Research in common jargon refers to a search for knowledge.

Once can also define research

as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent/relevant/suitable information on a specific
topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.

“a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown.
It is actually a voyage/journey of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct (natural tendency)
of inquisitiveness (interested) for, when the unknown confronts (challenge) us, we wonder and
our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown.
This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

Types of research:
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/descriptive-research/
Descriptive Research: Definition
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the
population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what”
of the research subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.

In other words, descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of

a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a certain phenomenon occurs. In other
words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among
New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and
then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then
uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any
investigative details on “why” the patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break
into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

The term descriptive research then, refers to research questions, design of the
research and data analysis that would be conducted on that topic. It is called an observational
research method because none of the variables that are part of the research study are
influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that

attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the
population sample. It is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe
the nature of the demographic segment.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in
any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the
variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional
study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
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 4. Basis for further research: The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research
can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help
point towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research.

Applications of Descriptive Research with Examples

Descriptive research can be used in multiple ways and for multiple reasons. Before getting into
any kind of survey though, the survey goals and survey design is very important. Despite
following these steps though, there is no way to know if the research outcome will be met. To
understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently
use descriptive research today:

 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw

concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits
and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent, their
attitude or opinion about the phenomenon in question. For example, understanding from
millenials the hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information helps
the organization conducting the research make informed business decisions.
 Measure data trends: Data trends can be measured over time with statistical
capabilities provided by descriptive research. Consider if an apparel company conducts
research between different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new
range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch,
this provides an insight into what clothes are like and what are not and the ones that are not,
are dropped.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive research to understand
how different groups respond to a certain product or service. For example, an apparel brand
creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brands image. The same
survey also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical
location etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the
brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps in making product or
marketing fixes or in some cases even create a new product line just to cater to a high
growth potential, group.
 Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research is widely used to help ascertain the
prevailing conditions and underlying patterns of the research object. Due to the non invasive
method of research and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative
observation, each variable is observed and an in-depth analysis can be concluded. It is also
used to validate any existing conditions that maybe prevalent in a population.
 Conduct research at different times: To ascertain if there are any similarities or
differences, the research can be conducted at different periods of times. This also allows
any number of variables to be evaluated. For the purpose of verification, studies on
prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Descriptive Research Methods

There are 3 distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational Method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and
both quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method.

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Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on
numbers and values – it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity”.
Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis
methods. It implies observation of any entity that can be associated with a numeric value such
as age, shape, weight, volume, scale etc. For example, the researcher can track if current
customers will refer the brand by using a simple Net Promoter Score question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since
the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural
and effective. In descriptive research, the researcher can chose to be either a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or a complete participant.
For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the selection and
purchasing trends of the customers. This offers a deeper insight into the purchasing
experience of the customer.

 Case Study Method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead
to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies
should not be used to determine cause and effect as they don’t have the capacity to make
accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the part of the researcher. The other
reason why case studies are not an accurate way of conducting descriptive research is
because there could be an atypical respondent in the research and describing them leads to
poor generalizations and move away from external validity.

 Survey Research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or polls. They are
a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. In order for a survey to
gather good quality data, it should have good survey questions, which should be a balanced
mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions. The survey method can be
conducting online or offline which is makes it the go-to option for descriptive research where
the sample size is very large.

Learn more: Survey Questions: Survey Examples and Sample Survey Questions

Examples of Descriptive Research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

1. A speciality food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to
understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different sets of people. To understand the
preferred flavor palette, they conduct a descriptive research study using different methods
like observational methods in supermarkets. By also conducting a survey whilst collecting in-
depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets.
This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to different preferred meats in that
demographic. Conducting a thorough descriptive research helps the organization tweak their
business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
2. Another example of where descriptive research can be used is if a school district that
wishes to evaluate teachers attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By
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 conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through
observational methods, the researcher can gauge what the can help understand if a full-
fledged implementation can face an issues. This also helps in understanding if the students
are impacted in any way with this change.
Some other problems and/or research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

 Market researchers that want to observe habits of consumers.

 A company that wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district that wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather
than textbooks.
 An organization to understand if its wellness programs increase the overall health of the
employees

Advantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major advantages of descriptive research are:

 Data collection: Descriptive research can be conducted by using specific methods like
observational method, case study method and survey method. Between these 3, all major
methods of data collection are covered which provides a lot of information. This can be used
for future research or even developing hypothesis of your research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is both qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic
understanding of a research topic. This causes data that was not planned to be collected
gets tracked and the data is varied, diverse and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in
the natural environment of the respondent and this ensures that high-quality and honest data
is collected.
 Quick to conduct and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive
research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is cheap.
 Forms basis for decision-making: As the data collected in descriptive research
represents a larger population and is robust, it is easy to make decisions on the basis of the
statistical analysis of that data.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research

Some of the major disadvantages of descriptive research are:

 Confidentiality: Respondents aren’t always truthful if questions are too personal or

they feel that they are being “watched”. This may negate the validity of the data.
 Halo effect: If the research observer has a potential bias towards the research topic or
some respondents in the research, the observations then maybe considered as invalid or
untrue.
 Sample isn’t representative: Due to the randomness of the sample, it is very tough to
validate that the sample is an accurate representation of the whole population.
 No scope to learn cause: Since descriptive research only focuses on the “what” of an
objective or phenomenon, it does not delve into the “why or how” and that is a limitation in
learning specific causes.

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Types of Research

Basic vs. Applied Research: The distinction between basic and applied research is largely by
the focus of its application. This distinction comes from basic science vs. applied science.
Example: physics and engineering. Basic research focuses on determining or establishing the
basic or fundamental relationships within a discipline without paying attention to any practical
applications to the real world. In contrast, applied research is usually conducted to solve a
particular and concrete problem.

Ex Post Facto Research Design

An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist
are compared on some dependent variable. Also known as "after the fact" research, an ex post
facto design is considered quasi-experimental because the subjects are not randomly
assigned - they are grouped based on a particular characteristic or trait.

Although differing groups are analyzed and compared in regards to independent and
dependent variables it is not a true experiment because it lacks random assignment. The
assignment of subjects to different groups is based on whichever variable is of interest to the
researchers.

For example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults.
So the participants would be separated into differing groups (underweight, normal weight,
overweight) and their self esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a
pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups.

Ex Post Facto Research

Ex post factor research refers to a research study in which the researcher has independent
variables that he cannot manipulate during the study. Ex post fact is actually a Latin word
which stand for “after the fact” (Ary, & Sorensen, 2009). In many instance the researcher
usually has an active independent variable that he can easily manipulate in the course of the
research. It is important to turn to ex post facto in research where manipulation of the
independent variable would result to ethical issues. In the case where researcher is trying to
determine the effect or the efficient of a drug it would be unethical to withdraw treatment from
patient simply to determine how they shall react or be affected.
Purpose
The main purpose of using an ex post facto is to determine the cause and effect relationship
between the dependent and the independent variable. If for instance a researcher wishes to do
a research on the effects of anxiety on student’s performance, he will measure and use the
anxiety levels of the students and later compare them with the overall performance once the
results are released (Ary, & Sorensen, 2009). The variable in such a research are a “matter of
fact” and cannot be manipulated so as to determine whether they will be variation of results.
The fact that the independent variable in this type of research cannot be manipulated put the
research design as not credible.
Strategies Used In Ex Post Facto Research
There is however some strategies that have been proposed to ensure that the research is
more credible. These strategies are usually adopted to ensure that the researcher acquires
some degree of control over the independent variable. The first strategy involves matching.
Matching is done on a subject to subject basis so as to create matched pairs. The matching
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criteria will be based on criteria that enables the researcher to class similar subjects together.
The problem with the matching strategy is that the researcher works with the assumption that
the factors he has selected are the most appropriate and will work with the set dependant
variable.
The second strategy involves the use of homogenous groups. Selecting subject that are
homogenous gives the researcher some degree of control over the variable and the ability to
get the desired results. If a researcher needs to determine the academic performance of
female students between 13-15 years, then he can specifically look for female students in that
age bracket.
The third strategy involves building extra venous variables in the design. This involves
selecting subject who specifically fit the type of data that the researcher needs. If for instance
the researcher identifies social economic status as a potential variable he will select to work
with a sample that involve student from low socio economic status. Analysis of covariance is
another strategy that can be used (Ary, & Sorensen, 2009). It is technique that is used to
equate groups depending on specified variable.
Partial correlations if the fourth strategy that can be used to acquire some degree of control
over the variable in an ex post facto research. It involves forming some form of relations and
similarity between two variables used for the study.
Types of ex post Facto research design
There are two main types of ex post facto research design. The first is the proactive design.
The subjects of this designed are grouped depending on an already pre existing independent
variable for example subject studies on scholarship and subjects privately pays for his or her
studies. Once the pre existing groups are determined measurements are made based on
dependent variable such as level of confidence, class performance etc. The second category
is the retroactive ex post fact where the researcher seeks that causes of a pre existing
situation the cause in this case will be the independent variable whereas the pre-existing
situation is the dependent variable.
Importance of Ex post facto research
If properly implemented ex post facto research can help researchers to clear the air on some
research studies whose findings are inconclusive. This is especially so for results gathered
through experimental studies. By using the suggested partial control strategies and
determining alternative hypothesis a researcher who had first used the experimental research
may find more conclusive findings if he uses ex post facto research (Ary, & Sorensen, 2009).
Ex post facto research is also important when conducting research studies that involve human
beings as the subjects. Many researches involving human subjects are prone to ethical issues.
This is especially so if the research involves some form of manipulation that will negatively
affect the participants. In such a situation the use of ex post facto research will focus on cause
and effect relations rather than intrusive manipulations that may cross the ethical boundaries of
using human participants as subjects (Ary, & Sorensen, 2009).
Ex post facto research is important in verifying already made conclusions on various
researches. This form of research design can therefore be used to authenticate the
conclusions sand findings made in an in other experimental studies. If the findings coincide
then the findings are deemed to be true. However, if the findings contradict, then it create room
for more research studies so as to finding the ultimate truths.

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research: The distinction between descriptive and analytical
research is based on the question it asks. Descriptive research attempts to determine,
describe, or identify what is, while analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or
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how it came to be. The descriptive research uses description, classification, measurement, and
comparison to describe what phenomena are. The analytical research usually concerns itself
with cause-effect relationships. Examples. Examining the fluctuations of U. S. international
trade balance during 1974-1995 is an example of descriptive research; while
explaining why and how U.S. trade balance move in a particular way over time is an example
of analytical research. Another example: Starting from late 1986, the value of U.S. dollar value
has steadily increased against the Japanese yen and German Mark. Examining the magnitude
of this trend in the value of U.S. dollar is another example of descriptive research; while
explaining how and why this surge in the value of the U.S. dollar is occuring. If one attempts to
explain how and why this surge in the value of U.S. dollar is going to affect the U.S.
economy,as well as the economies of Japan and Germany, this is another example of
analytical research.

Descriptive vs. Analytical approach to research

Posted on March 16, 2013 by Kalpesh
inShare
Before explaining the differences between the two types of approaches, let’s gather some
basic information about them. A descriptive approach to research is called as a foundation for
research. Its logic is based on the statistics of the research analysis. So, the descriptive
research can’t take into account the validity of the research results, because it does not explain
the causes of the result.

On the other hand, Analytical approach is concentrates on the process of the final result rather
giving importance to the result. Analytical approach stands applicable in all stages of research,
right from the articulation of thesis to the formulation of arguments on the issues mentioned in
the research.

The descriptive research method is basically divided into three types-

• Observation Method
• Case Study Method
• Survey Method
The Observation Method concentrates on observing the subject in both Natural and Laboratory
methods to draw the conclusions on the research. Its highly useful in the Natural observation
because the original results of the research can be obtained. In laboratory method the result
would be according to the quantities of the data provided to the observation. Case study
method involves a deep research on the problems discussed. Survey method is based on the
questionnnaire prepared for the participants. After participants answer the questionnaire, the
research moves towards its final stage.

There are different types of Analytical research methods available. They are,

• Regression Analysis approach

• Grouping Analysis approach
• Multiple Equation Methods
In Regression Analysis the outcome, or the result produced from the research, is affected by
the one or more individual elements of the experiment. Therefore, the Regression analysis
method is further divided into four major subdivisions – Logistic, Linear hierarchal, Duration,
Ordinary least squares (OLS) method.
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Grouping methods of analytical approach are based on classification and grouping of the
variables in an experiment based on their discriminate values and characteristics. Multiple
method is just an extension of Regression method discussed above. This method explains
about the path of individual elements in an experiment. There are two main types of multiple
equation models – 1) Path analysis 2) SEM-structural equation models.

Finally concluding that there is a vast difference between these research models for an
experiment. The research method chosen depends on the type of research being done.

Difference Between Basic and Applied Research

Research is a calculated investigation that provides a base for the decision-making. It can be
understood as the study undertaken by an individual or entity systematically, for finding out
solutions to the problems under consideration. Survey or experiment are carried out to gather
information as per the objectives. Based on utility, research is divided into two categories, i.e.
basic research and applied research, wherein basic research is one that adds further
knowledge to the actual knowledge.

Difference Between Basic and Applied Research

Research is a calculated investigation that provides a base for the decision-making. It can be
understood as the study undertaken by an individual or entity systematically, for finding out
solutions to the problems under consideration. Survey or experiment are carried out to gather
information as per the objectives. Based on utility, research is divided into two categories, i.e.
basic research and applied research, wherein basic research is one that adds further
knowledge to the actual knowledge.

On the contrary, applied research implies the research that is put to practical use and is
beneficial to solve practical problems. This article might help you in understanding the
difference between basic and applied research.

Content: Basic Research Vs Applied Research

1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion
5. Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Meaning Basic Research refers to the Applied Research is the research

study that is aimed at that is designed to solve specific
expanding the existing base of practical problems or answer
scientific knowledge. certain questions.

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 BASIS FOR
BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH
COMPARISON

Nature Theoretical Practical

Utility Universal Limited

Concerned with Developing scientific Development of technology and

knowledge and predictions technique

Goal To add some knowledge to the To find out solution for the
existing one. problem at hand.

Definition of Basic Research

Basic Research or otherwise called as pure or fundamental research, is one that focuses on
advancing scientific knowledge for the complete understanding of a topic or certain natural
phenomenon, primarily in natural sciences. In a nutshell, when knowledge is acquired for the
sake of knowledge it is called basic research.

Basic Research is completely theoretical, that focuses on basic principles and testing theories.
It tends to understand the basic law.

Basic Research deals with generalization and formulation of theory about human behaviour. It
is aligned towards collecting information that has universal applicability. Therefore, basic
research helps in adding new knowledge to the already existing knowledge.

Definition of Applied Research

Applied Research can be defined as research that encompasses real life application of the
natural science. It is directed towards providing a solution to the specific practical problems
and develop innovative technology.

In finer terms, it is the research that can be applied to real-life situations. It studies a particular
set of circumstances, so as to relate the results to its corresponding circumstances.

Applied research includes research that focuses on certain conclusions experiencing a

business problem. Moreover, research that is aligned towards ascertaining social, economic or
political trends are also termed as applied research.

Key Differences Between Basic and Applied Research

The points given below explain the differences between basic and applied research:

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 1. Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already
existing scientific knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean
the scientific study that is helpful in solving real-life problems.
2. While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical
approach.
3. The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the
sense that the former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to
the specific problem, for which it was carried out.
4. The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and
predictions. On the other hand, applied research stresses on the development of
technology and technique with the help of basic science.
5. The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the
already existing one. Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a solution
to the problem under consideration.

Conclusion

The type of research may vary on the basis of the level at which research is carried out and its
purpose. One can choose basic research over applied research when the purpose is to add
certain scientific knowledge, whereas when it is important to identify a proper solution to the
problem under study, applied research is preferable.

What’s the difference between quantitative research and qualitative research?

The definition of quantitative research
 Quantitative data is designed to collect cold, hard facts. Numbers. Quantitative data is
structured and statistical. It provides support when you need to draw general conclusions
from your research.
The definition of qualitative research
 Qualitative data collects information that seeks to describe a topic more than measure
it. Think of impressions, opinions, and views. A qualitative survey is less structured: It
seeks to delve deep into the topic at hand to gain information about people’s motivations,
thinking, and attitudes. While this brings depth of understanding to your research
questions, it also makes the results harder to analyze.
When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

Quantitative data can help you see the big picture. Qualitative data adds the details and can
also give a human voice to your survey results.

Let’s see how to use each method in a research project.

 Formulating hypotheses: Qualitative research helps you gather detailed information

on a topic. You can use it to initiate your research by discovering the problems or
opportunities people are thinking about. Those ideas can become hypotheses to be
proven through quantitative research.
 Validating your hypotheses: Quantitative research will get you numbers that you can
apply statistical analysis to in order to validate your hypotheses. Was that problem real or
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 just someone’s perception? The hard facts obtained will enable you to make decisions
based on objective observations.
 Finding general answers: Quantitative research usually has more respondents than
qualitative research because it is easier to conduct a multiple-choice survey than a series
of interviews or focus groups. Therefore it can help you definitely answer broad questions
like: Do people prefer you to your competitors? Which of your company’s services are
most important? What ad is most appealing?
 Incorporating the human element: Qualitative research can also help in the final
stages of your project. The quotes you obtained from open-ended questions can put a
human voice to the objective numbers and trends in your results. Many times it helps to
hear your customers describe your company in their own words to uncover your blind
spots. Qualitative data will get you that.
How to balance qualitative and quantitative research

These two research methods don’t conflict with each other. They actually work much better as
a team. In a world of Big Data, there’s a wealth of statistics and figures that form the strong
foundation on which your decisions can rest. But that foundation is incomplete without the
information collected from real people that gives the numbers meaning.

So how do you put these two forms of research together? Qualitative research is almost
always the starting point when you seek to discover new problems and opportunities–which
will help you do deeper research later. Quantitative data will give you measurements to confirm
each problem or opportunity and understand it.

How about an example? Let’s say you held a conference and wanted feedback from your
attendees. You can probably already measure several things with quantitative research, such
as attendance rate, overall satisfaction, quality of speakers, value of information given, etc. All
these questions can be given in a closed-ended and measurable way.

But you also may want to provide a few open-ended, qualitative research questions to find out
what you may have overlooked. You could use questions like:

 What did you enjoy most about the conference?

 How could we improve your experience?
 Is there any feedback on the conference you think we should be aware of?

If you discover any common themes through these qualitative questions, you can decide to
research them more in depth, make changes to your next event, and make sure to add
quantitative questions about these topics after the next conference.

For example, let’s say several attendees said that their least favorite thing about the
conference was the difficult-to-reach location. Next time, your survey might ask quantitative
questions like how satisfied people were with the location, or let respondents choose from a list
of potential sites they would prefer.

Open-ended vs. close-ended questions. A good way of recognizing when you want to
switch from one method to the other is to look at your open-ended questions and ask yourself
why you are using them.
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For example, if you asked: “What do you think of our ice cream prices?”, people would give
you feedback in their own words and you will probably get some out-of-the-box answers.

If that’s not what you’re looking for, you should consider using an easily quantifiable response.
For example:

Relative to our competitors, do you think our ice cream prices are:

 Higher
 About the same
 Lower

This kind of question will give your survey respondents clarity and in turn it will provide you
with consistent data that is easy to analyze.

How to get qualitative data

There are many methods you can use to conduct qualitative research that will get you richly
detailed information on your topic of interest.

 Interviews. One-on-one conversations that go deep into the topic at hand.

 Case studies. Collections of client stories from in-depth interviews.
 Expert opinions. High-quality information from well-informed sources.
 Focus groups. In-person or online conversation with small groups of people to listen to
their views on a product or topic.
 Open-ended survey questions. A text box in a survey that lets the respondent express
their thoughts on the matter at hand freely.
 Observational research. Observing people during the course of their habitual routines
to understand how they interact with a product, for example.

However, this open-ended method of research does not always lend itself to bringing you the
most accurate results to big questions. And analyzing the results is hard because people will
use different words and phrases to describe their points of view, and may not even talk about
the same things if they find space to roam with their responses.

In some cases, it may be more effective to go ‘full quantitative’ with your questions.

Why collect quantitative data?

Qualitative survey questions can run the risk of being too vague. To avoid confusing your
respondents, you may want to eschew questions like, “What do you think about our internet
service?” Instead you could ask a closed-ended, quantitative question like in the following
example.

The internet service is reliable:

 Always
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  Most of the time
 About half the time
 Once in a while
 Never

Qualitative questions take longer to answer. Survey respondents don’t always have the
patience to reflect on what they are being asked and write long responses that accurately
express their views. It’s much faster to choose one of several pre-loaded options in a
questionnaire. Using quantitative questions helps you get more questions in your survey and
more responses out of it.

Quantitative survey questions are just more… quantifiable. Even word responses in
closed-ended questionnaires can be assigned numerical values that you can later convert into
indicators and graphs. This means that the overall quality of the data is better. Remember that
the most accurate data leads you to the best possible decisions.

Examples of how to use qualitative and quantitative questions

Our customer satisfaction survey template includes some good examples of how qualitative
and quantitative questions can work together to provide you a complete view of how your
business is doing.

Quantitative questions:

How long have you been a customer of our company?

 This is my first purchase

 Less than six months
 Six months to a year
 1-2 years
 3 or more years
 I haven’t made a purchase yet

How likely are you to purchase any of our products again?

 Extremely likely
 Very likely
 Somewhat likely
 Not so likely
 Not at all likely

Qualitative follow-up question:

Do you have any other comments, questions, or concerns?

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The following is another example from our employee engagement survey.

Quantitative questions:

When you make a mistake, how often does your supervisor respond constructively?

 Always
 Most of the time
 About half of the time
 Once in a while
 Never

Qualitative question:

What does your supervisor need to do to improve his/her performance?

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: Which Is Better?

Scientific research is often divided into two classes: conceptual research and empirical
research. There used to be distinct ways of doing research and a researcher would proudly
claim to be one or the other, praising his method and scorning the alternative. Today the
distinction is not so clear.

Conceptual Research: Pen and Paper

Conceptual research focuses on the concept or theory that explains or describes the
phenomenon being studied. What causes disease? How can we describe the motions of the
planets? What are the building blocks of matter? The conceptual researcher sits at his desk
with pen in hand and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. He does no
experiments but may make use of observations by others, since this is the mass of data that
he is trying to make sense of. Until fairly recently, conceptual research was considered the
most honorable form of research—it required using the brain, not the hands. Researchers such
as the alchemists who did experiments were considered little better than blacksmiths—“filthy
empiricists.”

Empirical Research: Getting Your Hands Dirty

For all of their lofty status, conceptual researchers regularly produced theories that were
wrong. Aristotle taught that large cannonballs fell to earth faster than small ones, and many
generations of professors repeated his teachings until Galileo proved them wrong. Galileo was
an empiricist of the best sort, one who performed original experiments not merely to destroy
old theories but to provide the basis for new theories. A reaction against the ivory tower
theoreticians culminated in those who claimed to have no use for theory, arguing that empirical
acquisition of knowledge was the only way to the truth. A pure empiricist would simply graph
data and see if he got a straight line relation between variables. If so, he had a good
“empirical” relationship that would make useful predictions. The theory behind the correlation
was irrelevant.

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Exploratory Research
Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions
and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of
research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet.
Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended
to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem.
When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her
direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights.[1]
Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the
research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It has
been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of more
conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling methodology
and data collection method”[2]. Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which
little or no previous research has been done”[3]. Unstructured interviews are the most popular
primary data collection method with exploratory studies.
Examples of Exploratory Research Design
The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business
studies:
 A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication
channel
 An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within
hospitality sector in London
 An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in
pharmaceutical industry in the USA

Causal Research (Explanatory research)

Causal research, also known as explanatory research is conducted in order to identify the extent
and nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can be conducted in order to
assess impacts of specific changes on existing norms, various processes etc.
Causal studies focus on an analysis of a situation or a specific problem to explain the patterns
of relationships between variables. Experiments are the most popular primary data collection
methods in studies with causal research design.
The presence of cause cause-and-effect relationships can be confirmed only if specific causal
evidence exists. Causal evidence has three important components:
1. Temporal sequence. The cause must occur before the effect. For example, it would not be
appropriate to credit the increase in sales to rebranding efforts if the increase had started before
the rebranding.
2. Concomitant variation. The variation must be systematic between the two variables. For
example, if a company doesn’t change its employee training and development practices, then
changes in customer satisfaction cannot be caused by employee training and development.

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3. Nonspurious association. Any covarioaton between a cause and an effect must be true and
not simply due to other variable. In other words, there should be no a ‘third’ factor that relates to
both, cause, as well as, effect.
The table below compares the main characteristics of causal research to exploratory and
descriptive research designs:[1]
Causal research Exploratory research Descriptive research

Amount of uncertainty
characterising decision
situation Clearly defined Highly ambiguous Partially defined

Key research statement Research hypotheses Research question Research question

Later stages of decision Early stage of decision Later stages of decision

When conducted? making making making

Usual research
approach Highly structured Unstructured Structured

‘What kind of people

‘Will consumers buy more patronize our stores
products in a blue ‘Our sales are declining compared to our primary
package?’ for no apparent reason’ competitor?’
‘Which of two advertising ‘What kinds of new ‘What product features
campaigns will be more products are fast-food are the most important to
Examples effective?’ consumers interested in?’ our customers?’

Main characteristics of research designs

Examples of Causal Research (Explanatory Research)
The following are examples of research objectives for causal research design:
 To assess the impacts of foreign direct investment on the levels of economic growth in
Taiwan
 To analyse the effects of re-branding initiatives on the levels of customer loyalty
 To identify the nature of impact of work process re-engineering on the levels of employee
motivation
Advantages of Causal Research (Explanatory Research)
 Causal studies may play an instrumental role in terms of identifying reasons behind a
wide range of processes, as well as, assessing the impacts of changes on existing norms,
processes etc.
 Causal studies usually offer the advantages of replication if necessity arises
 This type of studies are associated with greater levels of internal validity due to systematic
selection of subjects

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Five Characteristics of the Scientific Method

Empirical Observation
The scientific method is empirical. That is, it relies on direct observation of the world, and
disdains hypotheses that run counter to observable fact. This contrasts with methods that rely
on pure reason (including that proposed by Plato) and with methods that rely on emotional or
other subjective factors.
Replicable Experiments
Scientific experiments are replicable. That is, if another person duplicates the experiment, he
or she will get the same results. Scientists are supposed to publish enough of their method so
that another person, with appropriate training, could replicate the results. This contrasts with
methods that rely on experiences that are unique to a particular individual or a small group of
individuals.

Provisional Results
Results obtained through the scientific method are provisional; they are (or ought to be) open
to question and debate. If new data arise that contradict a theory, that theory must be modified.
For example, the phlogiston theory of fire and combustion was rejected when evidence against
it arose.
Objective Approach
The scientific method is objective. It relies on facts and on the world as it is, rather than on
beliefs, wishes or desires. Scientists attempt (with varying degrees of success) to remove their
biases when making observations.
Systematic Observation
Strictly speaking, the scientific method is systematic; that is, it relies on carefully planned
studies rather than on random or haphazard observation. Nevertheless, science can begin
from some random observation. Isaac Asimov said that the most exciting phrase to hear in
science is not "Eureka!" but "That's funny." After the scientist notices something funny, he or
she proceeds to investigate it systematically.

The scientific method

Introduction

A biology investigation usually starts with an observation—that is, something that catches the
biologist’s attention. For instance, a cancer biologist might notice that a certain kind of cancer
can't be treated with chemotherapy and wonder why this is the case. A marine ecologist,
seeing that the coral reefs of her field sites are bleaching—turning white—might set out to
understand why.
How do biologists follow up on these observations? How can you follow up on your own
observations of the natural world? In this article, we’ll walk through the scientific method, a
logical problem-solving approach used by biologists and many other scientists.

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The scientific method

At the core of biology and other sciences lies a problem-solving approach called the scientific
method. The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
1. Make an observation.
2. Ask a question.
3. Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
4. Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
5. Test the prediction.
6. Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.
The scientific method is used in all sciences—including chemistry, physics, geology, and
psychology. The scientists in these fields ask different questions and perform different tests.
However, they use the same core approach to find answers that are logical and supported by
evidence.

Scientific method example: Failure to toast

Let's build some intuition for the scientific method by applying its steps to a practical problem
from everyday life.

1. Make an observation.

Let's suppose that you get two slices of bread, put them into the toaster, and press the button.
However, your bread does not toast.

2. Ask a question.

Why didn't my bread get toasted?

3. Propose a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested. For
example, our hypothesis in this case could be that the toast didn't toast because the electrical
outlet is broken.

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This hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation. Instead, it's a possible explanation that
we can test to see if it is likely correct, or if we need to make a new hypothesis.

4. Make predictions.

A prediction is an outcome we'd expect to see if the hypothesis is correct. In this case, we
might predict that if the electrical outlet is broken, then plugging the toaster into a different
outlet should fix the problem.

5. Test the predictions.

To test the hypothesis, we need to make an observation or perform an experiment associated

with the prediction. For instance, in this case, we would plug the toaster into a different outlet
and see if it toasts.

 If the toaster does toast, then the hypothesis is supported—likely correct.

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 If the toaster doesn't toast, then the hypothesis is not supported—likely wrong.
The results of a test may either support or contradict—oppose—a hypothesis. Results that
support a hypothesis can't conclusively prove that it's correct, but they do mean it's likely to be
correct. On the other hand, if results contradict a hypothesis, that hypothesis is probably not
correct. Unless there was a flaw in the test—a possibility we should always consider—a
contradictory result means that we can discard the hypothesis and look for a new one.

6. Iterate.

The last step of the scientific method is to reflect on our results and use them to guide our next
steps.

 If the hypothesis was supported, we might do additional tests to confirm it, or revise it to
be more specific. For instance, we might investigate why the outlet is broken.
 If the hypothesis was not supported, we would come up with a new hypothesis. For
instance, the next hypothesis might be that there's a broken wire in the toaster.
In most cases, the scientific method is an iterative process. In other words, it's a cycle rather
than a straight line. The result of one go-round becomes feedback that improves the next
round of question asking.

Criteria of Good Research

Posted on August 6, 2012 by admin

Although the research works and studies differ in their form and kind, they all still meet on the
common ground of scientific methods employed by them. Hence, scientific research is expected
to satisfy the following criteria:

i. The aim of the research should be clearly mentioned, along with the use of common concepts.

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ii. The procedures used in the research should be adequately described, in order to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, while maintaining the
continuity of what has already been done.

iii. The researchs procedural design should be carefully planned to obtain results that are as
objective as possible.

iv. The flaws in the procedural design should be sincerely reported by the researcher to correctly
estimate their effects upon the findings.

v. The data analysis should be adequate to reveal its significance.

vi. The methods used during the analysis should be appropriate.

vii. The reliability and validity of the concerned data should be checked carefully.

viii. The conclusions are needed to be confined and limited to only those data, which are justified
and adequately provided by the research.

ix. In case, the researcher is experienced and has a good reputation in the field of research,
greater confidence in research is warranted.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research” as following:

1) Systematic - This states that the research is structured with some specified steps, which are
to be followed in a specified sequence, according to the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not actually rule out creative thinking, but it does discourage
the use of guessing and intuition in order to arrive at conclusions.
2) Logical - This states that the research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, and that
the logical process of induction and deduction are essential while conducting a research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole; while, deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion that follows from that very premise. Besides,
logical reasoning enables the research to be more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3) Empirical - This states that the research is basically related to one or more aspects of a real
situation. Moreover, it deals with the concrete data, which provides a base for the external validity
of research results.
4) Replicable - This states that the research results should be allowed verification by replicating
their study, to thus build a sound basis for decisions.

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https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/experimental-design/

What is Split-Half Reliability?

Split-half testing measures reliability.

In split-half reliability, a test for a single knowledge area is split into two parts and then both parts given to one
group of students at the same time. The scores from both parts of the test are correlated. A reliable test will have
high correlation, indicating that a student would perform equally well (or as poorly) on both halves of the test.

Split-half testing is a measure of internal consistency — how well the test components contribute to the construct
that’s being measured. It is most commonly used for multiple choice tests you can theoretically use it for any type
of test — even tests with essay questions.

Steps
1. Administer the test to a large group students (ideally, over about 30).
2. Randomly divide the test questions into two parts. For example, separate even questions from odd questions.
3. Score each half of the test for each student.
4. Find the correlation coefficient for the two halves. See: Find Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient for steps.

Drawbacks
One drawback with this method — it only works for a large set of questions (a 100 point test is recommended)
which all measure the same construct/area of knowledge. For example, this personality inventory test measures
introversion, extroversion, depression and a variety of other personality traits. This is not a good candidate for
split-half testing.

Difference with Parallel Forms

Split half-reliability is similar to parallel forms reliability, which uses one set of questions divided into two
equivalent sets. The sets are given to the same students, usually within a short time frame, like one set of test
questions on Monday and another set on Friday. With split-half reliability, the two tests are given to one group of
students who sit the test at the same time. Another difference: the two tests in parallel forms reliability are
equivalent and are independent of each other. This is not true with split-half reliability; the two sets do not have to
be equivalent (“parallel”).

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https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/parallel-forms-reliability/

What is Parallel Forms Reliability?

Parallel forms reliability can help you test constructs.

Parallel forms reliability (also called equivalent forms reliability) uses one set of questions divided into two
equivalent sets (“forms”), where both sets contain questions that measure the same construct, knowledge or skill.
The two sets of questions are given to the same sample of people within a short period of time and an estimate of
reliability is calculated from the two sets.

Put simply, you’re trying to find out if test A measures the same thing as test B. In other words you want to know
if test scores stay the same when you use different instruments.
Example: you want to find the reliability for a test of mathematics comprehension, so you create a set of 100
questions that measure that construct. You randomly split the questions into two sets of 50 (set A and set B), and
administer those questions to the same group of students a week apart.
Steps:
 Step 1: Give test A to a group of 50 students on a Monday.
 Step 2: Give test B to the same group of students that Friday.
 Step 3: Correlate the scores from test A and test B.
In order to call the forms “parallel”, the observed score must have the same mean and variances. If the tests
are merely different versions (without the “sameness” of observed scores), they are called alternate forms.

Similarity to Split-Half Reliability

Parallel forms and split-half reliability are similar, but with parallel forms, the same students take test A and then
take test B. With split-half reliability, one group of students is split into two and both groups sit the test at the
same time. The two tests in parallel forms reliability are equivalent and can be used independently of each other.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
 Parallel forms reliability can avoid some problems inherent with test-resting.
Disadvantages:
 You have to create a large number of questions that measure the same construct.
 Proving that the two test versions are equivalent (parallel) can be a challenge.
Reference:
Henchy, Alexandra Marie, “REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF RELIABILITY GENERALIZATION RESEARCH”
(2013). Theses and Dissertations–Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology. Paper 5.
http://uknowledge.uky.edu/edp_etds/5

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What is Face Validity?
Face validity, also called logical validity, is a simple form of validity where you apply a superficial and subjective
assessment of whether or not your study or test measures what it is supposed to measure. You can think of it
as being similar to “face value”, where you just skim the surface in order to form an opinion. It is the easiest form
of validity to apply to research. However, it doesn’t general include much (if any at all) in the way of objective
measurements. Therefore, it is often criticized as the weakest form of validity.
For example, IQ tests are supposed to measure intelligence. The test would be valid if it accurately measured
intelligence. Very early IQ tests would often have pictures of missing items, like a missing tennis ball from a court,
or a missing chimney from a house. At face value, the test was thought to be valid and fair to speakers of
languages other than English, because pictures are a universal language. However, the test was actually biased
against the poor, who may not have ever seen a tennis court. It was also biased against people from some
Christian countries who thought a cross was missing from the roof, not a chimney.

Why is Face Validity Used?

If face validity is the weakest form of validity, why use it at all? One reason is to quickly eliminate shoddy
research. For example, let’s say a researcher’s work indicated that drinking milk caused colon cancer. A peer
review of the paper by a distinguished biochemist revealed several shortcomings in the design of the experiment.
The biochemist rejected the paper on face validity, but they were well qualified to do so. In essence, face validity
is weaker for a layperson, and stronger for an expert in the field.

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++

1. Leading question:

Many people are using DESKTOP PC less because of improved laptop machines. How
do you feel LAPTOP machines have affected you’re usage of DESKTOP MACHINES in
the past 5 years ?
I use less DEKSTOP PC
NO CHANGE ON USAGE
I USE MORE DESKTOP PC

Do business graduates, who passed out from NORTH SOUT UNIVERSITY, can become
better employee?

Do you have any problems with your boss?

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This question prompts the person to question their employment relationship. In a subtle way it
raises the prospect that there are problems.
Tell me about your relationship with your boss.
This question does not seek any judgment and there is less implication that there might be
something wrong with the relationship.

The difference in the above example is minor but in some situations it can be more important. For
example, in a court case:

How fast was the red car going when it smashed into the blue car?
This question implies that the red car was at fault, and the word "smashed" implies a high speed.

How fast was each car going when the accident happened?
This question does not assign any blame or pre-judgment.

2. Loaded question
A loaded question is a trick question which presupposes some unverified piece of information, that
the person being questioned might disagree with.
Essentially, this kind of question contains an TRAP, which is used in order to attack the person who
is being asked the question, and which compromises their ability to reply in the way that they
would normally prefer.
Consider the following classic (but crass) example of a loaded question:
“Have you stopped beating your wife?”
This question is considered to be a loaded question due to its presupposition, which is the implicit
background assumption that this question contains, and specifically the assumption that the person
who is being questioned has been beating his wife.
Thus, even though this sentence is phrased as a question, it also contains an implicit statement about
the person being asked the question.
In this case, the loaded question pushes the respondent to give a yes/no answer. However,
regardless of which of these options the respondent chooses, they will appear to agree with the
question’s underlying presupposition:
 If the respondent says “yes”, then he appears to confirm that he has beaten his wife in the past,
but has since stopped.
 If the respondent says “no”, then he appears to confirm that he has beaten his wife in the past,
and is still doing so in the present.

Below are various examples of different types of loaded questions, all of which presuppose something
that the respondent might disagree with.
“Do you actually support that lazy president of ours?”
This question presupposes the fact that the president is lazy. Accordingly, if the respondent supports
the president and replies “yes”, then their answer will inadvertently suggest that they think the president
is lazy.

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Do you feel capable of handling yourself in most social situations?
Agree
Disagree

Do you fear that your actions will cause others to have low opinions of YOU?
Agree
disagree

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3. Double barreled question
Double-barreled question definition:
A double-barreled question is a question composed of more than two separate issues or topics, but which can
only have one answer. A double-barreled question is also known as a compound question or double-direct
question.

The double-barreled questions occur mostly in two very different circumstances: in research and in court.

In research, they are often used by accident. Surveyors often want to explain or clarify certain aspects of their
question by adding synonyms or additional information. Although this is often done with good intentions, this
tends to make your question confusing and, of course, double-barreled. There's no way of discovering the true
intentions of the respondent from the data afterward, which basically renders it useless for analysis.

Double-barreled questions example:

The following examples are research related.

Is this tool interesting and useful?

This question has two parts embedded. Hence the word “double-barreled”. Even though interesting and useful are
both positive attributes, they are not interchangeable. Some respondents might find the tool interesting, but not
useful. While other might find it useful, but not interesting. But how should they answer? And more importantly,
how can the surveyor interpret these answers?

It would be better to ask two separate questions:

Is the tool interesting?

Is the tool useful?

Other examples:
- How often and how much time do you spend on each visit to a dentist?

Should be

- How often do you visit a dentist?

- How much time do you spend on a visit to a dentist?

- How satisfied are you with your pay and work environment?

Should be

- How satisfied are you with your pay?

- How satisfied are you with work environment?

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4.

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