ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY TWO MANUAL

INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING LAB II - ELECTRONICS

1. Basic Guidelines
2. Lab Instructions

Basic Guidelines

All experiments in this manual have been tried and proven and should give you little trouble in
normal laboratory circumstances. However, a few guidelines will help you conduct the
experiments quickly and successfully.

1. Each experiment has been written so that you follow a structured logical sequence meant
to lead you to a specific set of conclusions. Be sure to follow the procedural steps in the
order which they are written.
2. Read the entire experiment and research any required theory beforehand. Many times an
experiment takes longer that one class period simply because a student is not well
prepared.

Lab Instructions

1. Each student group consists of a maximum of two students. Each group is responsible in
submitting 1 lab report upon completion of each experiment.
2. Students are to wear proper attire i.e. shoe or sandal instead of slipper. Excessive
jewelleries are not advisable as they might cause electrical shock.
3. Personal belongings i.e. bags, etc are to be put at the racks provided. Student groups are
required to wire up their circuits in accordance with the diagram given in each
experiment.
4. A permanent record in ink of observations as well as results should be maintained by
each student and enclosed with the report.
5. The recorded data and observations from the lab manual need to be approved and signed
by the lab instructor upon completion of each experiment.
6. Before beginning connecting up, it is essential to check that all sources of supply at the
bench are switched off.
7. Start connecting up the experiment circuit by wiring up the main circuit path, then adds
the parallel branches as indicated in the circuit diagram.
8. After the circuit has been connected correctly, remove all unused leads from the
experiment area, set the voltage supplies at the minimum value, and check the meters are
set for the intended mode of operation.
9. The students may ask the lab instructor to check the correctness of their circuit before
switching on.
10. When the experiment has been satisfactory completed and the results approved by the
instructor, the students may disconnect the circuit and return the components and
instruments to the locker tidily. Chairs are to be slid in properly.

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 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Objective:

In this lab you are to measure I-V characteristics of rectifier and Zener diodes in both Forward
and reverse-bias mode, as well as learn to recognize what mechanisms cause current flow in each
region of diode operation. We will also see more clearly how real diode characteristics are both
similar to and different from those of the “ideal” diode.

Material Required

1. IN4001 DIODE OR RELATED

2. DIGITAL MULTI METER
3. BREAD BOARD
4. IN5240 ZENER DIODE

SUMMARY OF THEORY

The first section of the procedure involves identifying the physical structure and Orientation of
diodes based on visual observation. The two remaining procedural sections will use TheLab
View program IV Curve.vi to measure the I-V characteristics of test diodes in forward and
reverse bias. Although it is possible to collect the data for this lab very quickly, it is essential that
you understand the different regions found in the I-V characteristics of these diodes and the
Mechanisms by which current flows through them.

 Information essential to your understanding of this lab:

1. Understanding of the operation of biased p-n junction rectifier diodes

2. Understanding of the operation of Zener diodes

Figure 1: Symbol of diode

EXPERIMENT 1: DIODE TESTING

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  Identify the terminals of anode and cathode of the diode.
 Keep the digital multimeter (DMM) in diode checking mode by rotating the central knob
to the place where the diode symbol is indicated.
 Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means diode is
forward-biased.
 Observe the reading on meter display. If the displayed voltage value is in between 0.6 to
0.7 (since it is silicon diode) then the diode is healthy and perfect. For germanium diodes
this value is in between 0.25 to 0.35.
Now reverse the terminals of the meter that means connect the red probe to cathode and
black to anode. This is the reverse biased condition of the diode where no current flows
through it. Hence the meter should read OL (which is equivalent to open circuit) if the
diode is healthy.

Figure 2 : diode mode testing

Ohmmeter Mode Testing Procedure

Similar to the above method, it is also a simple method to check the diode whether it is good,
short or open.

Identify the terminals anode and cathode of the diode.

 Keep the digital multimeter (DMM) in resistance or ohmmeter mode by rotating the
central knob or selector to the place where ohm symbol or resistor values are indicated.
 Keep the selector in low resistance (may be 1K ohm) mode for forward-bias and keep it
in high resistance mode (100K ohm) for the reverse bias testing procedure.
 Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means diode is
forward-biased. When the diode is forward-biased, the resistance of the diode is so small.

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  N.B: If the meter displays a moderately low value on the meter display, which may be a
few tens to few hundred ohms, then the diode is Good and healthy

Figure 3: physical measuring of forward and reverse bias

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Figure 4: circuit forward biased and reverse biased of diode

EXPERIMENT 2: DIODE VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

Procedure:

Part 1.2.1: Forward-bias Diode Characteristics

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 1. Construct the circuit of with the supply (E) is set at 0 V. Record the measured value of
the resistor.

Figure 5: forward –bias diode characteristics

2. Increase the supply voltage until VD reads 15V. Then measure current ID and record
the results in Table below

3. Repeat step 2 for the remaining settings of VD shown in the

4. Replace the silicon diode by a germanium diode and complete Table

5. Plot on a graph paper ID versus VD for the silicon and germanium diodes. Complete the
curves by extending the lower region of each curve to the intersection of the axis at ID = 0 mA
and VD = 0 V.

EXPERIMENT 3: Reverse-bias Diode Characteristics

1. Construct the circuit of Fig. below with E is set at 20V. Record the measured value of the
resistor.

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Figure 6: reverse –bias diode characteristics

2. Measure the voltage VD. Measure the reverse saturation current, Is.

3. Repeat the above step for germanium diode.

4. How do the results of Step 2 compare to Step 3? What are the similarities?

Results and Calculations:

Part a (Forward Bias)

1. R (measured) = _______________
2. ID (measured). Fill in Table 1

Table 1: silicon diode

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 Table 2: germanium diode

Part B (Reverse Bias)

1. R (measured) = __________

Silicon Diode
VD (measured) = __________
IS (measured) = __________
2. Germanium Diode
VD (measured) = _________
IS (measured) = ----------------

RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS

Objectives: After performs this experiment, you should be able to:

 Demonstrate the circuit of rectifier.

 Draw the output waveform of rectifier.
 Demonstrate the effect and benefit of rectifier and filters.

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Required material

Dual trace oscilloscope

Bread board
Resistor
IN4001 Rectifier diode
Functional generator
Digital multi meter
SUMMARY OF THEORY
A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one
direction only.A thermionic valve having two electrodes (an anode and a cathode).
Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (ac) into
pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current
capacity. Diode has polarity, determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode
(negative lead). Most diodes allow current to flow only when positive voltage is applied
to the anode.

Figure 7 . Input AC signal

Figure 8: full wave rectification

The primary function of half –wave and full-wave rectification system is to establish a DC level
from a sinusoidal input signal that has zero average (DC) level.

The half –wave voltage signal of fig. normally established by network with a signal diode has
an average or equivalent DC voltage level equal to 31.8% of the peak voltage Vm.

That is, Vdc=0.318Vpeak volts

The full-wave rectifier signal of fig .10 has twice the average or DC level of that half –wave
signal, or 63.6% of the peak value Vm.

That is,
Vdc =.636Vpeak
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Figure 9: Half wave rectification &Full wave rectification

EXPERIMENT 4: half wave rectification

A. Construct the circuit of fig. 11 using the chosen diode of part 2.1, record the value of the
resistance. Set the function generator to a 1000-Hz 8-VP-sinusoidal voltage using the
oscilloscope.

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 Figure 10: half wave rectification circuit

B. using oscilloscope with the AC-DC coupling switch in the DC position .obtain the input
voltage and output voltage and sketch their waveforms. Half wave rectification (continued)

C. construct then circuit of fig .record the measure value of resistor R1.

Figure 11: half wave rectification circuit

D. Repeat steps (a) and (c)

E. consider the difference b/n fig 11& fig 12

F. measures the DC value of voltage output using the DC scale DMM.

EXPERIMENT 5: full wave rectification

1. Construct the full wave bridge rectifier circuit fig 13 ----below be sure that the diode is
inserted correctly and that ground is as shown.

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Figure 12: full wave rectification

2. Using oscilloscope with the AC-DC coupling switch in the DC position .obtain the input
voltage and output voltage and sketch their waveforms.

EXPERIMENT 6: rectification and filtering

As you have seen in the previous part of experiment, the output from a rectifier is a pulsating DC
voltage .the filter system by adding a capacitor is designed to reduce undesirable power.

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Figure 13: rectifier and filter with RL

Figure 14: rectifier and filter with out RL

3. Uses the oscilloscope to observe and measure the ripple voltage and draw the waveform
of ripple value.

CLIPPERS, CLAMPERS
Objectives:

 Demonstrate the operation of the the shunt clipper circuit and series circuit
 Demonstrate the operation of the clamper circuit.
 Demonstrate the operation of the half wave.

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Required material:

 DC power supply
 AC power supply - (Model: PSU-3097, 12VAC ~0~ 12VAC).
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Function Generator
 Oscilloscope
 Diode: Silicon (D1N4002)
 Resistors: 2.2kΩ, 3.3kΩ

SUMMARY OFTHEORY

As you know, diodes can be used as switches depending on the biasing type, reverse of forward.
The clipping circuit also referred to as clipper, clips off some of the portions of the input signal
and uses the clipped signal as the output signal. The clamping circuit or clamper keeps the
amplitude of the output signal same as that of the input signal except that the D.C. level (offset)
has been changed. The clamper through which the input waveform shifts to positive direction is
called positive clamper, otherwise, is called negative clamper.There are two general categories of
clippers: series and parallel. In the series clipper the diode and the load are in series, while in the
parallel clippers the diode is in parallel to the load. Further, each of these two categories has two
types: negative and positive.
A clamper clamps (or shifts) either the positive peak or the negative peak of a signal to a definite
level without distorting the waveform. A clamper circuit must have a diode, a capacitor, and a
resistor. In addition, it can also have an additional dc supply to introduce an additional shift. The
time constant τ=RC is made much larger than the period T of the signal. This ensures that the
capacitor does not significantly discharge during the interval when the diode is not conducting. A
clamper can be either a positive or a negative clamper.

EXPERIMENT 7: series negative clipper

1. Construct the circuit in Fig. The input signal is an 8 V p-p square wave at frequency of
1000 Hz. Record the measured resistance value.
2. Set the oscilloscope in DC mode.
3. Put the oscilloscope probes at function generator and sketch the input waveform
obtained.

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Figure 15: series negative clipper

4. Sketch the output waveform obtained from the oscilloscope.

5. Change the input signal of the circuit of Fig above.

6. V p-p sinusoidal signals with the same frequency of 1000 Hz. Repeat step 3 and 4 for this
circuit.

EXPERIMENT 8: Series positive Clippers

1. Construct the circuit in Fig. below The input signal is an 8 V p-p square wave at frequency of
1000 Hz. Record the measured resistance value.

2. Set the oscilloscope in DC mode. 3. Put the oscilloscope probes at function generator and
sketch the input waveform obtained.

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Figure 16: Series positive Clippers

4. Sketch the output waveform obtained from the oscilloscope.

5. Reverse the battery of the circuit and sketch the output waveform.

6. Change the input signal of the circuit of Fig. 3.4 to an 8 V p-p sinusoidal signal with the same
frequency of 1000 Hz. Repeat step 3 and 4 for this circuit.

7. How does the series clipper differ from the parallel clipper?

EXPERIMENT 9: positive clamper

1. Construct the circuit showing in fig below .note the direction of diode and the polarity of
the capacitor .use the oscilloscope to display the input and output signal .channel 1 is
connected to display voltage input .and channel 2 is connected to display Vout . Both
inputsareDC coupled.
Wave form

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Figure 17: Positive clamper circuit

Wave form Circuit diagram

2. Draw the input and output waveforms

3. Reverse the diode and the capacitor (if it is an electrolytic),and repeat step (2)

EXPERIMENT 10: negative clamper circuit

1. Construct the circuit showing in fig below .note the direction of diode and the polarity of
the capacitor .use the oscilloscope to display the input and output signal .channel 1 is

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 connected to display voltage input .and channel 2 is connected to display Vout . Both
inputs are DC coupled.
Wave form circuit diagram

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Figure 18: negative clamper circuit

2. Repeat the step (2) and (3)

BJT CHARACTERISTICS
Objectives:

 Determine the transistor type (NPN, PNP), terminals, and material using DMM.
 Determine the parameter for the small signal transistor mode of a Bipolar Junction
Transistor (BJT).
 Investigate the operation of the two types of Bipolar Junction Transistor.

Required material

 NPN &PNP transistor

 Digital multimeter
 Dc variable power supply

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  Brad board

SUMMARY OF THEORY

 A bipolar junction transistor is formed by joining three sections of semiconductors with

alternatively different doping, and made of either silicone (Si) or germanium (Ge). The
middle section (base) is narrow and one of the other two Regions (emitter) is heavily
doped. Two variants of BJT are possible: NPN and PNP.
 We will focus on NPN BJTs. Operation of a PNP transistor is analogous to that of a NPN
transistor except that the role of “majority” charge carries reversed. In NPN transistors,
electron flow is dominant while PNP transistors rely mostly on the flow of “holes.”
Therefore, to zeroth order, NPN and PNP transistors behave similarly except the sign of
current and voltages are reversed. i.e., PNP=− NPN! In practice, NPN transistors are
much more popular than PNP transistors because electrons move faster in a
semiconductor. As results, a NPN transistor has a faster response time compared to a
PNP transistor.

Fig.1.5: Transistor symbol

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 Figure 19: construction of BJT

EXPERIMENT 11: testing and identifying of NPN and PNP transistor

An ohmmeter can be used to test the base-to-emitter PN junction and the base-to-collector PN
junction of a bipolar junction transistor in the same way that a diode is tested. You can also
identify the polarity (NPN or PNP) of an unknown device using this test. In order to do this you
will need to be able to identify the emitter, base, and collector leads of the transistor. Note: While
this test can be used to determine that the junctions are functional and that the transistor is not
open or shorted, it will not convey any information about the common emitter current gain
(amplification factor) of the device. A special transistor tester is required to measure this
parameter known as the Hfe or Beta.

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 Figure 20: Testing of PNP

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 Figure 21: Testing of NPN

Transistors As with diodes, it is usually the case that a transistor either works or it doesn't. So
again we will be able to make a fewsimple tests with a meter to see if a transistor is good or bad.
You can think of a transistor as two back-to-back diodes in one package as shown in below, you
can use as transistor by interconnected two diodes.

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Over all Small project design for engineering lab II (electronics)
Different types of power supplies

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