Background Information

SOO WEI JIE(18WVD01858)

Deflection is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load.

It may refer to an angle or a distance. The deflection distance of a member under a
load is directly related to the slope of the deflected shape of the member under that
load, and can be calculated by integrating the function that mathematically describes
the slope of the member under that load. From the experiment, the constant variable is
span of tested beam,L , manipulated variable is applied load,N , responding variable is
deflection.

There are 3 element we utilize in the experiment and they are bronze,
aluminium and stainless steel. Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper,
commonly with about 12% tin and often with the addition of other metals (such
as aluminium, manganese, nickel or zinc) and sometimes non-metals
or metalloids such as arsenic, phosphorus or silicon. These additions produce a range
of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such
as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. Moreover, aluminium s a chemical
element with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft,
nonmagnetic and ductile metal in the boron group. It is remarkable for its
low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation.
Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry[6] and important
in transportation and building industries, such as building facades and window frames.
Lastly, stainless steel is are most notable for their corrosion resistance, which
increases with increasing chromium content.

The target of the analysis is to set up the connection among deflection and
connected load and decide the elastic modulus of the beam example from the
deflection information.

Calculations and Results

1. Aluminium
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.1 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.7 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 217.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 69000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
 N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.62 0.63 0.625 1.04
2 1.84 1.85 1.845 2.08
3 3.21 3.18 3.195 3.12
4 4.34 4.36 4.350 4.16
5 5.53 5.48 5.505 5.20
2. Bronze
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.3 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.8 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 233.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 100000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.25 0.23 0.240 0.67
2 0.92 0.90 0.910 1.34
3 1.60 1.55 1.575 2.01
4 2.29 2.27 2.280 2.68
5 2.94 2.96 2.950 3.35

3. Stainless Steel
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.0 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 3.1 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 62.06 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 193000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.11 0.13 0.120 1.30
2 1.34 1.35 1.345 2.60
3 2.60 2.66 2.630 3.91
4 3.97 4.00 3.985 5.21
5 5.28 5.30 5.290 6.51
 Discussion

1.From this experiment what is the relationship between the applied load and the
resulting displacement or deflection

Answer: Deflection

2. What does the slope of the graph represents and how does it varies in relation to the
load position

Answer: The slope of the graph represents the power of the span and the vertical
intercept represents the constant. It varies in relation to the load position by
changing the reading.

3. How do you experimental result differ with the theoretical result in terms of
accuracy? Briefly explain the probable cause of errors and how can it be overcome.

Answer: The experimental results are differ withe the theoretical result, as the
modulus of elasticity of element are various like Aluminum Alloy 1100,
Aluminum Alloy 2024, Aluminum Alloy 6061. There are different kind of
aluminium and the experiment does not specified which Aluminium that
we use in the experiment. Eventually, bring about the issues of accuracy.
To overcome it, the experiment briefing must more specification for the
element used.
Conclusion

According to the result, the relationship between the applied load and the resulting
is deflection. So the resulting deflection become higher if the applied load become
more. The experimental results are differ with the theoretical results in terms of
accuracy as There are many deflection calculation steps which must be considered to
achieve the final deflection result. Any error in any step could have a considerable
detrimental effect on the final result. For example, when error probability is 1% in
each step, the probability of errors in the final result is around 10%. Moreover, it is
considered that the computation errors between 25 – 50% are uncommon.

Beside the modulus of elasticity are different of an element because one of the
element from the experiment are classified to various type for different function and
the experiment merely demonstrate the general name like bronze, aluminium,
stainless steel. Consequently, the modulus of elasticity are not precise in terms of
accuracy.

References
 Callister.W.D,JR.(2007), Modulus of elasticity, viewed 10 Nov 2018,
https://www.amesweb.info/Materials/Modulus-of-Elasticity-Metals.aspx
 Abelli Noja (2017), What factor bring out delection not accuracy, viewed 10 Nov
2018,https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-effective-factors-deflections-designin
g-reinforced-abelli-noja,
Background Information
SEE YONG YEE (18WVD02693)

From the experiment, it was known that the change of deflection were
proportional to the load. The change of deflection was increasing as the load was
increasing, and it increased with nearly the same dimension since the load was added
up by the same weight each time. Also, the range between the load point and
deflection point affected it, and some other variables had relationship with it, such as
Young's Modulus, second moment of area of cross-section of beam and polar second
moment of area. Therefore, the bending and torsion mainly depend on the load and
the position of point that the load acting on them.
Young’s modulus, numerical constant, that describes the elastic properties of a
solid undergoing tension or compression in only one direction, as in the case of a
metal rod that after being stretched or compressed lengthwise returns to its original
length. Young’s modulus is a measure of the ability of a material to withstand
changes in length when under lengthwise tension or compression. Sometimes referred
to as the modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress
divided by the strain. Stress and strain may be described as follows in the case of a
metal bar under tension. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018)
In deflection of a cantilever, aluminium beam has the largest deflection,
followed by bronze beam and steel beam has smallest deflection. The beam deflection
is directly proportional to mass applied to the beam. The higher the modulus of
material, the smaller the gradient of the line for each graph. The equation predicted
the behaviour of beam which is in linear relationship. The theoretical deflection is
always lower than the actual deflection. In deflection of a simply supported beam,
aluminium beam has significantly less deflection in simply supported beam than in
cantilever. Deflection of beam is directly proportional to mass applied to the beam.
Deflection of beam increased exponentially with distance from support to position of
loading.(Anon, 2018)
Calculations and Results
1. Aluminium
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.1 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.7 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 217.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 69000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
Deflection (mm) 𝑊𝐿3
N mm mm (mm) 48𝐸𝐼
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.62 0.63 0.625 1.04
2 1.84 1.85 1.845 2.08
3 3.21 3.18 3.195 3.12
4 4.34 4.36 4.350 4.16
5 5.53 5.48 5.505 5.20
2. Bronze
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.3 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.8 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 233.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 100000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
Deflection (mm) 𝑊𝐿3
N mm mm (mm) 48𝐸𝐼
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.25 0.23 0.240 0.67
 2 0.92 0.90 0.910 1.34
3 1.60 1.55 1.575 2.01
4 2.29 2.27 2.280 2.68
5 2.94 2.96 2.950 3.35

3. Stainless Steel
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.0 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 3.1 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 62.06 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 193000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
Deflection (mm) 𝑊𝐿3
N mm mm (mm) 48𝐸𝐼
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.11 0.13 0.120 1.30
2 1.34 1.35 1.345 2.60
3 2.60 2.66 2.630 3.91
4 3.97 4.00 3.985 5.21
5 5.28 5.30 5.290 6.51

Discussion
The higher the load applied, the higher the average deflection. When the applied
load increases, the deflection of the beam specimen increases too. The slope of the
graph represents the power of the span and the vertical intercept represents the
constant. It varies in relation to the load position by changing the reading. The
different between experimental results and theoretical result is that theoretical result is
the result a scientist expects from an equation, assuming perfect or near to perfect
conditions. Experimental result, on the other hand, is what is actually measured from
an experiment. The probable cause of errors are the operator error, the instruments
error due to faulty calibration, the equipment and conductor that used. To overcome
the problem operator should check the instrument make sure it is functioning well
before carry out the experiment. Besides that, operator should at least takes the
reading twice to prevent any wrong error.
Conclusion
As a conclusion, the length of deflection is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the force that applied on the surface of the beams, whether the ends of
the beam are fixed or both of the ends are simply supported. The condition of
Young’s modulus for both ends using simple supported bearers is larger than the first
one fixed end. The length of the beams is inversely proportional to the Young’s
modulus. Furthermore, stainless steel has higher value of Young’s modulus compared
to the rest and this makes it much stiffer than other specimen beam(s). Finally, the
width and height of a rectangular section beam is directly proportional to its moment
of inertia.

Reference

 Flax.nzdl.org, 2018, Engineering Mechanics Laboratory Report - Bending and

Torsion, viewed 5 Nov 2018,
<http://flax.nzdl.org/greenstone3/flax;jsessionid=874EBF5E5FFCD575B271A52
54A95CD87?a=d&c=BAWEPS&d=D2361&dt=simple&p.a=b&p.s=ClassifierBr
owse>
 Anon, 2018, Conclusion in deflection of a cantilever aluminium, viewed 5 Nov
2018,
<https://www.coursehero.com/file/p8aemt/Conclusion-In-deflection-of-a-cantilev
er-aluminium-beam-has-the-largest/>
 Atta, E. 2018, Deflection of Beam Lab Report, Green-mechanic.com, viewed 4
Nov 2018,
<https://www.green-mechanic.com/2017/01/Deflection-of-Beam-Lab-Report-pdf
.html>
 Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018, Young’s modulus | Description, Example, &
Facts, viewed 6 Nov 2018,
<https://www.britannica.com/science/Youngs-modulus>

Background Information
PANG XI YUE (18WVD01878)

The amount a beam bends (known as deflection) is a major consideration in the

design of buildings, bridges, etc. A beam which deflects too much may cause cracking
in floor tile, squeaking as one walks through a building, and although a beam maybe
of sufficient strength, too much deflection may cause structure’s occupants uneasiness.
Therefore, it is necessary for the designer to anticipate the amount a beam will deflect
while the structure is in use and limit it accordingly.

From the experiment, it was known that the change of deflection and height
were proportional to the load. The change of deflection was increasing as the load was
increasing, and it increased with nearly the same dimension since the load was added
up by the same weight each time. Also, the range between the load point and
deflection point affected it, and some other variables had relationship with it, such as
Young's Modulus, second moment of area of cross-section of beam and polar second
moment of area. Therefore, the bending and torsion mainly depend on the load and
the position of point that the load acting on them.

These precautions had been applied when carry out the experiment. Wearing a
safety outfit when entering lab. Follow all the lab rules. Do not play when doing an
experiment. Follow the procedure of experiment. Repeat the procedures to avoid error.
Read the meter two to three times to avoid error. Handle the dial gauge with great
care and take the readings very carefully. See that the loading is done exactly at the
points chosen previously. The dial gauge should be kept exactly at the mid span.

The experimental results differ with the theoretical results in terms of accuracy
affected by some possible factors include the vibration of the table. This is because
the dial gauge is very sensitive and the improper position of load hanger. The load
hanger may be not exactly at the middle of the span of the tested beam.

The ways of overcoming these are preventing to touch the table or avoid to
nearer the experiment setup. So that the dial gauge can take more accurate of value.
Search the material to build the specimen used in this experiment and search its actual
Modulus of Elasticity. Besides, mark the middle of the span of the tested beam.
Calculations and Results

1. Aluminium
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.1 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.7 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 217.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 69000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.62 0.63 0.625 1.04
2 1.84 1.85 1.845 2.08
3 3.21 3.18 3.195 3.12
4 4.34 4.36 4.350 4.16
5 5.53 5.48 5.505 5.20

2. Bronze
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.3 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 4.8 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 233.16 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 100000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.25 0.23 0.240 0.67
2 0.92 0.90 0.910 1.34
3 1.60 1.55 1.575 2.01
4 2.29 2.27 2.280 2.68
 5 2.94 2.96 2.950 3.35

3. Stainless Steel
Span of Tested beam, L = 908 mm
Width of beam specimen, b = 25.0 mm
Depth of beam specimen, d = 3.1 mm
Moment of inertia of beam specimen, I = 62.06 mm4
Dial gauge reading, 1 division = 0.01 mm
Modulus of elasticity, E = 193000 N/mm2

Applied Experimental Deflection Theoretical

Load Test 1 Test 2 Average Deflection
N mm mm Deflection (mm) (mm)
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.11 0.13 0.120 1.30
2 1.34 1.35 1.345 2.60
3 2.60 2.66 2.630 3.91
4 3.97 4.00 3.985 5.21
5 5.28 5.30 5.290 6.51

Discussion

From this graph, I discovered that the experimental deflection increases linearly
with the applied load. When the applied load is increased, the experimental deflection
will also increase. When load is higher, the resulting displacement is higher. When a
load is applied to a beam, deflection occurs. If not much deflection, then object is stiff.
Linear relationship.

The slope of the graph represents the modulus of elasticity, which is the
resistance of an object to deform when a force is applied. The deflection of a beam at
any point is its vertical displacement from the unstressed position.
 The deflection at any given point in the beam depends on the type of beam
which is governed by the manner in which the beam is supported, the nature of loads
applied to the beam any particular point within its span which can either be point or
concentrated load, distributed load on the portion or the whole span. The beam may
also carry couple loads any point within its span.

The experimental results differ with the theoretical results in terms of accuracy
affected by some factors. Error in the experiment could be form two sources, one is
apparatus error and second is human error. Instrument error includes inaccurate dial
gauge, apparatus not balance on horizontal surface or beam is already deformed. A
personal error includes observation and calculation with wrong method or lack of
experience in experimentation.

Error in apparatus which is also known as instrument error can easily be find
out by repeating a certain experiment over and over again if all experiment show
inaccurate value means apparatus has some errors. It can be removed by calibrating it
with a good standard apparatus. Personal error can find out by repeating the
experiment with some experience person and can be removed by practices.

CONCLUSION
From the experiment, it can be concluded that the deflection in a beam under a
constant force depends on its type, shape, material and point of application of force. It
can also be concluded that the experimental elastic modulus of same material is
different in every case and really depends on the beam type, shape and loading place.
Linearity observed in the experiment between the load applied and deflection, as
increases the deflection of beam decreases. When the applied load is increased, the
resulting displacement is also increased.

Reference
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2011) | Mechanics of Materials, Eighth Edition in SI
Units.Singapore: Pearson Education South asia Pte Ltd.

2. Green Mechanic (2017) | Deflection of Beam Lab Report

<https://www.green-mechanic.com/2017/01/Deflection-of-Beam-Lab-Report-pdf.htm
l>
3. Course hero (2018) | Applied load w n graph 1 applied load n vs deflection
<https://www.coursehero.com/file/p5oitlo/Applied-Load-W-N-Graph-1-Applied-Loa
d-N-Vs-Deflection-mm-From-the-graph-above-I/>