survey Map Annotations

LEGEND'
Kerb line, unless otherwise specified.
(Level taken at the channel)
Cadastral plot boundary
Building line
Wall
Edge of bitmac, unless otherwise specified
Building overhang
Top/bottom of bank
: I : ,,' Picket fence, railing, crash barrier
Road centreline
Overhead cable/line
Underground cable/line
c::--=:l Gate
Jj, Survey control or benchmark
Palm tree
o*
B
Tree, general
Bollard
BH Borehole
CB Cadastral boundary
EP Electricity post
FH Fire hydrant
G GUlly
GV Gas valve
IC Inspection chamber
JB Electricity junction box
LP Lamp post
MH Manhole; type unknown
MHO O-Tel manhole
MHS Sewerage manhole
MP Marker post
PB Post box
PC Pipe culvert
PPB Pedestrian push button pole
RS Road sign (street name)
SIS Electricity sub~station
SB Sign board
SC Stopcock
SM Underground service marker
SV Sluice valve
TCB Traffic controller box
TEL Telephone booth
TP Telephone post
TSP Traffic IighVsignal post
TS Traffic sign post
WT Water tank
WV Water valve
14.55 Spot height
Table A5.4 - Typical Survey Map Legend

LAYER NAME DESCRI PTION I FEATURES COVERED

BUILDING Buildings, houses, shops, bus shelters and corresponding levels
CADASTRL Cadastral points and boundaries
CONTROLS Control stations and bench marks
EX_ROAD Kerb lines, edge of bitmac, islands and corresponding levels
EX_WORKS Excavations, boreholes, temporary construction fences
GATES Gates and threshold levels
IMPROVEM Man-made features and corresponding levels not related to specific layer
e.g. steps, gardens, drinking fountains, private plant boxes, etc.
NATURAL Trees, waterways, vegetation limits
SERVICES Electricity, water, telephone and other services, and corresponding levels,
includes: manholes, gullies, hydrants, inspection chambers, valves,
electricity and telephone poles and lines, electricity sUb-stations,
junction boxes, postboxes, culverts, ducts, pipelines, services markers
SPOT_HT Spot heights and levels not related to specific layer
ST_FURNI Lamp posts, street name posts, sign boards, marker posts,
public plant boxes; and corresponding levels
TRAFFIC Sollards, traffic signal posts, vehicle detectors, pedestrian/road
markings, crash barriers, railings; and corresponding levels
WALLS Property walls and fences, and corresponding levels
CONTOUR 1 Major contour line
CONTOUR 2 Minor contour line
DESC_TXT Labels and annotations not related to specific layer
GRIDSDAT Map grid lines and coordinates
MATCHDAT Match lines and match line symbols and texts
PLAN FORM Drawing margins, legend, title boxes, location map, notes
ROAD_DES Designed road IP's, center lines and reservations
Table A5.5 - Typical Layers for Topographical Survey Drawings

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B GUIDANCE NOTES TO PREPARE A BRIEF FOR GEOTECHNICAL SITE

INVESTIGATIONS
B1 INTRODUCTION Each of the items listed in Figure B1 is

discussed in the foliowing sections.
This Appendix primarily is to assist the CED
Engineer in the preparation of a brief for a The approach to preparing a brief for concept or
geotechnical site investigation. detaiied design is the same. However, the
type of information required and size of
The guidelines within this Appendix provide a investigation varies. The different requirements
checklist of items to be considered in the of both concept and detaiied design are
process of preparing a brief. A flow diagram identified in the text.
identifying the main points is shown in Figure
B1. It is essential that all works and specifications
comply with the most up to date versions of the
CED approved documentation and procedures.
Select Route
B2 INITIAL CONSIDERATIONS
~ Before preparing a geotechnical brief the
Locate Junctions
Engineer must consider the foliowing:
,J,
Locale Structures
Route Selection
In Qatar it is often the case that the route
+-
Walkover/Drive corridors are predetermined by the Planning
Sites Department. However, the engineer should
•
Data Review
review the selected route following good
practice and guidance given in the Qatar
Highway Design Manual. The engineer should
•
Review Structure
Locations
at this stage be confident that it is feasible to
produce a compliant road design within the
route corridor provided.
+
Prepare Site
Locate Junctions
Investigation The junction locations are likely to be dictated
by one or more of the following:
+
Decide on the • Existing or proposed routes
Information
Required to
• Existing or proposed developments
Enable Design
such as villas, shops or petrol stations
~ • Service equipment such as electricity
Select the Investigation Procedures
Required 10 Provide the Information to
pylons, substations, pumping stations,
Enable Design cables or pipelines
J, • Geotechnical conditions.
Review the Scale
and Quantify the The geotechnical investigation may reveal
Investigation
ground conditions which result in moving the
+
Finalize Site
junction or changing the design. Junctions
often invoive some form of structure, for
Investigation Brief
example, a full grade separated interchange or
an ornamental structure in the middle of a
roundabout. So the geotechnical information is
quite likely to have a bearing on junction
location.
Figure B1 Preparing a Geotechnical Brief
January 1997 Page B/1

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIXB
Locate Structures B3 PREPARATION OF THE BRIEF

The types of typical structures to be found on
highway works are: Following the initial considerations (refer
Section B2), the engineer must then decide on
• Bridges the information required in the design process.
Details of the various methods of investigation
• Embankments and testing listed below are discussed in
Section B4.
• Cuttings
B3.1 Geotechnical Investigation Works
• Traffic Signals, Signs and Lighting
The following investigation works may be
• Box Culverts required:
• Underpasses
• Desk Study
• Ornamental Structures such as Arches
and Feature Structures in • Geotechnical Walkover
Roundabouts.
• Trial Pits
Before preparing a geotechnical brief the
engineer should have a full understanding of • Boreholes
the outline design and be able to identify the
type, approximate location and scale of the • Samples
structures to be built. These are important
factor in defining and quantifying the site • Field Tests
investigation, as most of the investigation will
be concentrated at the location of the • Laboratory Tests.
structures.
Each of the above works is described in Section
Walkover/Drive Site B4 of this Appendix.
Having determined the route and location of the
junctions and structures, the engineer should Schedules for Geotechnical Investigations
then visit the site. The site should be walked The following tables quantify typical
over or driven through, depending on the scale geotechnical investigations for the following
of the project. The purpose of the site visit is to conditions:
get a visual impression of the route, locate the
junctions and structures and identify any • Roads· Feasibility Stage, Table B1
obvious anomalies which may have a bearing
on the project. For example a drive through a • Roads· Detailed Stage, Table B2
site may identify lush green vegetation in low
areas indicating possible groundwater. This • Structures· Feasibility Stage, Table B3
may require additional site investigation to
confirm the problem. The site investigation • Structures· Detailed Stage, Table B4.
report should identify such topographic features
and, as a result of the testing, advise of any The schedules give advice on the frequency of
problems relating to the design and of any different methods of investigations. These
difficulties which may arise during the notes are merely guidelines to be used in the
construction period. preparation of a brief. Each site investigation
brief should be considered on its own merits,
Data Review
taking into account the purpose of the
Following the site visit, the Engineer should
investigation, stage in the design process, scale
review the site notes and, if necessary, amend
and design of the project and its location.
the design accordingly. Any problem areas
should be highlighted and these notes referred
to when preparing the site investigation brief.
The location of structures should be reviewed
against the site visit notes so that if a potential
problem exists, either the location is changed,
the design of the structure is modified or the
site investigation brief increased to cover any
additional investigation works.

Road Description Notes

Dual 2-3 Lane Trial Pits: Trial pits should be located at 1aDOrn spacing. It is important to ensure that the proposed
Single 2 Lane The trial pits should not all De located solely along the road does not interfere with the hydrology of
centreline but should be spread over the width of both the area. Note should be made of any
carriageways or the corridor. Trial pits should be groundwater in the trial pit and any
concentrated at identifiable problem areas. Trial pits evidence of collecting water in the area
would typically be up to 2.5m deep. such as evaporation salts or green grass in
low areas.
Boreholes: These may be considered necessary if the
desk study reveals a problematic area. Borehole In built up, urban areas, special attention
quantities and locations should be reviewed by a should be given to locating the trial pits to
Geotechnical Engineer, however, the investigation should avoid services such as electricity, water or
be concentrated in the problematic area. Q-Tel.
Laboratory Testing: Testing should be undertaken of

samples at each trial pit and borehole. This frequency
should be reviewed by the Geotechnical Engineer on site
and the scope reduced or increased as necessary.
Table B1 Schedule of Geotechnical Investigations for Roads at Feasibility Stage
Road Description Notes

Dual 2-3 Lane Trial Pits: Trial pits should be located at 500m spacing. It is important to ensure that the proposed
Single 2 Lane The trial pits should not all be located solely along the road does not interfere with the hydrology of
centreline but should be spread over the width of both the area. Note should be made of any
carriageways. Trial pits would typically be up to 2.5m groundwater in the trial pits and any
deep. evidence of collecting water in the area
such as evaporation salts or lush green
Boreholes: Boreholes should be located at 1km grass in low areas.
intervals. If the desk study reveals that consistent rock
and soil conditions are to be expected, the number of In built up, urban areas, special attention
boreholes may be reduced to suit. should be given to locating the trial pits to
avoid services such as electricity, water or
Permeability Tests: Falling head or constant head Q-Tel.
permeability tests undertaken in boreholes located at 1km
intervals or in areas of differing ground conditions where
surface water from the highway will require collection and
discharge.
Dynamic Cone Penetration Tests: Where the desk study

or walkover survey reveals that soil conditions such as
sabkah or alluvium are present, then DCP testing should
be considered in these areas, typically at 200m centres.
Laboratory Testing. Testing should be undertaken of

samples at each trial pit and borehole. This frequency
should be reviewed by the Geotechnical Engineer on site
and the scope reduced or increased as necessary.
Table B2 Schedule of Geotechnical Investigations for Roads at Detail Stage

Structure Description Notes

Interchange Boreholes: At least one borehole to be located at each Trial pits alone are not sufficient for major
proposed abutment position.· The borehole should locate structures.
rock head and penetrate 5m into rock. Where rock is not
present, the borehole should extend a minimum of 1.5 Structures in the urban location may have
times the width of a shallow foundation. If piled the benefit of other geotechnical
foundations are anticipated, the borehole should extend investigations carried out in the vicinity and
to rock plus Sm.. A local geotechnical expert can advise so the scope of investigation works may be
on anticipated depths for various locations in Qatar. reduced.
Groundwater shall be recorded if present. If groundwater
is likely to be a problem, it is recommended that the water
level is monitored over a period to allow for seasonal
variation.
Trial Pits: It is advisable that trial pits be located on

selected slip roads and tests undertaken to determine the
parameters required to design the earthworks, see
Embankment below. Trial Pits would typically be up to
2.5m deep.
Box CUlvert Trial Pits: At least one trial pit to be located at the Usually in rural locations, it is important to
proposed culvert position. Trial Pits would typically be up review topography and hydrology to locate
to 2.5m deep. the culvert.
Embankment Boreholes: For embankments/cuttings 2.5m high/deep If the cutting is deep, the engineer should
!Cutting or greater, at least one borehole to be located at the consider the stability of the slopes.
proposed embankment/cutting position. If the Boreholes should therefore be staggered
embankment/cutting is very long, boreholes should be across the cutting and not just follow the
located every kilometre. Boreholes should extend at least road centreline. Laboratory tests should
3m beneath the level of the bottom of the proposed identify parameters for slope stability and
embankment/cutting. Boreholes should identify rock head settlement to verify that it is possible for an
and record groundwater if present. Standard penetration embankment/cutting to be bUilt.
tests are usually recommended to determine hardness.
Trial Pits: For embankments/cuttings less than 2.5m

high, at least one trial pit to be located at the proposed
position. Trial ~its would typically be up to 2.5m deep.
For cuttings, investigations should extend a minimum of
2m below cutting base level, or to rock. As such, trial pits
may only provide information regarding the material to be
excavated.
Special Site investigations for special structures such as

Structures ornamental arches, roundabout centre pieces, gantries or
cantilevers for traffic signs will require individual
consideration depending on the size of the structure and
its location.
Table B3 Schedule of Geotechnical Investigations for Structures at Feasibility Stage

Structure Description Notes

Interchange Boreholes: At [east four boreholes to be located at the Trial pits alone are not considered sufficient
site of a typical interchange in addition to those taken for major structures.
along the main carriageway through the interchange.
Structures in the urban location may have
Boreholes should locate rock head and typically penetrate the benefit of other goetechnical
5m into rock or 5m below formation level, whichever is the investigations carried out in the vicinity and
deeper. Groundwater shall be recorded if present. If so the scope of investigation works may be
groundwater is Ilkely to be a problem, it is recommended reduced.
that the water level is monitored over a period to allow for
seasonal variation. Depth of borehole to extend 5m below
depth of proposed foundation.
Plate Bearing Tests: Test to be carried out at foundation
level for all fou(ldation locations on the advice of the
geotechnical expert.
Permeability Tests: Falling head or constant head

permeability tests to be undertaken in boreholes.
Necessary where surface water from highways will require
collection and discharge.
Trial Pits: It is advisable that trial pits be located on each

slip road and tests undertaken to determine the
parameters required to design the earthworks, see
Embankment below. Trial Pits would typically be up to
205m deep.
Box Culvert Trial Pits: At least one trial pit to be located at the Usually in rural locations, it is important to
proposed culvert position. Trial Pits would typically be up review topography and hydrology to locate
to 2.5m deep. the culvert.
Plate Bearing Tests: Test to be carried out at foundation

level for all foundation locations on the advice of the
geotechnical expert.
Boreholes: Depending on the findings of the Feasibility

Investigation it may be necessary to locate a borehole at
the culvert position. Boreholes would typically be
extended to 3m below the foundation level.
Embankment Boreholes: For embankments/cuttings 2.5m high/deep Laboratory tests should identify parameters
/Cutlings or greater, at least one borehole to be located at the for slope stability to verify that it is possible
proposed embankment/cutting position. If the for an embankment/cutting to be built (Bulk
embankment/cutting is very long, boreholes should be Density determines air/water voids, Shear
located every kilometre. Strength determines bearing capacity).
Boreholes should typically extend at least 3m beneath the

level of the bottom of the proposed embankment/cutting.
Boreholes should identify rock head and record
groundwater if present. Standard penetration tests are
usually recommended to determine relative density.
Trial Pits: For embankments/cuttings less than 2.5m

high, at least one trial pit to be located at the proposed
position. Trial Pits would typically be up to 2.5m deep.
Special Site investigations for special structures such as

Structures ornamental arches, roundabout centre pieces, gantries or
cantilevers for traffic signs will require individual
consideration depending on the size of the structure and
its location.
Note. The chOIce of borehole depth should be at least to the depth of the extent of the pressure bulb set up by the foundation.
The final decision on whether to continue the borehole further should be made by the geotechnical engineer on site.
Table 84 Schedule of Geotechnical Investigations for Structures at Design Stage
Notes
1 Whilst detail design information is not usually required at the early stages, it is better to provide
as much geotechnical information as possible, as early as possible.
2 Care should be taken when locating boreholes and trial pits, to ensure that services are not
damaged during the investigation. This is particularly important in the urban situation.

B3.2 Field Tests B3.3 Laboratory Tests
Field tests to determine the density, bearing or Laboratory testing will be required on the
shear strength of in situ materiai are very samples taken. Table B6 lists the most
valuable as they can be carried out without ·commonly used laboratory tests and gives
disturbing the soil. gUidelines on the frequency of testing. The
tests are discussed in Section B4.
Whilst each testing programme must be tailored
to suit the particular site investigation, Table B5
Test Notes Frequency
gives guidelines on the frequency of testing for
the most commonly used tests. Atterberg Plasticity index, 2 tests per
Limits liquid limits trial pit
/borehole
Test Notes Frequency
Particle Size Used in grading 2 tests per
Standard Cohesionless soils 1m intervals Distribution and classification trial pit
Penetration throughout of material /borehole
Test depth of
borehole California Used for pavement 2 tests per
Bearing Ratio design. Shall be trial pit
Unconfined Gives shear stress of If cohesive carried out in Iborehole
Compression soil soils. 1m accordance with
Test intervals QCS.
throughout
depth of Chemical pH. Sulphate & 1 tests per
borehole Tests Chloride, Used to trial pit
check compatibility /borehole
California In situ used as a 2 tests per of materials and
Bearing Ratio guide for pavement trial pit aggressiveness of
design. QHDM uses Iborehole ground and water
laboratory CBR for on concrete
design. structures,
Standpipe Monitoring water I test per Dry Density / Essential for slope 2 tests per
Piezometer levels borehole with Moisture stability in trial pit
regular Content embankments/ Iborehole
monitoring Relationship cutting
Plate Bearing Used in foundation 1 test at Moisture Essential for all 2 tests per
Test design to determine each major Content and testing regimes - trial pit
ground bearing structure Density relates sample to Iborehole
pressure liquid and plastic
limits
Shear Vane Measures shear If cohesive
Test strength of soft soils soils. 1m Triaxial Determines shear If suitable
intervals Compression strength for samples
throughout Test cohesive soils recovered
depth of
borehole Unconfined Gives shear stress If suitable
Compression of soil samples
Permeability Used to determine 3 test per Test recovered
Test permeability rates for borehole
soakaway design Point Load Determines ground 2 tests at
Test bearing pressure selected
In Situ Measures density of If cohesive (for rock only) boreholes
Density Test soils soils. 1m
intervals
throughout
Table B6 Schedule for Laboratory Tests
depth of
borehole It may not be necessary to carry out ali the
Note. Tests should also be mcluded at changes of strata. testing listed in Table B6. The engineer
responsible for preparing the brief may decide
Table B5 Schedule for Field Tests to reduce the scope depending on the
information he needs for the design.
The testing frequency given in Table B5 is
shown as a guideline. It is common practice for
the schedule to be revised by the geotechnical
engineer responsible forthe site investigation as
the investigation proceeds.

B4 ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS but approximately 1.2 x 1.2 m should be dug.
Holes should be kept well clear of the position
B4.1 Methods of Investigation of actual foundations, but should be in the
vicinity of important structures such as heavily-
When discussing the procedure for loaded walls or columns.
investigation, reference was made to borings as
a means of investigation. This is perhaps the Problems occur in water-bearing soils,
most common method of site exploration, but particularly sands, and therefore the economies
certainly not the only one. BS 5930: 1981 Code of shoring and pumping pits may outweigh the
of Practice for site investigations provides savings gained against specialist borings. In
details of investigation methods to assess dry conditions, these pits are particularly
ground conditions for construction purposes. valuable since they allow hand-cut samples to
Considering new works, from very small to very be taken, thereby minimising the disturbance of
large contracts, a general guide to exploration the sample and maximising the conditions for
would be as follows: accurate testing.
• Small works - trial pits up to 3.0m deep Deeper trial pits may be used in the
investigation of rock fissures or to explore
• Medium to large scale works - borings layers of weak rock which cannot be removed
up to 30m deep, typically 20m intact in normal boring operations. Such deep
pits are costly to construct and would be used
• Very large scale works (e.g. grade only in large scale exploration.
separation and dams) - a combination
of deep borings and pits. Trial pits are often the best method of exploring
back filled areas and sites overlain by variable
It must be noted that the above is only a guide, natural deposits.
the detailed methods of exploration would
depend on the type of construction and site B4.1.2 Boreholes
involved.
This type of exploration can be achieved by
Where rock is expected, borings of various various methods:
types should be used unless a number of pits
would prove more economical. In soils, the Hand or mechanical auger borings are
normal method of exploration is by boring holes relatively cheap methods of sub-surface
(unless the loads expected are small, then exploration of soils which will stand
shallow pits will provide adequate samples for unsupported. Hollow stem augers can be used
testing). to support soils in borings. Holes can be sunk
to depths up to 30 metres provided there are no
The cost of setting up drilling rigs on site varies obstructions such as boulders. The diameter of
from area to area depending on transportation the borehole is usually>1OOmm. This allows
costs. soil sampling tubes to be used without difficulty.
The mechanical auger is used in gravelly soil,
Before an estimate can be established for site which involves the use of a casing to prevent
investigation work, the number of boreholes collapse of the boring.
and types of test must be determined. This will
be dependant on how much information is Percussive boring is a method which can be
already available. carried out in all types of soils, because the
borehole is lined with a thick-walled steel
B4.1.1 Trial Pits casing. The boring is achieved by using open
ended shells in cohesive soils and clack valves
This is the cheapest form of exploration in in cohesion less soils.
shallow depths (e.g. up to 3m). Above 3
metres deep, the cost increases rapidly Other tools include chisel bits for breaking up
compared with boring. The main advantage is boulders. All the tools and sampling tubes are
that soils and rocks can be exposed and attached to sectioned rods.
examined in situ. This method shows changes
in strata much more clearly than by borings.
The pits are dug out either by local labour or by
a small tractor-mounted excavator. The plan
size of a pit depends on method of excavation,

If the walls of the borehole require support, the In boring operations, it is common practice to
borehoie is lined as the hole is bored and the obtain 'bulk' disturbed samples in order to
section iinings screwed together and driven as obtain sufficient sample for compaction and
the hole deepens. CBR tests, together with full gradings if the soil
is granular in nature. This is particularly
Percussion boring is the oldest method of appiicable if the bore is penetrating a proposed
boring, in which the formation is broken up by cutting.
repeated biows from a bit or chisel. Water is
added to the hole as the work proceeds and the Undisturbed samples: these are samples
resulting debris is removed at intervals by shell, removed by methods which preserve, so far as
auger or pressure washing. Samples from this practicable, the natural structure and properties
type of boring are inevitably disturbed. A new of the material. Samples in this category are
system using a compressed air hammer easily obtained in rock and clay, but difficult in
provides a quick method of boring for certain other soils. Table B1.1 show the
permeability tests. This method does not method employed for obtaining samples.
faciiitate core sampiing.
SAMPLING METHOOS
Rotary coring, which is used for the exploration
of rocks, can be divided into twG categories: Disturbed Hand samples
Soil Auger samples
Shell samnles
Core Drilling
Core driliing is a process designed to recover Undisturbed Hand samples
Core sam Dies
continuous cores of rock. Water or
compressed air is jetted down the hoie through Disturbed Sludge samples from
hollow rods and returns up the annular space Rocks oercussion or rotary drills
carrying rock cuttings from the coring bit. For Undisturbed Hand samples, cores
hard rock cores, the crown of the drill is usually
tipped with industrial diamonds. The continuous Table B1.1 Sampiing Methods
cores are laid in wooden core boxes in depth
order. 84.2 Testing
Mud-rotary Drilling For any particular location, the engineer must
In mud-rotary driliing, a mud-laden fiuid is first estabiish the depth and classification of
pumped in a continuous stream down hollow each strata of subsurface material and
driliing rods to the rotating bit. The bit is kept in compare this with what was envisaged. To do
contact with the face of the boring and the fiuid this, a range of tests will be required.
carries the debris up the annular space
between the rods and the sides of the hole. A Having compieted the tests and reviewed the
steel casing to the hole is not necessary. The results, the engineer should consider whether
cores are obtained by the use of coring tools. the investigation has confirmed his initial
This type of drilling is not normally used for site assumptions or whether if has introduced new
investigation work. problems.
Cone Penetration Tests 84.2.1 In Situ Testing
Where a significant thickness of unconsoiidated
overburden is know to exist, Static 'Dutch' Cone Tests to obtain the density or shear strength of
Penetration tests could be conducted to a soils in situ are very valuable since they can be
suitably agreed depth. Methods and equipment carried out without disturbing the soil. Such
in accordance with BS 5930. tests are particularly valuable in sands and
silts. The main tests are:
B4.1.3 Samples
There are two types of sample. • Standard penetration
Disturbed samples: these are samples removed • Unconfined compression

from boreholes with augers or other equipment
which interfere with the natural structure of the
material. Such samples are usefui for visual
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
grading and determining moisture content, and

in some cases for laboratory testing. Samples
• Monitoring water levels
are placed in airtight jars with identifying labels. • Plate bearing test

.. Shear vane test load can be applied in either of two ways; the
first by loading it with increments of kentledge
.. In situ density test (concrete blocks or steel billets); the second by
means of a hydraulic jack bearing against a
.. Permeability test. heavily loaded beam.
Standard Penetration Test Failure is traditionally assumed when the

As with all penetration tests, this consists of settlement reaches a depth equal to 10%
measuring the resistance of the soil to (some engineers say 15%) of the breadth of the
penetration under dynamic loading. This loading plate, this should be verified by plotting
particular test is made by driving a 35mm a time/load/settlement graph. The safe load
(internal diameter) split spoon sampler into the (qs) should be taken as one-third of that load
soil at the bottom of a borehole. The sampler, which causes failure or the failure load divided
suspended on rods, is first driven 150mm into by the project factor of safety. For most
the soil by a falling standard weight (63.5 kg structures, a generally accepted maximum
falling through a distance of 760mm). The allowable settlement is 25mm. Terzaghi & Peck
sampler is then driven a further 300mm and the have proposed a relationship which enables
number of blows needed to achieve this is allowable bearing pressure to be calculated
recorded as the 'N' value. The test is used to based on a chosen allowable settlement and
establish the relative density of soil, and for the load/settlement results obtained from a
particular soils to design foundations and gauge plate bearing test.
settlement.
The plate bearing test is useful in stony soils
California Bearing Ratio Test where undisturbed sampling is difficult.
This test may be used in the design of flexible However, care should be taken to ensure
pavements and can be carried out on site. The enough tests are taken to be representative
test shows the load-penetration of soils relative where soils may be variable across a site.
to a standard crushed stone sample. The test
is normally carried out on soil at least 1m below The plate bearing test data can also be used to
ground level (i.e. below the level of any calculate a soils modulus of subgrade reaction.
seasonal moisture fluctuation) using a lorry to
obtain the necessary reaction load through a One disadvantage of this test is the lack of
screw jack. simulation of "bulb pressure". The bulb
pressure from a test of this nature is usually far
The in situ CBR test provides a different result smaller than the bulb pressure from the actual
to that obtained in the laboratory under similar foundation. This could lead to error in
conditions of density etc. Road design is detecting settlement of a lower weak stratum.
normally carried out based on the laboratory
CBR only. Shear Vane Test
This test measures the shear strength of soft
Standpipe Piezometer cohesive soils in situ. The vane is pushed into
Monitoring of water levels is carried out by the the soil and rotated by hand at a constant rate.
use of piezometers. If a borehole is to be The amount of torque necessary for rotation is
constructed to obtain soil information, then measured by a spring balance on top of the
unless circumstances dictate otherwise, it rods and the shear strength of the soil is
should be utilised in order to monitor the calculated.
fluctuation in ground water level. This may be
carried out for several years depending on the In Situ Density Test
time scale of the project. Such information will Typically sand replacement or nuclear density
be invaluable in the future once general trends tests are undertaken in the field. These
have been established. provide the field density of soils and are useful
in assessing compaction and settlement.
Plate Bearing Test
This type of test was once very popular and is Permeability Test
still used on large engineering projects as a This test enables the permeability of the soil or
means of providing in situ data on the bedrock to be ascertained. The most common
behaviour of soils or rocks at foundation level. type of permeability test undertaken in Qatar is
The procedure consists of excavating a pit to the falling head test to BS 5930. However, the
the level of the proposed foundation and then type of test and the number per borehole
loading a steel or cast iron plate (usually 600 x should be agreed with the Civil Engineering
600mm in size) on the bottom of the pit. The Department.

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer Test Particle Size Distribution: of particular
This test utilities a hand held drop hammer importance when assessing problems of
penetrometer which records cone penetration excavation in permeable soils below the water
resistance versus number of blows. Graphical table. It is also useful for assessing the value
plots of results enable equivalent in situ CBR of non-cohesive soils for use as aggregates
values of the ground to be determined. and construction materials. The first part of the
(Typically used for depths up to 2.0m). Refer to test is achieved by sifting dried samples
the TRL specification for DCPT equipment and through BS 410 sieves. In the case of cohesive
CBR correlation relationship. soils, a wet analysis is used, employing a
hydrometer. The range of particle sizes is
Other Tests compared with a standard chart. PSD is also
Other in situ tests include the hand useful for identification purposes and
penetrometer and hand shear vane. assessment of material suitable for use as fill.
B4.2.2 Laboratory Testing Measurement of Engineering Properties

The foregoing tests give some indication of the
Laboratory testing is undertaken to establish engineering properties of a sailor rock, but
the following characteristics of soils: there are also specific tests which yield more
definite information relating to:
.. Identification and classification
Bulk density of soil
.. Measurement of engineering properties Shear strength of soil
Consolidation of soil
.. Chemical content. Laboratory CBR
Laboratory compaction
Identification and Classification Point load testing
This analysis involves a number of individual Unconfined compression testing
tests, such as: (+deformation modulus)
Visual examination Bulk Density: the weight of material per unit

Moisture content volume, including the weight of air or water in
Liquid and plastic limits the voids. This information is essential in the
Particle size distribution. design of retaining works, where the weight of
a stratum is an important factor (e.g. stability of
Visual Examinations: made to note the colour, slopes, formation of earth dams, earth pressure
texture and consistency of disturbed and of retaining walls etc). Dry density (weight of
undisturbed samples, these being used later to solids per unit voiume) is used for the
describe the soil in the engineer's reports. determination of optimum compaction in earth
dams, embankments and other soil structures,
Moisture Content: important in all soil and in the laboratory CBR test.
samples, since it helps to arrange a programme
of testing (by relating samples to liquid and Typically cone-cutter and sand replacement
plastic limits) so that no doubtful sample will be tests are carried out to determine bulk density.
overlooked. The higher the natural moisture
content of the soil, the greater will be its Shear Strength: can be used directly to
compressibility. calculate a soil's bearing capacity and also to
calculate the pressure on supports in
Liquid and Plastic Limit Tests: made on excavations. There are several tests available
cohesive soils for classification purposes and for ascertaining shear strength, but the most
for assessing their compressibility. The liquid popular is the triaxial compression test. Triaxial
limit (LL) (BS 1377 Test 3 and 4) determines compression tests are suitable for cohesive
the amount of moisture content necessary to soils only. Where cohesion less soils have to
cause the material to flow or move readily be tested, the shear box test is used. A
under a given number of vibrations, whereas sample of soil is subjected to a standard load
the plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out under which a horizontal force is applied to the
a 4 mm diameter thread of soil and noting the lower half of the box until the sample shears.
moisture content which will allow the thread to
be rolled out still further until it breaks up due to
drying. When both liquid and plastic limits are
known, the Plasticity Index can be established
(Plasticity Index = LL-PL).

The Triaxial Compression Test can be carried tray and subjected to load. The load is
out using any of three different methods: increased every 24 hours and a time-
settlement curve is plotted. Again, this is only
• Undrained suitable for cohesive soils.
• Consolidated undrained Laboratory CBR: shows the load-penetration

of soils relative to a standard crushed stone,
• Drained. (see Clause B4.1.3). The test is carried out in
a controlled laboratory situation and is of great
In principle, the test consists of subjecting a importance as it is laboratory CBR values that
cylindrical sample of undisturbed soil (75 mm are referred to in QCS and Section 9 Pavement
long x 38 mm diameter) to lateral hydraulic of QHDM, and which construction materials
pressure in addition to a vertical load. This is and subgrade should meet.
achieved by placing the sample in a specially
designed plastic cylinder which is subsequently Laboratory Compaction: provides the
filled with water. Both vertical and lateral loads optimum moisture content for a soil sample.
can be increased as required in order to
simulate the in situ stresses. Measurement of Successive samples of soil are progressively
the forces needed to shear the sample is used wetted and compacted in a mould. The dry
in the calculation of bearing capacity. In the density/moisture content of these successive
undrained triaxial test (often referred to as the samples is then plotted to find the optimum
quick test) the sample, encased in a rubber moisture content. Typically, the Proctor test is
sheath, is capped with non-porous end plates to carried out (in accordance with BS 1377)
prevent the pore water escaping and allow axial though the modified AASHTO and vibrating
loading of the ends. Three tests are carried hammer techniques are also commonly used.
out, one each on three samples (all cut from the
same large sample ), each being subjected to a The value of optimum moisture for the soil is
higher hydraulic lateral pressure before axial usefui for preparing a soil prior to site
loading is applied. The results are then plotted compaction in order to ensure minimum
in the form of Mohr's circles. compactive effort and specification compliance.
The consolidated undrained triaxial test allows Results achieved are also used in other
the sample to drain while applying the hydraulic laboratory tests such as the CBR test.
pressure, thereby allowing the sample to
consolidate. After consolidation the sample is Point Load Testing on Rock: involves the
stressed without further drainage. determination of failure strength of rock core
samples either by loading axially, diametrically
In the drained test, the axial load is applied so or irregularly. Refer to BS 1377 or ISRM
slowly that the pore water can drain off.without (International Society for Rock Mechanics).
building up any pressure in the sample. The
drainage continues throughout the test and the Unconfined Compression Testing (plus
amount of water drained oft is measured. In measurement of Deformation Modulus on
both cases, where drainage is achieved, the Rock): involves measurement of failure
water passes through porous discs at the ends strength and deformation characteristic of
of the sample and then through ducts in the prepared samples. This test can be used either
apparatus. in the site laboratory or in the field, since the
apparatus is very portable. This method is
The consolidated undrained test and the therefore particularly useful where a large
drained test have particular application to the number of samples are required to be tested.
behaviour of soil in earth dams and Rock samples 75mm long and 38mm diameter
embankments, and also to stability problems in are placed in the apparatus and an axial load
general. applied. The sample is sheared under load
and the shear stress is automatically recorded
Consolidation test: used to calculate the on a chart fixed to the apparatus. Refer to BS
magnitude and rate of consolidation of a 1377.
particular soil. This is very important in
calculating the movement of soil under Sedimentation Test: used to assess whether
foundations. The apparatus used is called an material is a silt or a clay. Refer to BS 1377.
'Oedometer'. The test consists of placing a
cylindrical sample (75 mm diameter x 18 mm Laboratory Permeability: used to determine
thick) in a metal ring and capping with porous permeability of reconstituted samples, ego
discs. The sample is placed in a water-filled subgrade or roadbase materials.

Miniature Shear Vane: carried out on borehole shall all be in accordance with the Qatar
samples of cohesive material. Commonly used Construction Specification.
when samples are not suitable for other testing.
The Ground Investigation Report should
Chemical Content: a chemical analysis of identify the rock horizon for areas of cut, should
soils, rocks and groundwater is carried out to suggest methods of excavating the material,
assess the effects, if any, which their and should identify whether the material is
composition might have on any material to be likely to be suitable for use as a fill material.
used in the proposed works. The tests mainly
cover sulphate and chloride content and pH B4.4 Retaining Structures
val ue, although bacteriological analysis may
also be required for works in tidal mud flats. Where sufficient land width is not available to
accommodate the full width of the base of the
B4.3 Earthworks embankment, the provision of earth retaining
structures has to be considered. Below is a list
Earth moving for roads takes place over a of some of the different types of earth retaining
relatively narrow band of terrain and a balance structures commonly used.
of cut and fill is often difficult to achieve.
Constraints to the profile are imposed by the
need to provide required clearances for bridges
• Gravity walls in mass concrete,
brickwork or stone masonry
under or over existing roads or to cross them at
their existing level. • Reinforced concrete
counterfortlbuttress
walls,
Earthworks should be designed to provide an

adequate safety factor for shear failure and to • Diaphragm walls
ensure that any deformation is within
acceptable limits. The information required • Piling walls
before the cross section of the embankment
can be designed includes: • Crib walls
• Ultimate width of top of embankment • Gabions

including median, shoulder and verge
• Loading on top of embankment

• Reinforced earth walls.
Gravity Walls
• Geotechnical properties of foundation
and fill materials
Gravity walls are suitable if the soil in the lower
part of the cutting can be cut back steeply to a
temporary slope to allow the wall to be
• Reservation width constructed. Any space between the back of
the wall and the temporary slope is then
• Special considerations, ego tidal area,
sound barriers, services etc.
backfilled.
Reinforced Concrete Walls

In the design of approach embankments to Reinforced concrete walls are suitable if the
bridges and other structures, the soil in the lower part of the cutting can be cut
superstructures, substructures and associated back steeply to a temporary slope to allow the
earthworks should be designed as a whoie and wall to be constructed. Any space between the
not individually. For further reference on back of the wall and the temporary slope is
earthworks refer to British Standard 6031, Code then backfilled. Alternatively, these walls can
of Practice for Earthworks. The road design be constructed in a timbered trench, the soil in
should attempt to minimise earthworks. The front of the wall being removed after completing
aim shouid be to balance cut and fill the retaining structure.
requirements, allowing for rejection of
unsuitable material, bUlking and compaction Diaphram Walls
factors. This will avoid having to dispose of, or Diaphragm walls, continuous bored pile walls
obtain large quantities of material. and secant bored piles are suitable for weak,
unstable or heaVily water-bearing soils where a
All imported fill material for a CED scheme temporary steep slope cannot be formed or
must be provided using the services of the where construction in a trench would cause
Qatar National Transport Office. The selection problems of support or loss of ground.
of such material and its placing and compaction

Piling Walls B4.5 Geosynthetics
Steel sheet piling may be used as a permanent
retaining wall if consideration is given to some Geosynthetics are extremeiy versatile and may
measure of protection against corrosion where be used in the following instances:
a very long life is required. Usually, however,
sheet piling is used as a temporary support .. Reinforcement for subgrade and sub-
during the construction period. base materials in roads
Crib Walls . Line drainage facilities, ego wrapping

Precast concrete block walls or crib walls are a aggregate around soakaways to
form of gravity section and may be economical prevent loss of fine materials, to
for sites where suitable broken rock or gravel is separate materials of different grade or
placed behind a retaining wall to act as
available as a fill material for the cribs.
a drainage medium
Gabion Walls .. Reinforcement for soil slopes (cutting
Gabions are suitable for sites where broken or embankment)
rock, boulders or large gravel are available for
filling the wire mesh baskets and where space .. Provide a capillary barrier against
is available to arrange the baskets in tiers to rising ground moisture.
form a stepped-back retaining wall. A very long
life is not possible with gabion walls, but plastic- In all cases the engineer shall refer to the
covered galvanised wire mesh can provide manufacturers technical literature and check
many years of useful support. The flexibility of the suitability of a geosynthetic for the particular
a gabion retaining wall is advantageous for application.
sites where appreciable deformation of a slope
may occur as a result of stress relief. There are a number of different trade names of
geosynthetics available and the usage and
Gabions are partiCUlarly suitable for design of such materiais is dealt with within
construction in conditions where earth slopes their own respective technical literature.
are temporarily or permanently flooded and
subjected to scour from flowing water. B5 SAMPLE PRO FORMA FOR
QUANTIFYING GEOTECHNICAL
Reinforced Earth Walls SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Reinforced earth retaining walls can be formed
in the lower part of a cutting siope by The following five pages show a sample pro
excavating at the toe to form a temporary steep forma Bill of Quantities to be used when
slope, then replacing the excavated soil in quantifying a site investigation (with notes).
compacted layers of essentially granular The testing programme shown may be reduced
material, each layer being reinfQrced by or expanding according to the type of
horizontai metal or plastic ties (refer to Clause investigation required.
B5.3). The steeply inclined face of the retaining
wall is protected by metal, reinforced concrete It is important to identify each element of work
or plastic cladding elements. Reinforced earth required in a schedule in as much detail as
retaining walls have the advantage of flexibility possible. This serves two purposes. Firstly, it
and are suitable for soil conditions where acts as a checklist and enables the engineer to
appreciable forward movement or heaving of a list precisely the requirements of the brief.
cutting is anticipated as a consequence of Secondly, a detailed list with item descriptions
stress relief. enables the brief to be priced by the tenderers
on an even basis and reduces the probability of
Consideration may also be given to the use of hidden extra costs.
ground anchors or rock bolts. Information on
methods of design and construction of the The pro forma has been split into three
above types of wall can be found in the British sections with notes:
Standard publications, BS 8002 Code of
Practice for Earth Retaining Structures and BS .. Fieidwork
8004 Code of Practice for Foundations.
.. Laboratory work
In all cases and for all types of retaining walls
attention should be given to drainage at the . Reporting.
back of the wall in order to prevent hydrostatic
pressure on the retaining structure and to avoid
a general rise in pore pressure in the soii or
rock mass behind the wall.

OATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX 8
Scope Of Works for Geotechnical Investigation
I Project Code
Project Title
SECTION 1 - FIELDWORK
Ref Item Description Notes Oty Unit Rate Total

(OR) (OR)
F1 Walkover/Desk Including all permits, and reporting. 1 Item
Study Available data from existing geotechnical
mapping and any other sources shall be
combined with a geological walkover survey
of the site. The combined survey shall
identify such areas as rock outcrop,
sabkah, water courses, water collection
areas etc. The results are to be marked on
topographical plans of 1:2000 scale or
1:500 scale as directed. One copy of the
results are to be submitted to the Engineer
as part of the Site Investigation Report
(refer R1).
F2 Boreholes
F2.1 Mobilisation All items associated with all mobilisation for 1 Item
boreholes including location of boreholes.
The approximate location of all boreholes,
trial pits and surface samples shall be
indicated on the contract drawings. The
precise positions shall be agreed with the
Engineer prior to commencement on site.
F2.2a Drilling of Boreholes Light cable percussion and rotary core Nr

drilling to 20m, including hand dig for
services as required, liaison with utilities,
moves between boreholes, photographs,
borehole iogs, reinstatement of boreholes
and reporting. The Contractor shall provide
full information on the strata and the
engineering properties of all soils and rock
encountered. See Notes 5, 7, 8, 9, 14.
F2.2b Additional Drilling Addifional drilling depth rate per m below Rate m
20m b.g.1.
F2.3 SPT in Borehole In situ SPTs shall be made on all Nr

cohesionless and non-cemented strata, in
accordance with QCS Section 3 Part 4 Soil
Sampling.
F2.4 Standpipe in Installation and monitoring of standpipe in Nr

Borehole borehole.
F2.5a Rotary Open .Drilling Rotary open drilling 100mm diameter, Nr

including collection and logging of chipping
samples to depths of 30m b.g.l., including
reinstatement.
F2.5b Additional Drilling Additional rotary open drilling depth, rate Rate m
per m below 30m b.g.1.
F2.6 Permeability Test in Falling head test to BS 5930. Nr

Borehole

Ref Item Description Notes Qty Unit Rate Total

(QR) (QR)
F3 Trial Pits
F3.1 Mobilisation All items associated with mobilisation for 1 Item

trial pits.
F3.2a Excavation of Trial Excavation to 1.2m, including liaison with Nr

Pit utilities, moves between trial pits,
Hand Excavation photographs, trial pit logs and reporting.
See Notes 6, 7, 8, 9,14.
F3.2b Excavation of Trial Excavation to 3.0m including liaison with Nr

Pit utilities, moves between trial pits,
Machine Excavation photographs, trial pit logs and reporting.
See Notes 6, 7, 8, 9,14.
F3.3 Reinstatement of Trial pits shall be backfilled and compacted Nr

Trial Pit in accordance with QCS. All materials shall
comply with QCS.
F3.4 Soakaway and See Note 17. Nr

permeability Test
F4 Additional Methods
F4.1 Pavement Coring Cores shall not be less than 150 mm Nr

diameter and shall be taken through the full
thickness of the asphalt pavement, such
that the underlying, unbound material is
exposed.
All core holes shall be backfilled with fme
cold asphalt mixture or similar approved,
placed and compacted in layers using a
suitable tamper such as a plate attached to
vibrating hammer. Backfilling shall take
place immediately upon completion of
testing.
F4.2 Dynamic Cone DCP testing in accordance with TRL Nr

Penetrometer Testing Information Note at core locations shall be
on Pavements carried out immediately upon completion of
coring and the hole is then sponged dry. A
profile of the bearing capacity to a depth of
800mm below the road surface or until
resistance to penetrate is such that for 30
blows less than 5mm of penetration is
achieved. The DCP plot and profile shall
be provided at each location. See Note 10.
F4.3 Dynamic Cone DCP testing in unconsolidated material to a Nr

Penetrometer Testing depth of 2m or until resistance to penetrate
is such that for 30 blows less than 5mm
penetration is achieved. The DCP plot and
profile shall be provided at each location.
F4.4 Plate Bearing Test Test to be carried out at foundation or Nr

formation level. Plate to be approximately
600mm sq, loading details to be suitable for
project requirements. Contractor to supply
reaction load.
F4.5 Shear Vane Test Test shall be in soft sensitive clays. Vane Nr
to consist of four blades 75mm x 150mm.
F4.6 In Situ Density Test Tests shall be by core cutter, sand Nr

replacement or nuclear density metre as
appropriate to the soil type.
F4.7 In Situ CBR Tests in accordance with BS 5930. Nr

SECTION 2 • LABORATORY WORK
Ref Item Description Notes Qty Unit Rate Total

(QR) (QR)
L1 Atterberg Limits See Note 12. Nr
L2 Particle Size See Note 12. Nr

Distribution
L3 CSR See Note 12. Nr
L4 Chemical Tests pH, Sulphate and Chloride. See Note 12. Nr
L5 Dry Density / Moisture See Note 12. Nr

Content Relationship
L6 Moisture Content and See Note 12. Nr

Density
L7 Triaxial Test See Note 12. Nr
L8 Point Load Test in See Note 12. Nr

Rock
L9 Unconfined See Note 12. Nr
Compression Test
(with Modulus of
Deformation on Rock)
L10 Sedimentation Test See Note 12. Nr
L11 Laboratory See Note 12. Nr

Permeability Test
L12 Miniature Shear Vane See Note 12. Nr

Test
SECTION 3 - REPORTING
R1 Site Investigation Comprehensive factual and interpretative 1 Item

Report Geotechnical Report, including
photographs, the number of copies to be as
specified. See Note 13.
NOTES
1 These notes apply to Field Work, Laboratory Work and Reporting. It is assumed that the rates
for the above items include for the requirements of these notes.
2 The purpose of a geotechnical investigation is to provide information to determine parameters

sufficient for concept or detailed design, as required. The investigations should enable the
Consultant to advise the Engineer on the requirements necessary for further investigation work
that will enable quantification of the project.
3 All works shall be carried out in accordance with QCS Section 3 Ground Investigation.
4 The Contractor shall exercise the greatest possible care to ensure that both field and laboratory
work are of the highest quality.
5 The measurement of the depth of the trial pits and boreholes shall be taken from the level at
which the pit or bore enters the ground. The positions of all boreholes and trial pits shall be
recorded to within an accuracy of 1m together with the ground levels to the nearest 50mm,
related to the Qatar National Datum (refer to QCS Section 3). This-information shall be recorded
on the plans and submitted to the Engineer as part of the Report.

QATAR HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL APPENDIX 8
6 Trial pits shall be excavated to rock level or otherwise to the limit of the mechanical excavator,
nominally a depth of 2.5 m. The depth of boreholes may be varied by the Engineer subject to
the strata encountered on site. Bed rock in boreholes shall be proved for a minimum depth of
5m. In cuttings remote from structural foundations, the depth of boreholes shall be 3m below
proposed formation level.
7 All excavations shall be logged by a fully qualified geotechnical engineer or engineering

geologist and such logs shall form part of the Report. Refer to QCS Section 3 Clause 1.6.7.
8 The equipment used for excavation, boring, sampling and testing shall be subjected to the
approval of the Engineer. Under no circumstances shall water be used to assist boring through
clay.
9 If any object, natural or artificial, obstructs either setting up or progress of excavating and boring
the matter shall be reported to the Engineers Representative, who may direct the excavation or
borehole to another location to avoid the obstacle.
10 DCP testing shall be in accordance with the UK Transport Research Laboratory (TRL)
Information Note, Operating Instructions for the TRL Dynamic Cone Penetrometer, 1991.
Analysis of the DCP reading shall be made using the latest version of the TRL DCP computer
programme based on the folloWing relationship between penetration resistance and estimated
in situ CBR:
Log,o (CBR) = 2.48 - 1.057 Log,o (Strength)
It should be noted that this formula may not be applicable to Qatar conditions and results
obtained should be treated with caution.
The analysis shall account for the effect of water used in the coring process on the aggregate
layers.
11 All rotary core samples shall be retained for a period of six months at the offices of the
Contractor for the purpose of inspection. All core samples shall be colour photographed and
postcard size prints inserted in each copy of the report. Photographs are to be taken at a
distance from core samples to enable a detailed study of the core.
Small disturbed samples shall be taken at changes of strata and at approximately 1.0m intervals
within each type of material.
Bulk disturbed samples of at least 80 kg weight shall be taken in cohesive materials as directed
by the Engineer at a change of strata and not greater than 1.0m intervals within each type of
material. One small disturbed sample shall be taken between each two successive bulk
disturbed samples. The samples shall be sealed, transported, protected and stored such that
no change in moisture content and soil structure occurs.
Surface samples shall be bulk disturbed samples of at least 80 kg weight and these shall be
taken in accordance with the recommendations given in BS 5930.
Samples of groundwater of at least one litre shall be taken, and the level at which water is struck
and standing water levels shall be observed and recorded
12 All laboratory testing shall be carried out in accordance with the relevant procedures given in BS
1377: 1990, Testing of Soils, save that the method for both compaction tests and recompaction
of samples of the CBR test, which shall be in accordance with Central Materials Laboratory
method of test CML 12-97 and CML 10-97.
Soil and groundwater samples shall be analysed for the following:
.. sulphates
.. chlorides
pH
grading / classification (as appropriate)

For each trial pit and borehole, soil samples shall be tested at each change in strata, with a
minimum of 2 tests in the overburden above the rock.
Detailed engineering logs shall be submitted, in accordance with QCS Section 3.
13 The Contractor shall submit daily allocation sheets and preliminary iogs and test resuits in
accordance with QCS Section 3 Clauses 1.6.1, 1.4.1 and 1.4.3.
As soon as possible after the completion of the Laboratory Testing, the Contractor shall submit
5 copies of his factual and interpretative report, prepared in accordance with QCS Section 3
Ciause 1.4.5.
14 The Contractor shall take all reasonable precautions to safeguard all existing on-site services.
The Contractor will be held liable for any damage to such services which may be attributable to
his negligence. Refer to QCS Section 3 Clause 1.6.6.
15 The Contractor will be expected to carry out the on-site works expeditiously and in one visit.
16 The Contractor shall give a minimum of 48 hours notice, in writing, to the Engineer, before he
commences any work on site.
The Contractor is to carry out the works to the entire satisfaction of the Engineer, and is to work
in such a way that no inconvenience is caused to other contractors, statutory undertakers or the
general pUblic who may be in the locality.
The responsibility for obtaining Road Opening Permits and the like shall be upon the Consultant,
who shall adhere to all the requirements of any authority.
The Consultant shall allow in his fee submission for all requirements of QCS Section 3 Clause
1.6.1 including hand excavation to determine the presence of utility lines prior to the
commencement of mechanical excavation.
17 In selected trial pits, the Consultant shall undertake tests to determine the suitability of the
substrata to dissipate water. The results of these tests shall be reported and utilised in the
design of stormwater soakaways, positive drainage systems or water ground relief systems. The
design of soakaways shall be in accordance the current CED design practice and BRE Digest
365, modified as appropriate for local conditions.
18 The location of utility lines el'lcountered in the excavation shall be logged and their condition
noted. When trial pits are specified in the Project Brief for utilities location and condition
surveys, the Consultant shall ensure that a representative of each utility company is present to
confirm the responsibility of the apparatus encountered.

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;ir.

The State of Qatar is witnessing rapid

Therefore, the initiative of the Civil

The Road Network represents the arteries

• available for the road designer should not

service authorities and study the • i.l!IIJ • 'bj,11 c;i1~1 .J~I

The publication of the Qatar Highway

• God is behind our purpose and will guide

-p' J I¢d1 ~.,).f ~

This is the second issue of the Qatar

• The Civil Engineering Department while

~I.:i Jl jo13U .:H ~

Description Issue Date

Qatar Highway Design Manual Original Issue December 1989

Qatar Highway Design Manual 2nd Edition (Rev 0) January 1997

January 1997 Page DH/1

• Qatar Construction Specification

Section 6 Copyright Acknowledgement

January 1997 Page AK/1

ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR.............................................. RSQ/1

SECTION 1 DESIGN SPEED

SECTION 2 SIGHT DISTANCE

SECTION 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT .

SECTION 4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

SECTION 5 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

January 1997 Page C/1

Clause 5.7 Verges . 5/14

January 1997 Page C/2

January 1997 Page C/3

Clause 7.3 Selection of Junction Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7/6

January 1997 Page C/4

Clause 9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

SECTION 10 ROADWAY LIGHTING

January 1997 Page CIS

January 1997 Page C/6

• GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED

AADT(Average Annual Daily Traffic) - Total

January 1997 Page G/1

Commercial Area - That portion of a

January 1997 Page G/2

Formation Drain - Porous or perforated pipe, Independent Alignments - Each carriageway

January 1997 Page G/3

Lane - A portion of the travelled way providing

Left Lane - On a two-lane, two-way road, the

Parking Lanes - Additional width outside the

January 1997 Page G/4

• Ring Road - An arterial highway for carrying

Road (Highway) - A general term denoting a

Screening - The use of trees, shrubs, fences,

Subgrade - (1) The top 300mm layer of

Superelevation Runoff (application) - The

January 1997 Page GIS

Tack Coat - An application of bituminous Underpass - A grade separation where the

Transition - A section of variable pavement

Transition Curve (Spiral) - A cLirve of variable

Travelled Way - The portion of the

Turning Lanes - Auxiliary lanes provided at at-

Turning Track Width - The radial distance

Typical Cross Section - A transverse section

January 1997 Page G/6

• ROAD SYSTEM IN QATAR

The Highway Network

Roads within the State of Qatar each fulfil