Diversion Int V.2.0

BJ SERVICES
FLUID LOSS AND

DIVERTING AGENTS
Kieran O’Driscoll
2ND Edition
Forward and Acknowledgements
When writing a technical manual such as this, with such a broad scope of information,
it is necessary to draw on every available source. This inevitably means using,
plagiarising, piracy of and copying of other individuals’ materials, ideas and
knowledge. For this, we the Editors apologise.
We would like to thank all those colleagues, who wittingly or unwittingly contributed to
this manual, we couldn’t have done it without you. What is truly amazing is that these
contributions spanned the entire globe, with a multitude of nationalities. This makes
this and the other manuals in this series representative of what is happening globally
in BJ Services. We were able to draw upon the accumulated knowledge of three major
service companies Nowsco, Western and BJ Services, their R&D departments in the
USA and Canada. We also had access to two international Technical Centres in
Aberdeen and Singapore and the illustrious South American Technical Group.
This is client friendly document and we encourage its distribution. The document is
available with both International A4 formats and US Letter.
In order to keep this a live and relevant document, we would like to encourage
corrections, additions, deletions, new techniques, new products and applications.
However, we do insist on editorial rights.
Kieran O’Driscoll
October 2001
Bangkok Thailand
Asia Pacific Region
BJ Services
Contents.
Section. Page
1. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents - Introduction 1
1.1. Solid Diverting Agents 2

1.2. Selective Acidizing Formulations (Water Stimulation Prevention) 5
1.2.1. Viscoelastic Surfactants 6
1.3. Gels and Viscous Fluids 7

1.4. Foam Diversion 8
1.4.1. Foam Diversion Theory 9
1.5. Ball Sealers 13
1.5.1. BioSealers 15
1.5.2. High Temperature BioSealers 16
1.6. Mechanical Methods 16
2. Formation Damage with Fluid loss Control and Diverting Agents 19
2.1. Bridging Theory 19

2.2. Critical Particle Size Ratios 20
2.3. Actual Micron Sizes of Critical Particles 21
2.4. Polymer Filter Cake Damage 22
3. Applications of Fluid Loss and Diverting Materials 23
3.1. Perforating Fluids and Completion Fluids 23

3.2. Gravel Packing 23
3.3. Acidizing 24
3.4. Hydraulic Fracturing 25
3.5. Horizontal Wells 26
3.6. Cased Hole Horizontal Completions 27
3.7. Open hole Horizontal Completions 27
3.8. Horizontal Well Diversion Considerations 29
4. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents 30
4.1. Calcium Carbonate 30

4.2. Clean Plug 30
4.3. Divert II (Benzoic Acid) 30
4.4. Divert VI (Wax Beads) 31
4.5. Divert X (Oil Soluble Material) 32
4.6. FLC-2 (Oil Soluble Resin) 32
4.7. FLC-11 (Oil Soluble Resin) 33
i Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

BJ Services
Contents.
Section. Page
4.8. FLC-17 (Chemical Emulsion) 33

4.9. FLC-18 (Chemical Precipitate) 33
4.10. Rock Salt 35
4.11. Other Diverting Materials 35
Index 41
References and Bibliography 47
ii Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

BJ Services
Contents.
Section. Page
List of Figures
Figure 1: BioSealer Static Solubility Tests - Diameter versus Time 15

Figure 2: Hexagonal Packing of Formation Sand Grains 19
Figure 3: Stable Bridge 20
Figure 4: Solubility of Benzoic Acid 31
List of Tables
Table 1: Regain Permeabilities for Selected Fluid Loss Additives and Solvents 5
Table 2: Selective Acidizing Treatment Options 6
Table 3: Available Perforation Ball Sealers. 14
Table 4: Permeability Reduction by Soluble Fluid Loss Additives 19
Table 5: Critical Plugging Sizes Associated with Various Permeabilities 22
Table 6: Recommended concentrations of Benzoic Acid 30
Table 7: FLC-18 Particle Sizes Precipitated in Inhibited Acid Containing Various
Surfactants 34
Table 8: Recommended Concentrations of FLC-18 for Acid Treating Fluids at
Various Temperatures 34
Table 9: Usage of Other Diverting Materials 35
Table 10: Usage of Fluid loss and Diverting Agents 35
Table 11: Solvents for Fluid loss and Diverting Agents 36
Table 12: Carrier fluids for Fluid loss and Diverting Agents. 37
iii Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

BJ Services
Contents.
Section. Page
iv Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

BJ Services
1. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents - Introduction
When treating a formation in producing or injection wells, it is very important that the
treating fluids be distributed effectively across the entire interval of interest. Many
formations have one or more sections, which vary greatly in permeability. When a
treatment is performed on a formation with zones that have varying permeability the
fluid will normally take the path of least resistance. Therefore, without some type of
diverting agent, only the most permeable zones will be treated, leaving the remaining
zone basically unchanged.
There are many different diverting agents, which can be used to help obtain a uniform
treatment of the entire interval of interest. The various types of diverting agents used
include:
• Solids.
Create restrictions across the more permeable zones.

(Benzoic Acid, Graded Rock Salt, Divert VI, Divert X)
• Chemical.
Chemicals that form solid precipitates or emulsions when contacted by an

external catalyst (FLC-18).
• Gels and Viscous Fluids.
Viscosity contrast creates flow restriction within the high permeability zone
(Darcy’s Law) diverting the treatment to less permeable zones.
(HEC, Clean Plug, other gelled or cross-linked fluids)
• Foam.
Stabilised foam creates a viscosity gradient across more permeable zones and
diverts the treatment to less permeable zones.
• Ball sealers.
Physically block the perforations with a nylon core rubber ball.
• Mechanical methods.
Bridge-plugs, packers and other tools which isolate the zone of interest. Check
with tool companies for additional information.
1 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

BJ Services
To obtain the best results from most acid stimulation jobs it is important that the acid
be distributed over the entire production or injection interval. Without some method of
diverting an acid treating solution, most of the acid will enter the most permeable, and
often least productive sections of the formation, leaving parts of the producing zone
untreated. The following are guidelines for diverting:
• Diverting before a gravel pack should utilise sand and HEC polymer only.
• Use mechanical diverting whenever possible.
• Divide the zone into treatment stages.
• If the zone is less than 80 feet, base the treatment on 20-ft stages.
• If the zone is greater than 80 feet, base the treatment on 30-ft stages.
1.1. Solid Diverting Agents
Solid type diverting agents are the most widely used method for diverting or fluid loss
control. These solids create a restriction in and across the sections of the formation
that accept fluid most readily causing the treating pressure to rise which then forces
the breakdown of other sections of the formation. There are some important
parameters that these solids must have in order to be used as a diverting material.
Solid fluid loss and diverting agents must be soluble in oil, in water or (ideally) in both
oil and water. The rate of solubility of these solids must be sufficiently low that very
little of the blocking agent is dissolved by the carrier fluid during placement, yet high in
the produced or injected fluids in order to clean up within 24 hours or less.
The particle size and distribution of the solid diverting agents, often determines the
type and effectiveness of the bridge obtained. Wherever possible the size distribution
of the diverting agent should chosen so that bridging of the particles takes place at the
formation face, and that invasion and plugging of the formation cannot occur. Studies
have shown that that the most effective bridges are obtained by using a mixture of
large and small particles. The larger particles form an initial bridge at the formation
face, allowing the smaller particles to plate out on the bridge creating an impermeable
filter cake. If fine particles are allowed to plug the formation permeability, these may be
impossible to remove and the stimulation job may be a failure and may even increase
the damage to the formation.
Solid diverting agents fall can be categorised as either, bridging and plugging agents
or matrix diverting agents. These categories are based on the particle size distribution
of the solids that make up the agent.

BJ Services
• Bridging and Plugging Agents.
These consist large particles ranging from 100 mesh to 10 mesh (0.15 to 2.0
mm), which for high permeability filter cakes and are used primarily for
diversion when fracture acidizing limestone formations.
• Matrix Diverting Agents.
These consist of particles which generally smaller than 0.10 mm, and fall in to
two groups, water soluble for injection wells, and oil soluble for oil wells.
The filter cake laid down on the formation face must have the minimum permeability
possible to achieve maximum diversion. If the cake permeability is greater than the
permeability of the zones to be treated no diversion will occur.
Care should be taken when mixing diverting agents in the carrier fluid that the particles
are properly dispersed and remain suspended. This will ensure that the particles
forming filter cake down hole will better distributed, thus forming a lower permeability
filter cake.
Solid type fluid loss and diverting agents must also be compatible with all fluids
associated with the well to be treated. In other words, a fluid loss or diverting material
having an undesirable reaction with either the treating fluids or the formation fluids
should not be used. Any diverting agent used must be soluble in either production or
injection fluids and should exhibit rapid dissolution and clean up with these fluids.
Some of the diverting agents used in water based fluids, such as acid, include salt,
naphthalene, paraformaldehyde, sulphamic acid, organic acids, inorganic acids and
wax polymers. These materials can be used alone or in conjunction with other
materials. Usually most of the diverting material is carried in a preflush ahead of the
treating solution or in spacers between treating stages.
Certain wells which are equipped with sand control devices, gravel packs, or slotted
liners are difficult to treat uniformly using solid fluid loss and diverting agents. These
solid materials, having comparatively large particles, cannot penetrate through the
gravel packs. This causes the filter cake to form on the well bore side of the gravel
pack instead of on the face of the formation. Once the treating fluid enters the gravel
pack it is free to enter the formation at the path of least resistance. Liquid and micron
sized particulate diverting agents have been developed to meet the conditions of these
types of wells.
Fluid loss and diverting agents may be used to temporarily bridge off across a
formation face or in perforations. Benzoic acid (Divert II) is one such product that is
slowly soluble in water or oil and is available as finely divided particles and as flakes.
Diverting fluids using guar-based gelling agents, salt and benzoic acid will often fail to

BJ Services
provide significant diversion as the effectiveness of the filter cake formed is rapidly
reduced upon contact with acid1.
For wax bead diverting agents to be effective they must be placed into the wellbore at
temperatures below their melting point. For these diverting agents to clean up properly
they must also have melting points below that of the reservoir temperature. This
means that for effective placement and diversion the formation must be cooled
significantly using cool down pads or large treating volumes ahead of fluids containing
this type of diverter2.
An additional problem with wax beads is their specific gravity, which tends to be lower
than that of the carrying fluid. This can lead to problems mixing them at surface, and
separation from the carrying fluid down hole. This is particularly true in horizontal wells
where they will have a tendency to float to the upper side of the hole.
In general wax beads will only provide good diversion in cased-hole completions
where the beads can accumulate in the perforation tunnels and allow plugging. High
rate applications are preferable with these products to mitigate the separation from the
carrier fluid. Applications in horizontal wells are limited to treating zones at the heel of
the well only. Treatments have to be placed prior to the wellbore re-heating back to a
temperature where the wax will melt and the diversion material being lost.
Unibeads are wax beads (Divert VI) and can be selected for desired melting point
temperature, size and distribution.
Graded rock salt has been used effectively in completion fluids and as an acid
diverting agents for multiple zone completions for many years. It is available in a wide
range of mesh sizes up to 125 mesh.
SPE literature indicates that the optimum particle size for rock salt is based on a
maximum size of 0.25 inches. The range of particle size for an ideal blend is 0.002
inch to 0.25 inches. For perforated completion, 10 to 15 lbs are used per perforation
carried in gelled saturated brine. Rock salt and benzoic acid or Unibeads are
sometimes used on a 50:50 basis. Salts are placed either with oil-based fluids or
saturated viscosified brines.
Removal of salts from the formation face is carried out using fresh water, sea water, or
under-saturated brine with a breaker to degrade the viscosifier (see Table 1).
Produced water is also an important mechanism for the removal of salts.
Oil soluble resins are usually placed in water based fluids such as viscosified brines.
Removal of this material from the formation face is carried out with aromatic solvents
or diesel surfactant mixtures. The use of water based fluids with surfactants have
limited effect. Produced hydrocarbons are also important in the removal of these
materials.

BJ Services
Table 1: Regain Permeabilities for Selected Fluid Loss Additives and Solvents
Fluid Loss Wash Pill Initial Final Regain
Agent Permeability Permeability Permeability
to Oil KO1 to Oil KO2 %
Bridgesal A 3005 1442 48
Hysal II A 2661 1937 73
Hysal II A 1924 2114 110
Hysal II A 604 335 56
OSR B 3425 2110 62
OSR B 3434 2146 63
OSR C 3015 1878 63
OSR C 2391 1839 77
OSR D 2427 2320 96
OSR D 644 636 99
OSR D 156 132 85
Pill make-up
Bridgesal: 1.20 kg/L NaCl Brine + 172 kg Bridgesal + 2.5 kg XC-Polymer

+ 143 kg Plugsal + 114 kg Plugsal X
Hysal II: 1.42 kg/L CaCl2/CaBr2 Brine + 143 kg Hysal II +5.5 kg HEC
+ 143 kg Plugsal + 143 kg Plugsal X
OSR: 1.42 kg/L CaCl2 /CaBr2 Brine + 10 kg XC-Polymer + 12 kg MgO
+ 20 kg FL-7 Plus + 75 kg Resins Fine + 75 kg Resins Medium
Solvent make-up
A: 2% KCl + Sodium Hypochlorite Breaker

B: Emulsion (2% KCl brine + 10% aromatic solvent)
+ Sodium Hypochlorite Breaker
C: Diesel + Surfactant blend A
D: Diesel + Surfactant blend B
1.2. Selective Acidizing Formulations (Water Stimulation Prevention)
Acidizing solutions preferentially enter water bearing formations and increased

production of water is an unwelcome by-product of many stimulation jobs. Relative
permeability effects cause this phenomenon. Diverter systems designed to divert
stimulation fluids away from water bearing zones are the selective acidizing
formulations (SAF and SAF Mark II). When the water contact is in the perforated

BJ Services
interval or water bearing zones are exposed in the open hole, then selective acidizing
should be employed to prevent accelerated water production after treatment. When
applying the selective acidizing technique, the acid is diverted into the oil bearing zone,
resulting in increased oil production, whilst water production remains the same.
Table 2: Selective Acidizing Treatment Options
Situation Treatment
Oil Well - Non Gravel Packed SAF Mark II
Oil Well - Gravel Packed SAF
Gas Well 65 Quality Foam Preflush
The principal component of the SAF (Selective Acidizing Formulation) system is a

specially treated kerosene or diesel oil (not crude oil) preflush, usually a minimum of
500 gallons in volume. This preflush is injected ahead of a conventional acid
stimulation treatment. Preceding the preflush is a spearhead volume of 5.0 barrels of
clean, water free crude oil, kerosene, or diesel oil. Between the preflush and the
conventional acid is a pad volume of 2.0 to 5.0 barrels of clean water free crude oil,
kerosene or diesel oil. The spearhead and the pad prevent the preflush from
contacting any water-based fluids and precipitating prematurely, prior to entering the
water-bearing zone.
With the pay zone isolated by packers or bridge plugs, the SAF preflush enters the
formation as a low viscosity fluid. Upon contact with any water in the formation, the
preflush immediately forms an oil soluble precipitate at the water-SAF interface. This
oil soluble precipitate will partially penetrate and effectively plug the permeability of the
water producing strata. With this strata effectively plugged, the acid treatment is
diverted into the oil producing strata. When the treatment is complete, the well is shut
in and produced in the conventional manner. SAF systems can be used with any type
of acid, with any formation and in all wells except dry gas wells.
1.2.1. Viscoelastic Surfactants
New diverting systems have been developed using viscoelastic surfactant technology.
These systems are made up from fluids containing surfactants that when at sufficient
concentration and in the presence of salts in solution form micellular rods that impart
viscosity to the fluid3. These fluids are designed to take advantage of relative
permeability effects, thus effectively diverting acid treatments away from high
permeability or water bearing formations.

BJ Services
The rod like structures are very stable when in and aqueous environment, thus the
fluids easily maintain their viscosity when injected into water bearing formations.
However, in the presence of hydrocarbon fluids, the micellular rods are disrupted and
revert to spherical micelles, which in turn reduces the fluid viscosity to that of the
carrier fluid. This viscosity contrast in the presence of oil or water provides the
diversion effects during acid stimulation.
Placement procedures involve pumping a 10% mutual solvent solution (10 to 20

gallons per foot) ahead of the treatment to sweep residual oil from the water bearing
formation with high water saturation. This is then followed by a brine pad to create a
region of higher water saturation (100% water saturation is desirable) in the near
wellbore area. The viscoelastic diverter (3 to 5 gallons per foot) is then pumped and
forms a highly viscous fluid in the water bearing zone whilst “breaking” to form a low
viscosity fluid in the oil bearing zone. The main acid treatment following the diverter
stage will now preferentially enter the oil-bearing zone due to the large differential
viscosity.
BJ Services M-Aquatrol system is based on viscoelastic surfactant technology and can

be used as a basis to provide diversion for acid treatments in both sandstone and
carbonate formations.
1.3. Gels and Viscous Fluids
For new well completions gels and viscous brines are used alone where possible, to
avoid the potential for formation damage. These fluids contain a very low residue
polymer such Hydroxy-ethyl-cellulose (HEC) or XC-Polymer. These polymers are used
to gel the completion and work-over brines, or in the case of acidizing either 2% KCl or
3% NH3Cl brines. The high viscosity of these gelled fluids helps to divert the treating
fluid from the more permeable zones to the less permeable zones. A normal
concentration of polymer would be 50 lbs per 1000 gallons, however other
concentrations can be used.
Gel type agents are available in both temporary and permanent materials. The
temporary gels are used during acidizing or fracturing treatments that call for diverting
action. They are commonly used in wells previously acidized or fractured, in wells with
wide permeability difference in the pay zone and in wells that would benefit more from
multiple fractures or flow channels than from single extended ones.
Temporary blocking gels (Clean Plug) are offered in either oil based or water based
mixtures. They are usually pumped into the formation as relatively thin fluids, which set
up quickly to form a semisolid or thick gel that prevents any additional fluid from
entering the zone. After a predetermined time the gel breaks reverting to a water thin
liquid that is easily produced from the formation.
Permanent blocking gels are especially useful for blocking within the formation. They
form a thin, true solution of low viscosity that can penetrate any formation through
which water will flow. Once in place within the formation, they solidify into a rigid,
permanent gel that does not break.

BJ Services
Gelled and viscous fluids are often used in conjunction with acid treatments. Where a
water bearing zone is associated with the zone to be treated, a gelled fluid can be
placed across the water bearing interval to temporarily shut-off the zone during
acidizing. This prevents acid from preferentially entering this zone and stimulating
water production. These fluids can be linear gels, but are more commonly cross-linked
gels such as Clean Plug. These gels can contain an internal breaker mechanism or
can be broken after the acid job using a solution containing breakers.
Gelled or cross-linked pads containing an internal breaker can be pumped as diverter
stages during and acid treatment. These gelled pads often contain solid diverting or
fluid loss agents.
Enhanced Acid Systems (EAS) are used as diverting stages when acidizing limestone
or dolomite formations. These systems comprise of a gelled acid diverter stage, which
cross-links in the formation as the acid spends and the pH rises. The cross-linked fluid
that then forms in-situ diverts the next conventional acid stage to another part of the
zone being treated. An internal breaker is included as part of the EAS systems to
enhance viscosity degradation and clean up after the acid treatment is complete.
1.4. Foam Diversion
Nitrogen generated foams have been used with great success in recent years. A
variety of fluids, chemically compatible with the formation, can be used in generating
foam thereby eliminating any formation damage potential. Acid, Alcohol, crude oil and
diesel are among the base fluids used to form foamed systems. The only other
additives required are a foaming surfactant and nitrogen. Nitrogen will not contribute to
damage because it is chemically inert.
Foamed fluids make excellent diverting materials due to their high viscosity, multiple
phase flow in the matrix of the rock, and their ability to carry solids. In addition at the
end of the stimulation the presence of nitrogen gas, energises the fluids and aids in
the clean up and recovery of the fluids from the well. Matrix diversion results from the
high viscosity foam flowing through the formation. It takes more pressure to force a
high viscosity fluid through a matrix compared to a low viscosity fluid; therefore
creating a differential pressure at the well bore which causes diversion.
Where a reservoir will not hold the full hydrostatic column of fluid in a well, the use of
foam should be considered. Properly designed and controlled foam will not
significantly leak off into the formation and can be used for many work-over and
completion operations where losses need to be controlled.
However, in deep wells and where high pumping rates are required for effective
stimulation, the use of nitrogen as a diverting agent may not be practical except where
stimulation takes place through coiled tubing.
• Matrix Treatments.
Nitrogen delivery rates for 65-quality foam are limited to approximately 8500
scf/min for a single large unit. Thus the use of nitrogen as a diverting agent

BJ Services
could seriously limit the injection rate used for matrix jobs where equipment
availability is a problem. Where coiled tubing stimulations are carried out,
nitrogen rates are generally acceptable at the pumping rates achievable
through coiled tubing.
• Fracturing Treatments.
Minimum nitrogen delivery rate for 65-quality foam at 30 BPM (a conservative

pump rate) is commonly 30,000 scf/min in deeper wells. This would require at
least four large nitrogen units to produce the required rate and significantly
increase costs.
1.4.1. Foam Diversion Theory
Foam has been used for many years to divert acid into damaged and less permeable
formations during matrix acid treatments. Foam diversion acts by placing a large
volume of gas into the formation pore spaces surrounding the wellbore and then
trapping this gas in place during acid injection. The high gas saturation in the near
wellbore reduces liquid relative permeability during the acid injection phase of a
treatment creating a high pressure drop in the near wellbore area and thus diverting
the acid away into untreated or lower permeability zones within the wellbore.
The key to effective foam diversion is low gas mobility during foam injection and
effective gas trapping during injection of acid. Where a single foamed acid fluid is used
as the treating fluid then low mobility during foam injection is the controlling factor.
Previous models of foam diversion assumed that foam mobility during foam injection
was controlled by capillary pressure, causing foam collapse at single water saturation.
This implied that during foam flow, the local pressure gradient was proportional to the
liquid flow rate and independent of gas flow rate and that at fixed foam quality, foam
behaves as a Newtonian fluid. However, foam is non-Newtonian at fixed bubble size
and bubble size responds to flow rates that gives apparent Newtonian behaviour.
Research indicated therefore, that a Newtonian rheology was an acceptable
approximation for foams used in acidizing. These models also assumed that the
injected acid trapped all gas present in the foam provided the acid was compatible with
the foam.
More recent work has shown that some of the gas within the foam escapes during acid
injection influencing the effectiveness of diversion and that non-Newtonian rheology
and foam mobility prevailed during foam injection. Additionally it was found that foam
rheology and mobility varied greatly with foam quality. At high foam quality (greater
than 80%) foam mobility is controlled by capillary pressure (pressure gradient
increases with injection rate) and foam bubble coalescence, whilst at lower foam
qualities (80% or less) pressure gradient is independent of acid flow rates and shear
thinning with respect to gas.
Work carried out by Rossen and Wang4 on lower quality foams showed that:

BJ Services
1. During foam injection the pressure gradient in the near wellbore is nearly
independent of liquid flow rate.
2. During foam injection pressure gradient is influenced by gas flow rate.
3. During acid injection pressure gradient is several times lower than during foam
injection but is not strongly influenced by acid flow rate.
During foam injection, most of the gas is trapped as immobile bubbles in the pore
spaces in the near wellbore. The gas phase is held back by liquid films between the
bubbles and behaves like a Bingham plastic fluid with yield stress.
The effective yield stress and apparent viscosity of this fluid is strongly dependent on
the foam bubble size. The aqueous phase of the foam continues to flow as a
Newtonian fluid controlled by the relative-permeability function krw (Sw) as if no foam
were present. This implies that little liquid is present in the films surrounding the gas
bubbles and the bulk of the fluid occupies pores at the same saturation it would in the
absence of foam.
Bubble size in low quality foams is thought to be independent of liquid and gas flow
rates. If bubble size is approximately the same as the pore size then bubble creation
by division and snap-off would be inhibited and diffusion between bubbles can cause
bubbles to rapidly grow to pore size due to lower capillary pressures. If bubbles are
fixed size gas flow behave like a Bingham fluid with a yield stress and plastic viscosity.
Therefore bubbles in a given pore do not move unless the pressure gradient exceeds
a given value that is controlled by the pore throat diameter. Thus for a given pressure
gradient, bubbles in pores with small throats will remain trapped and in larger pores
will tend to flow.
For a given foam quality and injection rate the system will tend towards a water
saturation and pressure gradient that corresponds to the imposed flow rates of gas
and liquid. Small pore spaces become filled with liquid, large pores with flowing gas
and intermediate pores with trapped gas.
If the liquid flow rate is increased, there will be a loss of trapped gas and an increase in
liquid relative permeability proportional to the increased liquid flow rate. Gas will
continue to flow through the larger pores with no change in pressure gradient.
If the gas flow rate is increased, the flow of gas through the pores is controlled by
pressure gradient and yield stress of the foam, which together control trapping of gas.
The increased pressure gradient created allows more gas to flow through the larger
pores and to open smaller pores to flow due to the higher differential pressures.
Additionally liquid is displaced from smaller pores reducing water saturation and
opening smaller pores to trapped gas.
High quality foams (greater than 80%) appear to be controlled by capillary pressure
where bubble size changes greatly with small changes in water saturation. This
causes gas mobility to increase proportionally with gas flow rate where the pressure
gradient remains independent of gas velocity.

BJ Services
Injected acid following the placement of foam is in theory, diverted away from the zone
where the foam has been placed. If it is considered that liquid relative permeability is
unaffected by the presence of foam, then the falling capillary pressure at the cessation
of injecting gas would favour the invasion of intermediate sized pores by the acid,
displacing the gas further out into the zone. However, gas trapping would tend to make
displacement easiest in the largest pores where the gas was moving during injection of
the foam. It therefore seems reasonable to assume that acid would displace the
moving gas from these pore spaces once gas injection ceases. Also once gas
injection ceases, falling pressure gradient would make it harder to mobilise gas in
intermediate sized pores where gas is trapped and gas would become trapped in
larger pores for the same reasons.
Another view is that once gas injection ceases, acid would invade the smallest pores
filled with gas. The pressure gradient falls until gas can no longer flow in the largest
pore spaces at which point the pressure gradient becomes independent of liquid
injection rate. A higher liquid injection rate would in this case displace more trapped
gas in small to intermediate pores until the point where the gas in the largest pore
becomes trapped.
Observed behaviour of foam qualities of 80% or less indicates that:
Foams behave as shear thinning fluids. Gas bubble trapping and mobilisation control
gas and liquid mobility Where the gas bubble size is fixed by the pore size and is
independent of gas and liquid flow rates.
During foam injection:
Pressure gradient is independent of liquid flow rate for a given gas flow rate.
During acid injection:
Pressure gradient falls moderately.

Pressure gradient is relatively insensitive to acid injection rate.
For higher quality foams (greater than 80%)
Foam behaviour is controlled by capillary pressure and foam coalescence (changes in

bubble size).
Work carried out by Shell5 has shown that when acidizing sandstone reservoirs the
use of foam diversion is extremely effective when foam slugs of 1.5 to 2.0 times the
hole volume were used for diverter stages when pumped through coiled tubing. Where
acid was being bull-headed the foam stages had to be large enough to penetrate 2.0 ft
into the formation but treatments were limited to three stages. Nitrifying the acid stages
was found to improve subsequent stage diversion by replenishing nitrogen lost to the
formation. The use of mutual solvents and hydrocarbon solvents should be avoided as

BJ Services
these can reduce the foam stability and prevent effective diversion. Where
hydrocarbon preflushes are required these should be displaced ahead of foam
diversion stages with water based pads.

BJ Services
1.5. Ball Sealers
Ball sealers are another method of diverting stimulation treatments in common use.
These are made of nylon, hard rubber or nylon with a hard rubber coating. These balls
are designed to temporarily seal the entrance to bullet or jet type perforations in
casing. Ball sealers are extremely effective in new wells with a limited number of
perforations (Limited Entry techniques). However they may not be as effective in old
wells or in wells with a large number of perforations.
The balls are generally injected into the treating fluid at a predetermined time. As the
fluid carrying the ball sealers enters the open perforations, the ball will hopefully seat
and block the flow of fluid, this causes the treating pressure to increase and the fluid
now either breaks down plugged perforations or enters the perforations with lower
permeabilities. Once the injection of fluid is stopped the force holding the ball is
removed and the ball drops to the bottom of the well. Ball sealers come in various
sizes and densities.
Ball sealers are available in a large range of sizes and densities and may be designed
to fall into the rat hole or be produced back to surface. Under normal conditions with a
Newtonian fluid, the settling velocity may be calculated using the following equation:
VS = [4 gC D (ρB - ρF)/ (3 FD ρF)] 0.5
Where:
VS = Settling Velocity, ft/sec.

D = Diameter of the ball (ft).
ρB = Specific Gravity of the ball.
ρF = Specific Gravity of the transport fluid.
gC = Gravity acceleration (use 32.2 ft/sec).
FD = Friction drag coefficient (typically 0.44).
The size of the ball depends upon the size of the perforation to be sealed and the
density depends upon the type of treating fluid to be used. The use of ball sealers can
be an effective method of diverting if the right type and number of balls are used.
However, there are some wells in which the use of ball sealers would not be
recommended, such as a well in which there are non-uniform perforations, slotted
liners, gravel pack screens and wells with open hole completions
Buoyant ball sealers have been found to be most efficient when used in matrix
treatments. However, where large multiple zones are to be treated and low perforation
flow rates may exist (less than 0.4 gal/perforation), the resultant casing flow rate may
be insufficient to ensure good diversion. Where field experience shows that the rates
attainable are insufficient alternate forms of diversion such as the use of gelled fluids,
solids or mechanical methods have to be considered.
In the case of gas wells the removal of the balls by produced fluids is likely to be a
problem. This is particularly true in horizontal sections where the balls are likely to

BJ Services
remain and interfere with other injection processes and potentially foul up on tools or
other equipment run in hole.
For the reasons stated above it is recommended that ball sealers not be used for
diversion unless the completion method allows removal of the ball sealers or allows
them to fall to a rat hole or a section of hole where they will not hinder other
operations. Where completion systems allow ball sealers are the most efficient
diversion method and should be used for both matrix and fracture acid treatments.
• Gas Well Matrix treatments:
For Gas wells, buoyant balls should be used in an attempt to flow the balls back
with returned fluids. Any balls left in the well should fall to the bottom in the rat
hole as gas is produced. Injectivity tests will have to be performed to establish
flow rates to determine the optimum density of the balls to be used and what
the optimum ball fluid rate will be.
Generally 1.1-sg balls are used in matrix treatments with balls being injected at
between 1 and 3 balls per barrel of treatment. This ball injection rate is a
function of the total number of perforations present in each zone to be treated
the pump rate and the designed volume of acid to be pumped per foot of
perforations. As a rule of thumb 15% excess balls over the total number of
perforations should be pumped to obtain 100% diversion.
• Fracture Treatments:
During acid fracturing treatments it is desirable to divert discrete stages of acid

and pad into different zones. This can be most effectively achieved by the use
of ball sealers. The current practice in the North Sea has been to use positive
buoyancy balls (greater than 1.1 s.g) during acid fracturing treatments. These
balls are run behind each acid stage with one barrel of gelled fluid per ball,
using 20% to 30% excess balls over the number of perforations to be sealed.
These are designed to fall to the rat hole at the end of pumping operations.
However where horizontal sections are concerned buoyant balls would be
required.
Table 3: Available Perforation Ball Sealers.

Name Size Specific Fall Rate, ft/min Rise Rate, ft/min

BJ Services
inches Gravity in 15% HCl in 15% HCl

Select-o-ball 0.625 1.3 61.88 -
Ball Sealer 0.875 0.9 - 64.57
Exxon Prod. Co. 0.875 0.9 - 64.57
Exxon Prod. Co. 0.875 1.0 - 42.27
Select-o-ball 0.875 1.1 24.41 -
Select-o-ball 0.875 1.18 50.02 -
Select-o-ball 0.875 1.3 73.22 -
Select-o-ball 0.875 1.4 88.0 -
Select-o-ball 0.875 1.9 140.2 -
Select-o-ball 1.0 1.3 78.27 -
Select-o-ball 1.25 1.3 87.5 -
1.5.1. BioSealers
BioSealers are water-soluble perforation ball sealers for diversion of treatment fluids in
any application where rubber coated neoprene (RCN) balls would normally be used.
They can also be applied in situations where ball sealer diversion is desired but
prohibited due to the long-term mechanical integrity of RCN ball sealers. BioSealers
are organic-based ball sealers that slowly dissolve in all aqueous fluids such as fresh
water, brine and acid.
BioSealers are 7/8 inch in diameter and have a specific gravity of 1.2 which is the same
density as most RCN ball sealers used today. BioSealers can withstand perforation
differential pressures of several thousand psi and can be used where high differential
ball-out pressures are required.
There are no limitations in the use of BioSealers due to retrievable or drillable tools in
the wellbore below the perforations where RCN ball sealers could not be used. Their
use in low-pressured zones also eliminates the need for scrapers to remove ball
sealers from perforations after the treatment. Solid ball sealers are not left in the
wellbore after the treatment because they completely dissolve in an aqueous
environment.
Ball sealer seating efficiency is the same as with conventional ball sealers and has the
potential of improved seating efficiency due to water absorption. Mechanical integrity of
BioSealers is dependent on time, temperature and pH. Wellbore cool down should be
considered when choosing BioSealers for use in higher temperature wells. The
BioSealer Solubility Data below can be used to determine applicability but is primarily
intended to demonstrate the ability for the ball sealers to dissolve in a static wellbore
environment. Complete dissolution will occur under static or dynamic wellbore
conditions.
Typical loading of 50%-100% excess balls was necessary to achieve desired results.
Application is limited above 250°F.
Figure 1: BioSealer Static Solubility Tests - Diameter versus Time

BJ Services
2.5 1.0
Water 120° F
HCl 120° F
Water 140° F
HCl 120° F
2.0 0.8
Diameter (Inches)
Diameter (cm)
1.5 0.6
1.0 0.4
0.5 0.2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (hours)
1.5.2. High Temperature BioSealers
The composition of High Temperature BioSealers is a very new, patented technology,

soluble polymer, polyvinyl acetate and designed for use in wells up to temperatures in
the 310-350°F range. The new technology incorporates all the benefits of the current
collagen based BioSealers. Current sizes available are limited to 7/8“ diameter balls
with a comparable specific gravity
1.6. Mechanical Methods
Mechanical methods normally used are bridge plugs, packers and other types of tools.
These tools can be set in the well to isolate the zones of interest. This method is
usually the most effective at allowing uniform stimulation over the entire formation.

BJ Services
However, due to expense, time, and often incompatible equipment conditions, these
mechanical diverting agents cannot always be used.
Modern completion systems allow multiple zone stimulation in horizontal wells,

typically using acid fracturing techniques, where packers and sliding sleeve devices
are deployed as part of the completion string below the permanent packer.
Halliburtons MFAS system is typical of this type of system. Different sized balls are
dropped which seat into the ported tool opening the tubing to the annulus. The ball
seals off lower zones allowing stimulation of each zone systematically coming up the
hole to the next zone. Annular packers provide zone isolation between the individual
perforated sections in the tubing and casing annulus. When stimulation is complete the
balls are circulated out of the well with produced fluids and captured by a surface ball
catcher6.
Individual zones can then be isolated using coiled tubing intervention to open and
close the sleeves as desired to allow selective production from the various zones
through out the life of the well.
Various tool companies have developed through tubing straddle packer systems that
allow any desirable length of perforated interval to be selectively treated with acid.
These packers can pass through the minimum restriction and expand through
hydraulic pressure to seal within the casing whilst providing sufficient resistance the
differential pressure to prevent packer failure.
The suggested spacing between the packers should exceed the maximum length of
any individual perforated interval and minimised to account for any problems of
spacing between perforated intervals, and the bottom perforation and the end of the
well. Where extreme lengths are to be perforated it is often desirable to leave blank
sections in the casing to allow for the deployment of straddle packers. Ideally straddled
lengths should not exceed 100 ft. A further consideration is the requirement of
sufficient riser at the surface to allow the deployment and recovery of the tool string in
the event that the well is live during execution of this operation.
The setting and inflation of the tools is accomplished simply by applying pump
pressure. Release of the tools is achieved by cessation of pumping, bleeding off
pressure in the coil and allowing 5-10 minutes for the packers to deflate. The string is
then pulled up hole to the position required for the next set of perforations and the
process repeated.
Inflation of the packers can be carried out using acid. However, to alleviate any
concerns regarding damage to the integrity of the tools by corrosive fluids it is usually
suggested that a pad of diesel or water be run ahead of the acid at each set of
perforations to inflate the packers.
Through tubing inflatable packers run on coiled tubing have limitations with respect to
differential pressures which they can withstand. Depending upon the tubing restrictions
through which the packer must pass to be deployed, and the casing or hole size to
which they must expand severely limits the treating pressures that can be applied.
Additionally problems have occurred where the inflatable packers are limited to a small
number of cycles through setting and unsetting before failure occurs. In many cases

BJ Services
the packers have to be left in hole as they will not contract back to their original
diameter and will not pass back through tubing restrictions. As material technologies
improve particularly with respect to elastomers more reliable tools are being brought to
the market.
In many cases each stage straddled has to cover a large interval. If this is greater than
30 ft it is suggested that the acid should be staged with acid and diverter following
normal diversion guidelines. Conventional hydrochloric acid systems are often used as
the main treatment with of chemical diverting acids or foam diverter stages to provide
good coverage across each interval.
Another technique frequently employed involves the use of a high velocity rotating
jetting tool for filter cake removal with acid. This is often carried out on horizontal
sections completed with pre-perforated or slotted liners, or where sand control screens
are run. Jetting with acid has been proven effective for all mud and formation types.

BJ Services
2. Formation Damage with Fluid loss Control and Diverting Agents
Any fluid lost to the formation has the potential to cause formation damage and the
presence of fluid loss control agents in that fluid may increase that damage.
Test carried out by Amoco have shown that all soluble solid fluid loss additives leave a
residue that may not be totally removed from the formation, although their use will
result in a net decrease in the total formation damage. These additives include oil
soluble resins (resins and waxes), acid soluble particles (calcium carbonate and iron
carbonate), and water soluble particles (salts).
Table 4: Permeability Reduction by Soluble Fluid Loss Additives

Fluid Loss Additive Residual Permeability Loss After Removal of 0.5 cm
from Face of Core (%)
Resin Dispersion 8
Benzoic Acid 18
Unibeads 21
Naphthalene 23
Where very fine particles exist in the blend (5 to 50 microns), particle invasion may
cause in depth plugging. The formation of low permeability filter cakes by fine particles
also makes them difficult to remove.
In general, soluble solid fluid loss control additives should only be used where severe
lost circulation is occurring or where diversion of treating fluids is required. The
selection of these additives should be made with the following considerations in mind:
• Pore size distribution of the most productive zones of the formation.

• Produced fluid properties.
• Formation compatibility with treatments that are required to remove the
solids.
2.1. Bridging Theory
During the 1930's, C.J. Coberly and E. M. Wagner conducted experiments with
spherical bodies in order to determine how these objects form stable bridges over
openings larger than their own diameters. The following principles were published in
their paper entitled "Some Considerations in the Selection and Installation of a Gravel
Pack for Oil Wells". The predominant form of sand grain packing is hexagonal, and
this packing arrangement is the controlling factor in determining the size of openings to
be bridged in the sand grains or pore throats.
Figure 2: Hexagonal Packing of Formation Sand Grains

BJ Services
D = Diameter of formation sand grain

= (6.4641) d
d = Diameter of inscribed circle (representing diameter of pore throat)
= (0.1547) D
Assuming hexagonal packing, stable bridging of small particles over the spaces
between larger sand grains occurs when the diameter of the small particles are
approximately half of the diameter of the circle inscribed in the space between the
large grains.
Figure 3: Stable Bridge
d’
D = Diameter of bridging particle

d’ = Diameter of pore throat
If d’ < 2D Stable Bridges Will Form
Relating these basic principles to formation plugging, it is evident that particles with a
diameter approximately 13 times smaller than the average formation sand grain size
will still bridge on the pore throat opening and not pass into the formation matrix itself.
The direct implication of this analysis is as follows:
Particles with diameters smaller than 13 times the diameter of the average formation
sand grain will invade the pore space and possibly become trapped within the
formation matrix itself.
2.2. Critical Particle Size Ratios

BJ Services
Recent research has been done to more clearly define the range of particle sizes that
will invade formation sands and plug up the pore spaces. A. Abrams' SPE paper
5713, "Mud Design to Minimize Rock Impairment Due to Particle Invasion", was
presented at the 51st Annual Fall Technical Conference in New Orleans during
October 1976. Basic conclusions of this work are stated below:
Core permeability studies confirmed that particles with diameter size ranges between
1/3 and 1/7 the size of the pore throat will plug pore channels. Particles smaller in size
than 1/7 the size of the pore throat will migrate freely through the formation matrix. To
understand how such small particles become trapped, it is necessary to realise that oil
and gas producing formations are excellent depth filters. Their many interconnecting
pores vary greatly in diameter with pore entries and exits usually smaller than the pore
spaces themselves. This structure causes fluids passing through the formation to
change direction and velocity frequently while being subjected to many different
pressure drops.
The physical characteristics of the matrix and the non-uniform flow or fluid cause the
three basic mechanisms of filtration to come into play:
a. Screening (Pore Openings)

b. Absorption (High Surface Area)
c. Sedimentation (Pore Depth)
Particles being transported with fluid flow through the pore spaces may be "screened
out" by path restrictions smaller than the particle diameter. They will form stable
bridges if the restrictions are between 2 to 3 times the particle diameter.
Even if particles are small enough to pass through physical pore restrictions, they still
have a good chance of becoming trapped by the other filtration mechanisms. Particles
that come in contact with the pore walls may remain there due to ionic forces if the
fluid velocity is not high enough to overcome these charges. If a pore space is deep
enough and the fluid velocity slow enough, gravitational forces may be strong enough
to cause the particles to "settle" to the bottom of the space.
2.3. Actual Micron Sizes of Critical Particles
If the size of an average pore space opening is known for a specific formation, it is
easy to calculate the actual micron sizes of particles that would invade the formation
matrix and cause plugging.
For instance, if a formation has an average pore size of 15 microns, the critical size
range for contaminants would be 5 to 2.1 microns. However, since core samples are
not always available to determine pore space sizes, a method of estimating pore
space size can be helpful.
Harris and Odom7 provided the following rule of thumb for estimating pore space size
in the Gulf Coast: The pore size in microns equals the square root of the permeability
in millidarcies.

BJ Services
For example a reservoir where the permeability is 900 md, the pore size would be 30
microns, and the critical plugging size is 10 to 4.2 microns.
Using this rule of thumb, Table 5 shows the different critical plugging sizes associated
with various permeabilities.
Table 5: Critical Plugging Sizes Associated with Various Permeabilities
Permeability Pore Size Critical Plugging Range

(Millidarcies) (Microns) (Microns)
100 10.0 3.3 to 1.4
250 15.8 5.2 to 2.2
500 22.4 7.4 to 3.2
750 27.4 9.1 to 3.9
1000 31.6 10.5 to 4.5
1500 38.7 12.9 to 5.5
2000 44.7 14.9 to 6.3
After studying the above table, it is apparent that even formations with very high
permeabilities are still subject to plugging by low micron-sized contaminants. With
respect to diversion, particle size distributions should be selected so that bridging
occurs at the formation face and that plugging of the filter cake pore spaces is
achieved by finer particles without invasion and plugging of the formations pore
throats.
2.4. Polymer Filter Cake Damage
Polymer filter cake damage occurs where gelled or cross-linked fluids have been used
either as the primary treating fluid, such as in fracturing and gravel packing, or as
temporary shut-off and lost circulation pills. The dynamically formed polymer filter cake
formed during pumping may not clean up efficiently even where internal breakers have
been included. In these cases the polymers that remain at the formation face or have
invaded the near well bore permeability will impair production or injectivity.
In these cases polymer specific enzymes (for guars, cellulose, starch or XC-Polymers)
can be used to remove this residual damage or where required as the primary
breaker.

BJ Services
3. Applications of Fluid Loss and Diverting Materials
Fluid loss and diverting materials are used at many stages during the completion of a
well. These materials are used to prevent losses of completion fluids to the producing
formation, prevent damage from those fluids and any solids which they may contain,
and to ensure that coverage of the entire formation is achieved by stimulation and
clean-up fluids. The different methods and materials that are used for various
applications are discussed in the following section.
3.1. Perforating Fluids and Completion Fluids
Fluid loss additives in perforating fluids may plug the perforations and be difficult to
remove. If a fluid loss additive is included in a perforating fluid, all of the perforations
are likely to be filled with the fluid loss agent.
Commonly used fluid loss additives are either acid soluble or oil soluble and must be
contacted with sufficient of their respective solvent to be effectively removed. The main
problem with this is that once a few of the perforations are cleaned by the oil or acid,
the cleanup fluid will be preferentially lost to those perforations leaving the remaining
perforations plugged with the fluid loss additive and contribute to formation damage.
If calcium carbonate is used to control fluid loss into a formation, a large grade (100-
mesh range) should be used as fine particles have very low permeabilities. This will
allow acid to flow more easily into all the perforations and effect a more complete
clean up.
The most effective way of controlling fluid loss with minimum formation damage during
perforating is to use viscosified clean non-damaging fluids such as HEC viscosified
brines.
HEC pills may be used as circulating and underreaming fluids at concentrations of 2.0
lbs of polymer per barrel, as circulation pills or spacers at 3.0 lbs per barrel, and as lost
circulation pills at 5.0 lbs per barrel.
Removal of these fluids and their filter cakes can be effectively achieved by the use of
polymer specific enzymes, which completely degrade the polymers present to their
monosaccharide and disaccharide sub-units, which are completely soluble in water.
Any residual calcium carbonate can be then removed by the flow of production fluids,
or by the use of a small low strength hydrochloric acid wash.
Other polymers may be used as lost circulation control additives for these applications
with full consideration being made for their potential to damage the formation and
compatibility with other well fluids.
3.2. Gravel Packing

BJ Services
During gravel packing operations it is imperative to insure that all the fluids entering
the well are clean. It is imperative that a solid particle filter cake does not remain on
the formation face in open-hole gravel packs, or in the perforations or cavity on cased-
hole gravel packs, that can be held in place by the gravel.
Viscosity and fluid loss control are a problem. Viscosity builders and fluid loss control
additives must cause plugging to function; thus their use should be minimised. In very
unconsolidated sands, sloughing may occur with solids free fluids. Building a fluid loss
particle bridge on the face of the formation, against which hydrostatic pressure can be
applied, must control this.
A reasonable approach where fluid loss control must be applied is to use acid or
water-soluble solids or degradable materials. Possibilities include calcium carbonate
with an HEC polymer to provide some viscosity to hold the CaCO3 in suspension, salts
in saturated brines with HEC or XC-Polymer, and oil soluble resins or waxes with a
degradable polymer for viscosity and suspension.
Again removal of these fluids and their filter cakes can be effectively achieved by the
use of polymer specific enzymes which completely degrade the polymers present to
their monosaccharide and disaccharide sub-units which are completely soluble in
water. Any residual calcium carbonate can be then removed by the flow of production
fluids, or by the use of a small low strength HCl acid wash. The produced fluids would
remove other oil soluble particulates.
Where a fluid density greater than 10.0 lbs per gallon is required to hold formation
pressures the fluid costs and complications rise.
3.3. Acidizing
Diversion within a perforation has little effect on stimulation performance when

removing near-perforation damage. Whilst the build up of a filter cake within a
perforation may force acid into new perforations, the acid movement within the
formation is strongly affected by the near wellbore damage. Thus the treating fluid will
be diverted away from damaged areas into areas of higher injectivity where flow
resistance is less8.
When practical, mechanical methods are used for diversion when acidizing producing
formations. The use of mechanical devices such as packers and bridge plugs, can
ensure better distribution of the treating fluids across the formation face, whilst
isolating perforations or hole sections where stimulation is not desired.
Fluid loss control agents may be required to reduce acid leak-off in fracture acidizing.
The preferred method of selecting fluid loss control agents is to run fluid loss tests on
cores from the formation to be acidized. Cross-linked fluids, foams and ball sealers are
also commonly used for diversion in acid fracturing applications.
More recently Enhanced Acid Systems (EAS) have been used to control leak-off and
as the diverter stages for acid fracturing and matrix treatments. EAS systems have the
additional advantage of also being reactive with the formation.

BJ Services
Benefits and possible damage from specific diverting and fluid loss control agents
should be determined from laboratory tests. These materials should be degradable or
slowly soluble in the treating solution, produced oil or produced water.
An example of this type of non damaging material would be an the use of an oil
soluble resin with a limited swelling natural guar gum which is slowly soluble in the
produced oil.
Diverting agents are also used in matrix acid treatments, both in sandstone and
limestone formations. All types of diversion methods are applied to these types of
treatments. Where Gravel Packs, Screens or Slotted Liners are to be acidized, the
diverting agent selected must be able to pass through these barriers and then bridge
at the formation face to provide proper diversion. In these cases the selection of the
particle size used is extremely important.
3.4. Hydraulic Fracturing
Since fracture width depends upon the pressure exerted across the fracture faces,
high viscosity fluids with the attendant high pressure that is required to force them
through the fracture tend to promote very wide fractures. High viscosity fluids have
inherent low fluid loss, as well as excellent proppant carrying capacity.
During fracturing some of the injected fluid leaks off into the formation matrix and is not
available to extend the fracture. Rate of fluid leak off is influenced by three factors:
• Compressibility of the reservoir fluids.

• Viscosity of the fracturing fluid.
• Bridging materials in the fracturing fluid.
The combined effect of the controllable factors (viscosity and bridging) for particular
fracturing fluids are measured in the laboratory against actual or synthetic cores to
determine the efficiency of that fluid. Results are reported in terms of fluid loss
coefficient and spurt loss.
Fluid loss additives are generally finely divided solids that form a filter cake on the
fracture face. Effective control requires a size range of small inert particles for bridging
plus a binding agent, usually a polymer, to plug the voids in the bridge. In some cases
coarse particles are pumped in the pre-pad stage which bridge on the formation,
followed by finer particles in subsequent stages, which plug the bridged material
forming an impermeable filter cake.
For crude or refined oil fracturing fluids Adomite Mark II (calcium carbonate coated
with an oil soluble surfactant) is commonly used.
For water based fluids silica flour is commonly used which has a very fine particle size
(typically 92% passes a 325 mesh screen, 43 microns). Particles of this size range can
be produced back through proppant packs of the size ranges 8 to 12 or 10 to 20 mesh,
after treatment.

BJ Services
Oil or acid soluble agents are available at higher cost to reduce the loss of matrix or
fracture permeability. Oil soluble resins (FLC-2) are commonly used for this type of
control.
Emulsified or high viscosity fluids inherently have low fluid loss and usually do not
require the use of additives. However, fluid polymer residues and low permeability
dynamically form filter cakes consisting primarily of polymer strands can severely
decrease the conductivity of the proppant pack and the permeability of the fracture
faces. Where this occurs, consideration should be given to the application of polymer
specific enzymes for the removal of this damage.
3.5. Horizontal Wells
Placement strategy in horizontal wells must address how to obtain the required
coverage throughout the entire horizontal section or into each natural fracture network
whilst ensuring diversion of treating fluids from thief zones to damaged sections of the
hole. Logs are an important factor in designing a placement strategy and should not be
limited to production logs, spinner surveys, mud logs and wellbore imaging to locate
fissures.
Where logs indicate thief zones within a horizontal wellbore, coiled tubing can be run
to that depth and a diverter slug placed across that zone to reduce fluid flow into that
zone prior to starting the treatment of the well. If inadequate data is available
alternating acid and diverter stages can be pumped as coil is withdrawn from total
depth but treatment effectiveness may be compromised9.
To improve the stimulation efficiency, the pumping of inert fluids down the annulus
when treating zones below the thief zone will minimise acid flow up the annulus and
into the thief zone. At the end of each acid stage the coiled tubing should be run back
in to the base of the zone treated and a diverter stage placed across the zone10.
Mechanical diversion using ball sealers or straddle packers are not often practical in
wells completed in open hole or with slotted liners, but can be used effectively in cased
hole completions to selectively place treatment fluids. Through tubing inflatable
packers run on coiled tubing have limitations with respect to differential pressures
which they can withstand. Depending upon the tubing restrictions through which the
packer must pass to be deployed, and the casing or hole size to which they must
expand severely limits the treating pressures that can be applied. Additionally
problems have occurred where the inflatable packers are limited a small number of
cycles through setting and unsetting before failure occurs.
In many cases the packers have to be left in hole as they will not contract back to their
original diameter and will not pass back through tubing restrictions. As material
technologies improve particularly with respect to elastomers more reliable tools are
being brought to the market.
Foam diversion has been commonly used in both sandstone and carbonate wells
additionally in recent years, chemical diverting acids have been applied to horizontal

BJ Services
wells drilled in carbonate reservoirs. The chemical diverting acids (EAS) are an
extension of linear gelled acid systems used for leak off control. The EAS system
cross-links as a function of acid reaction with the carbonate rock releasing calcium
ions to form a highly viscous structure at the formation face, plugging wormholes and
fissures. The high viscosity of the cross-linked layer at the formation face resists
displacement into the formation allowing diversion of subsequent acid stages into
untreated zones. At the completion of the treatment the acid in the well spends further
and the pH rises above pH 4.0 where the acid systems break back to a linear gel
viscosity and can be easily flowed from the well.
3.6. Cased Hole Horizontal Completions
Several difficulties can exist to achieve effective acid stimulation in cased-hole

horizontal wells. Wells with a long horizontal profile can have large perforated
intervals. Conventional bull-heading with acid using chemical or ball sealer diverting
techniques is unlikely to be effective as the large number of perforations in multiple
zones would require extremely high rates. Where selective perforating and high rates
can be applied diversion can be achieved.
Mechanical diversion using straddle packers is not often practical in wells completed in
open hole or with slotted liners but can be used effectively in cased hole completions
to selectively place treatment fluids where the completion has not yet been run.
Where the well has been completed the need to selectively stimulate individual
sections will often require the use of coiled tubing. The need for zone isolation may
require mechanical or chemical barriers to be placed between each zone.
Consideration of placing cross-linked gelled plugs as a barrier between zones is

difficult to achieve in horizontal wells as there is a tendency for the fluids to flow down
the bottom side of the wellbore and an effective seal may not be achieved between the
difference sets of perforations. Additionally, these plugs themselves may cause
plugging of perforations, which will require additional runs with coiled tubing and acid
to clean them up. The use of cross-linked gelled plugs requires careful design to
ensure correct placement setting and clean-up thus complicating the general
operation.
Tried and proven techniques using through tubing straddle packers can be used to
stimulate each section of perforations individually.
Foam based diversion has proven successful when stimulating cased-hole horizontal
wells in both sandstone and carbonate formations. Chemical diverting acids have also
proven successful in carbonate reservoirs.
3.7. Open hole Horizontal Completions
Placement strategy in open-hole horizontal wells must address how to obtain the
required coverage throughout the entire horizontal section or into each natural fracture
network whilst ensuring diversion of treating fluids from thief zones to damaged
sections of the hole. Logs are an important factor in designing a placement strategy

BJ Services
and should not be limited to production logs, spinner surveys, mud logs and wellbore
imaging to locate fissures.
Where logs indicate thief zones within a horizontal wellbore, coiled tubing can be run
to that depth and a diverter slug placed across that zone to reduce fluid flow into that
zone prior to starting the treatment of the well. If inadequate data is available
alternating acid and diverter stages can be pumped as coil is withdrawn from total
depth but treatment effectiveness may be compromised.
To improve the stimulation efficiency, the pumping of inert fluids down the annulus
when treating zones below the thief zone will minimise acid flow up the annulus and
into the thief zone. At the end of each acid stage the coiled tubing should be run back
in to the base of the zone treated and a diverter stage placed across the zone.
Foam diversion has been commonly used in both sandstone and carbonate wells
additionally in recent years, chemical diverting acids have been applied to horizontal
wells drilled in carbonate reservoirs. The chemical diverting acids such as BJ Services
Enhanced Acid Systems are an extension of linear gelled acid systems used for leak
off control. These systems cross-link as the acid spends and interactions with calcium
ions form a highly viscous structure at the formation face, plugging wormholes and
fissures. The high viscosity of the cross-linked layer at the formation face resists
displacement into the formation allowing diversion of subsequent acid stages into
untreated zones. At the completion of the treatment the acid in the well spends further
and the pH rises to where the internal breaker returns the acid linear gel viscosity by
removing the cross-link and can be easily flowed from the well.

BJ Services
3.8. Horizontal Well Diversion Considerations
It is difficult to obtain uniform distribution of acid along open hole or slotted liner
completions and in general coiled tubing is used for matrix acidizing or perforation
washing in horizontal wells. Staged acid treatments can be performed using various
diversion methods.
1. For oil wells use of solid diverters is permissible (Divert X). For
successful treatments it is necessary to determine the solubility half-life
of solid diverters under downhole conditions.
2. Benzoic acid flakes and rock salt are not effective diverters for long
carbonate sections.
3. Limited entry techniques have been widely applied using number and
size of perforations with increasing rate as controlling factors. Used in
conjunction with buoyant balls, gelled fluids, solids and foams.
4. Use high quality foams (65-70%) is the most common method of
diversion for matrix treatments.
5. Isolation packers and wash tools are gaining in use as new tools are
developed for work in horizontal wells.
6. Coiled tubing is commonly used for acid washes without further
diversion enhancements. When matrix acidizing, coiled tubing is used
with foamed fluids, chemical diversion techniques or with tools to
enhance diversion.
7. Enhanced Acid Systems (EAS) which cross-link upon reaction with the
formation.
8. Buoyant balls have been used widely for high rate acid treatments often
in conjunction with limited entry techniques.
For fracture treatments, foamed acids, cross-linked acids, or gelled pads should be
considered to control leak-off.
Other Considerations
1. Type of skin damage, (wettability alteration, solids invasion, and

emulsions).
2. Fluid compatibility.
3. Ability to get coiled tubing to the bottom of the well (helical lock-up).
4. Stimulating long intervals with widely varying permeabilities and
porosities.

BJ Services
4. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents
Some of the more common agents used by BJ Services for various applications are as
follows:
4.1. Calcium Carbonate
The most widely used fluid loss control agent in work-over and completions
operations. This product is provided in several grades with varying size distributions.
The use of each size is determined by the formation to be treated. Calcium carbonate
can be removed with hydrochloric acid only.
4.2. Clean Plug
Clean Plug is a high viscosity water based gel pill for controlling losses to highly
permeable zones. The system is cross-linked at temperature (above 100°F) and
controls fluid loss by viscosity. The long-term viscosity of this product can be controlled
with internal breakers, or by the application of external breaker solutions. Commonly
polymer specific enzyme breakers are used with Clean Plug to ensure complete clean
up of the polymers used.
4.3. Divert II (Benzoic Acid)
Divert II is a white, solid organic acid that can be used in both production and injection
wells. It is slowly soluble in both oil and water based fluids. The two size ranges are
regular flake and super flake. (The super flake consists of slightly larger particles than
the regular flake). This material is stable up to temperatures of 350 °F (177 °C) and will
remain solid throughout the stimulation treatment. Divert II is hydrophobic, and a
surfactant is recommended to aid its dispersion in the base fluid.
Solubility: Water 0.037 lbs/gal at 85 °F (29 °C)

Water 0.221 lbs/gal at 175 °F (79 °C)
Kerosene 0.224 lbs/gal at 85 °F (29 °C)
Kerosene 0.224 lbs/gal at 175 °F (79 °C)
Specific Gravity: 1.26 s.g.
Melting point: 251 °F (122 °C)
Table 6: Recommended concentrations of Benzoic Acid

Static Bottom Hole Open hole Un- Open Hole Cased Hole/
Temperature fractured or Fractured Perforated
Slotted Liner
lbs/ft/in lbs/gal lbs/ft/in lbs/gal lbs/ft/in lbs/gal
Below 200 °F (93 °C) 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
200 °F to 250 (121 °C) 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.5 2 1.5
250 °F to 350 (177 °C) 3.0 1.5 4.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
Example: For a 100 ft zone of 5.0 inch open hole non fractured sandstone at a
temperature less than 200° the benzoic acid required is 1.0 lb/ft/in.
Therefore the total benzoic acid required is 1.0 x 100 x 5.0 = 500 lbs.

BJ Services
This should be mixed at 1.0 lbs/gal of carrier fluid. Thus 500 gallons of
carrier fluid will be required for this treatment.
Figure 4: Solubility of Benzoic Acid

(Half Life versus Temperature)
7.0
6.0
Half Life Time, Hours
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280
Temperature °F
The amount of time it requires to dissolve half of the amount of benzoic acid at a given
temperature.
4.4. Divert VI (Wax Beads)
Divert VI is an oil soluble wax diverting agent. Divert VI can be used in oil wells and
gas wells which produce distillate. It can also be applied in gas wells where the BHT
significantly exceeds the melt temperature of the wax. A wide range of particle size
distributions available that can be tailored to meet individual well needs. Generally the
particles range from 0.25 inch to 0.376 inch. This product can be produced with
melting point ranges of 100°F (38 °C) to over 250°F (121°C). Generally diverting
concentrations vary from 0.25 to 1.0 pounds per gallon with 0.5 pounds per gallon
being normal.

Nominal Melting point range: 150 to 160 °F (65 to 71°C)
Particle size range 0.25 inch to 0.375 inch (0.13 mm to 0.95 mm)
Solubility: Hydrocarbons, 70 lbs/bbl
Recommended concentrations: Perforated intervals, 0.125 to 0.25 lbs/gal
Open hole, 0.5 to 1.0 lbs/gallon
Divert VI can be added directly to the treating fluid or carried in a linear gelled carrying
fluid. Linear gels have the advantage of viscosity to provide suspension. Maintaining a
uniform suspension of the solids will help increase the effectiveness of the treatment.
This additive should be added whilst circulating to disperse the particles.

BJ Services
With its low specific gravity the material will float in aqueous solutions therefore “on-
the-fly” additions are recommended. Sufficient rate must also be used when pumping
this material, particularly in horizontal wells to prevent the Divert VI from floating out to
the topside of the hole during placement.
A differential temperature of 30°F (16.7°C) between BHT and wax melt temperature is
recommended. If the zone exceeds this temperature, a cool down pad should be
pumped to reduce the temperature to the workable range. Storage temperatures
above 125°F (52°C) should be avoided as this will cause the wax particles to clump
together.
Unibeads are a wax material available in three grades (designated OS-90, OS-751,
and OS-750) and can be considered for use in the same applications as Divert VI.
Each grade is available in two forms. One form (buttons) consists of solids varying in
size from 0.25 to 0.375 inch in diameter. The other form (wide range) consists of a
range of particles from 8 to 100-mesh in size. The bottom hole temperature of the well
determines the grade of Unibead used, and the form is determined by the type of zone
to be treated.
4.5. Divert X (Oil Soluble Material)
Divert X is an oil soluble diverting agent for application in oil wells and gas wells
making distillate. It is extremely soluble in xylene and may be cleaned up in other
applications with a secondary treatment. Divert X is used in oil, water or acid based
systems. Divert X is a resin type material and requires a surfactant to aid in dispersing
it in water or acid based fluids.

Nominal Melting point range: 330 °F (156 °C)
Particle size range 0.25 inch to 0.375 inch (0.13 mm to 0.95 mm)
Solubility: Xylene, lease oil, paraffinic solvents
Open hole, 10 to 25 lbs/foot of zone.
Divert X is added directly to the treating fluid, or to the base fluid (oil or water based
linear gels). Linear gels have the advantage of viscosity to provide suspension.
Maintaining a uniform suspension of the solids will help increase the effectiveness of
the treatment.
The melting point of the material 330 °F (156 °C), and it begins to soften at
temperatures above 195 °F (91 °C). The material will be most effective between these
two temperatures.
4.6. FLC-2 (Oil Soluble Resin)
FLC-2 is an oil soluble resin diverter and fluid loss agent used in aqueous completions
and stimulation fluids. It is used in concentrations from 25 to 200 pounds per 1000
gallons. Note that FLC-2 should not be used with acids that contain hydrocarbon or
solvents such as One Shot Acid

BJ Services

Softening point: 338 °F (170 °C)
Particle size range -20 mesh to +325 mesh
Solubility: Crude oil, Aromatic solvents
4.7. FLC-11 (Oil Soluble Resin)
FLC-11 is a liquid dispersion of an oil soluble resin in an aqueous solution for use in oil
wells. When added to aqueous treating solutions this material forms a dispersion of
finely divided particles. These particles are sized to pass through 20/40 or 40/60 sand
packs slotted liners or screens so that diversion takes place at the formation face. The
range of concentrations varies from 1.0 to 30 gallons per 1000 gallons but is
commonly used in the range of 1.0 to 10 gallons per 1000 gallons. Higher
concentrations are usually applicable in well having bottom hole temperatures above
250°F (121°C), or wells with high permeabilities (greater than 10 Darcy).
Fluid Specific Gravity: 1.09 s.g.

Particle Specific Gravity: 0.981 s.g.
Softening Point: 300 °F (149 °C)
Particle size range Less than 0.005 inch
Solubility: Crude oil, diesel and aromatic solvents
FLC-11 can be batch mixed or mixed continuously through and LAS system. When
batch mixed, FLC-11 should be added slowly, just prior to pumping, whilst agitating to
disperse the particles. Note that FLC-11 should not be used with acids that contain
hydrocarbons or solvents such as One Shot Acid, nor should it be used in acids that
contain EGMBE (US-40).
4.8. FLC-17 (Chemical Emulsion)
FLC-17 is a liquid additive consisting of a nonionic surfactant blended with an aromatic

hydrocarbon. In water based fluids this forms a micro emulsion, which inhibits leak off
into the formation. This is a non-damaging fluid agent generally used in fracturing for
temporary control of fluid loss. FLC-17 is used in concentrations from 5.0 to 15 gallons
per 1000 gallons at temperatures up to 350 °F (177 °C).
4.9. FLC-18 (Chemical Precipitate)
FLC-18 is designed for use in acid stimulation treatments of injection, disposal, oil and
gas wells. It is a low viscosity, slightly cloudy water solution. When this liquid additive
comes into contact with acid, a very fine solid precipitate forms that functions
effectively as a fluid loss additive for diverting. The size of the precipitated particles
can be controlled to some extent by the use of surfactants, to allow them to pass
through gravel pack screens, slotted liners etc. This allows diversion to take place at

BJ Services
the formation face and not in the casing or at the screen. The precipitate is slowly
soluble in water, oil and gas and is applicable in wells up to 250 °F (121 °C).

Density lbs/gal: 8.6 ppg
Normal Concentrations 100 to 200 gpt
FLC-18 can be pre-mixed or mixed on the fly by adding it directly to the treating
solution. When pre-mixed circulation or agitation should be maintained. Note that FLC-
18 should not be used with acids that contain hydrocarbon or solvents such as One
Shot Acid.
Table 7: FLC-18 Particle Sizes Precipitated in Inhibited Acid Containing Various

Surfactants
Group Surfactant Particle Description Average Particle Size
1 FAW-18W Fine particles occur in the range of Less than 5 microns will
FAW-20 less than 5 to 50 microns pass through a 20/40-
sand pack.
2 NE-18 Uniform particles form, 40 microns 40 microns
NE-22 size
SLA-48
3 NE-10 Particles form having a size range 50 microns
NE-30 between 30-100 microns
NE-32
SLA-48
Note:
1. Acid contains CI-23 corrosion inhibitor.

2. Select the particle size, which is most desirable for precipitation. The
above listed surfactant concentrations should used at minimum 0.5% by
volume (5.0 gpt). Only one surfactant is required from any selected
group.
3. Other chemical additives such as Ferrotrol 300 and Clatrol additives can
be used without affecting the particle size formed.
Table 8: Recommended Concentrations of FLC-18 for Acid Treating Fluids at

Various Temperatures
Treating Fluid FLC-18 Concentration (Gal/1000 Gal) in Acid
Temperature 5% HCl Permeability 15% HCl Permeability
Reduction Reduction
°F °C 85% 98% 85% 98%
100 37.8 76 101 73 98
125 51.7 97 122 87 112

BJ Services
150 65.6 129 154 109 134

175 79.4 192 217 153 178
200 93.3 326 360 246 271
4.10. Rock Salt
Rock salt is used in saturated brine solutions and is soluble only in water. It is
generally applied to injection wells or in wells that produce water. The base carrier fluid
should be a saturated sodium chloride solution, gelled with a moderate viscosity.
Solubility: 35.7% at 32 °F (0 °C) in water.

Slowly soluble in hydrochloric acid
Particle Size Distribution: 0.002 to 0.25 inch.
Open hole, 10 to 25 lbs/ft of zone.
4.11. Other Diverting Materials
Other diverting materials include Naphthalene and Paraformaldehyde amongst other.

Table 9 lists alternative diverting agents. These products are not used as frequently as
other additives, but still have good diversion properties. For example Naphthalene
(Mothballs) sublimes at 175 °F (79 °C), and due to this is an excellent diverter for dry
gas wells.
Table 9: Usage of Other Diverting Materials

Material Max. U.S. Solubility Approximate Concentration in pounds per
BHT (°F) Standard gallon with selected carrier fluid
Mesh Oil Water Oil Water Brine Acid
Naphthalene 176 -4 to +16 Yes No 0.5 to 0.5 to 1.0 0.5 to 1.0 0.5 to 1.0
2.0
Sulphamic None Varies No Yes 0.5 - 2.0 No No 1.0 to 2.5
Acid
Guar (PDM) 250 N/A No Yes No 10 barrel Pills at 150 No
Polymer to 500 pptg
OSR 328 100 Yes No No 0.5 to 2.0 0.5 to 2.0 0.5 to 2.0
Table 10: Usage of Fluid loss and Diverting Agents

Additive Usage
Oil Soluble Resins Matrix 5.0 to 20 gal/1000 gal

a
Fracturing 5.0 to 20 gal/1000 gal
Polymer Matrix 10 to 50 lb/1000 gal
b
Fracturing 10 to 50 lb/1000 gal
Granular Fracturing Salt Fracturing 0.25 lb /perforation
2
Fracturing 3.0 to 5.0 lb/ft open hole
Rock Salt Fracturing 0.5 to 1.5 lb/perforation

BJ Services
2
Wax Beadsc Matrix 0.25 to 0.5 lb/perforation
Fracturing 0.25 to 0.5 lb/perforation
2
Naphthalene Flakes Fracturing 0.25 to 0.5 lb/perforation
2
Fracturing 2.5 lb/ft open hole
Benzoic Acid Flakes Matrix based on BHT and casing size
Fracturing 1.0 lb/perforation
Fracturing 3.0 to 5.0 lb/ft2 open hole
Resin Beads Fracturing 0.25 to 0.5 lb/perforation
2
2
Divert II 6.0 lb/ft open hole
2
Divert II & Graded Salt (Ratio 1:1) 8.0 lb/ft open hole
2
Divert II, Mothballs (Ratio 1:1.5:1.5) 8.0 lb/ft open hole
and Graded Salt
2
Moth Balls 12 lb/ft open hole
2
Graded Salt 20 to 25 lb/ft open hole
a
For fluid loss control, will not divert in natural fractures.
b
For fluid loss control, cross-linked polymer pills may be used to divert in
fractures.
c
Cannot be carried by fluid rates below 0.5 BPM as this floats out.
Table 11: Solvents for Fluid loss and Diverting Agents

Additive Solvent
Oil Soluble Resins Toluene, xylene, condensate, oil.

Polymer 15% HCl.
Salt Water, dilute HCl (<10%).
Wax beads Toluene, xylene, certain oils.
Naphthalene Flakes Toluene, xylene, certain oils.
Benzoic Acid Flakes Toluene, xylene, certain oils, gas, water (if allowed to
soak)
Paraformaldehyde (Maximum temperature 220 °F)

BJ Services
Calcium Carbonate HCl

Sand none
Moth Balls Oil (Maximum temperature 150 °F)
Sulphamic acid Water
Divert II Oil, kerosene, water (Maximum temperature 300 °F)
Unibeads Oil (Maximum temperature varies)
Table 12: Carrier fluids for Fluid loss and Diverting Agents.
Material Pounds per Gallon of Carrier Fluid
Oil Fresh Salt Water 5% HCl 15% HCl
Water
Rock Salt 0.5-2.0 3.0-5.0 2.0-4.0 2.5-4.0 1.0-2.5
Mothballs * 0.5-2.0 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0 0.5-1.0
Paraformaldehyde 0.5-2.0 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 1.0-2.0
Sulphamic Acid 0.5-2.0 No No 1.0-2.5 1.0-2.5
*Made of Naphthalene.

BJ Services
Index
—A— —C—
Acid Soluble Diverters, 24 Calcium Carbonate, 20, 32
Gravel packs, 25 Formation damage, 20
Acid Treatment Design Gravel packing, 25
Selective acidizing, 6 Perforations, 24
Acidizing, 25 Capillary Pressure
Enhanced acid systems, 26 Foam, 9
Gravel packs, 26 Carrier Fluids
Mechanical methods, 25 Acid, 25
Oil Soluble Resins, 26 Fluid loss and diverting agents., 39
Slotted Liners, 26 Oil based, 4
Actual Micron Sizes of Critical Particles, 22 Saturated viscosified brines, 4
Adomite Mark II, 26 Solids, 3
Annular Injection Cased Hole Completions
Coiled tubing, 27, 29 Horizontal wells, 28
Apparent Viscosity Cellulose
Foam, 10 Enzyme Breakers, 23
Applications of Fluid Loss and Diverting Materials, 24 Chemical Diverters, 1
Aromatic Solvents, 5 Chemical Diverting Acid. See Enhanced Acid
Systems
Clean Plug, 32
—B— Enzyme breakers, 32
Ball Sealers, 13 Gels and Viscous Fluids, 8
Cased hole horizontal completions, 28 Clean-up Fluids, 4
Fracturing treatments, 14 Coiled Tubing
Gas wells, 14 Annular injection, 29
Horizontal wells, 14, 27 Cased hole horizontal completions, 28
Introduction, 1 Foam, 9
Placement, 13 Horizontal wells, 30
Pump rate, 13 Open hole completions, 29
Removal, 14 Thief zones, 29
Settling velocity, 13 Compatibility
Sizes, 13 Solids, 3
Benzoic Acid, 20 Completion Systems, 17
Divert II, 4, 32 Critical Particle Size Ratios, 22
Solids, 4 Formation damage, 22
Solubility, 32 Pore throat sizes, 22
Usage, 32 Critical Plugging Sizes Associated with Various
Bingham Fluids Permeabilities., 23
Foam, 10 Cross-linked Fluids
BioSealers, 15 Cased hole horizontal completions, 28
Breakers, 5 Enhanced acid systems, 8
Enzymes, 24
Bridge Plugs, 17 —D—
Acidizing, 25
Mechanical methods, 17 Degradable Polymers
Bridging and Plugging Agents, 3 Gravel packing, 25
Bridging Theory, 20 Diesel
Critical particle size ratios, 22 Washes, 5
Formation Damage, 20 Diesel Oil
Plugging, 21 Inflating packers, 17
Pore throat size, 21 Selective acidizing, 6
Brines Diesel Surfactant Mixtures, 5
Gels and viscous fluids, 7 Differential Pressure
Bubble Size Through tubing packers, 17
Foam, 10 Diversion
Bull-heading HEC, 2
Cased hole horizontal completions, 28 Mechanical, 2
Buoyant Ball Sealers, 13 Open hole completions, 29
Diversion, 30 Sand, 2
Fracturing Treatments, 14 Thief zones, 29
Horizontal wells, 14 Diversion Considerations

BJ Services
Index
Horizontal wells, 30 Sedimentation, 22

Divert II. See Benzoic acid Solids, 20
Divert VI. See Wax beads Wax beads, 20
Divert X, 34 Fracturing, 26
Ball sealers, 14
Emulsions, 27
—E— Enzyme breakers, 27
EAS. See Enhanced Acid Systems FLC-17, 35
EGMBE, 35 FLC-2, 27
Emulsions Foam, 9
FLC-17, 35 Gels and Viscous Fluids, 7
Fracturing, 27 Leak-off, 26
Enhanced Acid Systems Polymer filter cake damage, 23, 27
Acidizing, 26 Silica flour, 27
Gels and viscous fluids, 8 Solids, 26
Horizontal wells, 28, 30 Viscous fluids, 26
Open hole completions, 29
Enzyme Breakers —G—
Clean plug, 32
Fracturing, 27 Gas Distillate
Polymer filter cake damage, 23 Divert VI, 33
Divert X, 34
Gas Flow Rate
—F— Foam, 10
Filter Cake Gas Mobility
Permeability, 3 Foam, 9
Fine Particles Gas Trapping
Formation damage, 20 Foam, 11
FLC-11 Gas Wells
Oil soluble resins, 35 Ball sealers, 14
FLC-17 Benzoic acid, 32
Emulsion, 35 Buoyant balls, 14
FLC-18, 36 Divert II, 32
Particle size, 36 Divert VI, 33
Usage, 37 FLC-18, 36
FLC-2, 27 Naphthalene, 37
Oil Soluble Resins, 35 Selective acidizing, 6
Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents, 32 Gels and Viscous Fluids, 7, 28
Foam Diversion, 8, 18 Brines, 7
Coiled tubing, 9 Clean plug, 1
Foam Quality, 10 Clean Plug, 8
Fracturing treatments, 9 Enhanced acid systems, 8
Horizontal wells, 28 Fracturing, 7
Introduction, 1 HEC, 1, 7
Limitations, 9 Introduction, 1
Loss control, 9 Permanent blocking gels, 8
Matrix treatments, 9 Water shut-off, 8
Open hole completions, 29 XC-Polymer, 7
Selective acidizing, 6 Gilsonite
Theory, 9 Divert X, 34
Viscous Fluids, 8 Graded Salt, 4, 5
Formation breakdown, 2 Solids, 4
Formation Damage, 20 Gravel Packs, 25
Adsorption, 22 Acidizing, 26
Bridging Theory, 20 Damage, 25
Calcium carbonate, 20 Diversion, 2
Critical particle size ratios, 22 FLC-11, 35
Gravel packs, 25 Polymer filter cake damage, 23
Oil soluble resins, 20 Selective acidizing, 6
Perforation plugging, 24 Solids, 3
Permeability, 23 Guar
Plugging, 21 (PDM) Polymer, 37
Polymer filter cake, 23 Enzyme Breakers, 23
Salts, 20
Screening, 22

BJ Services
Index
—H— Acidizing, 25
Bridge plugs, 1, 17
HEC, 2, 24 Introduction, 1
Enzyme Breakers, 23 Packers, 1, 17
Gels and viscous fluids, 7 Micelles, 7
Gravel packing, 25 Multiple Phase Flow
Viscosified brines, 24 Foam, 8
Helical Lock-up
Horizontal wells, 30
Hexagonal Packing of Formation Sand Grains, 21
—N—
High Temperature BioSealers, 16 Naphthalene, 3, 20, 37
Horizontal Wells, 27 Natural Fractures
Ball sealers, 14 Horizontal wells, 27
Cased Hole Completions, 28 Newtonian Fluids
Diversion considerations, 30 Foam, 9
Fracturing treatments, 14 Nitrogen
Open hole completions, 29 Foam diversion, 8
Thief zones, 29 Non damaging fluids
Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose. See HEC Perforating, 24
—I— —O—
Injection Wells Oil Based Fluids, 4
Benzoic acid, 32 Gels, 7
Divert II, 32 Oil Soluble Diverters, 24
FLC-18, 36 Oil Soluble Precipitates
Matrix diverting agents, 3 Selective acidizing, 6
Introduction, 1 Oil Soluble Resins, 5, 20
Ball Sealers, 1 Acidizing, 26
Chemical Diverters, 1 FLC-11, 35
Foam, 1 FLC-2, 27
Gels and viscous fluids, 1 Formation damage, 20
Mechanical methods, 1 Fracturing, 27
Solids, 1 Gravel packing, 25
Iron Carbonate, 20 Solubility, 37
Usage, 37
—J— Oil Wells
Benzoic acid, 32
Jetting Tools Divert II, 32
Horizontal wells, 18 Divert VI, 33
Divert X, 34
FLC-11, 35
—K— FLC-18, 36
Kerosene Matrix diverting agents, 3
Selective acidizing, 6 Selective acidizing, 6
One Shot Acid, 35
Open Hole Completions
—L— Coiled tubing, 29
Limited Entry Techniques
Organic Acids, 3
Ball sealers, 13
Other Diverting Materials., 37
Matrix acidizing horizontal wells, 30
Lost Circulation Control
Foam, 9 —P—
Packers, 17
—M— Acidizing, 25
M-Aquatrol, 7
Paraformaldehyde, 3, 37
Matrix Diverting Agents, 3
Perforating Fluids and Completion Fluids, 24
Foam, 8
Perforations
Matrix Treatments
Ball Sealers, 13
Ball sealers, 14
Calcium carbonate, 24
Foam, 9
Enzyme Breakers, 24
Gas wells, 14
Gravel packs, 25
Mechanical Methods, 2, 17
HEC, 24

BJ Services
Index
Horizontal wells, 28 Settling Velocity

Limited Entry Techniques, 13 Ball sealers, 13
Non damaging fluids, 24 Silica flour, 27
Plugging, 24 Skin Damage
Straddle packers, 28 Horizontal wells, 30
Viscous fluids, 24 Slotted Liners
Permanent Blocking Gels, 8 Acidizing, 26
Permeability FLC-11, 35
Filter cake, 3 Horizontal wells, 27
Plugging, 23 Jetting tools, 18
Permeability Reduction Solid diverters, 3
Soluble fluid loss additives., 20 Solid Diverters
pH Controlled Acid Horizontal wells, 30
Enhanced acid systems, 8 Solids, 2
PlacementStrategy Acidizing, 26
Open hole completions, 29 Benzoic acid, 1
Plugging Bridging Theory, 20
Formation Damage, 21 Carrier fluids, 2, 3
Perforations, 24 Chemical precipitates, 1
Permeability, 23 Compatibility, 3
Polymer Filter Cake Damage, 23 Divert VI, 1
Fracturing, 23, 27 Divert X, 1
Gravel packing, 23 Formation damage, 20
Perforations, 24 Fracturing, 26
Pore Size Distribution, 20 Graded rock salt, 1
Pore Throat Size Matrix diverting agents, 3
Bridging theory, 21 Naphthalene, 3
Critical Particle Size Ratios, 22 Organic acids, 3
Plugging, 21 Paraformaldehyde, 3
Positive Buoyancy Balls Salt, 3
Fracturing treatments, 14 Solubility, 2, 3
Preflushes Sulphamic acid, 3
Selective acidizing, 6 Wax beads, 3
Pressure Gradient Solubility
Foam, 10 Benzoic Acid, 33
Produced Fluid Properties Solids, 2, 3
Formation Damage, 20 Solvents
Pump Rate FLC-11, 35
Ball sealers, 13 FLC-2, 35
Foams, 9 Fluid loss and diverting agents., 39
see also Washes, 39
Stable Bridges
—R— Bridging Theory, 21
Recommended Concentrations of FLC-18, 37 Starch
Relative Permeability, 6, 7 Enzyme Breakers, 23
Rheology Straddle Packers
Foam, 10 Cased hole horizontal completions, 28
Rock Salt, 4, 37 Horizontal wells, 27
Formation damage, 20 Sulphamic Acid, 3, 37
—S— —T—
SAF Temporary Blocking Gels, 7, 32
Selective acidizing formulation, 6 Thief Zones, 27
Salt, 4, 20 Horizontal wells, 29
Sand, 2 Through Tubing Straddle Packers, 17
Sand Grain Packing Cased hole horizontal completions, 28
Bridging Theory, 20 Limitations, 18
Saturated Viscosified Brines, 4 Spacing, 17
Selective Acidizing, 6 Treatment Options
Foam, 6 Selective acidizing, 6
SAF Mark II, 6
Treatment options, 6 —U—
Selective Acidizing Formulations, 6
SAF, 6 Under-saturated Brine, 5

BJ Services
Index
Unibeads, 20. See Wax Beads Water Based Fluids, 5

US-40, 35 Gels, 7
Usage of Other Diverting Materials, 37 Water Production
Selective acidizing, 6
Water Saturation
—V— Foam, 9
Viscoelastic Surfactants, 7 Water Shut-off
Viscosified Brines, 5, 7 Permanent blocking gels, 8
Viscous Fluids Water Soluble Diverters
Clean plug, 1 Biosealers, 15
Foam, 8 Gravel packs, 25
Fracturing, 26 Wax Beads, 20
HEC, 1 Divert VI, 4, 33
Introduction, 1 Formation damage, 20
Perforating, 24 Gravel packing, 25
Melting point, 33
Size, 33
—W— Solids, 3, 4
Wash Tools Unibeads, 34
Washes, 4 —X—
Aromatic solvents, 5
Condensate, 39 XC-Polymer
Diesel surfactant mixtures, 5 Enzyme Breakers, 23
Fresh water, 39 Gels and viscous fluids, 7
HCl, 39 Gravel packing, 25
Kerosene, 39
Oil, 39 —Y—
Toluene, 39
Under-saturated brine, 5 Yield Stress
Water based fluids with surfactants, 5 Foam, 10
Xylene, 39

BJ Services
References and Bibliography
1.1 Solid Diverting Agents

1
N.H. Ginest, J.E. Phillips, A.W.A. Al Gamber, and D.W. Wright, SPE Paper 25412 “Field Evaluation of
Acid Stimulation Diverter Materials and Placement Methods in Arab-D Injection Wells With Open Hole
Completions.”
2
M.M. Jordan, M.C. Edgerton, J. Cole-Hamilton and K.W. Mackin, SPE Paper 49196 “Novel Wax-
Diverter Technology Allows Successful Scale Inhibitor Squeeze Treatment in a Subsea Horizontal
Well.” First presented at the Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, 28-30 Sept.
1998.
1.2.1 Viscoelastic Surfactants

3
F.F. Chang, T.G. Love, C.J. Affeld, J.B. Blevins III, R.L. Thomas and D.K. Fu, SPE Paper 39592 “New
Material and Technique for Matrix Stimulation in High-Water-Cut Oil Wells.” First presented at the SPE
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control held in Lafayette, Louisiana, from 18 to19
Feb 1998.
1.4.1 Foam Diversion Theory

4
W.R. Rossen and M.W. Wang, SPE Paper 38200 “Modeling Foams for Acid Diversion.” First
presented at the SPE European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, The Netherlands 1997.
5
P.H. Morphy, K.G. Greenwald, P.E. Herries, SPE 39423 “ Operational Experience with Foam-Diverted
Acid Jobs in the Gulf of Mexico.” Presented at the SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, 18-19 Feb 1998.
1.6 Mechanical Methods

6
D.W. Thomson and M.F. Nazroo SPE Paper 39150 “Design and Installation of a Cost Effective
Completion System for Horizontal Chalk Wells Where Multiple Zones Require Acid Stimulation” first
presented at the Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, 5-8 May 1997.
2.3 Actual Micron Sizes of Critical Particles

7
Harris and Odom, "Effective Filtration in Completion and Other Well Bore Operations Can Be Good
Investment", Oil and Gas Journal, Sept. 20.
3.3 Acidizing
8
C. M. Lea, A. D. Hill and K. Speehrnoorl, SPE Paper 22853 “Effect of Fluid Diversion on the Acid
Stimulation of a Perforation.” Presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas 19th Aug. 1991.
3.5 Horizontal Wells

9
R.L. Thomas, A. Saxon and A.W. Milne, SPE Paper 29266 ”The Use of Coiled Tubing During Matrix
Acidizing of Carbonate Reservoirs Completed in Horizontal, Deviated and Vertical Wells.” Presented
at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 20-22 April 1995.

BJ Services
References and Bibliography
10
L.D. Eckerfield, D.Zhu, A.D. Hill, J.A. Robert and K.A Bartko, SPE Paper 48861 “Fluid Placement
Model for Horizontal-Well Stimulation.” Presented at the SPE International Conference and Exhibition,
Beijing, China, 2-6 Nov. 1998.

Diversion Int V.2.0

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Diversion Int V.2.0

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

BJ SERVICES

FLUID LOSS AND

1. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents - Introduction 1

1.1. Solid Diverting Agents 2

1.2.1. Viscoelastic Surfactants 6

1.3. Gels and Viscous Fluids 7

1.4.1. Foam Diversion Theory 9

1.5. Ball Sealers 13

1.6. Mechanical Methods 16

2. Formation Damage with Fluid loss Control and Diverting Agents 19

2.1. Bridging Theory 19

3. Applications of Fluid Loss and Diverting Materials 23

3.1. Perforating Fluids and Completion Fluids 23

4. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents 30

4.1. Calcium Carbonate 30

i Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

4.8. FLC-17 (Chemical Emulsion) 33

References and Bibliography 47

ii Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Figure 1: BioSealer Static Solubility Tests - Diameter versus Time 15

iii Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

iv Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

1. Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents - Introduction

Create restrictions across the more permeable zones.

Chemicals that form solid precipitates or emulsions when contacted by an

• Gels and Viscous Fluids.

Physically block the perforations with a nylon core rubber ball.

1 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

• Use mechanical diverting whenever possible.

• Divide the zone into treatment stages.

1.1. Solid Diverting Agents

2 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

• Bridging and Plugging Agents.

• Matrix Diverting Agents.

3 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

4 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Bridgesal: 1.20 kg/L NaCl Brine + 172 kg Bridgesal + 2.5 kg XC-Polymer

A: 2% KCl + Sodium Hypochlorite Breaker

1.2. Selective Acidizing Formulations (Water Stimulation Prevention)

Acidizing solutions preferentially enter water bearing formations and increased

5 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Table 2: Selective Acidizing Treatment Options

Oil Well - Non Gravel Packed SAF Mark II

Oil Well - Gravel Packed SAF

Gas Well 65 Quality Foam Preflush

The principal component of the SAF (Selective Acidizing Formulation) system is a

1.2.1. Viscoelastic Surfactants

6 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Placement procedures involve pumping a 10% mutual solvent solution (10 to 20

BJ Services M-Aquatrol system is based on viscoelastic surfactant technology and can

1.3. Gels and Viscous Fluids

7 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

1.4. Foam Diversion

8 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Minimum nitrogen delivery rate for 65-quality foam at 30 BPM (a conservative

1.4.1. Foam Diversion Theory

9 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

10 Fluid Loss and Diverting Agents

Observed behaviour of foam qualities of 80% or less indicates that:

During foam injection:

During acid injection:

Pressure gradient falls moderately.

For higher quality foams (greater than 80%)

Foam behaviour is controlled by capillary pressure and foam coalescence (changes in