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Chapter 05
Angle Modulation
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering
2
Why Frequency Modulation (FM)?
In AM, the changes in amplitude cannot be removed; doing so would
also remove the original information. In FM, the changes in amplitude
do not represent any intentional information. Thus, in FM receivers, a
circuit called a limiter is used to remove any changes in amplitude of
the received FM signal. In FM, it is the change in frequency that
represents the original information. The limiter in an FM receiver
removes the effects of noise but does not disturb the original
modulating signal.
A common example of the noise-free reception of FM compared to AM
is the TV set. Picture information is transmitted as AM, but sound
information is in FM. So one can observe a noisy picture while hearing
a noise-free sound.
Notice: FM is not completely noise free, but the noise that causes
changes in the amplitude of FM can be eliminated.
3
Instantaneous Frequency
For an angle modulated signal A cos θi(t), the instantaneous
frequency , fi(t), is defined as the rate of change of the angle θi(t).
That is,
1 di (t )
fi (t )
2 dt
Example
Find the instantaneous frequency of
EM(t) = 10 cos [2000πt + 2 sin(10 π t)].
Solution
The waveform EM(t) can be written as EM(t) = A cos θi(t), where
A = 10, and θi(t) = 2π[1000t + sin(10 π t)]. The instantaneous
frequency is given by
1 d i (t )
fi (t ) 1000 10 cos(10 t )
2 dt
4
Frequency Modulation
The modulated waveform is given by
FM (t ) A cosi (t ) A cos 2 f ct k f m( ) d
t
where fc is the constant carrier frequency and kf
(Hertz/Volt) is a proportionality constant relating
frequency changes to amplitude values of m(t). Since
t
t
( t ) 2 f c t k f m ( ) d 2 f i ( ) d
300 20
FM (t ) cos 10,000 t sin(250 t )
250
6
m(t)
20
10
-10
-20
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Above fc Below fc -3
x 10
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-3
x 10
7
Example
Sketch the resultant FM waveform FM(t), if m(t) is a sinusoidal
wave given by m(t) = Am sin(2π fm t), for Am = 10, Am = 14, Am =
18, where fm = 125 Hz, kf = 4 10-4 Hz/V, fc = 8 kHz, and A = 1.
Comment on your result.
Solution
The resultant FM wave is shown next. The amplitude of the
modulating signal m(t), given here by Am, causes changes in the
frequency of the FM carrier. Thus, how far form its resting
frequency the FM wave deviates is determined by the amplitude of
the signal m(t). The frequency deviation is determined by
kf kf
fi (t ) f c m(t ) f c Am sin(2 f mt )
2 2
8
m(t) 0
t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
0
-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FM
1
0
-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
0
-1 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
PM (t ) FM (t )
d
m ( t) PM m ( t) PM
Modulator Modulator
11
Example
Sketch the resultant FM and PM waveforms, for the sinusoidal wave
given by
m(t) = Am sin(2π fm t),
Where Am=25, fm =125 Hz, kf=300 Hz/V, kp=20.195 V-1
fc=5 kHz, and A=1.
Solution
The resultant FM and PM signals are shown in the next slide.
150 25
FM (t ) cos 2 5000 t cos(2 125t )
2 125
50
m ( t)
-50
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
1
F M ( t )
-1
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
1
P M ( t )
-1
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01
t ( se c )
13
f i( t ) m(t)
∆f
fc
t
14
Similarly, the instantaneous frequency of a modulated PM signal,
φPM(t), varies from fc + kp /2 min[dm(t)/dt] to fc + kp /2
max[dm(t)/dt] The maximum frequency deviation from the carrier
frequency is defined as Δf = kp /2 max |dm(t)/dt| For PM
t
FM (t ) 200cos 20000 t 20 sin(10 ) d
Solution
The instantaneous frequency is given by
kf
f i (t ) f c m(t ) 10000 10sin(10 t )
2
so, the value of Δf = (kf /2)max |m(t)| = 10 and fm = 5 , then
f 10
= 2
fm 5
16
Example
Determine the deviation ratio, β for the following PM signal
PM (t ) 200 cos 2 10000 t 10cos(10 t )
The maximum value of the
angle inside the brackets is
Solution called the phase deviation
(t ) 2 10000 t
10 and denoted by:
The angle cos(10 t ) Δ = kp max[m(t)].
2
and the instantaneous frequency is given by
kp d 10
f i (t ) f c m(t ) 10000 sin(10 t )
2 dt 2
10000 50 sin(10 t )
f 50
= 10
fm 5
17
T T -T / 2 2
Notice that, Pav is independent of m(t).
Example
Determine the average power of the following angle modulated
signal φEM(t) when measured across a 1 Ω antenna.
Am k f t Am
f i (t ) f c cos(2 f m t ) and a (t ) m ( ) d sin(2 f mt )
2 2 f m
19
The FM waveform, is of the form
Am k f
FM (t ) A cos 2 f c t sin(2 f m t )
2 f m
But, we have
f Am k f
f m 2 f m
Now, substituting β above, we obtain
FM (t ) A cos 2 f c t sin(2 f m t )
That is, e
j sin( 2 f m t )
Dn e j 2 nf mt
n-
1 j sin x - jn x
Dn e e dx J n ( )
2
Jn() is the Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order
It is obvious that, the coefficients Dn do not depend on fm; however,
they converge to the Bessel function of the first kind and order n.
21
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10
1. J n ( ) ( 1) n J n ( )
2. J
n
n
2
( ) 1
22
Transmission Bandwidth of FM
• In theory the FM signal contains infinite number of side
frequencies, i.e. absolute bandwidth is infinite.
• In practice, the FM signal is limited to a finite number of
significant side frequencies (effective bandwidth).
• Effective bandwidth of FM depends on the parameter ,
and fm.
• Effective bandwidth can also obtained by computing the
range of frequencies that contain 98% of the total power,
i.e. find n0 such that
n0
J 0 ( ) 2 J n ( ) 0.98
2 2
n 1
25
Transmission Bandwidth of FM
. =1 J0(1)=0.765 J1(1)=0.44 J2(1)=0.115 J3(1)=0.0196
0.9
J20(1)+2 2n=1 J2n(1)=0.9992
0.8
0.7
0.6
| FM(f)|
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 2 f
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f (Hz)
26
Transmission Bandwidth of FM
2. =2 J0(2)=0.224 J1(2)=0.577 J2(2)=0.353 J3(2)=0.129 J4(2)=0.034
fc=200Hz, fm=20Hz
| (f)|, for =2
FM
1
0.9
0.8
J20(1)+2 3n=1 J2n(2)=0.9976
0.7
0.6
| FM(f)|
0.5
0.4
BW
0.3
0.2
0.1 2 f
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
f (Hz)
27
Transmission Bandwidth of FM
3. =5 J0(5)=-0.178 J1(5)=-0.328 J2(5)=0.0466 J3(5)=0.365 J4(5)=0.391
0.45
J20(1)+2 6n=1 J2n(5)=0.9936
0.4
0.35
0.3
| FM(f)|
BW
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1 2 f
0.05
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
f (Hz)
28
0.8 BW=2fm
| FM(f)|
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
f (Hz)
29
A more accurate method is by using tables to find the number n of significant sidebands
such that |Jn(β)| 0.01:
BW = 2 n fm = 2 8 10 kHz = 160 kHz.
Note that the space between the magnitude line spectrum in this case is 10 kHz.
31
Example
A given FM signal is
φFM(t) = 100 cos[ 2π(500 kHz) t – 2 sin (2π(500 Hz)t) ].
Determine the following:
a. The carrier frequency, fc.
b. The peak frequency deviation, Δf.
c. The modulation index.
d. The approximate bandwidth of the FM signal.
e. The approximate band of frequencies occupied by the FM signal.
Solve in class
32
Example
Sketch the spectrum of the FM signal φFM(t) for m(t) = α cos(2π fm t),
where α = 30, A = 100, kf = 20 V/Hz, fm = 100 Hz and fc = 800 Hz.
Determine the FM signal bandwidth from the plot and compare it to the
Carson’s approximation of the bandwidth.
Solution
The signal FM (t ) A cos (t ) A cos 2 f ct k f a (t ) ,where
t
a(t ) m( )d sin(2 f mt )
2 f m
f =kf /2=300, =f/fm=3
From Matlab using β Jo(β) J1(β) J2(β) J3(β) J4(β) J5(β) J6(β) J7(β)
besselj(n, β) 3 -0.2601 0.3391 0.4861 0.3091 0.1320 0.0430 0.0114 0.0025
30
X: 1000
Y: 24.29
25
20
X: 900
Y: 16.94
| FM(f)|
15 X: 800
Y: 13 X: 1100
Y: 15.44
10
X: 1200
Y: 6.595
5 X: 1300
Y: 2.149
0
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
f (Hz)
34
HW #7
• 5.1-3, 5.2-1, 5.2-2, 5.2-3, 5.2-4, 5.2-6,
5.2-7
35
m ( t) t _ NBFM
kf d
X
+
∑
Phase shift
-/2
Acos( w c t )
~
37
This approximation is linear in a(t), and is therefore linear in m(t); moreover, it is
similar to AM since there is a carrier and a set of sidebands. As a consequence, we
expect the bandwidth of NBFM to be approximately 2fm. However, this is where the
similarity ends. For NBFM the amplitude of the carrier is constant compared to the
AM signal, furthermore, the two sidebands are shifted by π/2 relative to the carrier
as compared to AM.
t
The Fourier transform of a(t ) m( ) d for f > 0, is given by
M( f )
A( f )
j 2 f
when M(0) = 0, therefore, if M( f ) is limited to fm, then A( f ) is also limited to fm.
or,
φPM(t) A cos(2π fc t ) + A kp m(t) cos (2π fc t + π/2).
39
m ( t)
_ NBPM
X ∑
+
Phase shift
-/2
Acos( w c t )
~
40
1 k f m(t ) k f m(t )
fi (t ) f c f 1 k 2 2
a (t ) k 4 4
a (t )
2 1 k f a (t ) 2
2 2 c f f
41
for small ,
k f Am cos( wmt )
fi (t ) f c 1 2 sin 2 ( wmt )
2
1 1
f c f m cos( wmt ) 1 2 cos(2 wmt )
2 2
3 3
f c f m cos( wmt ) f m cos( wmt ) f m cos(3wmt )
4 4
2 3 fm
f c f m 1 cos( wmt ) cos(3wmt )
4 4
3 fm
f c f m cos( wmt ) cos(3wmt )
4
the amount of Amp. dist.
42
Frequency Multipliers
• Frequency multipliers are non-linear devices that produce an output
signal with frequency multiple of the input signal frequency. An n fold
frequency multiplier is simply:
Xn Output signal
Input signal with
with frequncy fout
frequncy fin fout=nfin
• Example, consider the following squaring device:
A2
x(t ) A cos(2 f ct k f a(t )) cos(4 fct 2k f a(t ))
2 y (t ) x 2 (t ) BPF 2
(.) @2fc
A2 cos 2 (2 f ct k f a(t ))
kf d
fin (t ) f c a (t )
2 dt
kf d
f out (t ) 2 f c 2 a(t )
2 dt
43
Generation of Wideband FM
I. Indirect Generation
Starting with the NBFM with instantaneous frequency
kf
f i (t ) f c m(t )
2
Now, if we apply the output of a NBFM modulator to a nonlinear
device that multiplies all frequencies by a constant n. Then, the
resulting waveform has an instantaneous frequency
kf
f i (t ) nf c n m(t )
2
The frequency deviation of the new waveform is n times that of the
old. Consequently, for a large value of n, multiplication changes
NBFM to WBFM.
44
Generation of Wideband FM
• Example: The commercial FM receiver f =75 kHz
1. NBFM: fc1=200 kHz, f =25 Hz, the bandwidth of the voice baseband
signal ranges from 50 Hz to 15 kHz.
2. The modulation index , is computed at the worst case (=f/50=0.5)
3. To achieve f =75 kHz, we need frequency multiplication by 3000.
4. This frequency multiplication is obtained by multistage multiplication.
∆f 1 = 2 5 H z ∆f 2 = 1 . 6 k H z ∆f 3 = 7 6 . 8 k H z
m ( t)
x64 X Power
NBFM x48
Amp.
Down
f c1 = 2 0 0 k H z Conversion
f c3 = 1 . 9 M H z
f c2 = 1 2 . 8 M H z f c4 = 9 1 . 2 M H z
f LO= 1 0 . 9 M H z
~
45
Example
46
Generation of Wideband FM
II. Direct Generation Tuning Circuit
R L C0
VCO
Voltage controlled
Oscillator
1
•The oscillating frequency f 0 , center frequency
1 2 LC0
fi (t ) ,
2 L C0 C (t )
where C(t ) m(t ) varactor (variable capacitor), C (t ) km(t )
1
fi (t )
km(t )
2 LC0 1
C 0 C(t) C0 L
1 1
2 LC0 km(t )
1
C0
k
f 0 1 m(t )
2C 0
47
Demodulation of FM & PM
There are two categories of demodulators:
1. Discriminator Detector
This is a device that discriminates one frequency from another by
transforming changes in frequency into changes in amplitude. The
amplitude changes are detected just as was done in AM. This
technique is used for both NBFM as well as WBFM.
If the modulated FM waveform
t
FM (t ) A cos 2 f ct k f m( ) d
dt
48
E (t ) A wc k f m(t )
• The complete FM demodulator is a discriminator + an envelop detector
FM (t ) d Ak f m ( t )
Envelop
Detector
dt
fc
49
PM (t ) Ak m (t)
d
Envelop
Detector
dt
50
Now, the transfer function of a differentiator is given by
H( f ) = 2π j f = |H( f )| e j θ( f ) = 2π | f | e j π/2
The magnitude of the output of the differentiator is linearly related to
the frequency of its input. The differentiator therefore changes FM to
AM. When a differentiator is used in this manner, it is called a
discriminator.
51
In order for a system to change FM to AM, the magnitude of its
transfer function must be linear throughout the range of frequencies
of the FM wave.
52
53
Demodulation of FM
2. Time-Delay discriminator
An approximation to the derivative of φFM(t) could be obtained
from the fact that,
d FM (t ) FM (t ) FM (t t0 )
,for small t0
dt t0
where the difference is taken between two sample values of the
waveform.
d FM (t )
t0 FM (t ) FM (t t0 )
dt
FM (t ) + Envelop t oAk f m ( t )
_ ∑ Detector
Delay T0
54
Noise Reduction in FM Systems
1- Bandpass Limiter
In FM the message signal is embedded in the frequency of the carrier,
however, noise and interference result in amplitude variation of the
FM signal. In general, the amplitude variations of an angle modulated
carrier can be eliminated by using a bandpass limiter.
55
The incoming frequency modulated signal is given by
1 , cos θ 0
υo (t )
1 , cos θ 0
56
Hard Limiter
vi(t)
t
The function υo, as a function of θ, is a periodic square-wave with a 57
υo [θ (t )]
4
cos 2 f c t k f a(t ) cos 6 f ct k f a(t )
1
3
The output of the hard limiter has the original FM wave plus multiples
of the FM wave.
58
cos 2 f c t k f a(t )
4
This result applies to PM as well.
59
2- Preemphasis and Deemphasis
In angle modulated systems the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of
the receiver can be improved if the level of modulation at the
transmitter is boosted for higher frequencies this is called
preemphasis and attenuated at high frequencies on the receiver output
this is called deemphasis. This gives an over all baseband frequency
response that is flat while improving the signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver output.
60
Preemphasis
2 j 1
H p ( )
1 j 2
61
Deemphasis
• The deemphasis filter is
used at the receiver
• The deemphasis filter
compensates the effect
of the preemphasis filter
SNRPD No
• As a result, SNR gain =
SNR N oD
Input FM
Signal Envelope
Differentiator Detector & Deemphasis
DC-blocking n (t)
o noD (t)
n(t)
Ac
66
• This implies
B
8 2
B 3
N 0 4 2 2 f 2 df 2
B Ac Ac 3
• For NoD B
2
f1
N 0 D 4 A
2 2
f df
f f1
2 2 2
B c
8 f B 1 B
2 3
N0D 2 tan
1
Ac f1 f1
67
HW #8
• 5.3-1, 5.3-2, 5.4-1, 5.4-2