1

Espaço Vetorial

1.1 Introdução
❱❡"♦$❡% !♦ ❡♥%❡ ♠❛%❡♠(%✐❝♦ +✉❡ ❡ ❝❛-❛❝%❡-✐③❛♠ ♣♦- ♣♦ ✉✐- ✉♠❛ ✐♥%❡♥ ✐❞❛❞❡✱ ✉♠❛ ❞✐-❡2!♦ ❡ ✉♠
❡♥%✐❞♦✳ ❙!♦ ✉%✐❧✐③❛❞♦ ✱ ♣♦- ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛-❛ -❡♣-❡ ❡♥%❛- ❣-❛♥❞❡③❛ ❢9 ✐❝❛ ✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❢♦-2❛ ❡ ✈❡❧♦❝✐❞❛❞❡✳
◆❡ %❡ ❝✉- ♦ ❞❡ ➪❧❣❡❜-❛ ▲✐♥❡❛-✱ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡-❛-❡♠♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠
❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛❧ ❡ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛-❡♠♦ ❞❡ ❡%❝❛❧❛$ +✉❛❧+✉❡- ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦-♣♦ ✶
K✳ ◆❡ %❡ ❝✉- ♦✱
✐-❡♠♦ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡-❛- K = R ✭♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞♦ ♥@♠❡-♦ -❡❛✐ ✮ ♦✉ K = C ✭♦ ❝♦-♣♦ ❞♦ ♥@♠❡-♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦ ✮✳
❆ ❡❣✉✐- ❛♣-❡ ❡♥%❛-❡♠♦ ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐2!♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛❧ ❡ ❞❛-❡♠♦ ❛❧❣✉♥ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❝❧( ✐❝♦ ✳
D❛-❛ ❛❧❣✉♥ ❞❡ ❡ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ✐-❡♠♦ ❛♣-❡ ❡♥%❛- ❛ ♣-♦✈❛✱ ❞❡ +✉❡ ♦ ♠❡ ♠♦ !♦ ❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛✐ ✱
❥( ♦ ❞❡♠❛✐ ✜❝❛-!♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡①❡-❝9❝✐♦ ♣❛-❛ ♦ ❛❧✉♥♦✳

1.2 Espaço Vetorial

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦✳ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥%♦ V ♥!♦ ✈❛③✐♦ G ✉♠ ❡ ♣❛2♦ ✈❡%♦-✐❛❧ ♦❜-❡ ♦ ❝♦-♣♦ K ❡ ❡♠ ❡✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ✱
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✈❡"♦$❡%✱ ❡ %✐✈❡-❡♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❛ ❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ♦♣❡-❛2H❡ ✿

• ❙♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❱❡"♦$❡%✿ ❆ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛- ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ u ❡ v ❞❡ V ❝♦--❡ ♣♦♥❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- u + v✱

❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♦♠❛ ❞❡ u ❡ v✱ ❛%✐ ❢❛③❡♥❞♦✱ ♣❛-❛ +✉❛✐ +✉❡- u✱ v ❡ w ♣❡-%❡❝❡♥%❡ ❛ V✱ ❛
❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✿

✭ A1 ✮ u+v=v+u ❝♦♠✉"❛"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ✮
✭

✭ A2 ✮ u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w ✭❛%%♦❝✐❛"✐✈✐❞❛❞❡ ✮
✭A3 ✮ ❊①✐ %❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- θ ∈ V✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✈❡"♦$ ♥✉❧♦✱ %❛❧ +✉❡ u + θ = u✳ ✭ ❡①✐%"/♥❝✐❛ ❞♦
❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ ♥❡✉"$♦ ✮
✭A4 ✮ ❉❛❞♦ ♦ ✈❡%♦- u ∈ V✱ ❡①✐ %❡ ♦ ✈❡%♦- −u ∈ V ✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✈❡"♦$ ♦♣♦%"♦✱ %❛❧ +✉❡
u + (−u) = θ✳ ✭ ❡①✐%"/♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦ %✐♠1"$✐❝♦ ✮
• ▼✉❧"✐♣❧✐❝❛34♦ ♣♦$ ❊%❝❛❧❛$✿ ❆ ❝❛❞❛ ♣❛- α ∈ K ❡ v ∈ V✱ ❝♦--❡ ♣♦♥❞❡ ✉♠ ✈❡%♦- α×v ✱
❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣-♦❞✉%♦ ♣♦- ❡ ❝❛❧❛- ❞❡ α ♣♦- V ✱ ❛%✐ ❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❡❣✉✐♥%❡ ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✿

✭ME1 ✮ α × (u + v) = α × u + α × v
✶ ❈♦"♣♦ $ ✉♠❛ ❡)*"✉*✉"❛ ♠❛*❡♠+*✐❝❛ ♥❛ /✉❛❧ ❡)*+ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ❞✉❛) ♦♣❡"❛34❡) )❛*✐)❢❛③❡♥❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♠❛) ♣"♦♣"✐❡❞❛❞❡)
2 1. Espaço Vetorial

✭ME2 ✮ (α + β) × u = α × u + β × u
✭ME3 ✮ (α × β) × u = α(β × u)
✭ME4 ✮ 1 × u = u✳

◆❛ ❞❡✜♥✐*+♦ ❛♥-❡.✐♦.✱ 0✉❛♥❞♦ K = R ❞✐③❡♠♦4 0✉❡ V 5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ .❡❛❧✳ 9♦. ♦✉-.♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
4❡ K = C✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦4 0✉❡ V 5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡①♦✳ ❊♠ ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ V✱ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦
♥❡✉-.♦ ❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦ ♦♣♦4-♦✱ ❞❛4 ♣.♦♣.✐❡❞❛❞❡4 ✭❆✸✮ ❡ ✭❆✹✮✱ .❡4♣❡❝-✐✈❛♠❡♥-❡✱ 0✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐4-❡♠✱ 4+♦
@♥✐❝♦4 ✭✈❡. ❊①❡.❝A❝✐♦ ✶✮✳

1.3 Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais

✶✳ ❊!♣❛$♦ ❱❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❊✉❝❧✐❞✐❛♥♦✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ R2 = {(x1, x2); xi ∈ R} ❝♦♠ ❛4 ♦♣❡.❛*E❡4 ✉4✉❛✐4
❞❡ 4♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦.❡4
(x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
❡ ❛ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛*+♦ ♣♦. ❡4❝❛❧❛.
α(x1 , x2 ) = (αx1 , αx2 )
5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ .❡❛❧✳

✷✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ R3 = {(x1 , x2 , x3 ); xi ∈ R} ❝♦♠ ❛4 ♦♣❡.❛*E❡4 ✉4✉❛✐4 ❞❡ 4♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦.❡4

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )

❡ ❛ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛*+♦ ♣♦. ❡4❝❛❧❛.

α(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (αx1 , αx2 , αx3 )

5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ .❡❛❧✳

✸✳ ❉❡ ✉♠ ♠♦❞♦ ❣❡.❛❧ ♣❛.❛ n > 1✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ); xi ∈ R} ❝♦♠ ❛4 ♦♣❡.❛*E❡4

✉4✉❛✐4 ❞❡ 4♦♠❛ ❞❡ ✈❡-♦.❡4

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )

❡ ❛ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛*+♦ ♣♦. ❡4❝❛❧❛.

α(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn )

5 ✉♠ ❡4♣❛*♦ ✈❡-♦.✐❛❧ .❡❛❧✳

❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ u = (u , u , . . . , u
n
1 2 n )✱ v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) ❡ w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
✈❡-♦.❡4 ❞♦ R ✳ ❊♥-+♦✱

u+v = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )

= (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn )
= (v1 + u1 , v2 + u2 , . . . , vn + un )
= v + u.

❆❧5♠ ❞✐44♦✱
1.3. Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais 3

u + (v + w) = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 , . . . , vn + wn )
= (u1 + v1 + w1 , u2 + v2 + w2 , . . . , un + vn + wn )
= (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn ) + (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
= (u + v) + w.

▲♦❣♦✱ ❛% ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡% A1 ❡ A2 %+♦ %❛,✐%❢❡✐,❛%✳

❖❜%❡'✈❡ 2✉❡ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦ ♥❡✉,'♦ ❞❡ Rn 7 ✈❡,♦' θ = (0, 0, . . . , 0)✳ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱

θ + u = (0 + u1 , 0 + u2 , . . . , 0 + un ) = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) = u.

9♦' ♦✉,'♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ ♣❛'❛ ❝❛❞❛ u = (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )✱ ❡①✐%,❡ ♦ ✈❡,♦' −u = (−u1 , −u2 , . . . , −un )
2✉❡ %❛,✐%❢❛③

u + (−u) = (u1 + (−u1 ), u2 + (−u2 ), . . . , un + (−un ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0) = θ.

❖✉ %❡❥❛✱ ❡%,> ❝♦♠♣'♦✈❛❞❛ ❛ ❡①✐%,?♥❝✐❛ ❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥,♦ ♦♣♦%,♦✳

❆❣♦'❛✱ ♣❛'❛ ✈❡'✐✜❝❛'♠♦% ❛ ✈❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛% ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡% ME1 ✱ ME2 ❡ ME3 ❝♦♥%✐❞❡'❡ ♦% ❡%❝❛❧❛'❡%
α ❡ β✳ ❉❡%%❛ ♠❛♥❡✐'❛✱ ,❡♠♦%

α(u + v) = α(u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , . . . , un + vn )
= (αu1 + αv1 , αu2 + αv2 , . . . , αun + αvn )
= α(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + α(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )
= αu + αv;

(α + β)u = (α + β)(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (αu1 + βu1 , αu2 + βu2 , . . . , αun + βun )
= (αu1 , αu2 , . . . , αun ) + (βu1 , βu2 , . . . , βun )
= α(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ) + β(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= αu + βu; e

(αβ)u = αβ(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (αβu1 , αβu2 , . . . , αβun )
= α(βu1 , βu2 , . . . , βun )
= α(βu).

9♦' ✜♠✱
4 1. Espaço Vetorial

1 · u = 1 · (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= (u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
= u.

▲♦❣♦✱ ❛% ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡% A1 − A4 ❡ ME1 − ME4 %+♦ ✈-❧✐❞❛% ❡ ♣♦'/❛♥/♦ Rn 1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧

%♦❜'❡ R✳
❉❡%%❛ ❢♦'♠❛✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ R ❝♦♠ ❛% ♦♣❡'❛4;❡% ❞❡ ❛❞✐4+♦ ❡ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛4+♦ ❞❡ ♥<♠❡'♦% '❡❛✐%✱
♦♥❞❡✱ ♥❡%%❡ ❝❛%♦✱ ♦% ✈❡/♦'❡% %+♦ ♦% ♥<♠❡'♦% '❡❛✐%✱ 1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧ '❡❛❧ ✭❏✉%/✐✜@✉❡✮✳
✹✳ ❊!♣❛$♦ ❱❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❞❡ ▼❛()✐③❡!✳ ❖ ❈♦♥❥✉♥/♦ M(m, n) ❞❛% ♠❛/'✐③❡% '❡❛✐% ❞❡ ♦'❞❡♠ m × n
❝♦♠ ❛ %♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♠❛/'✐③❡% ❡ ❛ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛4+♦ ♣♦' ❡%❝❛❧❛' ✉%✉❛✐% 1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧ '❡❛❧✳
✺✳ ❊!♣❛$♦ ❱❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❞❡ 0♦❧✐♥2♠✐♦!✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥G♠✐♦%
Pn (t) = {an tn + an−1 tn−1 + · · · + a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 , ai ∈ R}
❝♦♠ ❛% ♦♣❡'❛4;❡% ✉%✉❛✐% ❞❡ %♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥G♠✐♦%

p(t) + q(t) = (an tn + an−1 tn−1 + · · · + a1 t+ a0 ) + (bn tn + bn−1 tn−1 + · · · + b1 t + b0 )

= (an + bn )tn + (an−1 + bn−1 )tn−1 + ... + (a1 + b1 )t + a0 + b0 ;

❡ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛4+♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥G♠✐♦% ♣♦' ❡%❝❛❧❛'

α · p(t) = (αan )tn + (αan−1 )tn−1 + · · · + (αa1 )t + αa0 ;

1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧ %♦❜'❡ R✳ ❊♠ ♣❛'/✐❝✉❧❛'✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦

P2 (t) = {a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 , ❝♦♠ a2 , a1 ❡ a0 ∈ R}

1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧✱ '❡❧❛/✐✈❛♠❡♥/❡ I% ♠❡%♠❛% ♦♣❡'❛4;❡%✳ ❆ %❡❣✉✐' ♠♦%/'❛'❡♠♦% @✉❡✱ ❞❡
❢❛/♦✱ P2 (t) 1 ✉♠ ❡%♣❛4♦ ✈❡/♦'✐❛❧ %♦❜'❡ R✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ p(t) = a2t2 +a1t+a0✱ q(t) = b2t2 +b1t+b0 ❡ m(t) = c2t2 +c1t+c0
❡❧❡♠❡♥/♦% ❞❡ P2 (t) ❡ ❝♦♥%✐❞❡'❡ α, β ∈ R✳ ❱❛♠♦% ♠♦%/'❛' @✉❡ ❛% ♦♣❡'❛4;❡% %♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥G♠✐♦%
❡ ♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛4+♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥G♠✐♦ ♣♦' ❡%❝❛❧❛' ♣♦%%✉❡♠ ❛% ♦✐/♦% ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡% ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐4+♦ ❞❡ ❡%♣❛4♦
✈❡/♦'✐❛❧✳
M'✐♠❡✐'♦ ✈❛♠♦% ✈❡'✐✜❝❛' @✉❡ ❛ ♣'♦♣'✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❆✶✮ 1 ✈-❧✐❞❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛/♦✱
p(t) + q(t) = a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 + b2 t2 + b1 t + b0
= (a2 + b2 )t2 + (a1 + b1 )t + (a0 + b0 )
= (b2 + a2 )t2 + (b1 + a1 )t + (b0 + a0 )
= q(t) + p(t)

♣❛'❛ /♦❞♦ p(t), q(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ❆❣♦'❛✱ ♣❛'❛ ♠♦%/'❛' @✉❡ ✭❆✷✮ /❛♠❜1♠ ✈❛❧❡✱ ✈❡❥❛ @✉❡
1.3. Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais 5

(p(t) + q(t)) + m(t) = (a2 + b2 )t2 + (a1 + b1 )t + (a0 + b0 ) + c2 t2 + c1 t + c0

= (a2 + b2 + c2 )t2 + (a1 + b1 + c1 )t + (a0 + b0 + c0 )
= (a2 + (b2 + c2 ))t2 + (a1 + (b1 + c1 ))t + (a0 + (b0 + c0 ))
= a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 +((b2 + c2 )t2 + (b1 + c1 )t + b0 + c0 )
| {z } | {z }
p(t) q(t)+m(t)

= p(t) + (q(t) + m(t)).

■!"♦ $✱ ❛ !♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦! $ ❛!!♦❝✐❛%✐✈❛✳

❖ ♣♦❧✐♥%♠✐♦ ✐❞❡♥)✐❝❛♠❡♥)❡ ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ ❣2❛✉ ♠❡♥♦2 ♦✉ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ 2✱

θ(t) = 0t2 + 0t + 0,

$ "❛❧ 4✉❡

p(t) + θ(t) = a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 + 0t2 + 0t + 0

= (a2 + 0)t2 + (a1 + 0)t + (a0 + 0)
= a2 t2 + a1 t + a0
= p(t),

♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦ p(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥6♠✐♦ ✐❞❡♥"✐❝❛♠❡♥"❡ θ(t) = 0t2 + 0t + 0 $ ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥"♦
♥❡✉"2♦ ❞❛ !♦♠❛ ❞❡ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦! ❡♠ P2 (t)✱ ❡ ❛!!✐♠ ❛ ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❆✸✮ "❛♠❜$♠ ❡!"= ✈❡2✐✜❝❛❞❛✳
❆❣♦2❛ ♥♦"❡✱ 4✉❡ ♣❛2❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦ p(t) = a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ∈ P2 (t)✱ ❡①✐!"❡ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥.♠✐♦
2
−p(t) = −a2 t − a1 t − a0 ∈ P2 (t) "❛❧ 4✉❡

p(t) + (−p(t)) = a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 + (−a2 t2 − a1 t − a0

= (a2 − a2 )t2 + (a1 − a1 )t + (a0 − a0 )
= 0t2 + 0t + 0
= θ(t).

▲♦❣♦✱ ❛ ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡ ✭❆✹✮ "❛♠❜$♠ ❡!"= ✈❡2✐✜❝❛❞❛✳

❆❣♦2❛✱ ♣❛2❛ ✈❡2✐✜❝❛2♠♦! ❛ ✈❛❧✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛! ♣2♦♣2✐❡❞❛❞❡! ✭▼❊✶✮✲✭▼❊✹✮✱ ✈❡❥❛ 4✉❡ ♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦
α, β ∈ R ❡ ♣❛2❛ "♦❞♦ p(t), q(t) ❡♠ P2 (t)✱ "❡♠♦!✿

α(β(p(t))) = α(β(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ))
= α(βa2 t2 + βa1 t + βa0 )
= αβa2 t2 + αβa1 t + αβa0
= (αβ)(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= (αβ)p(t)
6 1. Espaço Vetorial

❡ ❞❡""❛ ❢♦&♠❛✱ ✭▼❊✶✮ . ✈0❧✐❞❛✳ 4♦& ♦✉6&♦ ❧❛❞♦✱

(α + β)p(t) = (α + β)(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= (α + β)a2 t2 + (α + β)a1 t + (α + β)a0
= αa2 t2 + αa1 t + αa0 + βa2 t2 + βa1 t + βa0
= α(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ) + β(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= αp(t) + βp(t),

❡ ❛""✐♠✱ ✭▼✷✮ . ✈0❧✐❞❛✳ 4❛&❛ ♠♦"6&❛& 8✉❡ ✭▼❊✸✮ 6❛♠❜.♠ . ✈0❧✐❞❛✱ ❢❛③❡♠♦"✿

α(p(t) + q(t)) = α((a2 + b2 )t2 + (a1 + b1 )t + (a0 + b0 ))

= (αa2 + αb2 )t2 + (αa1 + αb1 )t + (αa0 + αb0 )
= αa2 t2 + αa1 t + αa0 + αb2 t2 + αb1 t + αb0
= α(a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 ) + α(b2 t2 + b1 t + b0 )
= αq(t) + αp(t).

❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥6❡✱

1 · p(t) = 1 · (a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 )
= 1 · a2 t2 + 1 · a1 t + 1 · a0
= a2 t2 + a1 t + a0
= p(t)

♣❛&❛ 6♦❞♦ p(t) ∈ P2 (t)✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ❛ ♣&♦♣&✐❡❞❛❞❡ (ME4) 6❛♠❜.♠ . ✈0❧✐❞❛ ❡✱ ♣♦&6❛♥6♦✱ ♠♦"6&❛♠♦"
8✉❡ P2 (t) . ✉♠ ❡"♣❛B♦ ✈❡6♦&✐❛❧ &❡❛❧✳

✻✳ ❊!♣❛$♦ ❱❡(♦)✐❛❧ ❞❡ ❋✉♥$0❡!✳ ❉❛❞♦" ♥E♠❡&♦" &❡❛✐" a ❡ b ❝♦♠ a < b✱ ❝♦♥"✐❞❡&❡ ♦ ✐♥6❡&✈❛❧♦
❞❛ &❡6❛ X = [a, b] ✭♦✉ "❡❥❛✱ X . ✉♠ "✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ❞❡ R✮✳ ❉❡♥♦6❡♠♦" ♣♦& F(X, R) ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦
❢♦&♠❛❞♦ ♣♦& 6♦❞❛" ❛" ❢✉♥BH❡" &❡❛✐" ❝♦♠ ❞♦♠I♥✐♦ X ❡ ✐♠❛❣❡♥" &❡❛❧✳ ■"6♦ .✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ ❢♦&♠❛❞♦
♣♦& 6♦❞❛" ❛" ❢✉♥BH❡"

f : X → R.

❈♦♥"✐❞❡&❛♥❞♦ ❡♠ F(X, R) ❛" ♦♣❡&❛BH❡" ❞❡ "♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥BH❡" ❡ ♠✉❧6✐♣❧✐❝❛BL♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥BL♦ ♣♦&

❡"❝❛❧❛&✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛" ❛ "❡❣✉✐&✿

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) ❡ (αg)(x) = αg(x),

❡♥6L♦ F(X, R) . ✉♠ ❡"♣❛B♦ ✈❡6♦&✐❛❧ &❡❛❧✳

1.3. Exemplos de Espaços Vetoriais 7

y
y

(x, (f + g)(x))
f+g
αf(x)
(x, g(x)) g αf

f f
(x, f(x)) f(x)

a x x a x b x
b

❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✳✶✿ ❙♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥01❡2✳ ❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✳✷✿ ▼✉❧6✐♣❧✐❝❛09♦ ❞❡ ❢✉♥09♦ ♣♦$

❡2❝❛❧❛$✳

y
y

f(x) f

a x b x

a b x −f(x) −f

❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✳✸✿ ❋✉♥09♦ ♥✉❧❛✳

❋✐❣✉$❛ ✶✳✹✿ ❋✉♥09♦ ♦♣♦26❛✳

❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ f✱ g ❡ h ❢✉♥01❡2 ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛2 ❡♠ X✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛$❛ 6♦❞♦ x ∈ X✱

f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x)

♣♦✐2 f(x) ❡ g(x) 29♦ ♥@♠❡$♦2 $❡❛✐2✱ ❡♥69♦✱ 6❡♠♦2

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x) = (g + f)(x),

♣❛$❛ 6♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ f + g = g + f✳ ■26♦ C✱ ❛ 2♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥01❡2 C ❝♦♠✉$❛$✐✈❛✳

8 1. Espaço Vetorial

❉❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛♥'❧♦❣♦✱
[f+(g+h)](x) = f(x)+(g+h)(x) = f(x)+g(x)+h(x) = (f+g)(x)+h(x) = [(f+g)+h](x),
♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ f + (g + h) = (f + g) + h✱ ❡ ❛00✐♠✱ ❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0 6 ❛!!♦❝✐❛%✐✈❛✳
❊①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f : X → R✱ -❛❧ :✉❡✱ f(x) = 0 ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ❚,❛-❛✲0❡ ❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ ♥✉❧❛✱ :✉❡
0❡,' ❞❡♥♦-❛❞❛ ♣♦, θ✳ ❆00✐♠✱ ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X ❡ ♣❛,❛ -♦❞❛ f ∈ F(X, R) -❡♠♦0
(θ + f)(x) = θ(x) + f(x) = 0 + f(x) = f(x).
❖✉ 0❡❥❛✱ ❡①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ θ(x) ∈ F(X, R) -❛❧ :✉❡
θ+f=f
♣❛,❛ -♦❞❛ f ∈ F(X, R)✳ ❆ ❢✉♥49♦ ♥✉❧❛ 6 ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ ♥❡✉%,♦ ❞❡0-❛ ♦♣❡,❛49♦✳
@❛,❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f : X → R ❞❛❞❛✱ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ −f : X → R✱ :✉❡ -,❛♥0❢♦,♠❛ ❝❛❞❛ x ∈ X ❡♠
−f(x) 6 -❛❧ :✉❡
[f + (−f)](x) = f(x) + (−f(x)) = 0 = θ(x).
▲♦❣♦✱ ❞❛❞❛ ❢✉♥49♦ f ∈ F(X, R)✱ ❡①✐0-❡ ❛ ❢✉♥49♦ −f ∈ F(X, R) -❛❧ :✉❡ f + (−f) = θ✳ ■0-♦ 6✱ ❛
❢✉♥49♦ −f 6 ♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥%♦ !✐♠-%,✐❝♦ ❞❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0✳
❆❣♦,❛ 0❡❥❛♠ α, β ∈ R ❡ f, g ∈ F(X, R)✳
α(βf)(x) = α(βf(x)) = (αβ)f(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
α(βf) = (αβ)f.

((α + β)f)(x) = (α + β)f(x) = αf(x) + βf(x) = (αf + βf)(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
(α + β)f = αf + βf.

(α(f + g))(x) = α(f + g)(x) = α(f(x) + g(x)) = αf(x) + αg(x) = (αf + αg)(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦
x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
α(f + g) = αf + αg.
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥-❡✱ 1 · f(x) = f(x) ♣❛,❛ -♦❞♦ x ∈ X✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
1 · f = f.

❉❡00❛ ❢♦,♠❛✱ ❛0 ♦♣❡,❛45❡0 ❞❡ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❢✉♥45❡0 ❡ ♠✉❧-✐♣❧✐❝❛49♦ ♣♦, ❡0❝❛❧❛, 0❛-✐0❢❛③❡♠ ❛0 ♦✐-♦0
♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡0 ❞❛ ❞❡✜♥✐49♦✱ ❡ ♣♦,-❛♥-♦✱ ∈ F(X, R) 6 ✉♠ ❡0♣❛4♦ ✈❡-♦,✐❛❧ 0♦❜,❡ R✳
❈♦♥0✐❞❡,❡ ♦ 0✐0-❡♠❛ ❧✐♥❡❛, ❤♦♠♦❣J♥❡♦✱ ♥❛ ❢♦,♠❛ ♠❛-,✐❝✐❛❧✱ AX = 0 ❡ S = {X ∈ M(n, 1);
AX = 0} 0❡♥❞♦ A ∈ M(m, n) ❡ 0 ❛ ♠❛-,✐③ ♥✉❧❛ ❞❡ M(m, n)✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ S✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦
❢♦,♠❛❞♦ ♣❡❧❛0 0♦❧✉45❡0 ❞❡ AX = 0✱ 6 ✉♠ ❡0♣❛4♦ ✈❡-♦,✐❛❧✳
❉❡♠♦♥%&'❛)*♦✳ @,✐♠❡✐,♦ ♦❜0❡,✈❡ :✉❡ 0❡ X1 ❡ X2 09♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥-♦0 ❞❡ ❙✱ ❡♥-9♦ X1 + X2 -❛♠❜6♠
♣❡,-❡♥❝❡ ❛ S✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐-♦✱
A(X1 + X2 ) = AX1 + AX2 = 0 + 0 = 0
❆❧6♠ ❞✐00♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ α ∈ R✱ A(αX1) = αAX1 = α · 0 = 0
■0-♦ 6✱ 0❡ X1 ∈ S✱ ❡♥-9♦ αX1 -❛♠❜6♠ ❛ S✳ ❉❡00❛ ❢♦,♠❛ S 6 ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ❡♠ ,❡❧❛49♦ ❛ 0♦♠❛ ❞❡
♠❛-,✐③❡0 ❡ ❛♦ ♣,♦❞✉-♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❡0❝❛❧❛, ♣♦, ✉♠❛ ♠❛-,✐③✳
◆❛-✉,❛❧♠❡♥-❡✱ ❛0 ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡0 A1 − A4 ❡ ME1 − ME4 09♦ 0❛-✐0❢❡✐-❛0✱ ❥' :✉❡ ♥❡0-❡ ❝❛0♦✱ X 6
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞❡ ♠❛-,✐③❡0✳
1.4. Exercícios Propostos 9

1.4 Exercícios Propostos

✶✳ ❙❡❥❛ V ♦ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ Rn ✳ ◗✉❛❧ 1 ♦ ✈❡+♦, ♥✉❧♦ ❞❡ V ❄ ❖ 6✉❡ ,❡♣,❡'❡♥+❛ ♦ ✈❡+♦, –(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ✮❄

✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ W = M(2, 2)✳ ❉❡'❝,❡✈❛ ♦ ✈❡+♦, ♥✉❧♦ ❡ ✈❡+♦, ♦♣♦'+♦ ❡♠ W ✳

✸✳ ❉❡'❝,❡✈❛ ♦ ✈❡+♦, ♥✉❧♦ ❡ ♦ ✈❡+♦, ♦♣♦'+♦ ❡♠ P2 (t) = {a2 t2 + a1 t + a0 , ❝♦♠ ai ∈ R}✳

✹✳ ▼♦'+,❡ 6✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ V = {(x, y); x, y ∈ R ❡ xy > 0} ❝♦♠ ❛' ♦♣❡,❛)?❡'

(a, b) ⊕ (c, d) = (ac, bd) ❡ α ⊗ (a, b) = (aα , bα )

1 ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ,❡❛❧✳

✺✳ ▼♦'+,❡ 6✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ V = {(1, y); y ∈ R} ❝♦♠ ❛' ♦♣❡,❛)?❡'

(1, y1 ) + (1, y2 ) = (1, y1 + y2 ) ❡ α(1, y) = (1, αy)

1 ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ,❡❛❧✳

✻✳ ❙❡❥❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ R2 = {(x, y); x, y ∈ R}✳ ▼♦'+,❡ 6✉❡ R2 ♥B♦ 1 ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❛'
♦♣❡,❛)?❡' ❛''✐♠ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛'✿

(x, y) + (z, w) = (x + z, y + w) ❡ α(x, y) = (αx, y).

✼✳ ▼♦'+,❡ ❛ '❡❣✉✐♥+❡ ❛✜,♠❛)B♦✿ ❊♠ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ V ❡①✐'+❡ ✉♠ I♥✐❝♦ ✈❡+♦, ♥✉❧♦ ❡ ❝❛❞❛
❡❧❡♠❡♥+♦ ❞❡ V ♣♦''✉✐ ✉♠ I♥✐❝♦ ✈❡+♦, ♦♣♦'+♦✳

✽✳ ▼♦'+,❡ 6✉❡ ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹ 1 ❞❡ ❢❛+♦ ✉♠ ❡'♣❛)♦ ✈❡+♦,✐❛❧ '♦❜,❡ R✳