Advanced Control for

Electrical Power
Engineering
Summary Course on Advanced Control
for Electrical Power Engineering

1
 CONTROL THEORY STRUCTURE

Objective of Control

Linear Systems Modelling

Continuous-Time Control

Observer

Discrete-Time Control

Robustness

2
Motives of Control

Summary

3
 CONTROL INTRODUCTION

Plant (P) Disturbance (d)

• Input: what controls the process
• Output: what can be measured
Controller (C)
• Reference: desired output
• Feedback: what is measured
• Controlled Input: computed values in respect
to the information and design of the controller
Additional signals which can add to the
controlled input or act on a different
part of the plant’s process
Noise (n)
Compromises the output measurement
Plant variations (Δ)
Model of the plant may vary

4
 CONTROL OBJECTIVES

Controller aims to affect the natural behaviour of a plant for

its output to match the reference, in spite of counter-
playing actors such as disturbance signals, measurement
noise and plant variation.
For this mission, control theory uses knowledge of the plant
to predict and react accordingly.
5
 Modelling

Lecture 1 Lecture 6 Summary

6
 MODELLING

• General Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system (nth order):

𝑑𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑛 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
• 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + ⋯+ 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑥 = 𝑏𝑛 𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Solution to ODE is: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑡

SISO MIMO
y s 𝑁 𝑠 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
•𝐻 𝑠 = = • State-Space: ቊ
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠
∏ 𝑠−𝑧𝑖 𝛼𝑖𝑗 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
• 𝐻 𝑠 = =σ • Observability: rank 𝐶 𝑇 … 𝐴𝑛−1 𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 𝑇 = 𝑛
∏ 𝑠−𝑝𝑖 𝑠−𝑝𝑖 𝑗
• 𝑝 = 𝜎𝑑 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑 𝐻11 𝑠 𝐻1𝑝 𝑠
𝜁 • 𝑦 𝑠 =𝐻 𝑠 𝑢 𝑠 →
• 𝜎𝑑 = 𝜁𝜔𝑛 ; 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 ; ∠𝑝 = 𝐻𝑞1 𝑠 𝐻𝑞𝑝 𝑠
1−𝜁 2
• 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝐵 + 𝐷

7
 STABILITY

• Bounded-Input Bounded-Output (BIBO):

• If 𝑢𝑙 < 𝑢 𝑡 < 𝑢𝑢 , then 𝑦𝑙 < 𝑦 𝑡 < 𝑦𝑢
• A bounded input results in a bounded output.
• Linear systems: poles in Left-Hand Plane (LHP)
• Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Roots of TF in LHP if all first-
column elements of the Routh array are of same sign.
SISO MIMO
y s 𝑁 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑧𝑖 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
•𝐻 𝑠 = = = • State-Space: ቊ
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑝𝑖
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
• 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖 < 0
• 𝜆 𝐴 ∈ ℛ−

8
 POLES

• Intrinsic behaviour of linear systems determined by poles

SISO MIMO
y s 𝑁 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑧𝑖 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
•𝐻 𝑠 = = = • State-Space: ቊ
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑝𝑖
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
• 𝑝 = 𝜎𝑑 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
• Poles: 𝜆 𝐴 = 𝜎𝑑 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
• 𝜎𝑑 = 𝜁𝜔𝑛 ; 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
𝜁
• ∠𝑝 =
1−𝜁 2

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 ZEROS

• Zeros corresponds to feedthrough from inputs to outputs

• Zeros also result in zero-outputs despite presence of inputs

SISO MIMO
y s 𝑁 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑧𝑖 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
•𝐻 𝑠 = = = • State-Space: ቊ
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑝𝑖
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
• 𝑧 = 𝜎𝑑 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑
𝐴 − 𝑧𝐼 𝐵
• 𝑧→ loses rank
𝐶 𝐷
• 𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝐵 + 𝐷

10
 Continuous-Time
Control

Lecture 2 Lecture 7 Summary

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 PERFECT CONTROL

• Plant: 𝑦 = 𝐺𝑢 + 𝐺𝑑 𝑑
• Perfect tracking: 𝑦 = 𝑟
• Using plant inversion: 𝑢𝐹𝐹 = 𝐺 −1 𝑟 − 𝐺 −1 𝐺𝑑 𝑑
• Inversion cannot be achieved if:
• 𝐺 contains RHP-zeros ⟹ 𝐺 −1 unstable
• 𝐺 contains time-delays ⟹ 𝐺 −1 non-causal (predicting future
reference)
• 𝐺 contains more poles than zeros ⟹ 𝐺 −1 unrealizable
(extrapolating)
• 𝐺 might be uncertain (plant’s parameters variation)

• Also the controlled input might be constrained

• |𝐺 −1 𝑅| and |𝐺 −1 𝐺𝑑 | must be ‘not too large’

12
 FEEDFORWARD

SISO MIMO
y s 𝑁 𝑠 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢
•𝐻 𝑠 = = • State-Space: ቊ
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠
𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢
• Focus on DC steady state
• 𝐾𝐹𝐹 = 𝐻 −1 𝑠 = 0 • DC steady state:
𝐴 𝐵 𝑁𝑥 0
• Add poles to inversion: • ⇒
𝑁𝑢
𝑟= 𝑟
𝐶 𝐷 1
• 𝐾𝐹𝐹 = 𝐻 −1 𝑠 × 𝐿𝑃𝐹 𝑠 𝑁 𝐴 𝐵 −1 0
• ⇔ 𝑥 =
𝑁𝑢 𝐶 𝐷 1

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 FEEDBACK

• Feedback similar to inversion but on actual plant’s model

𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝐺≫1 𝐾𝐺 −1
• 𝐻= = 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝐺 = 1
1+𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝐺

SISO MIMO
• Output feedback: 𝑢 = 𝑘 𝑟 − 𝑦 • State feedback: 𝑢 = 𝐾 𝑟 − 𝑥
𝐾𝐺 𝑠 • Controllability: rank 𝐵 … 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵 = 𝑛
• 𝐻 𝑠 =
1+𝐾𝐺 𝑠
𝑝1+𝐾𝐺 ∈ℛ − 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 𝑥 + 𝐵𝐾𝑟
𝐾𝐺 0 • ቊ
• 𝑦 𝑡 ≈ 𝑟 𝑦 = 𝐶 − 𝐷𝐾 𝑥 + 𝐷𝐾𝑢
1+𝐾𝐺 0
𝜆𝐴−𝐵𝐾 ∈ℛ−
• 𝑥 𝑡 ≈ − 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 \BK 𝑟

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 PROPORTIONAL

• Proportional gain moves the close-loop poles

• Usually easy to move away from other poles
• Usually hard to get away from zeros
• Open-loop zeros remain closed-loop zeros
• Left Half Plane zeros are stabilising as draws poles towards them
• LHP zeros will also set limits on best scenarios (K high)
• Right Half plane zeros could thus be a threat
SISO MIMO
𝐾𝑁 𝑠 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 𝑥
•𝐻 𝑠 = • State-Space: ቊ
𝐷 𝑠 +𝐾𝑁 𝑠
𝑦 = 𝐶 − 𝐷𝐾 𝑥
• Root-locus: trajectory of CL poles
• Closed-loop poles can theoretically be
moved anywhere on Complex plane
• This constitutes a major difference
between SISO (output feedback) and
MIMO (state feedback).

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 PLANT AUGMENTATION

• Controller can add extra poles and zeros to influence the

behaviour of closed-loop system.
• Add features such as robust tracking, smooth transient…
• Makes the controller dynamic, thus potentially unstable.

SISO MIMO
•𝐻 𝑠 =
y s
=
𝑁 𝑠
=
∏ 𝑠−𝑧𝑖 • Augmented State-Space:
u 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠 ∏ 𝑠−𝑝𝑖 𝑥ሶ 𝐴 0 𝑥 𝐵
𝐾𝑖
= 𝑥𝑎 + ณ
𝑢
𝑥ሶ 𝑎
ถ 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑎 ถ 𝐵𝑎
ถ
• Integral action: • 𝑥𝐴
𝑢
𝑠 𝑥ሶ 𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐴
• Eliminate steady-state step error 𝑦= 𝐶 0 𝑥𝐴 + 𝐷𝑢
• Derivative action K d s 𝐶𝐴
𝑥
• Speeds up transient, stabilising zero • Integral action: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑠
⇔ 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = 𝑥
• Derivative action: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑠𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥ሶ 𝑎 = 𝐴2 𝑥 + 𝐴𝐵𝑢 + 𝐵𝑢ሶ

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 AC REFERENCES

• Dealing with AC reference signals, two approaches:

𝑉𝑑
𝑉𝑞

Resonator (P+R) Rotating Reference Frame

1 1
1 − −
• Set main branch to have high 𝑉𝛼
2 3
2 2
3
𝑉𝑎
gain at reference frequency • 𝛼𝛽𝛾 frame: 𝑉𝛽 = 0 − 𝑉𝑏
3 2 2
𝑉𝛾 1 1 1 𝑉𝑐
2𝜔𝑐 𝑠
• 𝐾 𝑠 = KR 2 2 2 2
𝑠 +2𝜔𝑐 𝑠+𝜔02 𝑉𝐷 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑡 0 𝑉𝛼
• Gain at resonance: • DQ-frame: 𝑉𝑄 = − sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 0 𝑉𝛽
𝐾 2𝜔 𝑠 𝑉𝛾 1 𝑉𝛾
lim 2 𝑅 𝑐 2 = 𝐾𝑅 0 0
𝑠→𝑗𝜔0 𝑠 +2𝜔𝑐 𝑠+𝜔0 • Resulting signals are:
𝐾𝑅
• Close loop gain: • DC for positive sequence
1+𝐾𝑅 • Twice frequency for negative sequence
• Fundamental frequency for zero-sequence

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 Observers

Lecture 8 Summary

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 FULL-STATE FEEDBACK

• State-feedback requires the availability of entire state

• Observer mimics the plant’s model to recreate it
• Use same inputs (apart from unknown disturbance and noise)
• Compare known quantities (e.g. output y)

𝑥ොሶ = 𝐴𝑥ො + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑦ො
• Closed-loop observer: ൝
𝑦ො = 𝐶 𝑥ො + 𝐷𝑢
• Error: 𝜖ሶ = 𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ොሶ = 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶 𝜖
𝐶
𝐶𝐴
• Requires observability: rank =𝑛
⋮
𝐶𝐴𝑛−1
• Gain 𝑳 sets the eigenvalues of 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶
• Makes the observer stable
• Ideally faster than the plant’s dynamic (𝜆𝐴−𝐿𝐶 < 𝜆𝐴 )

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 KALMAN FILTER

• Using knowledge on process and measurement noise,

an optimal observer can be designed.
• Noisy System:
• Noisy process: 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝑤
• Noisy measurement: 𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑢 + 𝑣
• Zero-mean: 𝐸 𝑣 = 𝐸 𝑤 = 0
• Covariance matrices:
• 𝐸 𝑤𝑤 ′ = 𝑊 = 𝑊 ′ ≥ 0, 𝐸 𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑉 = 𝑉 ′ > 0, 𝐸 𝑤𝑣 ′ = 𝑈 ≥ 0
• CL-Observer error: 𝜖ሶ = 𝑥ሶ − 𝑥ොሶ = 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶 𝜖 + 𝑤 + 𝑳𝑣
• Kalman filter (i.e. optimally-tuned closed-loop observer):
𝑥ොሶ = 𝐴𝑥ො + 𝐵𝑢 + 𝐿 𝑦 − 𝑦ො
• ൝
𝑦ො = 𝐶 𝑥ො + 𝐷𝑢
• 𝐿 = 𝑃𝑓 𝐶 ′ 𝑉 −1
• 𝑃𝑓 solution to CARE: 𝐴𝑃𝑓 + 𝑃𝑓 𝐴′ − 𝑃𝑓 𝐶 ′ 𝑉 −1 𝐶𝑃𝑓 + 𝐹𝑊𝐹 ′ = 0

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 SEPARATION PRINCIPLE

• Estimated state in a closed-loop controlled system:

• 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝐾𝑥ො
• Error: 𝜖 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ො
• 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝐾 𝑥 − 𝜖
𝑥ሶ 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 𝐵𝐾 𝑥
• =
𝜖ሶ 0 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶 𝜖
𝐴𝐾𝐿
• det 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴𝐾𝐿 = det 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 − 𝐵𝐾 × det 𝜆𝐼 − 𝐴 − 𝐿𝐶
• 𝜆𝐴𝐾𝐿 = 𝜆𝐴−𝐵𝐾 ; 𝜆𝐴−𝐿𝐶

• Combined Feedback + Observer has combined eigenvalues of

both the feedback system AND observer

• Feedback system and the observer can be designed separately!

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 Discrete-Time Control

Lecture 4 Lecture 9 Summary

22
 DIFFERENCE EQUATION

• Linear Time-Invariant Difference Equation

• 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑎1 𝑦𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦𝑘−𝑛 + 𝑏0 𝑢𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑢𝑘−𝑚
• 𝑦𝑘 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑦𝑘−𝑖 + σ𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑢𝑘−𝑖 with 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ∈ ℛ
𝑛+𝑚+1

• Delay operator 𝑧 −1
• 𝑦𝑘 ⇔ 𝑌 𝑧 ; 𝑦𝑘−1 ⇔ 𝑧 −1 𝑌 𝑧
• 𝑌 𝑧 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑧 −𝑖 𝑌 𝑧 + σ𝑚 −𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑧 𝑈 𝑧
𝑌 𝑧 σ𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑧
−𝑖 σ𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑧
𝑛−𝑖 𝑧 𝑛−𝑚 σ𝑚𝑖=0 𝑏𝑚−𝑖 𝑧
𝑖 𝑁 𝑧
• =𝐻 𝑧 = = = =
𝑈 𝑧 1−σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑧
−𝑖 𝑧 𝑛 −σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑧
𝑛−𝑖 𝑧 𝑛 −σ𝑛−1
𝑖=0 𝑎𝑛−𝑖 𝑧
𝑖 𝐷 𝑧

• Causality:
• the output only depends on the past output and past+present input values
• i.e. 𝑦 𝑘−𝑖 <𝑘 and 𝑢 𝑘−𝑖 ≤𝑘
• Order of 𝑁 𝑧 ≤ Order of 𝐷 𝑧

23
 DT TRANSFER FUNCTION

• First order:
• 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑎1 𝑦𝑘−1 + 𝑏0 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑎ถ
1 𝑦0 + 𝑏0 σ𝑘𝑖=0 𝑎1𝑖 𝑢𝑘−𝑖
ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑
• BIBO stable when 𝑎1 < 1

• Second order:
𝑏0 𝑝 𝑘 𝑝∗ 𝑘 ∗
• 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑎1 𝑦𝑘−1 + 𝑎2 𝑦𝑘−2 + 𝑏0 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑝 − 𝑝 𝑢0
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑝 2𝑗 2𝑗
𝑘 𝑝 𝑘+1
• ⟹ 𝑦𝑘 = σ𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 − 𝑖 + 1 ∠𝑝 𝑢𝑖
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑝
• H(z) is stable iff roots 𝑝 and 𝑝∗ must have magnitude less than 1
• Nth order:
• 𝑦𝑘 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑦𝑘−𝑖 + σ𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑢𝑘−𝑖
σ𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑧
−𝑖 𝐴𝑖
• Transfer function: 𝐻 𝑧 = = 𝐴0 + σ = σ 𝐻𝑖 𝑧
1−σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑧
−𝑖 𝑧−𝑝𝑖

24
POLES IN DT

25
 DT-SISO <=> DT-STATE-SPACE

• DT-SISO
• 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑎1 𝑦𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑦𝑘−𝑛 + 𝑏0 𝑢𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚 𝑢𝑘−𝑚
• DT-State-Space:
𝑥1 𝑘+1 𝑎1 … 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥1 𝑘 1
⋮ 1 … 0 0 ⋮ 0
• = + 𝑢𝑘
𝑥𝑛 𝑘+1 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ 𝑥𝑛 𝑘 ⋮
0 … 1 0 ถ
0
𝑥𝑘+1 𝐴 𝑥𝑘 𝐵
• 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑐1 … 𝑐𝑚 0…0 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑢
𝑘 ณ0 𝑘
𝑛−𝑚
𝐷
𝐶

𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝐴𝑘 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐵𝑘 𝑢𝑘
• Linear Time-Variant State Space: ቊ
𝑦𝑘 = 𝐶𝑘 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐷𝑘 𝑢𝑘

26
 DT CONTROLLER DESIGN

• Unless a perfect and convenient model of the plant is

known in DT, it’s best to design by discrete equivalent
• Design continuous controller
• Digitize it (using z/s approximations)
• Use DT analysis to verify stability, performance, robustness…
• The true conversion 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑠𝑇 is not practical as it results in
non LTI rational transfer functions
• Approximations:

Better approximation
𝑧−1
• Euler forward: 𝑠 ≈
𝑇
𝑧−1
• Euler backward: 𝑠 ≈
𝑧𝑇
2 𝑧−1
• Tustin: 𝑠 ≈
𝑇 𝑧+1
• Best is to set the sampling frequency to at least 20 × 𝜔
ෝ

27
 CT-DT CONVERSION

• Input 𝑢(𝑡) is considered fixed between 𝑘𝑇 and 𝑘 + 1 𝑇

• 𝑢 𝑘𝑇 + 𝜏 = 𝑢 𝑘𝑇 ≡ 𝑢𝑘 for 𝜏 ∈ 0; 𝑇
• Solution to the 1st order LTI-ODE:
𝑡
• 𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑢 ⇔ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 𝑥0 + ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝐴 𝑡−𝑣
𝐵 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝐴𝑇 𝑇
• ⇔ 𝑥 𝑘 + 1 𝑇 = 𝑒ต 𝑥 𝑘𝑇 + ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝐴𝜂 𝑑𝜂 𝐵 𝑢 𝑘𝑇
𝑥𝑘+1 𝐴𝑑 𝑥𝑘 𝑢𝑘
𝐵𝑑
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐵𝑑 𝑢𝑘
• ቊ 𝑘+1
𝑦𝑘 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐷𝑑 𝑢𝑘
• LQR-DT:
𝑇
𝜏 𝑥 𝑘𝑇 + 𝜏 𝑄 𝑁 𝑥 𝑘𝑇 + 𝜏
• 𝐽 𝑥0 , 𝑢 = σ∞ ‫׬‬
𝑘=0 0 𝑑𝜏
𝑢 𝑘𝑇 + 𝜏 𝑁𝑇 𝑅 𝑢 𝑘𝑇 + 𝜏
𝑥𝑘 𝑇
𝑇 𝐴𝑇𝑑 𝜏 0 𝑄 𝑁 𝐴𝑑 𝜏 𝐵𝑑 𝜏 𝑥𝑘
• ⇔ 𝐽 𝑥0 , 𝑢 = σ∞
𝑘=0 𝑢𝑘 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝜏 𝑢𝑘
𝐵𝑑𝑇 𝜏 𝐼 𝑁𝑇 𝑅 0 𝐼

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 CT-DT CONVERSION

• Time-Discretized state space of CT-plant

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐵𝑑 𝑢𝑘
• ቊ 𝑘+1
𝑦𝑘 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑥𝑘 + 𝐷𝑑 𝑢𝑘

• /!\ Assumes constant input over each sampling interval

• Typical behaviour of a DT-controller with ZOH
• The discrete-time state space matrices are computed:
• 𝐴𝑑 = 𝐴𝑑 𝑇 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑇
𝜏
• 𝐵𝑑 = 𝐵𝑑 𝑇 = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝐴𝜂 𝑑𝜂 𝐵
• 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶
• 𝐷𝑑 = 𝐷

• May use these DT state matrices to form an observer

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 MPC – QUADRATIC PROBLEM

• The constrained MPC problem can be formulated as:

෩ = arg min 2𝑈 𝑇 𝐹𝑥0 + 𝑈 𝑇 𝐺𝑈
• 𝑈
𝑈
• Subject to: 𝐽𝑈 ≤ 𝑐 + 𝑊𝑥0

• Extended state space matrices:

𝐴 𝐵 … 0 0
𝐴2 𝐴𝐵 𝐵 … 0
• Φ= ,Γ=
⋮ ⋮ … ⋱ ⋮
𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑁−1 𝐵 𝐴𝑁−2 𝐵 … 𝐵

• Extended cost matrices:

• 𝐹 = Γ 𝑇 ΩΦ, 𝐺 = Ψ + Γ 𝑇 ΩΓ
𝑄 … 0 0 𝑅 … 0 0
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
• Ω= ,Ψ =
0 … 𝑄 0 0 … 𝑅 0
0 … 0 𝑃 0 … 0 𝑅
• Extended constraint matrices:
• W = −𝒟 − 𝑀Φ, 𝐽 = ℰ + 𝑀Γ
𝑏0 𝑀 0 … 0 𝐸 … 0 0 𝐼𝑝
𝑏1 0 𝑀 … 0 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 0 −𝐼𝑝
• 𝑐= ,𝒟 = ,ℳ = ,ℰ = ,𝑀 = ,𝐸 =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 0 … 𝐸 −𝐼𝑛 0
𝑏𝑁 0 0 … 𝑀 0 … 0 𝐼𝑛 0
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 Robustness

Lecture 5 Lecture 10 Summary

31
 PROTOTYPE TRACKING SYSTEM

• Prototype elements:
• G(s): plant, K(s): controller
• r(s): reference, y(s): output, e(s): error, u(s): control signal
• d(s): disturbance, v(s): measurement noise
• Models:
Signals:
• 𝑄 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 : main branch gain
𝑦 = 𝑆𝑑 + 𝐶 𝑟 − 𝑣
• 𝑆 𝑠 = 𝐼 + 𝑄 −1 : sensitivity 𝑒 = 𝑆(𝑟 − 𝑣 − 𝑑)
• 𝐾𝑆 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝐼 + 𝑄 −1 : control efforts 𝑢 = 𝐾𝑆(𝑟 − 𝑣 − 𝑑)
• 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑄𝑆 = 𝐼 + 𝑄 −1 −1 : complementary sensitivity

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 FREQUENCY SHAPING

• Use norms to measure the energy inside signals

• Need to define the concept of matrix norm 𝐺
• Addition (triangle inequality): 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 ≤ 𝐺1 + 𝐺2
• Multiplication property: 𝐺1 . 𝐺2 ≤ 𝐺1 . 𝐺2
SISO MIMO
• Frequency Gain: • Singular Value Decomposition:
• 𝑦 = 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 𝑢 • 𝐴 = 𝑈Σ𝑉 ′
• 𝐺 𝑗𝜔 is frequency-dependent • 𝜎 𝐴 = 𝜎ത ≥ 𝜎2 ≥ … ≥ 𝜎𝑛−1 ≥ 𝜎
scalar gain of scalar input u • 𝜎ത 𝐴 =
1
;𝜎 𝐴 =
1
𝜎 𝐴−1 ഥ 𝐴−1
𝜎
1
• 𝑆 𝑗𝜔 = • 𝜎ത 𝐴 + 𝐵 ≤ 𝜎ത 𝐴 + 𝜎ത 𝐵
1+𝑄 𝑗𝜔
𝑄 𝑗𝜔 • 𝜎ത 𝐴𝐵 ≤ 𝜎ത 𝐴 𝜎ത 𝐵
• 𝐶 𝑗𝜔 = • 𝝈 𝑨 𝒋𝝎 𝒙 ≤ 𝑨 𝒋𝝎 𝒙 ≤ 𝝈 ഥ 𝑨 𝒋𝝎 𝒙
1+𝑄 𝑗𝜔
1
• 𝜎ത 𝑆 ≤ for 𝜎 𝑄 >1
𝜎 𝑄 −1
ഥ 𝑄
𝜎
• 𝜎ത 𝐶 ≤ for 𝜎ത 𝑄 <1
1−ഥ𝜎 𝑄

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 LOOP SHAPING

• Tracking: E = 𝑆 𝑗𝜔 𝑅 → 0 𝐾𝐺 ≫ 1 (SISO)
𝜎 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 ≫ 2 (MIMO)
• Disturbance rejection: 𝑌𝑑 = 𝑆 𝑗𝜔 𝐷 → 0
𝐾𝐺 ≫ 1 (SISO)
• Noise sensitivity: 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐶 𝑗𝜔 𝑁 → 0 𝜎 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 ≫ 2 (MIMO)
𝑄 ≫ 1 (SISO)
1
Good tracking and 𝜎ത 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 ≪ 2 (MIMO)
disturbance rejection
Complementarity:
𝜎ത 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 (MIMO)
- 𝑆+𝐶 =𝐼
𝜔N - SISO: 𝑆 + 𝐶 ≤ 𝑆 + 𝐶
𝜔T 𝜔C 𝜔 - MIMO: 𝜎ത 𝑆 − 𝜎ത 𝐶 ≤ 1
Robustness around Noise attenuation
critical pulsation

𝜎 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 (MIMO) 𝐾𝐺 𝑗𝜔 (SISO)

34
 THANK YOU

11-Dec-18 35
 LIGHTER NOTE

YOU MIGHT BE A CONTROL ENGINEER IF…

• You thought “The Matrix” was going to be a biography of Cleve Moler (MathWorks co-founder)
• Your boss suggests 360-degree feedback, and you are concerned about the phase lag
• A beach bum tells you, “I’m trying to be calm, man” and you reply “I’m trying to be Kalman, too”
• Your house is filled with mechanical clocks, just so you can watch the escapement work (Prof Gene Franklin’s house).
• You’ve ever pulled the top off the toilet tank to explain the workings of a float valve to your dinner guests.
• You can work miracles in Matlab but haven’t a clue how to use Excel.
• You think any filtering problem that isn’t affected by phase delay is kind of wimpy.
• Your partner wants to talk about how to keep things persistently exciting, and you thinking about covariance matrices.
• You schedule research breakthroughs for January just so you’ll be able to present a ‘Control and Decision Conference’
paper some place sunny and warm in December.
• You’ve ever volunteered to help the Jamaican bobsled team with their track following algorithm.
• Your license plate reads ADAPTV (Prof Bernie Widrow had one).
• You’ve ever used the term “going nonlinear” to describe human behaviour.
• You’ve ever tried to explain to a 3-year old that an outrigger is a feedback mechanism.

Courtesy of Danny Abramovitch, published in the August 2005 issue of IEEE Control Systems Magazine

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