1

ECOM-360 Fundamentals of
Communication Systems
Chapter 04 Amplitude Modulation

UAE University
College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
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Modulation

m(t):
 4
Types of Modulation
 (t )  A(t )cos(w(t )t  f (t ))
 Amplitude Modulation
 The information signal is mixed with the carrier signal in such
a way as to cause the AMPLITUDE of the carrier to vary at
the frequency of the information signal. A(t)~m(t)
 Frequency-Modulation
 the modulating signal and the carrier are combined in such a
way that causes the carrier FREQUENCY (fc) to vary above
and below its normal frequency. The amplitude of the carrier
remains constant w(t)~m(t)
 Phase Modulation
 a type of frequency modulation. Here, the amount of the
carrier frequency shift is proportional to both the amplitude
and frequency of the modulating signal. f(t)~m(t)
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Amplitude Modulation
For Amplitude Modulation (AM), the time varying Amplitude A(t) is set
as a linear proportional to the modulating signal m(t).
(t) = m(t) cos θ(t) = m(t) cos [2πfct + f(t)],
where m(t) is a time-varying amplitude, fc is the carrier frequency, f(t) is
the time-varying phase, and θ(t) is the time-varying angle. Assume that
m(t) and f(t) are slowly varying compared to 2πfct. The term m(t) is also
refer to as the envelope of the signal (t).
In amplitude modulation, the phase term f(t) is either zero or set to a
constant and the envelope m(t) is made proportional to the information
signal.
 8

I- Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM (DSB-SC)

For the double sideband suppressed carrier amplitude modulation:
DSB-SC(t) = m(t)cos (2πfct),
where m(t) is called the modulating signal, cos(2πfct) is called the carrier,
and the resultant signal DSB-SC(t) is called the modulated signal.
Applying the modulation property of the Fourier transform to DSB-SC(t),
one obtains
DSB-SC( f ) = (1/2) [ M(f - fc) + M(f + fc) ].

Therefore, amplitude modulation translates the frequency spectrum of a

signal m(t) by ± fc Hz, but it leaves the spectral shape unchanged.
 9

Amplitude Modulated DSB-SC Signal

 DSB  SC (t )  m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
0.8

0.6

1
m(t)
m(t)
0.8 0.4

0.6

0.4
0.2
0.2

-0.2
X 0

-0.4

cos(2 f c t )
-0.6 -0.2
-0.8

-1
0 0.5 1 1.5 -0.4
1

0.8

0.6
-0.6

0.4

0.2 -0.8
0 0.5 1 1.5
0

 ( f )  1/ 2 ( M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) 
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

M( f ) -1

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

B B  fc fc
2B 2B
 10

Demodulation of AM DSB-SC
 DSB  SC (t )  m(t ) cos(2 f ct )
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

X e(t) 1
0
0
LPF m(t )
cos(2 f c t ) 2
-0.2
-0.2

-0.4
-0.4

1
-0.6
0.8 -0.6
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.6
-0.8
0 0.5 1 1.5
0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

E ( f )  1/ 2M ( f )  1/ 4 ( M ( f  2 f c )  M ( f  2 f c ) 

2 f c 2 fc
2B 2B
 11

Demodulation of DSB-SC AM
To recover the original signal m(t) from the DSB-SC AM signal DSB-SC(t)
we need another translation in frequency to shift the spectrum to its original
position, this process is called demodulation. For proper signal recovery
fc > B, that is, the carrier frequency should be much larger than the
bandwidth of m(t), or in other words, m(t) should be slowly varying with
respect to the carrier frequency.
Since,
e(t)=DSB-SC(t)cos(2πfct) = m(t)cos2(2πfct)=(1/2)[m(t) + m(t) cos (4πfct) ],
then, by taking the Fourier transform of both sides

E(f)=[DSB-SC(t)cos2(2πfct) ]=(1/2)M( f )+(1/4) [ M(f-2fc) + M(f + 2fc) ]

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DSB-SC Demodulation
A low-pass filter is required to separate out the double-frequency term from
the original signal. Then, the output of the LPF is (1/2)m(t). This method of
recovering the baseband signal is called synchronous detection, or coherent
detection.
Example
Find the DSB-SC AM representation for the sinusoidal modulating signal
m(t)=cos(2πfmt) and plot the corresponding spectrum.
Solution
Since, m(t) = cos(2πfmt), then
DSB-SC(t) = m(t) cos(2πfct) = cos(2πfmt) cos(2πfct).
Now using the identity: cos(x) cos(y) = 1/2 (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))
 13

AM DSB-SC (Example)
we obtain DSB-SC(t) = (1/2) [ cos 2π(fc + fm)t + cos 2π(fc - fm)t ]
And ( f ) = (1/4) { δ[f - (fc + fm)] + δ[f + (fc + fm)]
+ δ[f - (fc - fm)] + δ[f + (fc - fm)]}
M( f )
1/2

 fm fm
1
( f )  ( M ( f  fc )  M ( f  fc ) 
2
1/4

 fc fc
Recall: In coherent detection, both the correct phase and frequency must
be known to the receiver to correctly demodulate DSB-SC AM
signal.
 14

Carrier and Phase Synchronization Effects

 DSB  SC (t )  m(t ) cos(2 f ct )

X LPF

cos(2 ( f c  f )t   )

 Obtain the output for

a.  f =0 (phase error only)
b.  =0 (frequency error only)
c. Draw your conclusions
 15

Carrier and Phase Synchronization Effects

 The received signal e(t):

e(t )   DSB  SC (t ) cos(2 ( f c  f )t   )

 m(t ) cos(2 f c t ) cos(2 ( f c  f )t   )
1
 m(t ) ( cos(2ft   )  cos(2 (2 f c  f )t   ) 
2
 Taking the LPF{e(t)}:
1
LPF e(t )  m(t ) cos(2ft   )
2
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a. Phase Error
a.If Δf = 0, there is only phase error, then the output of the LPF
is (1/2) m(t) cos(θ). cos( )

 
/2 /2 

The term cos(θ) forms a variable attenuation factor. Therefore,

for a small fixed phase error, |θ| ≈ 0, m(t) can be detected, on
the other hand, for phase errors approaching ± /2, m(t) will be
wiped out. If θ is random the performance of the receiver is
unpredictable.
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b. Frequency Error

 If θ= 0, there is only frequency error, then the output of the LPF
is
(1/2) m(t) cos (2Δf t).

 The term cos (2Δf t) is a low-frequency sinusoid and will form an

undesirable distortion.

 In the case of frequency errors and random phase errors the

DSB-SC AM method will lead to unsatisfactory performance.
Therefore, it is essential to have synchronization in both
frequency and phase between transmitter and receiver when
DSB-SC AM is used.
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DSB-SC MATLAB DEMO

Double Side Band Amplitude Modulation

Scope Tx

Sine Wave
Product
cheby1

Product1 Scope Rx
LPF

Carrier Tx

Carrier Rx

© Copyright 2009, The MathWorks, Inc.

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DSB-SC MATLAB DEMO
0.2% Frequency Error
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DSB-SC MATLAB DEMO
Phase Error Close to π/2
 21

AM DSB-SC Modulators and

Demodulators
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Modulation can be achieved in several ways.
Multiplier Modulators
By a direct multiplication of m(t) and cos(2πfct) using an analog multiplier whose
output is proportional to the product of the input signals. Notice the gain parameter
k is due to an active device. This type of modulator is a linear time-varying system.

Switching Modulators
1- Gated Modulator
A modulated signal can be obtained by multiplying m(t) by any periodic signal p(t)
of a fundamental frequency f0 (fc is an integer multiple of f0) The periodic signal
p(t) can be expressed by the compact form of the Fourier series as
p(t )  a0   an cos(2nf ot 
n 1
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 

Then, m(t ) p(t )  m(t ) a0   an cos(2nf ot 
 n 1 

  an m(t ) cos(2nf ot 
n 0

Applying the Fourier transform to both sides, we obtain

1 
F m(t ) p(t )   an (M ( f  nf0 )  M ( f  nf0 ) 
2 n 0
It is obvious that, the spectrum of the product m(t) p(t) is the spectrum of
m(t) shifted to ± f0, ± 2 f0, … Now if this signal is passed through a BPF
of bandwidth 2fm and tuned to fc=kf0 (k is integer) we get DSB-SC(t).
 24

DSB-SC Modulators
m(t)

M(f)

B B
P(f)

p(t)

P(f)M(f)
m(t)p(t) BPF

-fc fc
 25
Consider the periodic square pulse train p(t) shown below with T = 2τ (we further
choose T=1/fc). Since p(t) is periodic, then
1  /2  1
ao   dt  
T - / 2 T 2
Furthermore, p(t) is an even function, therefore, bn= 0, and for n  1,

2  /2 sin (n  / 2 )
an   cos (2  n f c t ) d t   sinc(n  / 2)
T - / 2 ( n /2)
Then,

(1)
( n -1) / 2
1 2 
p (t )    cos (2  n f c t )
2  n  1, 3, 5, n
1 2  1 1 
   cos (2  f c t )  cos (6  f c t )  cos (10  f c t )  
2   3 5 
 26

DSB-SC Modulators
The signal m(t)p(t) is given by
1 2 1 1 
m(t ) p(t )  m(t )   m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  m(t ) cos(6 f ct )  m(t ) cos(10 f ct )  
2  3 5 
and
( n -1) / 2
1 1  ( -1)
[m(t ) p(t )]  M ( f )   ( M ( f  nf c )  M ( f  nf c ) 
2  n  odd n
When the signal m(t) p(t) is passed through a BPF tuned to fc, the output
signal will be
2
m(t ) cos(2 f c t )

Hence, by switching the signal m(t) on and off periodically using a
switching element controlled by p(t), we get the same result.
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Gated Modulator
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DSB-SC Modulators
1- Gated Modulator
A direct implementation of the gated modulator is to use a diode-
bridge circuit as a switch which closes and opens at a rate
proportional to the carrier frequency fc. Therefore, when
A cos(2πfct) is of a polarity that will make terminal c positive
with respect to terminal d, all the diodes conduct. Terminals a and
b will have the same potential, and the input to the BPF is
shortened, consequently, the output of the BPF is zero. If terminal
d is positive with respect to c all four diodes are open, thus
connecting m(t) to the input of the BPF. Then, the output of the
BPF is eo(t) = k m(t) cos(2πfct).
DSB-SC Switching Modulators 29

2- Ring Modulator
A variation of the gated modulator is the ring modulator. During
the positive half-cycle of the carrier c(t), the diodes D1 and D3
conduct and D2 and D4 are open. Hence, terminal a is connected
to terminal c and terminal b is connected to terminal d,
consequently, the output is m(t).
During the negative half-cycle of the carrier, diodes D1 and D3
are open while D2 and D4 are being shorted, connecting terminal
a to d and terminal b to c, thus, the output is -m(t).
Notice: c(t) is the same as p(t) used earlier with amplitude equal
to two and a terminated DC term (ao = 0).
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Ring Modulator
The Fourier series representation for c(t) (Note that c(t)=2p(t)-1)
(  1)
( n -1) / 2
4 
c(t )   cos(2 nf ct )
 n  odd n
and
(1)
( n -1) / 2
4 
ei (t )  m(t )c(t )   m(t ) cos(2  nf ct )
 n odd n
  m(t ) cos(2  f c t )  m(t ) cos(6  f ct )  ... 
4 1
 3 

When the signal ei(t), a gated version of m(t), is passed through a BPF
tuned to fc, the filter output will be
4
eo (t )  m(t ) cos(2  f c t )

 32

3-Nonlinear Modulators
Any practical nonlinear device has an output-input relation that can be
expanded into a power series. With y(t) being the output and x(t) the input,
the nonlinear device obeys the relationship
y(t )  ao  a1 x(t )  a2 x (t )  a3 x (t ) 
2 3

Notice: If we let x(t) = m(t) + cos(2πfct) and select all ai = 0 except for
i  2, the nonlinear device could be used as a squarer.
 33
3- Nonlinear Modulators
Example
Determine the output vo(t) for the following circuit

The nonlinear device has a voltage-current characteristics given by

ij= a ej + b ej2, j=1,2
where e is the terminal voltage and i is the current through the device.
 34
Nonlinear Modulators Example
Appling KVL: e1(t) = cos(2π fc t) + m(t),
And e2(t) = cos(2π fc t) - m(t),
hence,
i1(t) = a {cos(2π fc t) + m(t) } + b {cos(2π fc t) + m(t) }2,
and
i2(t) = a {cos(2π fc t) - m(t) } + b {cos(2π fc t) - m(t) }2.

The voltage vi(t) is given by

vi(t) = R [i1(t) - i2(t) ] = 2 R [ 2 b m(t) cos(2π fc t) + a m(t) ].
The last term will be filtered out by the BPF, consequently,
vo(t) = 4 R b m(t) cos(2π fc t) ,
which is the desired output.
 35
Nonlinear Modulators
The Balanced Modulator
This modulator adds the carrier cos(2π fc t) to ± m(t) and places this sum through
a nonlinear device. The difference of the two outputs is then taken, resulting in a
cancellation of terms due to odd powers in the expansion. Then, output of the BPF
is a DSB-SC AM

m(t) y1(t)
+ x1(t) Nonlinear Element

+
Bandpass km(t)cos(2fct)
cos(2fct) ∑ Filter
-
-m(t) y2(t)
+ x2(t) Nonlinear Element
 36

The Balanced Modulator

We have x1(t) = m(t) + cos(2π fc t),
And x2(t) = -m(t) + cos(2π fc t).
Since the output-input relationship for a nonlinear device is given by
Then
yi (t )  ao  a1 xi (t )  a2 xi (t )  a3 xi (t ) 
2 3

Similarly,
y1 (t )  ao  a1 ( m(t )  cos(2 f ct )   a2 ( m(t )  cos(2  f c t ) 
2

 a3 ( m(t )  cos(2  f ct )   
3

y2 (t )  ao  a1 ( m(t )  cos(2 f ct )   a2 ( m(t )  cos(2  f c t ) 

2

 a3 ( m(t )  cos(2  f ct )   
3
 37

The Balanced Modulator

When the difference y1(t) - y2(t) is taken, it will result in a cancellation of
odd power terms in the expansion after filtering, for example, the
difference between

[m(t) + cos(2π fc t)]3 = m3(t) + 3m2(t) cos(2π fc t) + 3m(t) cos2 (2π fc t)

+ cos3 (2π fc t),
and
[-m(t) + cos(2π fc t)]3 = -m3(t) + 3m2(t) cos(2π fc t) – 3m(t) cos2 (2π fc t)
+ cos3 (2π fc t),
is

2 m3(t) + 6 m(t) cos2 (2π fc t) = 2 m3(t) + 3m(t) [ 1 + cos(4π fc t)].

This term will be filtered out by the BPF.

 38

Balanced Modulator
For even powers, for example, the difference between
[m(t) + cos(2π fc t)]2 = m2 (t) + 2m(t) cos(2π fc t) + cos2 (2π fc t) ,
and
[-m(t) + cos(2π fc t)]2 = m2(t) - 2m(t) cos(2π fc t) + cos2 (2π fc t) ,

and the desired term

4m(t)cos(2π fc t).
Therefore, the operation of taking the difference has the effect of
amplifying the desired term. A similar approach is used for higher
powers, giving an output of the BPF as
k m(t) cos(2π fc t).
 39

Demodulation of DSB-SC
The process of demodulation is identical to the
modulation of the DSB-SC AM signal, except we
replace the BPF with a LPF

All the previously mentioned modulators can

directly be used by replacing the BPF with a LPF
 40

Frequency Mixers (Converters)

 Used to change the carrier frequency of a
modulated signal m(t) cos(2π fc t) from fc to
another frequency fI
 41

Frequency Mixers (Converters)

 This can be done by multiplying m(t) cos(2π fc t)
by 2 cos(2π fmix t) where fmix = fc + fI (up-conversion)
or fmix = fc - fI (down-conversion) and then apply
the product to a BPF tuned to fI
 42

Frequency Mixers (Converters)

 The operation of frequency mixing is also called
heterodyning

 It is identical to the operation of modulation with a

modulating carrier frequency of fmix

 Any of the modulators explained earlier can be

used for frequency mixing
 43

HW # 4
 4.2-1, 4.2-2, 4.2-4, 4.2-5, 4.2-6, 4.2-7, 4.2-8,
4.2-10
 44

Example (4.2-10)
 45
Quadrature Multiplexing
It is possible to transmit and receive two different signals simultaneously on
the same carrier frequency.
In this case  (t )  m (t ) cos(2 f t )  m (t )sin(2 f t )
quad 1 c 2 c

Then, at the upper-branch of the receiver before the LPF stage

quad (t ) cos(2 f ct )  m1 (t ) cos 2 (2 f ct )  m2 (t )sin(2 f ct ) cos(2 f ct )
m1(t)
X X LPF (½)m1(t)

cos(2 f c t ) ∑ cos(2 f c t )

m2(t)
X X LPF (½)m2(t)

sin(2 f c t ) sin(2 f c t )
 46

Quadrature Demodulation
Since cos2(x) = (1/2)[1+ cos(2x)], sin(x)cos(x) = (1/2) sin(2x), and
sin2(x)=1/2(1-cos(2x))
therefore,
1 1
quad (t ) cos(2 fct )  m1 (t ) (1  cos(4 fct )   m2 (t )sin(4 fct )
2 2
In the LPF, all terms at 2fc are cancelled giving the output (1/2)m1(t)
Similarly, at the lower-branch before the LPF stage
1 1
quad (t )sin(2 fct )  m1 (t )sin(4 fct )  m2 (t ) (1  cos(4 f ct ) 
2 2
In the LPF, all terms at 2fc are rejected giving the output (1/2)m2(t).
 47
II- Double-Sideband Transmit Carrier (DSB-TC) AM
DSB-SC system needs sophisticated circuitry at the receiver for the
purpose of synchronization, that is, generating a local carrier of
exactly the right frequency and phase. Now, we add the carrier to
the modulated signal such that

AM(t) = m(t) cos(2π fc t) + A cos(2π fc t) = [ A + m(t) ] cos(2π fc t).

The second term in AM(t) eliminates the need to generate a local
carrier at the receiver. Define the term g(t) = |A + m(t)|, as the
envelope of AM(t).
48
 49

Why g(t) > 0?

 50

If g(t) > 0 for all t, that is, A is large enough to make A + m(t) positive for
all t, then the recovery of m(t) from AM(t) is simply reduced to envelope
detection (incoherent detection). The condition for demodulation by an
envelope detector is
A + m(t) > 0, for all t
is the same as
A  - m(t)min
Define the modulation index

- m(t ) min max | m(t ) |

   
A A
And the percentage of modulation as

- m(t ) min
%  100%
A
 51
DSB-TC AM
Therefore, for proper demodulation of AM by an envelope detector
  1. If  > 1 (known as overmodulation) then, we can not use an
envelope detector, however, coherent detection is possible.
Example
Sketch AM(t) for modulation indices of  = 0.5,  = 1, and  = 2 when
m(t) = α cos(2π fm t), if A = 20, fm = 250 Hz and fc = 10 kHz.

Solution
- m(t ) min α
The modulation index in this case    ; hence,
A Α
m(t) = α cos(2π fm t) =  A cos(2π fm t),
And
AM(t) = [A + m(t)] cos(2π fc t) = A [1 +  cos(2π fm t) ] cos(2π fc t)
 52
AM(t) = 20 [1 + 0.5 cos(2π  250t) ] cos(2π  10000 t)
 53
AM(t) = 20 [1 + cos(2π  250t) ] cos(2π  10000 t)
Modulated AM Signal, for m = 1
40

30

20

10
Amplitude

-10

-20

-30

-40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (msec)
 54
AM(t) = 20 [1 + 2cos(2π  250t) ] cos(2π  10000 t)

Modulated AM Signal, for m = 2 (Overmodulation)

60

40

20
Amplitude

-20

-40

-60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (msec)
 55

DSB-TC AM
The modulation index or the percentage of modulation could be obtained in the
laboratory (for a sinusoidal modulating signal) by the following direct
measurement procedure

Vmax - Vmin

Vmax  Vmin

where  in this case is the modulation index, Vmax is the maximum value of the
AM signal and Vmin is the minimum value of the AM signal.

Vmax  2 ( A  Am  , and Vmin  2 ( A  Am 

 56
Example
Sketch the resulting AM(t) and determine the percentage of modulation of the
shown AM transmitter.

Solve in class
 57
Efficiency of DSB-TC AM
In the DSB-TC AM, the carrier power is wasted since it does not
carry any information.

 AM (t )  m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  A cos(2 f ct )

Sidebands Carrier

The average power in general is defined as

1 T/2 v 2 (t )
Pav = lim  dt
T   T - T/2 R
Therefore, the carrier power is (R=1Ω)

1 T /2 A2
Pc  lim  ( A cos(2 f ct )  dt 
2

T   T -T / 2 2
 58

The sidebands power

1 T /2
Ps  lim   m(t ) cos(2 f ct )  dt
2

T   T -T / 2

1 T /2 2
or,  lim  m (t ) [1  cos(4 f ct )] dt
T   2 T -T / 2

1  T /2 2
(t ) cos(4 f ct ) d t 
T /2
Ps  lim  m (t ) dt   m 2

T  2 T 
- T / 2 -T / 2 
The second term is zero, since the average of a symmetric function about the t-axis
is zero. Then
1
T /2
1 2
Ps  lim m(t ) dt  m (t )
2

T   2 T -T / 2 2

where, the average power of m(t) is given by

1 T /2
m (t )  lim
2

2
m(t ) dt
T   T -T / 2
 59

The total power

1
Pt  Pc  Ps  [ A2  m 2 (t ) ]
2
Define the efficiency η as the ratio of the sidebands power to the total
power
Ps m 2 (t )
   100%  2  100%
Pt A  m (t )
2

Example
Determine the maximum efficiency for a tone modulation, with
m(t) = α cos(2π fm t) and R = 1 Ω, using DSB-TC AM.

Solution
From the previous example, m(t) = α cos(2π fm t) =  A cos(2π fm t), where
  1.
 60
1
  m 
T /2
m 2 (t )  lim  
2
A cos(2 f t ) dt
T  T -T / 2
(  A (  A
2 2
1 T /2
 lim  [1  cos(4 f mt ) ] dt 
T   T -T / 2 2 2

The efficiency is given by

(  A / 2 2
2

 2  100%   100%
A  (  A / 2 2
2 2

Since,   1, then the maximum value of η for DSB-TC AM is when  = 1, consequently,

1
max   100 %  33 %
2 1
Which means, only 33% of the transmitted power carries information.
Notice: This example was for a tone with efficiency of 33%; however, for voice signals
the efficiency is even worse of order 25% or less.
 61
Example

Show that for DSB-TC AM, Pc > Ps and in general the efficiency η is always
less than 50%.

Solve in class
 62
Generation of DSB-TC AM Signals

1. AM can be generated by any DSB-SC generator, if the modulating signal is [A +

m(t)].

A+m(t)  AM (t )
X

cos(2 ( f c t )
 63

2. AM can be generated using the following rectifier-type (chopper)

modulator

The input is [A cos(2π fc t) + m(t)], with A > m(t), so that the switching of the diode
is controlled by A cos(2π fc t). Since, the diode opens and shorts periodically with
cos(2π fc t), then this equivalent of multiplying
[A cos(2π fc t) + m(t)] by p(t). Consequently, the voltage at the input of the BPF is
given by
vi(t) = [A cos(2π fc t) + m(t)] p(t),
 64
Where,

1 2 1 1
p(t )   [ cos(2  f c t ) - cos(6  f c t )  cos(10  f c t ) - ]
2  3 5
Then,

A 2
vi (t )  cos(2  f c t )  m(t ) cos(2  f c t )  other terms
2 

The first two terms represent the AM signal, while the rest of the terms will be
suppressed by the BPF.

A 2
vo (t )  cos(2  f c t )  m(t ) cos(2  f c t )
2 
 65

Demodulation of DSB-TC AM
There are three incoherent methods of AM modulation
1. Rectifier Detector
If the AM signal applied as an input to a rectifier circuit, the negative
part of the signal will be suppressed by the diode and the resistance.
This is equivalent of multiplying the AM signal by p(t).
vR(t) = {[A + m(t)] cos(2π fc t)} p(t)
which is


vR (t )  [ A  m(t )] cos(2  f c t )
1 2 1
 [ cos(2  f c t ) - cos(6  f c t )
2  3
1
 cos(10  f c t ) -  ]
5 
66
 67

Demodulation of DSB-TC AM
Rearranging terms,
1
vR (t )  [ A  m(t )]  other high frequency terms

When vR(t) is applied to the LPF of cutoff frequency fm, the output of the filter is

1
[ A  m(t )]


The DC term A/π will be blocked by the capacitor giving an output of

1
m(t )

 68

2- Envelope Detection
Any circuit whose output follows the envelope of the input signal
waveforms can be used as an envelope detector. The simplest form of
an envelope detector can be constructed using a diode in series with an
RC circuit.
On a positive cycle of the input signal, the capacitor C charges up to
the peak voltage of the input signal. As the input signal falls below this
peak value, the diode is cutoff because the capacitor voltage is greater
than the input signal voltage. Then, capacitor discharges slowly during
the cutoff period through the resistor R, thus changing the capacitor
voltage. When the input becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the
diode conducts again and the capacitor again charges to the peak value
of the new cycle.
 69

Envelope Detection

When the capacitor discharges between positive peaks it causes a

ripple signal of frequency fc. This ripple can be reduced by increasing
the time constant RC to a value (1/ fc << RC << 1/ fm), such that the
capacitor discharges very slowly between the positive peaks. Making
RC too large, would make it impossible for the capacitor voltage to
follow the envelope.

The envelope detector output is A + m(t) with a ripple of frequency fc.

The DC term A can be blocked out by a capacitor or a simple RC HPF.
The ripple voltage can be reduced further by another RC LPF.
70
71
72
 73
3- Carrier Recovery in DSB-TC AM (Coherent
Detection)
To extract the carrier a sharp filter, or a phase lock loop can be used at the
receiver, then coherent detection could be used.
 74

The Superheterodyne AM Receiver

 Carriers for different radio stations are spaced

only 10kHz between one another
 RF (radio frequency) amplifier/filter needs to be
very narrow to separate between different
carrier frequencies as high as 1000kHz, which
is hard to achieve
 75

The Superheterodyne AM Receiver

 We do select between different stations on two stages
 The first stage is at the RF amplifier
 The second stage is at the IF amplifier
 The RF amplifier is a tunable filter that filters image
stations
 The IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier is always tuned
to 455 kHz
 The IF amplifier selects the radio station after its carrier is
converted to 455 kHz
 The mixer (frequency converter) output consists of
components of the difference between the incoming fc and
the local-oscillator fLO frequencies that is
fLO = fc + fIF = fc + 455 kHz
 76

Image Stations
If the incoming carrier frequency fc = 600 kHz, then fLO = fc + fIF = 600 + 455 =
1055 kHz
 Another carrier with fc = 1055 + 455 = 1510 kHz, will also be picked up by the
receiver because the difference fc - fLO is also 455 kHz
 The station at 1510 kHz is called the image of the station at 600 kHz.
 Generally, stations that are 2 fIF = 910 kHz apart are called image stations and
would both appear simultaneously at the IF output if it were not for the RF filter at
the receiver input.
 The RF filter may provide poor selectivity against adjacent stations separated by 10
kHz, but it can provide reasonable selectivity against a station separated from another
by 910 kHz
77
 78
The Superheterodyne AM Receiver
Example 79

A radar receiver operating at 2.80 GHz and using the superheterodyne receiver
with a local oscillator frequency of 2.86 GHz. A second radar operates at the image
frequency of the first and interference results.
a. Determine the intermediate frequency for the first radar receiver.
b. What is the carrier of the second radar?
c. If you were to redesign the radar receiver, what is the minimum intermediate
frequency you would choose to pervent image-frequency problems in the
2.80 - 3.00 GHz radar band?

Solution
a. fIF = fLO - fc = 2.86 GHz - 2.80 GHz = 60 MHz = 0.06GHz (Provided that Up
Conversion is used).
b. fIMAGE = fc + 2fIF = 2.80 GHz + 0.12 GHz = 2.92 GHz.
c. 2fIF  fMAX - fMIN = 3.00 GHz - 2.80 GHz = 0.20 GHz  fIF  100 MHz.
 80

HW # 5
 4.3-1, 4.3-2, 4.3-3, 4.3-4, 4.3-5, 4.3-6, 4.3-8,
4.4-1, 4.8-1, 4.8-2
 81

III - Single Side Band (SSB)

 A scheme in which only one sideband is
transmitted
 It requires only one-half of the bandwidth of the
DSB-SC
 82

Single Side Band (SSB)

 M+(ω) can be described as
 And,
 Let m+(t) & m-(t) be
the inverse Fourier
transform of M+(ω) and
M-(ω)
 For a real m(t), M(ω)
should be real and even
so M+(ω) and M-(ω) should be complex
conjugates
 83

Single Side Band (SSB)

 As a result, m+(t) & m-(t) are also conjugates
 However,
 Therefore, we can express m+(t) & m-(t) as
follows

 The question now is

How we can determine mh(t) ?
 84

Single Side Band (SSB)

 Note that

 This means
1 1 1 1
F{m (t )}  F{ m(t )  jmh (t )}  M ( )  M ( ) sgn( )
2 2 2 2
Or

 However,
 Therefore,

1 1 m( )
mh (t )  m(t )  or mh (t )   d
t   t  
Single Side Band (SSB) 85

Hilbert Transform
 mh(t) is called the Hilbert transform of m(t)
 In the frequency domain, Hilbert transform m(t) is
equivalent to multiplying M(ω) by H(ω)
Single Side Band (SSB) 86

Hilbert Transform
 Thus, if we delay the phase of every component
of m(t) by π/2 without changing the amplitude, the
result will be the Hilbert transform of m(t)

 This means that a Hilbert transformer is an ideal

phase shifter that shifts every component of m(t)
by π/2
 87

Single Side Band (SSB)

 The spectrum of the SSB signal can be
represented by

 Substituting by m+(t) & m-(t) in the above

 Similarly
 88

Example
Find φSSB(t) for a simple case of tone modulation
(i.e., the modulating signal is a sinusoid
m(t) = cos ωmt)
Solution
Hilbert transform delays each frequency
component by π/2. Therefore,
 89

Example
 Thus
 90

Generation of SSB Signals

 Two methods are used:
 Selective Filtering Method
 Phase Shift Method

 Selective Filtering Method

 Most commonly used method
 A DSB-SC is generated then passed through a sharp
cut-off filter to eliminate undesired band
 91
Generation of SSB Signals
1- Selective Filtering Method
 To obtain USB, a filter should
pass all components above fc
and suppress all other
components

 This requires an ideal filter or

a separation between
passband and stopband

 Some signals such as voice

signals provide this
separation since power
content close to zero
frequency (below 300 Hz) is
not important
 Generation of SSB Signals 92

2- Phase Shift Method

 A phase-shift modulator implements the following eq.

 An ideal phase shifter is hard to implement but it can be

approximated only over a given frequency band
 93
Demodulation of SSB-SC
Coherent Demodulation
 SSB-SC can be coherently (synchronously)
demodulated
 94
Demodulation of SSB-TC
Envelope Detection
 We consider an SSB signal with a transmitted
carrier
 If the carrier amplitude A is large enough, m(t)
can be recovered by envelope or rectifier
detection
 95
Demodulation of SSB-TC
Envelope Detection
 If A >> |m(t)| then generally A >> |mh(t)|, and

 Using binomial series expansion and discarding

higher order terms (m(t)/A << 1)

 In DSB-TC modulation the condition for envelope

detection is m(t)/A << 1, which means SSB needs
larger carrier (i.e., SSB-TC is less efficient than DSB-
TC)
 96

Example

To be solved in class
 97

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Example
Twelve voice signals, each band limited to 3 kHz, are frequency
multiplexed using 1 kHz guard bands between channels and between the
main carrier and the first channel. The modulation of the main carrier is
SSB-SC AM. Calculate the bandwidth of the composite signal if the
subcarrier modulation is
a. DSB-SC AM.
b. Single-Sideband AM.
Solution
a. With guard band, each channel occupies 7 kHz, so that after
modulation
BW = (12) (7 kHz) = 84 kHz.
b. With guard band, each channel occupies 4 kHz, so that after modulation
BW = (12) (4 kHz) = 48 kHz.
 98
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Example: Instead of the FDM receiver diagram shown below for m1(t), m2(t), and
m3(t), design a receiver-select for m1(t), m2(t), and m3(t) with a single demodulator.
Bandpass Filter Demodulator m1(t)
f1 1

RF Bandpass Filter Demodulator m2(t)

Demodulator f2 2

m3(t)
Bandpass Filter Demodulator
f3 3
Solution
By using a tunable BPF-modulator in cascade, we can obtain the same results.
When the BPF-modulator block is tuned to the center frequency of the desired
signal the output is the same as above. The disadvantage of this method is that only
one signal is being received at a time, where as, the above method the reception is
simultaneous for all signals.

m1(t)
or
RF Tunable
Demodulator Demodulator m2(t)
Bandpass Filter
or
m3(t)
 99

V- Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

 Vestigial Sideband inherits
the advantages of DSB and
SSB while avoids their
advantages at low cost

 VSB signals are easy to

generate & occupy only
25% more bandwidth than
SSB

 In VSB one sideband has a

gradual cutoff
 100

Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

 Baseband signal can be
recovered by a synchronous
detector with an appropriate
equalizer filter Ho(ω) at the
receiver output

 If the VSB filter at the transmitter

is Hi(ω)

 The shaping filter Hi(ω) passes

one band and suppresses the
other gradually
 101

Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

 The filter Hi(ω) is easy to realize
but the bandwidth is 25-33%
higher than SSB

 Synchronous demodulation is
used at the receiver

 The signal e(t) is passed after that

through a low pass equalizer filter
of transfer function Ho(ω)

 The output signal spectrum is

given by
 102

Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

 However, the output of Ho(ω) is required to be m(t)
 If we substitute in

By
And remove the terms that contain ±2ωc (suppressed by LPF)
we get

Hence,
 103
Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
Example 4.8
 104

Envelope Detection of VSB+C

 VSB+C can be detected using an envelope
detector exactly the same way as SSB+C
 Both SSB and VSB modulated signals almost
have the same form
 We have shown that SSB+C requires a much
larger carrier than DSB+C
 However, because VSB+C is in between DSB
and SSB, it requires a carrier that is less than
SSB+C but higher than AM
 105

HW # 6
 4.5-1, 4.5-2, 4.5-3, 4.5-5, 4.5-6, 4.6-1