TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

MANILA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PLATE NO. 1

IN

INDUSTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING DRAFTING (ME21D)

“REVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER”

PROPONENTS: RATINGS:
HOLASCA, JOHN JOSHUA
DAVID GABRIELLE ANNE
GRIMALDO RAMON
CHRISTOPHER
DE LEON, BRIANNE
PLAZA, ENRICO JEPHERSON

BSME 5B

INSTRUCTOR:

ENGR. JOMARI A. PICAR

DATE SUBMITTED:

_________________
Objectives

1. Model basic heat transfer processes and identify modes.

2. Understand the concept of thermal resistance and its limitation and develop thermal
resistance networks for practical heat conduction.
3. Solve steady conduction problems that involve multilayer rectangular, cylindrical or
spherical geometries.
4. Perform energy balance to determine temperature and heat flux.
5. Solve lumped parameter and other transient heat transfer problems.
6. Recognize basic convective heat transfer and apply appropriate methods for quantifying
convection.
7. Calculate convective heat transfer coefficient for internal flow.
8. Calculate convective heat transfer coefficient for internal flow.
9. Obtain a relation for the logarithmic mean temperature difference for use in the LMTD
method and modify it for different types of heat exchangers using the correction factor.
10. Develop relations for effectiveness and analyze heat exchangers when outlet temperatures
are not known using the effectiveness – NTU method.

Strategies

Answer the problems below. For concept questions, make sure to include necessary
figures and diagrams with proper captions. Cite sources using APA style of referencing.
Avoid plagiarism.

For problems, show your neat and detailed solution. Include necessary figures and
diagrams with proper captions. Attach copies of all property tables, Charts and diagrams used
(e.g. Heisler Charts, etc.)
Concept Question

 How does conductive heat transfer occur?

Conduction as heat transfer takes place if there is a temperature gradient in a solid or

stationary fluid medium.

With conduction energy transfers from more energetic to less energetic molecules when
neighboring molecules collide. Heat flows in direction of decreasing temperatures since
higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energy.

Conductive heat transfer can be expressed with "Fourier's Law"

𝑘
𝑞 = ( ) 𝐴 𝑑𝑇
𝑠

= U A dT (1)

where

q = heat transfer (W, J/s, Btu/hr)

k = Thermal Conductivity of material (W/m K or W/m oC, Btu/(hr oF ft2/ft))

s = material thickness (m, ft)

A = heat transfer area (m2, ft2)

𝑈 = 𝑘/𝑠
 = Coefficient of Heat Transfer (W/(m2K), Btu/(ft2 h oF)

𝑑𝑇 = 𝑡1 − 𝑡2

= temperature gradient - difference - over the material (oC, oF)

 Calculate Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient - U-value

What is the mechanism that radiative heat transfer uses to transmit thermal energy
Radiation

Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment through thermal
radiation

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or

any transparent medium (solid or fluid or gas). It is the transfer of energy by means
of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves, due to the pool
of thermal energy in all matter with a temperature above absolute zero. Thermal radiation
propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space.

Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and molecules in
matter. Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles
(protons and electrons), their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic
radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.

The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy, is
as follows for an object in a vacuum :

For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation is as follows:

Where;

Q is the heat flux,

ε is the emissivity (unity for a black body),

σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, and

T is the absolute temperature (in kelvins or degrees Rankine).

Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects, or for objects with a large
temperature difference.

Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power. Unlike
conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can be concentrated
in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar
powergeneration. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar
power tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 °C (545 °F)

Is the equation for convective heat transfer a law?

Yes, The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, states that the time rate
of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the
temperature and to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.
We can state this law in two equivalent forms: the integral form, in which we look at the
amount of energy flowing into or out of a body as a whole, and the differential form, in
which we look at the flow rates or fluxes of energy locally.

Newton's law of cooling is a discrete analogue of Fourier's law, while Ohm's law is the
electrical analogue of Fourier's law.

Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property of a material to conduct

heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law for heat conduction. In general,
thermal conductivity is a tensor property, expressing the anisotropy of the property.

Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in
materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal
conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of low thermal
conductivity are used as thermal insulation. The thermal conductivity of a material may
depend on temperature. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal
resistivity.
 In general, good conductors of electricity (metals like copper, aluminum, gold, and silver)
are also good heat conductors, whereas insulators of electricity (wood, plastic, and
rubber) are poor heat conductors.

Temperature
Thermal conductivity of 25°C 125°C 225°C
Material/ substance (77 °F) (257 °F) (437 °F)
Copper 401- k - 400- k - 398- k -
W/(m K) W/(m K) W/(m K)
Concrete stone 1.7- k -
W/(m K) - -
Lime stone 1.26 – 1.33 - k -
W/(m K) - -
Sand stone 1.7 - k -
W/(m K) - -

Therefore, the thermal conductivity of copper is way much higher on stone because of it
has way more the carbon content than any other stone or material said.

Blackbody Radiation

All objects with a temperature above absolute zero (0 K, -273.15 °C) emit energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation.
A blackbody is a theoretical or model body which absorbs all radiation falling on it,
reflecting or transmitting none. It is a hypothetical object which is a “perfect” absorber
and a “perfect” emitter of radiation over all wavelengths.

The spectral distribution of the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody ( the pattern of
the intensity of the radiation over a range of wavelengths or frequencies) depends only on
its temperature.
The characteristics of blackbody radiation can be described in terms of several laws:

1. Planck’s Law of blackbody radiation, a formula to determine the spectral

energy density of the emission at each wavelength (Eλ) at a particular absolute
temperature (T).

8∏hc
𝑬𝛌 = hc
( )
λ5 (e λRT − 1)

2. Wien’s Displacement Law, which states that the frequency of the peak of the
emission (fmax) increases linearly with absolute temperature (T). Conversely, as the
temperature of the body increases, the wavelength at the emission peak decreases.

𝐟𝐦𝐚𝐱 = ∞ T

3. Stefan–Boltzmann Law, which relates the total energy emitted (E) to the absolute
temperature (T).

𝐄 = ∞ T4
 In the image above, notice that:

 The blackbody radiation curves have quite a complex shape (described by Planck’s
Law).
 The spectral profile (or curve) at a specific temperature corresponds to a specific peak
wavelength, and vice versa.
 As the temperature of the blackbody increases, the peak wavelength decreases (Wien’s
Law).
 The intensity (or flux) at all wavelengths increases as the temperature of the blackbody
increases.
 The total energy being radiated (the area under the curve) increases rapidly as the
temperature increases (Stefan–Boltzmann Law).
 Although the intensity may be very low at very short or long wavelengths, at any
temperature above absolute zero energy is theoretically emitted at all wavelengths (the
blackbody radiation curves never reach zero).
In astronomy, stars are often modelled as blackbodies, although it is not always a good
approximation. The temperature of a star can be deduced from the wavelength of the
peak of its radiation curve.

In 1965, the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was discovered by

Penzias and Wilson, who later won the Nobel Prize for their work. The radiation
spectrum was measured by the COBEsatellite and found to be a remarkable fit to a
blackbody curve with a temperature of 2.725 K and is interpreted as evidence that
the universe has been expanding and cooling for about 13.7 billion years. A more recent
mission, WMAP, has measured the spectral details to much higher resolution, finding
tiny temperature fluctuations in the early Universe which ultimately led to the large-scale
structures we see today.

Natural convection, known also as free convection is a

mechanism, or type of mass and heat transport, in which
the fluid motion is generated only by density
differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature
gradients, not by any external source (like a pump, fan,
suction device, etc.).

 In natural convection, fluid

surrounding a heat source receives heat and by thermal
expansion becomes less dense and rises. Thermal
expansion of the fluid plays a crucial role. In other
words, heavier (more dense) components will fall, while
lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk
fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur in
a gravitational field or in the presence of
another proper acceleration, such as acceleration,
centrifugal force, and Coriolis force.
How is forced convection different than natural convection?

Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. In contrast, convection is called natural
(or free) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by
density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid.

Forced convection also occurs in electronics cooling, by adding a fan or a blower, for
example. In general, it relies on a device to enhance heat transfer. Through active cooling
technologies, the rate of fluid flow increases during convection, which dramatically
increases the rate of heat removal while passive cooling achieves high levels of natural
convection and heat dissipation by utilizing a heat spreader or a heat sink to maximize the
radiation and convection heat transfer modes.

Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and is a convenient
parameter for predicting if a flow condition will be laminar or turbulent. It can be
interpreted that when the viscous forces are dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are
sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, then the flow is laminar. Even very
low Re indicates viscous creeping motion, where inertia effects are negligible. When
the inertial forces dominate over the viscous forces (when the fluid is flowing faster and
Re is larger) then the flow is turbulent.

It is a dimensionless number comprised of the physical characteristics of the

flow. An increasing Reynolds number indicates an increasing turbulence of flow.
 It is defined as:

where:

V is the flow velocity,

D is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic diameter

etc.)

ρ fluid density (kg/m3),

μ dynamic viscosity (Pa.s),

ν kinematic viscosity (m2/s); ν = μ / ρ.

The Reynolds number is defined as the product of density times velocity times
length divided by the viscosity coefficient. This is proportional to the ratio of inertial
forces and viscous forces (forces resistant to change and heavy and gluey forces) in a
fluid flow.

The Reynolds number is used to study fluids as they flow. The Reynolds number
determines whether a fluid flow is laminar or turbulent. Flowing fluids normally follow
along streamlines. If a flow is laminar, fluids will move along smooth streamlines. If the
flow is turbulent, these streamlines breakup and the fluid will move in an irregular
manner. Turbulent flow creates more friction drag on an airplane. However, it also keeps
the flow attached over its surface.

Since the Reynolds number is a measure of how a fluid behaves, you can also
substitute dynamically similar fluids, which are fluids with the same Reynolds number,
when testing models to see how they would behave in a specific environment. If the air in
your wind tunnel is not dense enough for what you need to test (Reynolds number too
low), you can make it less sticky by cooling the air to increase the Reynolds number to
that of the dense air you need.
Nusselt Number

In heat transfer at a boundary (surface) within a fluid, the Nusselt number (Nu)
is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across (normal to) the boundary. In
this context, convection includes both advection and diffusion. Named after Wilhelm
Nusselt, it is a dimensionless number. The conductive component is measured under the
same conditions as the heat convection but with a (hypothetically) stagnant (or
motionless) fluid. A similar non-dimensional parameter is Biot number, with the
difference that the thermal conductivity is of the solid body and not the fluid.
A Nusselt number close to one, namely convection and conduction of similar
magnitude, is characteristic of "slug flow" or laminar flow. A larger Nusselt number
corresponds to more active convection, with turbulent flow typically in the 100–1000
range.
The convection and conduction heat flows are parallel to each other and to the
surface normal of the boundary surface, and are all perpendicular to the mean fluid flow
in the simple case.

where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the flow, L is

the characteristic length, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.

 Selection of the characteristic length should be in the direction of growth (or

thickness) of the boundary layer; some examples of characteristic length are: the
outer diameter of a cylinder in (external) cross flow (perpendicular to the
cylinder axis), the length of a vertical plate undergoing natural convection, or the
diameter of a sphere. For complex shapes, the length may be defined as the
volume of the fluid body divided by the surface area.
 The thermal conductivity of the fluid is typically (but not always) evaluated at
the film temperature, which for engineering purposes may be calculated as
the mean-average of the bulk fluid temperature and wall surface temperature.
In contrast to the definition given above, known as average Nusselt number, local
Nusselt number is defined by taking the length to be the distance from the surface
boundary[1] to the local point of interest.

The mean, or average, number is obtained by integrating the expression over the
range of interest, such as
Overall heat transfer coefficient in term of thermal resistances.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is employed in calculating the rate of heat
transfer Q from one fluid at an average bulk temperature T1 through a solid surface to a
second fluid at an average bulk temperature T2 (where T1 > T2). The defining equation is
generally only applicable to an incremental element of heat transfer surface dA for which
the heat transfer rate is dQ , and the equation is strictly valid only at steady state
conditions and negligible lateral heat transfer in the solid surface, conditions generally
true enough in most practical applications. The defining equation is

where U is referenced to a specific surface (see below).

In the particular situation of heat transfer across a plane wall of uniform thickness, U is
related to the individual film heat transfer coefficients, α1 and α2, of the two fluids by the
equation

where δw is the thickness of the wall and λw is the thermal conductivity of the
wall.
If there are fouling deposits on the wall, they have a resistance to heat transfer, R1 and R2,
in units of m2 K/W, and these resistances must be added in (see Fouling and Fouling
Factors)

For the special but very important case of heat transfer through the wall of a plain
round tube, the different heat transfer areas on the inside and outside surfaces of the tube
need to be considered. Let dAi be the inside incremental area and dAo be the outside.
Then(including fouling resistances Rfi and Rfo inside and out):

where Ui is termed the "overall heat transfer coefficient referenced to (or based
on) the inside tube heat transfer area", and ri and ro the inside and outside radii of the
tube.
Alternatively, the overall coefficient may be based on the outside heat transfer area,
giving
 where Uo is termed the "overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside tube
heat transfer area." Note that

These ideas may be extended to more complicated surfaces such as finned or

composite tubes, but it is then necessary to add further resistance terms (and the area ratio
corrections) for the fins or imperfect metal-to-metal contact.
Generally, in order to use these equations in heat transfer applications, the basic equation
must be integrated:

where AT is the total area required to transfer Q T and T1, T2 and sometimes U
must be expressed as functions of the heat already transferred from one end up to a given
point in the heat transfer device. This is the basic design equation for most heat
exchangers.

Why does adding insulationthermal resistance to wire sometimes increase the heat
transfer from the wire

We know that by adding more insulation to a wall always decreases heat transfer.
The thicker the insulation, the lower the heat transfer rate. This is expected, since the heat
transfer area A is constant, and adding insulation always increases the thermal resistance
of the wall without affecting the convection resistance.

Adding insulation to a cylindrical piece or a spherical shell, however, is a

different matter. The additional insulation increases the conduction resistance of the
insulation layer but decreases the convection resistance of the surface because of the
increase in the outer surface area for convection. The heat transfer from the pipe may
increase or decrease, depending on which effect dominates.

Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 whose outer surface

temperature T1 is maintained constant (Figure. 2.15). The pipe is now insulated with a
material whose thermal conductivity is k and outer radius is r2. Heat is lost from the pipe
to the surrounding medium at temperature T∞, with a convection heat transfer
coefficient h . The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to the surrounding air can
be expressed as (Figure. 2.16)

(𝑇1 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞𝑟 = 𝑟
ln( 2⁄𝑟1 ) 1
+
2π Lk ℎ(2πr2 L)
 Figure 2.15 Insulated Cylindrical Pipe

The variation of heat transfer rate with the outer radius of insulation r2 is plotted in Figure
2.16. The value of r2 at which heat transfer rate reaches maximum is determined from the
𝒅𝒒
requirement that 𝒅𝒓𝒓(zero slope). Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 yields
the critical radius of insulation for a cylindrical body to be

𝑘
𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑟,𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 =
ℎ
Note that the critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the
insulation k and the external convection heat transfer coefficient h . The rate of heat
transfer from the cylinder increases with the addition of insulation for r2< rcr, reaches a
maximum when r2= rcr, and starts to decrease for r2> rcr. Thus, insulating the pipe may
actually increase the rate of heat transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2<
rcr .
 Figure 2.16 Variation Of Heat Transfer Rate With Radius

The important question to answer at this point is to whether we need to be concerned

about the critical radius of insulation when insulating hot water pipes or even hot water
tanks. Should we always check and make sure that the outer radius of insulation exceeds
the critical radius before we install any insulation? Probably not, as explained below.

The value of the critical radius rcr will be the largest when k is large and h is small.
Noting that the lowest value of hencountered in practice is about 5 W/m2K for the case of
natural convection of gases, and that the thermal conductivity of common insulating
materials is 0.05 W/m2K, the largest value of the critical radius we are likely to encounter
is

𝑘max 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 0.05

𝑟𝑐𝑟 = = = 0.01 𝑚 = 10𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 5

This value would be even smaller when the radiation effects are considered. The critical
radius would be much less in forced convection, often less than 1 mm, because of much
larger h values associated with forced convection. Therefore, we can insulate hot water or
steam pipes freely without worrying about the possibility of increasing the heat transfer
by insulating the pipes.

The radius of electric wires may be smaller than the critical radius. Therefore, the plastic
electrical insulation may actually enhance the heat transfer from electric wires and thus
keep their steady operating temperatures at lower and thus safer levels.

The discussions above can be repeated for a sphere, and it can be shown in a similar
manner that the critical radius of insulation for a spherical shell is

2𝑘
𝑟𝑐𝑟,𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
ℎ

where k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h is the convection heat transfer
coefficient on the outer surface.

Describe the ideal, tube – in – tube, counterflow, parallel – flow heat exchangers
A counterflow heat exchanger has the hot fluid entering at one end of the heat exchanger
flow path and the

Cold fluid entering at the other end of the flow path. Counter flow is the most common
type of liquid-liquid heat exchanger, because it is the most efficient. A double pipe heat
exchanger is usually operated as a counter flow heat exchanger, as shown in the diagram
at the left. A picture of a double pipe heat exchanger is shown at the right. The flow
pattern in a shell and tube heat exchanger with a single tube
 pass will be approximately counterflow if it is long in comparison with its
diameter. Because of the baffles and the need to distribute the flow of the shell side fluid
over the

cross-section of the shell, the flow is not as close to counterflow in a shell and
tube heat exchanger as it is in a double pipe heat exchanger. The bottom diagram on the
left shows approximately counter flow in a straight tube, one tube pass shell, and tube
heat exchanger.

The Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger

A double pipe heat exchanger can be operated in parallel flow mode as shown in the
diagram at the left. Similarly a shell and tube heat exchanger can be operated in
approximately parallel flow by having both fluids enter at one end and exit at the other
end. With parallel flow the temperature difference between the two fluids is large at the
entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures approach
each other. The overall measure of heat transfer driving force, the log mean temperature
difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat exchanger surface area requirement will
be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet
temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

The Crossflow Heat Exchanger

A car radiator and an air conditioner evaporator coil are examples of crossflow heat
exchangers. In both cases
heat transfer is taking place between a liquid flowing inside a tube or tubes and air
flowing past the tubes. With a car radiator, the hot water in the tubes is being cooled by
air flowing through the radiator between the tubes. With an air conditioner evaporator
coil, air flowing past the evaporator coils is cooled by the cold refrigerant flowing inside
the tube(s) of the coil. Crossflow heat exchangers are typically used for heat transfer
between a gas and a liquid as in these two examples.

Hybrid Flow Heat Exchangers

Shell and tube heat exchangers with two or four tube passes are common. They will have
 a hybrid flow pattern,

where it might be approximately concurrent flow in some part of the heat

exchanger and approximately parallel flow or crossflow in another part. Examples are the
straight tube heat exchanger with 2 tube passes shown at the left and the two pass
condenser shown at the right.

Shell and tube heat exchangers

General Description
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers are one of the most popular types of exchanger due to
the flexibility the designer has to allow for a wide range of pressures and temperatures.
There are two main categories of Shell and Tube exchanger:
1. those that are used in the petrochemical industry which tend to be covered by standards
from TEMA, Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association.
2. those that are used in the power industry such as feedwater heaters and power plant
condensers.
Regardless of the type of industry the exchanger is to be used in there are a number of
common features.

A shell and tube exchanger consists of a number of tubes mounted inside a

cylindrical shell. Figure 1 illustrates a typical unit that may be found in a petrochemical
plant. Two fluids can exchange heat, one fluid flows over the outside of the tubes while
the second fluid flows through the tubes. The fluids can be single or two phase and can
flow in a parallel or a cross/counter flow arrangement.

Figure 1. Shell and tube exchanger.

The shell and tube exchanger consists of four major parts:
 Front Header—this is where the fluid enters the tubeside of the exchanger. It is
sometimes referred to as the Stationary Header.
 Rear Header—this is where the tubeside fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is
returned to the front header in exchangers with multiple tubeside passes.
 Tube bundle—this comprises of the tubes, tube sheets, baffles and tie rods etc. to hold
the bundle together.
 Shell—this contains the tube bundle.

Are actual shell – and – tube heat exchangers more like parallel – flow or like
counterflow exchanger?

Based on the information above, shell and tube heat exchangers are more parallel
like. approximately parallel flow by having both fluids enter at one end and exit at the
other end. With parallel flow the temperature difference between the two fluids is large at
the entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures
approach each other. The overall measure of heat transfer driving force, the log mean
temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat exchanger surface area
requirement will be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger with the same inlet and
outlet temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.
 Problems

1. An experiment is undertaken to determine the thermal conductivity of an unknown

material. The material is 5 cm thick and has a diameter of 15cm. It is placed on a hot
plate of equal diameter where the surface temperature is maintained at 60˚C. The outer
surface temperature is 24˚C, and the power used by the hot plate is 45 W. Determine the
thermal conductivity of the material.

SOLUTION:

Solving for thermal conductivity;

−𝑘𝐴𝑑𝑇
𝑄=
𝑥

−𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)
𝑄= 𝑥

For Cylinders:

2𝜋𝐿(∆𝑇)
𝑄=
𝐷𝑜
ln( 𝐷𝑖 )

Di= 15cm Do= Di + 2x

Do= 25cm

2𝜋𝑘𝐿(60 − 24)𝐾
45𝑊 =
0.25
ln( )
0.15
kL = 0.1016 W/m-K
k/L = 0.1016 W/m2-K
Solving for flat plat;

−𝑘𝐴𝑑𝑇
𝑄=
𝑥

𝜋
𝑘 (4 𝑥0.152 ) (60 − 24)
45𝑊 =
0.05

k= 3.543 W/m-K
2. A wall with a thermal conductivity of 0.30 W/ m – K is maintained at 40˚C. The heat
flow through the wall is 250W. The wall surface is 1.5 m2, and its thickness is 1 cm.
Determine the temperature of the other surface.

SOLUTION:

−𝑘𝐴(𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑏)
𝑄=
𝑥

(0.3)(1.5𝑚2 )(40 − 𝑇𝑏)

250𝑊 =
0.01

Tb= 34.444oC
3. The sum of the resistances for the outside wall of a house is 8.0 K – m2 / W. For a
temperature difference of 25˚C across the wall and a total surface area of 150 m2,
determine the heat flow through the wall.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the heat flow through the wall;

∆𝑇(𝐴𝑠)
𝑄=
𝑅

25℃ (150𝑚2 )
𝑄=
𝐾 − 𝑚2
8 𝑊

𝑄 = 468.75𝑊
4. A dry – ice storage chest is wooden box lined with glass fiber insulation 5 cm thick. The
wooden box is 2 cm thick and is cubical, 60 cm on an edge. The inside surface
temperature is -76˚C, and the outside surface temperature is 18˚C. Determine (a) the
wood insulation interface temperature, (b) the heat gain per day.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the wood insulation interface temperature;

Q=?

∆𝑇
𝑄𝑡 =
𝑅𝑇
1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑅𝑇 = [( ) +( ) ]
6𝐴 𝑘 𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑠
1 0.02 0.05
𝑅𝑇 = [( )+( )]
6𝐴 0.159 0.0385
𝑅𝑇 = 0.6595 𝑘/𝑊

[18 − (−76)]
𝑄𝑡 =
0.6595
𝐽 3600𝑠 24ℎ𝑟 1𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑡 = 142.5354 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑠 1ℎ𝑟 1𝑑𝑎𝑦 1000𝐽

𝑄𝑡 = 12315.07 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦

Solving for Ta;

𝑘𝐴(∆𝑇)
𝑄𝑇 = [ ]
𝑥

(0.159)(6)(0.62 )[𝑇𝑎 − (−76)]

142.5354𝑊 =
0.02

𝑇𝑎 = −67.7℃
5. The surface of a furnace wall is at a temperature of 1200˚C. The outside wall temperature
is 38 ˚C. The furnace wall construction has 15 cm of refractory material, k = 1.73 W/m –
K and the outside wall is 1cm steel, k = 44W/m – K. What thickness of refractory brick
must be used between the refractory material and the wall if the heat loss is not to exceed
0.7 kW/ m2? The thermal conductivity of the brick is 0.34 W/m – K.

SOLUTION;

Solving for the thickness of the brick;

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

0.15 𝑋2 0.01
𝑅𝑇 = + +
1.73 0.34 44

Where:

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 𝑅𝑇

𝑘𝑊 1200 − 38
0.7 =
𝑚 2 0.15 𝑋2 0.01
1.73 + 0.34 + 44

𝑥2 = 0.5348𝑚 𝑜𝑟 53.48𝑐𝑚
6. A furnace is constructed with 20 cm of firebrick, k = 1.36 W/m – K., 10 cm of insulating
brick, k = 0.26 W/ m – K, and 20 cm of building brick, k = 0.69 W/m – K. The inside
surface temperature is 650 ˚C, and the outside air temperature is 32 ˚C. The heat loss
from the furnace wall is 0.56 kW/ m2 - K. Determine (a) the unit convective coefficient
for the air; (b) the temperature 25 cm in from the outside surface.

SOLUTION:

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 𝑅𝑇

𝑄 ∆𝑇
=
𝐴 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4

𝑘𝑊 1000𝑊 650 − 32
0.56 𝑥 =
𝑚 2 1𝑘𝑊 0.2 0.1 0.2 1
1.86 + 0.26 + 0.69 + ℎ𝑜

𝑊
ℎ𝑜 = 3.546
𝑚2
−𝐾

For T at 25cm from outside surface;

x1= 20cm x2’= 5cm

𝑊 650 − 𝑇
560 =
𝑚 2 0.2 0.05
1.36 + 0.26

𝑇 = 459.95℃
7. For the composite wall illustrated, the following values apply: x1 = 20 cm, k1 = 75 W/ m-
K; x2 = 25 cm, k2 = 60 W/m – K; x3 = 30 cm, k3 = 20 W/m – K, k4 = 60 W/m – K; x5 = 50
cm, k5 = 50 W/m – K. One surface is maintained at 400 ˚C while the other is maintained
at 100 ˚C. Determine the heat flow and the temperature at the x3/ x4 interface.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the heat flow and temperature;

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 1 1 𝑅4
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏

𝐿1 𝐿2 1 𝐿4
𝑅𝑇 = + + +
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐿 3 𝐿 3 𝐾4
𝐾𝑎 + 𝐾𝑏

0.20𝑚 0,25𝑚 1 0.50𝑚

𝑅𝑇 = + + +
𝑊 𝑊 . 30𝑚 0.30𝑚 𝑊
75 𝑚 − 𝐾 60 𝑚 − 𝐾 𝑊 + 𝑊 50 𝑚 − 𝐾
20 60
𝑚−𝑘 𝑚−𝐾

𝑚2 − 𝑘
𝑅𝑇 = 0.02058
𝑊

∆𝑇 (400 − 100)
𝑄= =
𝑅𝑇 𝑚2 − 𝑘
0.02058 𝑊

𝑄 𝑊
= 14,563 2
𝐴 𝑚

(𝑇1 − 𝑇3 )
𝑄=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

(400 − 𝑇3 )
14563 =
(0.01058)

𝑇3 = 245.6℃
8. A composite plane wall consisting of two layers of materials (1.5 – in steel and 2 – in
aluminum) separates a hot gas at t1 = 200 ˚F, h1 = 2, from a cold gas at t0 = 80 ˚F, h0 = 5
Btu/ hr – ft2 - ˚F , if the hot fluid is on the aluminum side, find (a) the transmittance u, (b)
the resistance r, (c) the interface temperature at the junction of the two metals and (d) the
heat through 100ft2 of the surface under steady state conditions.

SOLUTION:

From Appendix 1 (Heat and Mass Transfer by Cengel)

𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐾𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 222 𝑜𝑟 128
𝑚−𝐾 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 − ℉

𝑊 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 45.3 𝑜𝑟 26.174
𝑚−𝐾 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 − ℉

Solving for the Transmittance;

1
𝑈=
𝑅𝑇

1 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑅𝑇 = + + +
ℎ1 𝐾𝑎𝑙 𝐾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 ℎ𝑜

2 1.5
1 12 1
𝑅𝑇 = + + 12 +
2 128 26.174 5

ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉
𝑅𝑇 = 0.70608
𝐵𝑡𝑢

1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈= = 1.41627
0.70608 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉

Solving for the Resistance;

ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉
𝑅𝑇 = 0.70608
𝐵𝑡𝑢
Solving for the interface temperature;

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1−2 = 𝑄2−3

From hot gas to junction of aluminum and steel

1 𝑥
𝑅1−2 = +
ℎ1 𝐾𝑎𝑙

2
1 12 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉
𝑅1−2 = + = 0.50130
2 128 𝐵𝑡𝑢

Solving for QT

∆𝑇 (200 − 80)℉
𝑄𝑇 = =
𝑅𝑡 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉
0.70608 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄𝑇 = 169.952
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1−2

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄1−2 =
𝑅1−2

200 − 𝑇2
169.952 =
0.50130

𝑇2 = 114.803℉

Solving for the heat;

𝐴∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

(100)(200 − 80)
𝑄=
0.70608

𝑄 = 16995.241 𝐵𝑡𝑢/ℎ𝑟
9. Superheated steam at an average temperature of 200 ˚C is transported through a steel pipe
(k = 50 W/m – K, Do = 8.0 cm, Di = 6.0 cm, and L = 20.0 m). The pipe is insulated with
a 4 – cm thick layer of gypsum plaster (k = 0.5 W/m – K). The insulated pipe is placed
horizontally inside a warehouse where the average air temperature is 10 ˚C. The steam
and the air heat transfer coefficients are estimated to be 800 and 200 W/m2. K,
respectively. Calculate (a) the daily rate of heat transfer from the superheated steam and
(b) the temperature on the outside surface of the gypsum plaster insulation.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the daily heat transfer;

Conduction resistance due to superheated steam;

1 1
𝑅𝑖 = ℎ𝑖 𝐴
= ℎ 𝜋𝐷 𝐿
𝑖 𝑖

1
𝑅𝑖 =
800 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.06 𝑥 20

𝐾
𝑅𝑖 = 0.00033
𝑊

Conduction resistance due to thickness of steel pipe is

𝐷
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝐷𝑜 )
𝑖
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =
2𝜋𝐾𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐿

0.08
𝑙𝑛 (0.06)
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =
2𝜋(50)(20)

𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0.0000457 𝐾/𝑊

Conduction resistance due to thickness of the insulation

𝐷 + 2𝑡
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑜𝐷 )
𝑜
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 =
2𝜋𝐾𝑔𝑦𝑝 𝐿

0.08 + 2(0.04)
𝑙𝑛 ( )
0/08
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 =
2𝜋(0.5)(20)
 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 0.01103 𝐾/𝑊

Convection resistance due to air;

1
𝑅𝑜 =
ℎ𝑜 𝐴

1
𝑅𝑜 =
ℎ𝑜 𝜋(𝐷𝑜 + 2𝑡)𝐿

1
𝑅𝑜 =
200 𝑥 𝜋(0.08 + 2(0.04))20

𝑅𝑜 = 0.000497 𝐾/𝑊

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 + 𝑅𝑜

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0119027 𝐾/𝑊

𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑄=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

200 − 10
𝑄=
0.0119027

𝑄 = 15.962 𝑘𝑊

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑄=
𝑅𝑜

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 − 10
15962.76 𝑊 =
0.000497

𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 17.933℃
10. Chilled water enters a thin – shelled 5 – cm – diameter, 150 m – long pipe at 7 ˚C at a
rate of 0.98kg/s and leaves at 8 ˚C. The pipe is exposed to ambient air at 30 ˚C with a
heat transfer coefficient of 9 W/m2 – K. If the pipe is to be insulated with glass wool
insulation (k = 0.95 W/m.K) in order to decrease the temperature rise of water to 0.25 ˚C,
determine the required thickness of the insulation.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the required thickness of the insulation;

Mean temperature of the pipe,

8+7
𝑇𝑤 =
2
𝑇𝑤 = 7.5℃

Heat transfer from the pipe without any insulation,

𝑄𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑒 − 𝑇𝑖 )

𝑄𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 0.98 𝑥 4.18(8 − 7)
𝑄𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 4096.4𝑊

Heat transfer from the pipe can also be calculated as,

𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑤
𝑄𝑜𝑙𝑑 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
30 − 7.5
4096.4 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.00549 𝐾/𝑊

The convection resistance from the outer surface of the pipe,

1
𝑅𝑜 =
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜
 1
𝑅𝑜 =
ℎ𝑜 𝑥 𝜋𝐷𝐿
1
𝑅𝑜 =
9 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥 0.05 𝑥 150
𝑅𝑜 = 0.004716 𝐾/𝑊

The inside convective resistance and conduction resistance due to pipe thickness

𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑖 = 0.00549 − 0.004716
𝑅𝑖 = 0.000774 𝐾/𝑊

If temperature rise of water is ∆𝑇 = 0.25℃ then the rate of heat transfer with new insulation
is

𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (∆𝑇)

𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 0.98 𝑥 4.18 𝑥 0.25
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1024.1𝑊

The total thermal resistance with insulation can be calculated as,

𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑤
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑤 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑛𝑒𝑤
7 + 7.25
30 − ( 2 )
1024.1 =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 0.0223𝐾/𝑊

The total thermal resistance with insulation can be written as

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜,𝑛𝑒𝑤 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠

 𝐷
1 𝑙𝑛 (𝐷2 )
1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑅𝑖 + +
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜,𝑛𝑒𝑤 2𝜋𝑘𝐿

𝐷
1 𝑙𝑛 ( 2 )
0.0223 = 0.000774 + + . 05
9 𝑥 𝜋𝐷2 𝑥 150 2𝜋 𝑥 0.05 𝑥 150
𝐷2 = 0.126𝑚
Thus;

𝐷2 − 𝐷1
𝑡=
2
0.126 − 0.05
𝑡=
2
𝑡 = 0.038𝑚 𝑜𝑟 3.8𝑐𝑚
11. A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod of 15 mm in diameter is encased in a concentric hollow
ceramic cylinder with inner diameter 35 mm and outer diameter of 110 mm. This created
an air gap between the fuel rod and the hollow ceramic cylinder with a convection heat
transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2.K.The hollow ceramic cylinder has a thermal
conductivity of 0.07 W/m.K and its outer surface maintains a constant temperature of 30
˚C. If the fuel rod generates heat at a rate of 1 MW/ m3, determine the temperature at the
surface of the fuel rod.

SOLUTION:

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1 𝑚𝑊/𝑚3

𝑊 𝜋
𝑄 = 10000000 ( ) (0.015)2
𝑚3 4

𝑊
𝑄 = 176.71458
𝑚

𝑟
1 ln (𝑟2 )
1
𝑅𝑇 = +
ℎ1𝐴 2𝜋𝐾𝐿

0.055
1 ln ( )
𝑅𝑇 = + 0.0175
10 W/m2 − K(π)(0.035m) 2𝜋 (0.07 W )
m−K

𝑅𝑇 = 3.513 𝑚 − 𝐾/𝑊

∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

(𝑡2 − 34)
176.71458 =
3.513

𝑡2 = 650.812℃
12. A boiler tube (OD = 3.5 – in, ID = 2.7 – in) contains water boiling at 1250 psia. The
water film coefficient is h1 = 2000 Btu/ hr – ft2 - ˚F when the heat flux 52000 Btu/ hr – ft2
of the outside tube surface. Determine (a) the outside tube temperature, (b) the
permissible thickness of boiler scale if the metallic temperature is not to exceed 925 ˚F.
The thermal conductivities are: for steel, k = 310; for scale, k = 3.5 Btu – in/ hr – ft2 - ˚F.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the outside tube temperature;

𝐴𝑡 1250 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 𝑡 = 572.288℉

∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

𝐵𝑡𝑢
52000
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2

572.288 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
1.75
1 ln ( )
+ 1.35
𝐵𝑡𝑢 𝐵𝑡𝑢
2000 2𝜋 (310 )
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉ ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 539.9598℉

Solving the permissible thickness;

1.35 1.75
1 ln ( ) ln ( )
𝑅𝑇 = + 𝑟 + 1.35
2000 2𝜋 (3.5) 2𝜋(310)
3

925 − 572.288
52000 =
1.35 1.75
1 ln ( 𝑟 ) ln ( )
+ + 1.35
2000 3.5 2𝜋(310)
2𝜋 ( )
3

𝑟 = 1.206in
13. Dry saturated steam at 30 psia enters a 50 – ft section of steel pipe (OD = 2.375 in, ID =
1.939 in) and flows at a rate of 10 lb/ min; the pipe is covered with 1 in of 85% magnesia;
the film coefficients are h1 = 1000, h0 = 4 Btu/ hr = ft2 - ˚F. Determine the quality of the
steam as it leaves the section. Neglect pressure loss.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the quality of the steam;

𝑄 = 𝑚ℎ𝑔

𝐵𝑡𝑢 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 = 10 𝑙𝑏/ min (1164.1 )( )
𝑙𝑏 1ℎ𝑟

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 698460
ℎ𝑟

∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

1.1875 2.1875
1 ln ( ) ln ( ) 1
𝑅𝑇 = + 0.9645 + 1.1875 +
1.939 2.375
1000𝜋 ( 12 ) (50) 2𝜋(19)(50) 2𝜋(0.01104)(50) 4𝜋 ( ) (50)
12

ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 2 − ℉
𝑅𝑇 = 0.052572
𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝐴𝑡 60℉

250.34℉ − 60℉
𝑄=
0.052572

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄 = 3620.5558
ℎ𝑟

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 698460 − 3620.5558

 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 694839.4442
ℎ𝑟

𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1158.0657
𝑙𝑏

ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑓𝑔

1158.0657 = 218.9 + 𝑥(945.2)

𝑥 = 99.36%
14. Steam is flowing from a boiler to a small turbine through a 200 ft of 3.5 in steel pipe (4 in
OD, 3.548 in ID). The steam leaves the boiler saturated at 175 psia and enters the turbine
at 173.33 psia and with a moisture content of 1%. The turbine develops 60 bhp with a
brake steam rate of 41 lb/ bhp – hr. The ambient temperature is 90 ˚F; h1 = 1000 and h0 =
1.9 Btu/ hr –ft2 - ˚F, if the pipe is lagged with a 2.5 in later of insulation, compute the
value if the thermal conductivity for the insulation.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the thermal conductivity;

ℎ2 = 342.865 + (0.99)(1196 − 342.685)

ℎ2 = 1187.468 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏

𝑙𝑏 1ℎ𝑟
𝑚 = 41 𝑥
𝑏ℎ𝑝 − ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠

𝑙𝑏
𝑚 = 6.569
𝑠

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 = 19
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 − ℉

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 0.569(1196.15 − 1187.468)

𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠 𝐵𝑡𝑢

𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 4.934 𝑥 = 17798.1
ℎ𝑟 1ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

370.75 − 90
1779.81 =
2 4.5
1 ln ( ) ln ( ) 1
+ 1.774 + 2 +
3.548 2𝜋(19)(200) 2𝜋𝑘(200) 9
1000𝜋 ( 12 ) (200) 1.9𝜋 (12) (200)

𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑘 = 0.0527
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑓𝑡 − ℉
15. A nuclear reactor shell is spherical in shape, has an internal volume of 65.4 ft 2, contains
water boiling at 400 ˚F, and is made from stainless steel (k = 160 Btu – in/ hr – ft2 - ˚F) 3
in thick, the reactor has 2 – in layer of lead around it with a later of 85% magnesia in
between the two materials; the maximum power level for the reactor is 5kW. If the
maximum heat loss through the shell is not exceed 5% of the power, compute the needed
thickness of 85% magnesia. What will be the outer surface temperature of the lead under
the maximum heat loss conditions?

SOLUTION:

Solving for the temperature;

16. A 0.083 – in – diameter electrical wire at 90 ˚F is covered by 0.02 – in – thick plastic
insulation (k = 0.075 Btu/ hr – ft2 - ˚F), The wire is exposed to a medium at 50 ˚F with a
combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient of 2.5 Btu/ hr – ft2 - ˚F.
Determine if the plastic insulation on the wire will oncrease or decrease heat transfer
from the wire.

SOLUTION:

∆𝑇
𝑄=
𝑅𝑇

∆𝑇
𝑄=
1
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

90 − 50
𝑄=
1
𝜋 0.083 2
( ) (2.5)
4 12

𝑄 = 0.003757 Btu/hr

∆𝑇
𝑄′ =
0.123
1 ln (0.083)
+
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 2𝜋(0.75)
17. Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20 ˚C. Determine the total rate of heat
transfer from this person if surface area and the average outer surface temperature of the
person are 1.5 m2 and 29 ˚C, respectively and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6
W/m2. K.

SOLUTION:

𝑄 = ℎ𝑜 𝐴∆𝑡

W
𝑄 = (6 )(1.6𝑚2 )(29 − 20)
𝑚2−𝐾

𝑄 = 86.4 𝑊
18. Under conditions for which the same room temperature is maintained by heating or
cooling system, it is not uncommon for a person to feel chilled in the winter but
comfortable in the summer. Provide a plausible explanation for this situation (with
supporting calculations) by considering a room whose air temperature is maintained at 20
˚C throughout the year and to have an emissivity of 0.90. The coefficient associated with
heat transfer by natural convection between the person and the room air is approximately
2 W/m2 – K.

SOLUTION:
19. The diagram shows a conical section fabricated from pure aluminum. It is of circular
cross section having diameter D = ax1/2, where a = 0.5 m1/2. The small end is located at x1
= 25 mm and the large end at x2 = 125mm. The end temperatures are T1 = 600K and T2 =
400K, while the lateral surface is well insulated (a) Derive an expression for the
temperature distribution T(x) in symbolic form, assuming one – dimensional conditions.
Sketch the temperature distribution. (b) Calculate the heat rate.
20. A 65 – kg beef carcass (k = 0.47 W/m – K and a = 0.13 X 10-6 m2/s) initially at a uniform
temperature of 37 ˚C is to be cooled by refrigerated air at 210 ˚C flowing at a velocity of
1.2 m/s. The average heat transfer coefficient between the carcass and the air is 22 W/ m2
- K. Treating the carcass as a cylinder of diameter 24 cm and height 1.4m and
disregarding heat transfer from the base and top surfaces, determine how long it will take
for the center temperature of the carcass to drop to 4 ˚C.
21. An ordinary egg can be approximated as a 5.5 – cm diameter sphere whose properties are
roughly k = 0.6 W/m – K and a = 0.14 X 10-6 m2/s. The egg is initially at a uniform
temperature of 8˚C and is dropped into boiling water at 97 ˚C. Taking the convection heat
transfer coefficient to be h = 1400 W/m2 – K, determine how long will it take for the
center of the egg to reach 70 ˚C.
22. Water at 43.3 ˚C flows over a large plate at a velocity of 30.0 cm/s. The plate is 1.0 m
long (in the flow direction), and its surface is maintained at a uniform temperature of 10.0
˚C. Calculate the steady of hear transfer per unit width of the plate.
23. Inside a condenser, there is a bank of seven copper tubes with cooling water flowing in
them. Steam condenses at a rate of 0.6 kg/s on the outer surfaces of the tubes that are at a
constant temperature of 68 ˚C. Each copper tube is 5 – m long and has an inner diameter
of 25 mm. Cooling water enters each tube at 5 ˚C and exits at 60 ˚C. Determine the
average heat transfer coefficient of the cooling water flowing inside each tube and the
cooling water mean velocity needed to achieve the indicated heat transfer rate in the
condenser.
24. Hot air at 60 ˚C leaving the furnace of a house enter a 12 – m – long section of a sheet
metal duct of rectangular cross section 20 cm x 20 cm at an average velocity of 4 m/s.
The thermal resistance of the duct is neglible and the outer surface of the duct, whose
emissivity is 0.3 is exposed to the cold air at 10 ˚C in the basement, with a convection
heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m2 – K. Taking the walls of the basement to be at 10 ˚C
also, determine (a) the temperature at which the hot air will leave the basement and (b)
the rate of heat loss from the hot air in the duct to the basement. Evaluate air properties at
a bulk mean temperature at 50 ˚C. Is this a good assumption?
25. A 22.7 kg/s flow of air enters a preheater at 28 ˚C and leaves at 150 ˚C; 23.7 kg/s of
exhaust gases, cp = 1.09 kJ/ kg – K, enters at 315 ˚C. The overall coefficient of heat
transfer is 710 W/ m2 – K. Determine (a) the exit exhaust gas temperature; (b) the surface
area for parallel flow ; (c) the surface area for counterflow; (d) the LMTD

SOLUTION:

Solving for the exhaust gas temperature;

𝑄 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )

(22.7)(1.0047)(150℃ − 28℃) = (23.7)(1.09)(𝑇4 − 315)

𝑇4 = 207.3℃

Solving for the surface area;

𝜃𝐴 = 315 − 28 = 287 = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜃𝐵 = 207.3 − 150 = 57.3 = 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛

287 − 57.3
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
287
𝑙𝑛 ( )
57.3

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 142.6℃

2782
𝐴=
0.71(142.6)

𝐴 = 27.48𝑚2

Solving for surface area;

𝜃𝐴 = 207.3 − 28 = 179.3℃

𝜃𝐵 = 315 − 150 = 165℃

 179.3 − 165
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
179.3
𝑙𝑛 ( )
165

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 172℃

2782
𝐴=
0.71(172)

𝐴 = 22.78𝑚2

Solving for the LMTD;

LMTD as solved = 172℃

26. Crude oil, cp = 1.92 kJ/ kg – K, flows at the rate of 0.315 kg/s through the inside of a
concentric double – pipe heat exchanger and is heated from 32 ˚C to 96 ˚C. Another
hydrocarbon, cp = 2.5 kJ/ kg – K, enters at 240 ˚C. The overall coefficient of heat transfer
is found to be 4400 W/m2 – K. Determine for a minimum temperature difference of 17 ˚C
between the fluids (a) the LMTD for parallel flow and counterflow; (b) the surface area
for parallel flow and counter flow.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the LMTD for parallel flow and counter flow;

(240−32)−17
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 240−32 = 76.268℃ (Parallel Flow)
𝑙𝑛( )
17

(240−96)−17
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 240−96 = 59.44℃ (Counter Flow)
𝑙𝑛( )
17

Solving for the surface area;

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴𝑠 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (∆𝑇) = 0.315 𝑥 1.92 (96 − 32)

𝑄 = 38.7072𝑊

Parallel Flow

38.7072 = 4400(𝐴𝑠 )(76.268)

𝐴𝑠 = 0.1153𝑚2

Counter Flow

38.7072 = 4400(𝐴𝑠 )(59.44)

𝐴𝑠 = 0.148𝑚2
27. A shell – and – tube heat exchanger must transfer 205 kW to a solution with a specific
heat of 3.26 kJ/ kg – K and change its temperature from 65 ˚C to 93 ˚C. Steam is
available at 250 KPa. The unit convective coefficient is 3400 W/m2 – K, for the inside
and 7300 W/m2 – K for the outside. The thermal conductivity for the tubes is 111 W/m –
K and the tubes have 4.0 cm- OD and 3.0 ID and are 3 m long. Determine the number of
tubes required.
28. A one – shell – pass, six tube pass heat exchangers is used as an economizer on a steam
generator. The flue gas enters, cp = 1.09 kJ/kg – K enters at 350 ˚C and leaves at 205 ˚C
with flow rate of 58.0 kg/s. The feedwater enters at 175 ˚C with flow rate of 63 kg/s. A
change of operating conditions occur; the water flow is now 25.2 kg/s entering at 138 ˚C.
The new gas flow rate is 23.8 kg/s but the gas temperature remains the same. Determine
(a) the old surface area required if U = 170 W/m2 – K; (b) the effectiveness; (c) the new
water outlet temperature.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the old surface area;

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝𝑐 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑄 = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 58(1.09)(350 − 205)

𝑄 = 9167𝑘𝑊

Solving for tA

9167 = 63(4.187)(𝑇𝑐2 − 175)

𝑇𝑐2 = 207.5℃

tA= 350-207.5 = 142.5oC

θB= 205-175 = 30oC

142.5 − 30
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
142.5
𝑙𝑛 ( 30 )

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 72.2℃

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)

9167𝑘𝑊 = 0.17 (𝐴)(72.2)

𝐴 = 746.9𝑚2
29. A two – shell – pass, four – tube – pass heat exchanger is used as a feedwater heater and
has an effectiveness of 80%. Water with flow rate of 12.6 kg/s enters at 115 ˚C and air
enters at 290 ˚C with a flow rate of 25.2 kg/s. Determine (a) the air temperature; (b) the
water exit temperature.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the air temperature;

𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝑐 = (12.6)(4.24) = 53.424 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾
𝑘𝑊
𝐶ℎ = (25.2)(1.042) = 26.258 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐾

𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

𝑄
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 4595.15 𝑘𝑊
ℎ

For Th2, Tc2

𝑛𝑄 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 )

(0.8)(4595.15) = 26.258(290 − 𝑇ℎ2 )

𝑇ℎ2 = 150℃

Solving for the water exit temperature;

𝑛𝑄 = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

(0.8)(4595.15) = 53.424(𝑇𝑐2 − 115)

𝑇𝑐2 = 183.81℃
30. A new plant process requires 50.4 kg/s of air to be heated from 4 ˚C to 32 ˚C. Saturated
water at 280 KPa is available for heating the air and has a supply capacity of 8.82 kg/s.
An old heat exchanger is suggested for use in the new process. Records show the
following: dry saturated steam flow with no subcooling, 1.94 kg/s at 2000KPa; airflow,
96.5 kg/s, exiting at 65 ˚C. Determine (a) the original LMTD; (b) the effectiveness; (c)
whether the heat exchanger can be used in the new process.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the original LMTD;

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ2 = (50.4)(1007)(32 − 4) = (8.82)(4265.783)(131.21 − 𝑇ℎ2 )

𝑇ℎ2 = 93.44℃

θA= 127.4oC = θmax

θB= 61.44oC = θmin

θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
θ
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛

127.21 − 61.44
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
127.21
𝑙𝑛 ( )
61.44

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 90.37℃
31. A counterflow shell – and – tube exchanger cools 1.6 liter/s of oil (cp = 2.5 kJ/kg – K, p
= 720 kg/m3) from 95 ˚C to 50 ˚C. Cooling water enters the tube at 15 ˚C and leaves at 38
˚C. The overall coefficient of heat transfer is 450 W/m2 – K. Fouling of the tube occurs,
resulting in one – quarter of the tubes being blocked. The conditions remain the same
except for the outlet temperatures. Determine the oil and water exit temperatures under
new conditions.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the oil and water exit temperatures;

𝜃𝐴 = 95 − 38 = 57℃ = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜃𝐵 = 50 − 15 = 35℃ = 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛

θ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜃𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
θ
𝑙𝑛 ( 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛

57 − 35
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
57
𝑙𝑛 ( )
35

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 45.12℃

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑈(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)

𝑄
= (450)(45.12) = 20.304 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴𝑠

Solving for mw:

𝑘𝑊
20.304 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑚2
20.304
𝑚𝑤 = = 0.21𝑘𝑔/𝑠
(4.179)(23)

𝑈𝑓 = 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 1 𝑅𝑓 3 1
𝑅= + ; 𝐴𝑓 = 𝐴𝑖 ; 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐷 − 𝐷
𝑈𝐴 𝐴𝑓 4 4

1 0.0001 1 1
𝑅=( + )( ) ;𝑈 =
450 0.75 𝐴 𝑅
𝑊
𝑈 = 424.53 ; 𝑄 = 19.15𝑘𝑊
𝑚2
−𝐾

Thus,

𝑄 = 𝑄ℎ = 𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝ℎ (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 )

𝑚 = νρ

𝑙 100𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
19.15 = (1.6 ) ( ) (2.5 ) (45 − 𝑇ℎ2 )
𝑠 1000𝑙 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

𝑇ℎ2 = 90.213℃

𝑘𝑔
19.15 = (0.211 )(𝑇𝑐2 − 15)
𝑠

𝑇𝑐2 = 36.72℃
32. By traveling through a brass tube, 2.5 cm OD and 2.2 cm ID, which is surrounded by
steam at 55 KPa and 90% quality, 9.4 kg/s of water is heated from 15 ˚C to 60 ˚C.
Assume the inside unit convective coefficient is 2000W/m2 – K, and the outside unit
convective coefficient is 7950 W/m2 – K, Determine (a) the length of tube required; (b)
the steam supply in kh/h if no subcooling occurs.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the length of tube;

∆𝑇
𝑄= 𝑟
1 ln (𝑟2 ) 1
1
+ +
ℎ𝑖𝐴 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜𝐴

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

𝑄 = (4.187)(9.4)(60 − 15)

𝑄 = 1771.101 𝑘𝑊

At 55 kPa

t= 83.72oC

hf= 350.54 kJ/kg

hfg= 2299.3

h= 350.54 + (0.90)(2299.3)

h= 2419.37 kJ/kg

for ∆𝑇

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 68.72℃ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 23.72

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 𝑡
ln ( 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛

68.72 − 23.72
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 =
68.72
ln (23.72)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 42.304
then;

42.304
1771.101 =
0.0125
1 ln ( ) 1
+ 0.011 +
2000𝜋(0.022)𝐿 2𝜋𝐿 7950𝜋(0.025)𝐿

𝐿 = 0.3775𝑚

Solving for the steam supplied;

𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚

1771.101 = 𝑚𝑠 (2419.37)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑠 = 0.732
𝑠
33. Consider a water – ro – water counter – flow heat exchanger with these specifications.
Hot water enters at 95 ˚C while cold water enters at 20 ˚C. The exit temperature of hot
water is 15 ˚C greater than that of cold water and the mass flow rate of water is 50
percent greater than that of cold water, The product if heat transfer surface area and
overall heat transfer coefficient is 1400 W/K. Taking the specific heat of both cold and
hot water to be cp = 4180 J/kg – K, determine (a) the outlet temperature of the cold water,
(b) the effectiveness of the heat exchanger (c) the mass flow rate of the cold water, and
(d) the heat transfer rate.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the outlet temperature of the cold water;

𝑇ℎ2 − 𝑇𝑐2 = 15

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 (95 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐2 − 20)

1.5𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝 (95 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐2 − 20)

142.5 − 𝑇ℎ2 = 𝑇𝑐2 − 20

𝑇ℎ2 + 𝑇𝑐2 = 162.5

𝑇ℎ2 = 88.75℃

𝑇𝑐2 = 73.75

Solving for the effectiveness of the heat exchanger;

73.75 − 20
95 − 20

𝑒 = 0.7167 𝑜𝑟 71.67%

Solving for the mass flow rate of the cold water;

 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 68.75℃ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 21.25℃

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

𝑊 68.75 − 21.25
𝑄 = 1400 ( )
𝐾 68.75
ln ( )
21.25
𝑄 = 56638.17071𝑊

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

56638.17071𝑊 = 𝑚𝑐 (4180)(73.75 − 20)

𝑚𝑐 = 0.25209 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Solving for the heat transfer rate;

Q= 56638.17071𝑊
34. The mass flow rate, specific heat, and inlet temperature of the tube – side stream in a
double – pipe parallel flow heat exchanger are 2700 kg/h, 2.0 kJ/kg – K and 120 ˚C,
respectively. The mass flow rate, specific heat and inlet temperature of the other stream
are 1800 kg/h, 4.2 kJ/kg – K, and 20 ˚C respectively. The heat transfer area and overall
heat transfer coefficient are 0.50 m2 and 2.0 kW/m2 – K respectively. Find the outlet
temperatures of both streams in steady operation using (a) the LMTD method and (b) the
effectiveness – NTU method.

SOLUTION:

Solving for the LMTD;

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 (120 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑐2 − 20)

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
2700 (2.0 ) (120 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = 1800 (4.2 ) (𝑇𝑐2 − 20)
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾

648000 − 5400𝑇ℎ2 = 7560𝑇𝑐2 − 151200

𝑇𝑐2 = 105.714 − 0.71428𝑇ℎ2

𝑚ℎ 𝐶𝑝 (120 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = (0.5)(2.0)𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

2700𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛

(2.0)(120 − 𝑇ℎ2 ) = (0.5)(2.0) [ 𝑡 ]
60𝑠 ln ( 𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 120 − 20 = 100℃

𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇ℎ2 − (105.714 − 0.71428𝑇ℎ2 )

𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.71428𝑇ℎ2 − 105.714

100
10800 − 90𝑇ℎ2 =
100
ln ( )
1.71428𝑇ℎ2 − 105.714

𝑇ℎ2 = 112.211℃

Solving for the effectiveness;

𝐶𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝
 2700𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝐻 = (2.0) = 90
60𝑠 𝑘
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝐶 = 1800 (4.2 ) = 126
60𝑠 𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 𝑘

𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 90
𝑘
𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 )

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 90(120 − 20)

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 9000 𝑘𝑊

𝜃 = 𝐶𝑐 (𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑐1 )

9000 𝑘𝑊
𝑇𝑐2 = 20 +
𝑘𝑤
126
𝑘
𝑇𝑐2 = 91.4285℃

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ2

𝜃 = 𝐶𝐻 (𝑇ℎ1 − 𝑇ℎ2 )

9000
𝑇ℎ2 = 120 −
90
𝑇ℎ2 = 20℃
35. Consider the flow of saturated steam at 270.1 kPa that flows through the shell side of a
shell – and – tube heat exchanger while the water flows through 4 tubes of diameter 1.25
cm at a rate of 0.25 kg/s through each tube. The water enters the tubes of heat exchanger
at ˚C and exits at 60 ˚C. Due to the heat exchange with cold fluid. Steam is condensed on
the tubes external surface. The convection heat transfer coefficient on the steam side is
1500 W/m2 – K, while the following resistance for the steam and water may be taken as
0.00015 and 0.0001 m2 K/W, respectively. Using the NTU method, determine (a)
effectiveness of the heat exchanger (b) length of the tube and (c) rate of steam
condensation.

SOLUTION: