LECTURE NOTES 01\ REALA}{ALYSIS

Supported bY

School for Lecturers in Real Analysis

June 4-16,2007

C ' GAMEsA MONRT#Y

RAMANUJANCENTERFORHIGHERMATI{EMATICS
ALAGAPPAUNIVERSITY
KARAIKIJDI.630 OO3.
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 PREFACE

This book contains the lectureq given in the Advanced Training

For'Mathematics Lecturers (ATML) school on Real Analysis

held in the Ramanujan cenler for Higtrer Mathematics, Alagappa

1
University, karaikudi during 4 - llJune 2007.

C.GANESAMOORTHY
a'

(c0NVENERS)
 Introduction to Real Numbers
K. Sardeep
T.I.F.R. Centre, Bmgalore
sandeep@nath.tifrbna-res.in

?th May 2003

Most ofus are familiar with real numbeN and iG propcriics. Ho$clrr a ds-

orous malhcnati.el den.irion and u,de*tandins ot ilis cor(eIjr is n.r drat

fariid- ro-r'J bodj. A,to oush Ln t",. M ti;o n..oj i.. rd_
sential io nndeBtand veious conceprs in real analysis Tire antrotthisleries

ol lecNu&s is io iniroduce the concorr! olrealnunbe$ in , maibeDaricall}

we sDne faniliariiy wiih inreeeB and laiional nuhbus. a brief inro

duction oI naiural runbes, integes and rationa.l numbors is given in tle
appendix and we refer to [3] lo. nore inlormation aboDr tllcn .oDcepis
Natunl nunhcE and raiionalnumbers arerry much -nai!ral,, 10 us in our
day to dal life Eowerr, rhe raiional numbeE has a deli0ieDcY llaroelT ihe

gaps preent in it To be pecise thd cquaiion rr 2 do$ nor hajr !itulion

in raiiona.l numbem. Welave.,:1< 2 wben r: r anJ \re s@ rhdr
$hen we inoea* r ihroush raiional nuhbeN, ai sonre ronr rij > 2 lor somr
rarional ,0, ho\@ver ,2 I 2 lor dv rationar € {1,.0)' This nrdicales dE
"
exisien.e olceltdin "gaps" presnt in Q. we aelooknrs br I numbet svstem

wiihont saps md ihat ir the motiEiio! io consiru.t rcal nuNbqs.

h ihese lectures se wiU intDduce real nunbas in u dionaiic $av and

laier proe the exisien@ of red nurbes These existcnce Prools are oL
teined bsically by "6ning lhe aap6" prEeni in tle rational tnbor6 $'e
will .lso study some of the inportani lroperiies oI real nunirdrs

Nore t. Sane ol the hBi. lacts abad the .o uergeaee

]h. ta,r t?rhi. nrt nat inefuded in tuis not$. We tder

Notation 1. We will denote set ot all natural numbes bJ li, iuicges

by z, raiio&l numbeE by q later the real numbos L! R.

 1 Axioms of Real Numbers.
ir ihis r.iion we will inirodlce the co&epr of real nunrbers aaionrrricaUy.

rh.6!s. thins ttrai se intoduceis i[e ivo binary operati.ns tr slrould rra\t.

Deiinilion 1,1. A lield is ari I rogerher {irn re biDary operarions called

rd.lnion Nrd mutiiptication ddoied by + ad .respc.Livcly and sa sfyirS

I r+! = !+. torall,,r€a.

I h + r)+: = , + {s + ) lor alk, r.: € ,..
u

.l F conrains an elenetrt 0 such ihai , + = , for aI r € I O .

I Por orer!, € 4, ihere exisi6 an elebent, € r, suctr rlut, _(_, = 0.

; r., = r.,lor all,,!r 6,..
ij (r' l/l z:,. (!,. z)for.tl,,r,,. € rr
; F .onlai.s a el€aenr 1+ O such rnat,, t =,Ior aI u € ,'
i F.r lverr r €F and r l0, rhere exlsrs an elonie : € I such ihai
.,1:1
t I l! + 4 = x -y +!.. hr a,ll r, y, z € a.

\\e sa} ihar ar c -F G a subietd oI a it ar ii sell i6 . iicld niih respecr

io ilc same operations. We say thar iwo nelds
4 bd E ah iromorpli. it
ihde {:xGis a bijeciive map
I : F1 +,ri 6uch trrar ,t(r+ r) = l(r)+,f(v)
&,1 j("r)= /k)/(r)ror.n,,, € .I. For a delaited disclssion on ndds we

Remark t. We bill urite . .! bu ru on11r + | 1J) btl x !

The next concepi E ilrroduce is ilat oI conrDalng hrc cl.nrnts or an

Deffnition 1.2. An order on s 6et S is a relalion denorld tjJ <, \riih iie
folloying rwo propelries:

li) Ir, €.t ad g < S ihen o.e and only ore oflhe sratenrnrs

2 <!, r-!, a <z

{ii) If ,,9,2 €.9 wiih, < ! and, < j tnen r < :.

1 sei .t i. wnicl m order is defined is c.lled a ordered sei.

Dennition 1.3. An ordeied 6eld is a ffet ,r which is atso a ordered sei

(i) r+! <r+z if ,,!,? € Iand g<2.

(ii) 0 <,?i1,,!,€40<,, andi] < !.
\\re denoie the shreEenr, < s or,, =1/ by Nriiins r 9. We will also
=
dqo'""' q and r : !, h^!, >, a.d /r nbpp.rir,tr.
J

Exercise r.1. ,[,u t{a,lor an! pdtue ntnber p, Ap = {0,1.2....,p rl is

d feLd uith res?ect to addition modula p ohd tudtiplicdtian natulo p_ Atsa

;hou.hat th6. b ro odar on z, uhxh tudk@ it a\ aitera,t lekl.

Dennition r.4. ln atr oldoed 6eld we say ihai , € a is :

Exerci€e ,.2. Let F be an arde\l fetd., shau thnt :

tii) Ilc $ ?asitiw theh r i, negatbe and: i' wsilirc.

/iii/ .u0<. <9 lnen0< ; < i.
Exercise 1.3. ,er ad on ordercd freld, drfne J : Z, j I 611 c
'ntuaian

J(0)=0, J(n+ 1)= l(n)+ 1,2 € z

rhere 1k the mrLtipLicati"e identitg in F- Shau that J is atu ta ane fln+
n): l(n)+/(n) and I lM) - J \n)J lm) ior olt n,m < 2,.

The above exercise slrows tb,t a.y oldeled 6eld coDrains a copy ot z. TIE&-
foE *e asune iniegeE e conlained in ey ord*ed ffela bI idcxritying l(n)
$iih n. Fron here orwa.ds ee vill siBply $riie J(n) s n \rv N sho\r
thai an orde@d field in lact coniairo a copy olihe raiionll m(rb.*.

Proposition r.4. ,ei r bd an otnered freLtl, then F ontdri t tullNltl Na.

naryhic to @ ond the isananhit; pftsetues the ordtr.

PnaJ. Ler J : Z, + F be u.leffned in rhe plevious exerci6c. \\'c Nill oxien.l

,f(1)--r(')=!
m I\m)
Fisi se show that I is weil de6ned. l-et s = ! Ttrtu D4 ,'p = 0 and
hen@ o = J(ns hp) : flnq) + l\-hd: t(nq) - J(rnp) -- Itn)Jtt -
/lm)lo). xh6 and using llo ssoci.rivn). PbPe y
Nos Dutriplyins by

'nutiplicetion,tr€ set, /(n)ro,)L l(,)# =

ol 0 shich shon6 i][t J is Netl

\oI,one c& e*ily dect that

./(,, +r,l = r(, )+/(rr. md

Ior all rj,rr € Q and hene I b a neld hononorpli n . Also J is orc i!

ine a l(,) : 0 imprGs, : 0.. Nos we tm$ tom (i) ol Eaonisc 1.2 rhlt
Ll < /(1). hence troD the deitririon ol J ve ger 0 < J(n) Lr dr r > 0 and
I.on, (ii) or Exedse 1.2 we ger 0 < ,t) for, > 0. This nnmcdidelJ sives
Ilrt) < /(r,) ilrr < r,. tr

l. yies oI ihe $oye Fropositio., we 6une il'at anr

? {s a subfidd br.identifyins J0J, r € Q Nith r ond
bt ..

Dednition 1-6. Let .t bo e ordered set and , c 5, ihen ,. € J is c.llod

ao upper bound ol t if r S ro ror all , € E. Il suctr an r:i !\isc ilten *c
iav that , is bornded ftom above.'

L.so bound and bounded hom LeloN can br dehned sinilJrlJ L| t,ldunc

Definitior 1.6. Lei S be an odercd set rd EcS

i) Suppose E is bounded above, ihen r. € S is said to L,c thc l.dr xppei
bound olE or the supremun olE if,0 satislies rhe rvo condiiions:
ial ,o is & upper bouDd
 br iI r < so thcn , is noi an upper boud

ii) Suppose E is bounded betow, tho c0 € .t is srid io b! rhe grealesi

Io\rer bound of, or the innmun ot-o if,o saiisEes ltre iwo coDdiiionsl

{a) ,o is a lowei bound

b) it, >,0 th.,, h noi a i6ver bon.d

Eemark 2. ?ne aroue der{ni,ian dres nat |utunt* the easLane ot sqre-
nun at inlenln oJ E - We d,enate b! snp E and \nt E the sapnn\tu ol E an(t
r$nxtu af E rcspectiuet! (nak3 se6e, thank, to the Joltouinr Ehrcnd. il

Exer.ise 1.5. 5ro, ,ia he 5\p D onn \ E oE tni@a L:t8ne.-ej i1 Nists.

De6nition 1.7. We say ihat e ordered s.i S hd ihe le*r rplrr b.und
propertl if everJ bounded ab0ve suhei E ot ,t h&s a teasi ulper bounlt. Sirn-
ildiJ we say thai .9 hd ine g&aiest tower bound DopertJ,il sr.q, boua{ted
below 6ubset , of ,9 hs a greaie6r lower bound ,

Exer.ise 1.6. groo ,nar Q .id u nit satids the lekt qpo batnd ,tupetht.

P.oposition 1-7. ier ,9 de a, aileftd ser unh ban qt)et 6ar d rapetut,
then 5 h@ the greatest tauer balnd prapefu ond nice u3a.

Prrol Lei E be a non-emDty bounded beloB subset of5 let, donoro e

*t olaU lower bounds olr. Il,

ilm rtrc denrjrid otI, I S,
€ E ihen
lor all I € ,. This shows that .very mmber oL is .n upDer bound o! r.
Thus by rhe ssuhpiion sup, exisis say,0. We claio n:f, = to. Fnstj since
sup, : Jo iL is on uppor bound olI, t[en io < r. N-ov etemerts orc are
uDper boutrd6 ofZ, rherefore io S, for all, e E j e., to is a loncL bound ot
E. Now se yani io show rhar ifl > lo ihen I is not a lover boud. Suppo*
I isa loftr €, wLich is a cont.adiction
hound tlen I io the dcfinition of i0.
Ihe oiher pa lollotu similarly. O

Proposition 1.8. (Archimede& prope.ty). Let F be ar arnefttl letd

uith 1@l vpper bo nd prap ntg o^d. 1 ! <F uith t > 0, thet ihere easts on
tlteget ne F tlchthatA <nr.

P@o, Il the prcposiiion is not true for some , md ,, tlen , is

bnurd of E = {tu : n > 1}. Since F hs the re6i npper bound

sup, exisi6, Now supE -, < snpE &d hence sup.E ri6lot
boud of E, herce ihere exGrs @€ , such iliat supE -r <
ipt < (n + 1)c, a conrradicrion. n
Thorem 1.9. Let \ Md F, be hN ardend lelds aith teost leper bowt(l

?npert!, then there ii an order pftsenins isamoryhish betuerh n nnd F2.

|.. tt <t ond <2 ore the arders in \ dnd F2 t*pectinel\, tret therc etbts
: : F1 ) F2 stch thot I k d fre?Tinomalahkn betu@n 4 dd p2 and il
i.!. Fl Mth r <1!!, then Jlt) <, Jfu).
PD,/. we knoy ihat hoth 4 sd & coniaim e s, subffeld. De6!e I :

l(r)-rj.€a
{here the r on ihe leli h&d 6ide denoies the nlional r in 4 a.d rhc .
rhe ght hand side d€not6 rle rariolal r iD 4 Non exiurd J io _El
 /(4 =sPr', , €.r
rheF Er : i/(,) I r € A ond r <r,l / is vel denned d & 16 rhe lest
uppn bound propedy ond E, G bouided above( it r is a raijonal in ,.r sucrr
tbat , < r thea the corespondins rarionat r in ,., G an upper bound ofrr).
\\e claih tnai J is s ffeld i6onorl,hi6n a prsoNs rhc ordor.
Clea.lJ, ,
rBtricied io O is an order pMefting isouo.phism o, io rhe ra
rio.als in F,. Let,,? € aL,r <,,r < g,ifi r,s < e, ihen
/G) + /(r) =
jir+s) < l(.+!) a this iEpli6l(,) +,(!) : J(,+!). To prove
:he oppooite inequaliry, lei r<. + v, rhe! we claim that r can b€ wlir
:eD a r = rr + s, with rr < ,,!r < ,, Assume ilte claiD is proled rhen,
-' ') = l(,r)+ /Gr) s tG)+ J(!) ed hence l(.+r) < l(,) + l(s). ro
_Dio\! the claid,let us clDose ? € qsuch ihar 0 < p < r +! -., dd ttren

.loose r p < r, < r,,r € e. Choosing suc! a, anrl e rl is posibte, see

3 1) lor a prool ol iLis faci. If ! < r ,r , ttEn

. +, S r + r - rr = r+ (r ... rt) < r +p <r +r +! _r =r+ !

a .oliradiciion. This prores the claim wirh er = r - rr. Snnih rguneni
.ill shos ih.t l(.!) = /(,)J(v)
To pmve that J is onio, lei u 6rdt wirn ! € a, De6ne I € Ii s

,=Np{,€Q I lG) <: r/}

The sup E uellde6ned 6 Fr he the le6t upps bouod p'o!.'q ind rhe sei
. :iunded aborc (it, is (ho*n such thai, <, s € Q rhen iho rrion.l s in

.. rnFsp.ndins ro s is an trpper bound or rhe seie : l(,J <, /]) t €

r'.i claim rlDi J(,) = E. Lri r <1 r dd, € Q, ihd l(,) <,, by rhe
:iirnion ofr. rhis inplies l(,) = ptrt) i r <, ,) <, x. ir /(:.) <j !,
_:':: iron th. Proposiiion 3.1 and ihe laci h thai i is an ordcr DreseNing
.: rnrphisD bet*en ths ntionalsinF1md a, se ser f(r) <? rtJ <,,lor
. ae r € q. Thus by the definition olr, i <r r &d ihen by the deinition
:: J r). /(r) S, /(.) which is a @nfadiciior. Hene J(,) = tr and I is
:1:n ll, <r v ihen there are plenir of rationdls b.Nccn, a.d y ants
:: P,lposition 3.1. Hen.e /(r) <,1(!), whicL rov$ both lhc injectna and
::l- prsslirlg properil of J The lerJ sahc arsumenrs Nill slur llui J_1

-: ? bijectne lomomo.phisn. This comlleies il,e poof. D

::rLs io ihe above iheorem, we can deline

DedDition 1,3. (R@lNumbers.) An odered neH viih lc{st u!!.r bou{d

::r?. r G called a real nunb6 neld, ald L@ denote it try R. VcnlcN ofR

Models for Real Nurnbers.

:4. aim oI ihis scciion is to prove ihe eaistcnce ofan ordered neld \rnL L6t
-:o.r bound DroDerty. We sire trrc differenr merhods, mnelr Dedikn,d.ui!
throush Cauchv seqEtrces
-d

10
2.1 Dedikind cuts.
-ls r mentidned in the inrmduction, re ee going to.onarruct lR by illing
tlF saps in Q. Obcene thar a raiioD5l nunbs c ce be idenr!fl.d by ilE 6ei
.{. = ir < 0 : r < .). This is the bNic ids behild Dediliud ois.

D.dlition 2.r. A notrhpry prcper sub€er r4 ofq js carbd a Dediki.d cur

ia I $tb66 ihe following !rcp€rri6:

(i) r, €,4 ed, € O with !, <,, ihs 9 €,4.
Gi) II , € , tLs there ensh , € I such inat , < !.
tEt u dhoie bl .4 rhe *i ot a,U Dedikid curs, the!

Prop6itioD 2.1. F b uih the oder <

an oldered set delnen os A < B t
-7 n o ptupefiLb'et oJ B.

P,el. Ler A,B < F md A I B, we w&nr to show tJrat eiiher ,{ c B or

B. A.
S!Dp@ ,4 is not a subet oI r, re claim ihai , < .4. Sime ,4 is not a subset
.aB,lo €,4 such ibat o + B. Lerb € 8. Suppcc d S d, rLe! a € B b,
U. 6nt popdty of Dedikhd cni, wlic! js s @Dharlidion. Theretom d < a
.d h€nce 0 € ,4 aesi! dm ro tie ffEi prcperry ot Dedikild cur. Iielce B
is a poper sub*t ot -4. Irtu a.Lo 6yro @ thsr if,{ < A ud B < C rhtu
,t < c. Ilsnc. < is & ordc on I fl
De6ne an operation + on I. s folNs :

A+B = lr+a: r e,4, e€r)

11
:.r us show ihat + is wett di6ned,,D other *ords 14 + B is also a cul. Clearly
.l-Bisanonemptysubseiore tr,r 8,4&dsr d arheir.,+s, r1+-B,
d
nce ilrr +sr = r +s $ith r €,,1 and s € r, ihc, r < rr and, < sr (due
:o 6Et properiy if Dedikind cut) which is impNiblc. Hence,
+ I is I non
.hptl proper sub6er of Q.

:.r r, + sr € -4 + B dd r € Q,, <,r + sr ihen r €.,{ + l, 6 {e cu {die

-- 6 r: (z - 3,)+61 and. sr€,4sircer-ri<rr.TnisproveihefrBr

ondition in tne denniiion oaDediki cui.

\orilr € /+Bihen. = rr+sr with rr €,4 dd sr € lr. N-oN tler.
.\ijt rr < r,!r < s such ilai r €,4 ed j € B. Tho rr +st < r+s and
_ s € ,1 + A. T[is prcves rhe wond property ot Dediki
cui
',\ nh respeci to ihe abore operaiioDj we have

Proposition 2.2. 'Ihe set aJ a Dedikind ctts F latms ai ltclinn lroup

.\i reier to [a] lor a prool ot ihis proposilion. We Muld litt to rncnlion ihar
:ne addnive ideDiiiy 0 G ihe Dedikind cui consisrins ofa[ Degaiivc rarionats.

Exercise 2.3. Snoa,iar,4+C < B+C. xAenener A < B

Deiur" thd i A . O th?n -A . o Md B.p ,".,a, tha, -

Iov ht us inhoduce ibe nuiiipticaiion on a For 0 < ,r and 0 < B,

,{.8: {, €@ : r<fs, lo smer < A.s € B,/>1r,r>0}

& ir ihe 6e ol + on€ cm €sily check inat / B is . &nonpiJ proler suE

s .a Q. Now * brre to shB thet ,4 . E ssii6n6 oiha dioms ol Deditind

L r € ,4 4 ud ,r < r. ! € Q. Then ! < c < rr, r € ,4, r € E, r > 0, 3 > 0.

f, € -4 8 vith . < rs, r € -4, 3 < A, r > 0, s > 0, then since I is a

Ildittud cft, lr, > t,suc! tlai rr € l, Thelore !i = trs > rs = , ad

, € -,1 . B. Eer@ ,,1 . B is a Dedilud cut,
Ir ft ,ill €*ted the deinition ol Enitiplication a toll@s:

,4.0=0=0.1
(-A).(-B) if,{<0,4<0
,r{ (-l).al ir -4 < o,o <,
-[,4 (-B)] iro<.4,8<o
td. t[si ihe uboye deaniiio! mak6 ste, th&lks to ihe l6i *ercise, With

rb .hoE d€iriiior of +,- ud < , we h8ve

al6''@ 2.4. Let ! be he set oJ a Denihind cvts ond +,',< as defued

ara then F b M otdcted field, aa.] it i@ the lNt @per bo\nd pn?erfu.
fiD, We will o y strov that I ha! the lea6t uPPer boud ProPeity Fora

Fefol the f&i ihat I i! u ord€Fd 6eld, ?o leter io [a].

I-.r E be u boud€d &bove subei ol l- let U denot6 the uniotr ol a.ll the

E *6 ol E- We sh@ that LI is s Dedildnd cui Md s!D-E = U' Cleallv

13
 :: rrn empNl, Now since , hs atr upper bound sry lo. rhBr .\ins a

:. : oal / such that r + ru. Tnerclore, is noi a mcmber ol al,v rlun]]n oI

: a.lnencereU Thus U is a poper5ubset ofQ. Lei us 1cift ih..rher
:::retri6 ol Dedikind cuir
Lpr r € t' and , < r, then , € .,1 vhere A h an ctenreft nr E TlueIoF

Lt r e U. then, € -4 whd.,,{ s elcment iL I th.n $r , \ !

: lltar !, € A and hence ! € U.
: :.r. L € a Ndt we 6hov ihet sup E = U. Cledly i/ h an rDler bound
- :.ose .,1 < U. Ther there ensts an , € u such tnat I + .-1. 1'lris implies

' : A lor some B element ol E Thus tne relaiion B< ;1 do$ nor hold ard
r :re .l is not an upDer bound. This

tr

Erer.ise 2.5. aird tlle Deailiatl cut camspon&no ta 2 dtt rtotr thnt theft
.:..: n Ded,ihind cnt A st.h thnl A-A =,
F."t, i" 2,6, Ft^d t)." D"dtl,nd , u ,at tatJltl q to .' ,

:.2 Cauchv Sequenc€s.

', d.line a squence olrational qumbeE s a tunction /: N + Q. Dcnoting

' _ bua se olien denote a 6equenc 6 {r4}, II tlLc corsrdion orreal
:lLllrs using Cauchy serluenc€s, the mejn idoa h thrt \o caD represent
^
rual nunber by a *qucntu ol rational numbers "cor\ersn's" Lo il \\.
. :=N l2l 6 a reiererc ror ihh secrion.
D.tuitio! 2.2. A sequence {4"} of rationeb h said io he Cancnv if VA <
l:!Y € N 3trch thst ld, - aal < i for dl n,m> N'

@ 2.7. shou $at iJ Idn]r a lb"\ oB ctuihv sequdces' then {on+

\l od ld"b"l ort calcns.

kdse 2.s. s/uu l,tat iJ {a} i, calcn, atd ld.l > i, ,or sone e € N,
la (:) i, a&, ca@nv.
E (hote the set of all Caucbv tequencd bv C' Obsrvo thai ierns of the

Md {t"} where D^ = o,vn N dbitr&ilv close 6 n bdom6

'4aG iii
Lqa We exp6t both of then io represt the sue nunb 0' TLercfore

vhich Ne lilelv to !.piesnt tle sMe lunba

- LE io iderti& *querc6

Ir.lEnitiotr 2.3. For Csuchy sequen@s or ldtiona.ls {d"}, {d,,1 € c, we srv

{.!} - {!h} if v* € N, lN € N such i!.i lan - 6"1 < i ior 5lt t > N.

EAciUon 2.9' $ an estinalde ftlarion on G

The eloUon '
frD, R.ndivity ud symFehv of - is obvious' To prove trmsiiivitv' let
t .) - (Dh) sd t!") - {c,,) thst there di6is Nl, N1 € N such tlsi la'
Ll < iioraun> N1 edLD" ..1 < *rfo!atln>N'? letN=
E{N,, &}, then La" - c,,l < an - b"l + lt^ - 6l < i ror arl n > N' tr
D6!€ , a5 ihe coUectio! of dU equrdence cl6es. Denote the cqlivalelce

d6 crntailins {oa} by ldnl.

Ee.cbe 2.r0. I?t {4.} te a Cdtchs ieduence nnd b^ = oi, + i'vn, then

I..l = tbJ.
15
De6nition 2.4. Lel {dr} be a squene ofrational nnnrbds 8d lur}-Ar
r s?quence ot natumt nunbe$ sucn t[at nr < ni+r,vt € N aur \t cdl
:.luerce ia4)=i a sub*quenco of the sequence {d.}

E\ercis€ 2.11. ,et {o"} ,. o Calchu se./deace und |a",J a s lttdtce oJ

--hrp addrrron and multiplication on r" a folloss I

la,l+lD"l=[o"+h,]

l""l.tr"l=1""6"1

& sho{ lhat theF opeiationa are @ll de6!ed. Fnst ol all .oie ihrt {4.+}"}
are Ca{chy squeocs, tlrark to Exerciso 27 N'{ the sell
=a lo,D']
:::led.ess ol the above operaiions rvill be proved once Ne slo$ thai il

-) - {a"} and {r"} - li^}, ihen {0' + r'} - {a,, +,',1 dnd {4"lr,} -
;i,.) si"* {.^l - {6"} {6J, ror a siver i € N,lN,.^! € N
-d {6,} -
..:r rhat a" 6^l < + foraLln> Ir, md 16" - i"l < + irr 'n a > N,'
'i:r choosiq, N = mu{Nr,N, wP set

lld" +b") (i^+ri)l< c-4" +lr, r.l<i,?,u

} prores ihe flell dsffnedness ot addition snd ihe vell d0liredness ol mul

::?:icaiion folloss simil6!ly.

Ptuposition 2.12. I is ardd urri Br4, to thP alot. d?fu'l oltl,tiun dnd.

16
I
t P'&l
I
FjEt @te rl .onoursriviiy,4sociaLiv
r","* :*,
w
d 5k bdriv pro'
t -i. '.-,;:,*;;;; ;;;;';,&d 'iv

^-", ^.,*.,,_ ;;";;;#

J oftspondjnc jbq$. Let d6or6
;;IHr",;"-j
I [0] '- equivalo
'- rhe 'r-'"& rras 'or ciLnr
I ol",-r *q,"n.. -*o.,r* rde

I
| ,.t+lol=la,+ol=tat
I
is r6e addiij,. idetiry. rr o erv,o a,1,o,
I 1":.r, is J .4,t. si,ir&ry
u.o,oouu"
hl. rhe equivarecF ae ^on.ai.ins rtrp
I *,
::1,"
I t 6ieoc" ""o**. _" ,,
,te mulripliedr iddiu. Nk e qsr .o slon
oI@dtipuori,e id"ntity.
I
t- t*l I t.l rho rrom,he deEririo,
l or, sese heqis,tu.p ofsr E N
,", .," ,h, J*rr> i. v,. \os k krou rtuB
I'-T**-.
I ,ll ltaL ldal-.lolJ. AcaiD
L_x*6e
J Elkbe 26tels us rha, rar. r.-tr, , ,.
ed, the m*rc. o a,,j rhi! co&phr6
rle prcor
I
lo
PtqosirD" 2.r8. f G da ort(t?,rt t.! 6k E,pqt ro th" otde,
I < d.tned

Ja"l< [4]ute,r,i e th*vn 2.,,,,

N such
o"_.,,
]
hrJ FiNi h E show []lar < i5
reI deflFd SuDDe"
la, - l;"1. ed tbs osr t. r. n **,*.,,ll tal -
*t to snow the qisrerce of
t,,.V, a :V.o"t ,t", V, , ,v,, i" - 4'+.
tt
 ctoose N: € N su.h thai lor a1J <
- + and lr^ Dil < ar hotds ror arl
i > N1. Ler Nr = hd{rv, rvr},and tr _

(0,
- a") - (h - i,") - 14 -o..)

> (4 - a" I - io. 6"1 - l4 - q,i > 11 r-1

gerce <:s weli
d€nn.rt
\exi n€ snow < de6D6 a! o.der o! a
I?t ld"l, J6"l € a aad Jail I iopli*
t6J. Thh rhe distdco or *€ N aDd a
db6equence {z,i su.b rhai la-, -h,l > }, vi Z r. Tuus br Erercik 2.i1,
n may rzume lo"
- l.l t i, vn > 1. sirce {o,i snd
{r.} ee caucrly,

< md Pa -4"1 3 yo2

*1 *1, 17.

\F s. dain ihar [d"] < [h] or lrJ < la,l delendios oMr < oi or
rsee dx < rx, ihen {e hsve in ftur r, -a, >

,, o, = {r, _ a,)_ (r, _r") _ (a, oN)

>1_A I -
-h
1

4k 4k- *
Ba.e [d"l < tb,l.
fte onEr cse rolto*s snilety.
&ppose ld"l < 16"l dd
ID.l < [6] rhe! ]rj,],,N,,,^r,
t d" > + roraln > xt edq,-a" 2 *to,arr,
1a
 i > Dd{Nr, N, } we ger

c, _." = (c" -6^) + (r, _d,) >

;
rlis 6iabli6h€ rhe tresitivity oI < .tuIheme
< <tefinq d ordd on f,.
ole csn €Eily se t[ai ir
Io"] < Ihl thei ta,l + Ic"l < Lo^l + l.^l.Also ir
:..j> I0l ed t4l > I0l, ih€tr ta"l.lhl> lol rhis cotupleG ne pNor
o

Tl@r@ 2.14. lhe set R. uith +,,,< is na artetud letd bith trast Lpper

E [are already 6rablished sil tLe prcperiiG

excepr ihe teLsi urper boud
Fr?d1y- For a p.oof of the tesr upla bobd properry we Drd ro l2j.

3 Properties of real nurnbers.

E hae oErructed the re6t nuober ield iD ihe l6t ivo
secrions. 1! $is
Elh @ will srudy $he of ihe imior-imt plopefties ot rcal numbes.
Not
tr E,ill be proving aI.h,* re 6lu.r usjns.hed,Jm..

1l Basic prcperties of R€aI numbers.

E Eaw seen i! ihe tusr seciion rhrr .eal tuDhes co.iain raiio&l numuqs
- . $b 6€ld. All Denbdd ot tR vhich ee not rarionats ee caued ilration,t

19
 nMbeE. We slw rhsi thde @ plery of rarioral and
'tl@e io,,ary reat Dumt er

Let 4v eR. tuiti. < s, thenar ee such thar c < r < !.

> 0, &oh the Archimedean pmpdry
we ge,

i < u(y -,) for sme, €N

Also applying Archihede& properry

to tu dd -e we Cet i,. ri, € N sndh
thai a, < ar ud -m < 4. i.e.,

Hence we ce choGe an

n(r-r)). sinren>0se

tr
Erercise 3.2. .t"r dnrr, g € tR bith r -r a R\Q n.n rnar,
< 1!, < r < y.

any p6itire number hs

R.

20
 Proposition 3.3. Let. E R dnd x > A, then there
e*t! a Lnique t > O

?D,/. Deine,4 c R N lollolys

4={r€R.l<1.20}

:ien one can esily see ihat ,4 is Do! enpiy 6 O

::und or,4. Deffne s= 6up!, ye clrim thar

!2

(!) + h), =e, +2hs + t; S!2 + hl2tj + t).

:!us ilso croose o <n< !+n >,

#, ihen and, +n
: .olfadicrion. tvhen 9, > c, p.oceeding in a similar ray
r::tradiction, Ilence !, = r.
::n < vI < y, thcn ive ger ri < u!l1 an.l rryz < d ud hoce ,i < !/;. rhis
::.\rs the uniqueness.
D
Ex€rcise 3.4,I'e, n € N @ri n > t
2 _, thctu Jor ana €R t >
: rniAne g > 0 stch tnat an = x.
Deffnition 3.1, U'e call the unique, > (] such rhai V" =, a!
:: r aDd we denote ir brr i/6.

De6lition 5.2. Real power of ! posirtve number, Ler r > u hd, e R

t'o', ', 1>a

l"*' ,, 0

21
 detdib retdrdin!.., joA.,...
be

For a reat u4bd ?, we de6n.

lr= !. ,,.,.
Exeicise B.i. J.or ,,
[-. ,,. o

, €R
ti) l.+vla14+lsl
@ l1.l-tll<),-ul
3.2 SequenceE and some
topological properties of
R.
I! tlis sub*ction we wiu &viw
some ploperri6 otsquenc6
or.eat nunbe6.
$'e kill a&o lrde sone oltne
ropologicat f&r6 about R jnvolving sequences,
We will see ihai the lea.t uDper bobd qion viu pray a Daror rore
proo& oI @ny ol
i! tle
tnse Buhs.
Dedritlo! 8.4. A sequen@ of real
nuhbeN i6 a fulction
daore a e$€"@ by
/ :N r tB. We
{,,}Er wieE.^ = t(n).
De6 rion 3,5. we 6ay thar a squee &,lr=r con elg6 it t, € R such
that ihe foltowjnS prolelry
lotds:

VE > 0, lN<,\ sucb t[at

qist€, ria re say ihat rhe 6eque&e
{,,}f=r coNelg6 ro,,

22
 The foUoNing exmple demonsrraies holv tl+ Arch'hldPan p'op.rt) hctps
us to prove ihe convelgenco I

Dxampre 3.6. C,mrdcr .ne seqten@ |ij. Let A, then b! Archined.rn

pnlertylNENslchnlotr<N and hence \ , Vn > N, uhich implier
0< I <a, Va> N andren.. r o.
"I

Exercise 3.7. ,e, , € R, ihen there e"i,t teqnences {,,}. ," € O a,,l
{r,}, !" € R\O i,cn tial c, + r atud h) x

Exercise 3.8. {,siEr canueryent sEun@, then lrnj is bannt d.

'e,
i.e., there sists a caBtnnt 0 rk/l dat r^ < n{, Vn E N,

We muid like iojust stare ihc folloving convergence rhcorem Ntrare rhe
linii is 6ured by ihe le6i uprer bound axiom or rhe sreaiesi tosd bound

Proposition 3.9. ,4 bdded tuonatone setqence is con errent.

Be define a subsquelce ofa given sequence s nr ihe lasi sectior. tfc denoie
a subsequence or a seqnence {."}f=, }v k,,,)Er. we siaie ihe touo$r,s
plopciiion regarding the converdence olsub&qnenc6, le.vin6 rhe proofas

TLeorem 3.I0. A nq\en9 {!")fu is can ertcnt iff a r stbseq,ences

cotuersa to the some h1nit.

ll a sequence ha two Eubsequences convorsing to difierenr linrits, iltn ihc

abo\t propositio, tells us Nhat ihe sequence is not convergeni, Tnus io srudy

23
 ile coDversence ot a sequence jt i6 natrral io see ild lei consistjns ot aU snb-
seque!.e limiis. \&e iill reshici our discussion io bounded sc.D.n.as

De6nition 3.6. For a bounded $quar.e

l4)f , s€ derine ns limn r! Z

I = {y€R:,",+r,torsone beqE{e fu,r}=,}

!\i? also denne linsupra and lnnnfz. as

LDnrf q : int,
\Ve {ill see nr Theorem 3.i8 ilut Z h .oneopry. The sei , ,, e6ur6 ihe
coDyeigeme ot rhe sequence. In orher \rords a
sequence b conlerseni ill
,
the cotesponding sei coDilits onlr a silgte
elenent \ore rl[t tom ihe
deinition we Iarc lin ra < tiosuprs. ThE , hill redu.e ro a sei \vith
only one elenenr i{liDint." = limEupc,,,

Exerci6e 3.1r. rer,4rsafnites .t aIM, shou thatthere el*k d bourd l

seqlehY uhase linit tet L $ A

Dxercise 3.12. Let {ra)f_) be on enttuemtion al rotionoLs, lind the set L

.onespandihs ta rhe sEuen e
I\l
Tie nexi proposirion iell6 us thaiI' can not bo any ehnra!-' sei
 Proposition 3,18. ,or an, t
,o ded ,e,Nde {,"1tr=1, L
I a clo,ed , bset
oltt. i.e, Il lu"j?t be n teqvend ui&
ua e L, ahd u,t + v, re|! e L.

Ptuol- Letu"e L.@dv^) ?. We win coctrud a,ubsequence of

{r4}
*hich vill coNerge ro using
9) itrduction.
Sin@ u i6 a subeqnerce tinii, we can chooe a, € N sucn ihat
lh _,u, I < 1.
.Asrne tlar ,ir is defined. Sitrce !i+r i, a subseqnetue linir, choos ri+r > nr
sucn thai ls4, -,iil,l < ;,- We ctain rhat ihe suhequElG
r,, + r.
let 6 > 0. Sime s, + 9, ihere ensts N e N su.,t rlat
ly, _?l < !, Vn > N
Cnoose I € N such tiai r > rr'
and i <
,. Wiitr ihi6 choice ot 1, se naw

l? -,al < le - e,l+ l$ _,el < 6, vl > r.

D
As a cobilary, ve lsve :

Corcttty 3.74. ?at Ms bounden s.qnetue

l."j, ti 6tp,ne L and

Th€ toli@ins cheererisaiion

ot lim6up and tininl is Ey nsetul,op@ialy
vlo one conpure6 ii6e numbe6.

Prcposition s_1s. ,er

{rs}: I be a bo,aded seqaene, thetu

lissupx, = intsupJ.",r,,+r, .
]

25
 lininl,i = supinf{q,rs+r,...)

Ptuo, The seqnen@ sup{,.,,"+,,...} is a dec@n,s sequence. Fmn rle

deffniiiotr of inf one can esilyre ihai the inierval
(,DJspl,..14 ,... i0t-up{'tr.,",. .l I *J coh ai0- inu-;r mdor
'
tdns fton the ftquence tor any fr € N. From inis one can eslty concluds

iorsup{r",r"+,..}€,

itrfsup{r",r"+',...) < linsupc".

Suppo* Fe lave ihe stdci inequa.lirv. sd ler

inrsp{i",."+r, . } < a < lim5up1..

Tho 6irce sup{4,.,+r,,.,} C a decredils sequoce wc ger

lor n > N for sone N € N, This slio6 ttat,tr < a tor aI n > N, which is
inposrible s liosup.n € r. H6e re have

inlsup{,.,,.,...} = limsup,".

The spesion fo! lim inf lolloffi sinilarl,, D

26
 Dennition 3.7, A sequcnce or real numbes
{qJf=o is sard io bc Caucny,

V6 > 0, :N € N6uch tnar lc, - rnl < 6, Vn,a > N.

The lexi iheoreh is an important properrl ot leal nudbeN,
which in tad is
a co4equence olihe le4t upper bound properiy,

Theorem 3,16. (Complereness.) Ana Caucnv ,er4en* it R, con&rtes.

Proo, Iet {,i} be a cauchy sequence in &. Tten lrr' € Nsuch thlr

1." rxl < 1,v, > N

and [ence ]M > O such illal l.rl < rr.I, Vn tn la.ricular lhe ser consisring
of all elemerrs ot rhe sequence
{r"}:,=0 C bounded &om aboye and belos.

,i = $p{,4'rr+1,..,)
is sell defined. Here by
{.", ..+,. .. .
} se nean tne sei corsisrirs or distinct
elenents hon ihe coll(iion.4,rr+1,.... tlai
_{lso nore ?4 : rr+1, Vn.
Deine

. = i.r{e.,!"+,,. }

Let. > 0, then,+i is noi a lowd bounrt. Hen@ l,\! € N

such ihai
z S 9" < ,+;, Vn > N,. since {.,} is Cauchr :r\,
eN such ihar

27
 Vn,m 2 /V,. Ths inplis

,i,
Lei,v = hu{Nl, rv?}, rhen ror n,m > tv,

lz. - rl s lr. -r^l+ lu, - 5l .;.i:,

i.e., for m > X,l,- -, <e &d n@e,4 _f c. tr
Theorem 3.1?. Nested rtrtNal ?heoreD. ,a, I"=lo",b"l,n€N0eu
sequeace ol cla,ed intemats such that Jn+1 c rn,Vn a bn-oa+A,then
aff=J" i6 a sinsletotu set_

Pmo, Floh the siven coditjon, ve hsre

ars_.sassa,+ _<... s r,+r < 6, <... s bt

a= p{at,o,,_..,aa,..y Md.b inf{rr,r}

= -, d-_.}
Since *ery & is atr upp6 bound or {ar, ar, ..., a-, ..} ve seta < ,,, v, ed this
inDedietely giv6 a < 6, The equality foDoft s 0lid_a < ," -a, + 0.
Thu Be haw aa < o =, < Da, yn ed hence d €.f;=,I".
r nf=L_a. coliaitr
eother point say q rhen a,c€ Ii, vn ed ho@ d"_a,
> lc-al> o e[ich
is a coniladiciion, This prov6 the iheoEn.

tr
Thsrem 3.18. Bolzano .wei,.tstrus.. Ans bolnded seqlence oJ ftol im-
be$ hds a conaergeat stbseq ence

Ptual. Let lrrl be a bounded eq&nce, inen,i € [ar,r1],vB fo! sone

ar,h € R, We will define a nested squence of intervals by induciion. De-
fre rr = to,,hl. Asume r" = Ia",r"lis defined, deliN 1 ,6{a-,&+l
o. tqj!",r"] s tlat r"+r oitai q ror innniiely mary,. Then Gon ihc
Nested iDierval iheolem, we sei nf=r1" = {,} for some , € lR. T!.ke my sub-
squence rs! suchihaitar € Jr, then one can esily @ that iiis suLsequence

tr

4 Appendix
In lhis appendix re vill sive a biel iniroduction to naturai nunbeE , Inie-
ge6 and iational nunbe6. For a detailed djsclssion oD ihe iopic we rcler to

l3l. We sill siari by siatins Peano Axions,

4.1 Natural Numbers.

DeffnitioD 4.1. Peano A om.
(a) 1G a natunl Dumber.
(b) Ibr €wrr naiu.al numberu theE qi!6 anoNher naiura.l nunber ,/
called the Bucce$or or c.

r.l I / rr for e\p.J oa'ural r rtrbar , r bqrg rba.n'.. -\o- or rl

29
(d) Il,': s'then, = !.
G) If P is a propdty 6ucn ihai t hs the ploDo(v P ad iL ha! propeliv
P then .' hs property P, ihen ttre ProDerrv P hoLds lor all Daturar nurbe6'

\e'l,Ek 4, ?he la,t ptuperta i, knaun as the principle at nathernolicaL

Any set satistying Pemo Axiods is called Naiuml numbPE We will denoie
the *i of alL Natural nunbem by N. Usins sct iheoritic auuments one cd
show ihe existence ol such a sei,also ve cun denne binarv oleraiio + and
. caUed addition md muhiplication on I'{, lor details {e eler to I3l

4.2 Integers

ftom the natural numbes e ca! denrc lnieges s Iolows Ne rvill onlv
.ntline the coretruction and le,ve the @riffcation oI ihese siatements s e\_

dd tlefrne a rclaiion - on N x N bv 6'yinC tlri

Ler,4 be the sei N x N
(d,6)-(a.U)ila+d=or+, TI!! this relationis an eqdalence elaiion
on d. Let U denoie the set of all equivalence ciss*, {e ca'll Z ihe sei ol

integes. We can dtend addition and nultiplication to Z rs rdll'$s'

Lei [(a,D)] and [(a',d)] denote the equivalence dss6 contanrins k,') a
(o',t), eslectively, \@ deine addition and multiplicaiion ol tlose equiva_
 l(d,D)l+ I(o,r)l= lG + a/,r+ t)l
lh,d)l l(a'.r')l:l(a d+6 a',d d'+[ d')]

One ce e6ily chec[ ihat rhese o!,erarions ee seu-defined. We ddoie ihe

equirdace class [(a, a)l s 0 ud the equiBloc€ cl45 [(4 + n, a)] 6 n ror

4.3 The Rationals

NN tom tle inteSesi ye ce consi.uci rational nunbos,
let A be ihe set z x Z \ 0 &d deine a relarion - on z x Z 0 by sayin8
\
tn8t (a,6) - (a,d) ita.r'= a.r. Tha ihi! retarioD is e eqoivsleDce
relaiion. Let Q doote the ser of ail equimlence cld6s, then q is calt€d the
niiool nunbe6. We vill de6ne addiiion ed mdriplication on e o tonNs:

Let (o, D)l and (d , U)l denotB ihe equivalence clas&s @liainins (a, ,) and
(d', d), Bpectivelx ve denne rhe op*ation6

[(o,r)l+ I(o',r)'l= I(o ,'+ a . r,r. r,)]

(a, D)l . (d,y)t= (o . a,, D.

'')l
It is 6y to see thEt ih6e ope!&rions * relldeEned. Also every inresd
ae z is ideniiied with ihe equiBlence clss (o,1)1.
References

lil Hostain, I. N, -4&,,aci akerrq tbnd edirion, preftie HaU, hc., Upps
SadrUe RiE, NJ, 1906.

l2l newiti,Edwh ed Sircmbers,Xa.t, Reot Md Abstmct Akatwis,

[3] EdDund Landau, Fo,nddrions aJ A@tgr&,Ctqtsea pubtbhins Con,

!ey, New York, N.Y., 195r.

[4] Rndiu,Warier, Pn4cirles o/narhemori&/ on,l9j6, r}ird ediiion, rnier

n.tioml Seri6 in Pnre and Applied Maihe@ii6, Ifccra, Hill Book
Co., New York-Aucklud-Dsseldo4 1976.
 Metric spaces
by
Prof. V.Indumathi
Department Of Mathematics
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry

Definition and examples

R€call that if r and y are real or complex scalars, then d(o, y), the distance
i between c and y, is given by ls - yl. This specific notion, when generalized
I

i by taking only rtessentialtr properties

lhe of a distance function, gives raise

I
a *n" notion of a rrMetric'f . More precisely, we consider a non- empty set x
I

iaad this set may not have any linear structure.

t

[*Uorrron 1.1. Let X be a non-empty set. We say a nl,ap r], fromX x X

t
lAoto [0, oo) is a metric on X, if for an7 n,A and, z ,i,n X, we haue
I
d(x,sl : 0 if and onty if x: u.
|;)
la1
a1r,y): d(y,r) t

|.,a
lol o1r,z) < d,(r,y) + d(y,z).
]
JOmr*, that iii) implies that the triangle law of distances, holds for a metric.

l*. ao* give sJme examples of a metric space.

I
I ,. X : IR ?ety)
and d(r, : for
yl --
ln- ot
r-- any r,y in IR.
I
I
I
Ir
Ir
I
 2. X: lR" and o: (rr, fr2t....,rr) and g: (AtrU2,.,, ,Un) are any two
elements of lR". If
a) d(r,y) :
b) d1(r, y) : IL,lr, - vnl'
and

c) d*(c, U) : supf= rlrt, - gil,

then it is easily seen that d,,d4 and d,* are metrics on IR,.

3. Let X be any non- empty set. Define d(r,d:

{ ; li ;t',
The above metric ind.uces the discrete topology on X and X with the
above metric will be called a discrete metric space.

4. lf d,is a metric on X then

d(*,y): min{d(r,,a),L}, r,y in x

is again a metric on X.

5. If X is a normed linear space then d(r, A) : llr - All,for r and y in X

.

defines a metric on X.

Remark 1.1. I/ (X,d,) is a metri,e space andY e X, then (Y,d,) i,s a

metric space.

Exercises:

1. X = R' and L < p( oo Show that

n tlp
do@,y): {I ln;i * y1l}e
d=l
is a metric on X.
 Show that a normed linear spaee is a metric space, with the metric
ll" - sll : d(a,y), for r and y in x.
If (&, d,) is a metric space for 1 ( i < k, show that the product space
!=, Xo, D, is a metrie space, where 1 S p ( oo and

x LIP

Dut*,s):{I di(rt,ur)Pl if 1Sp< oo

D*(o,r):#lur:utl
for any two r = (sr, sz,fih) and g = (yr,Uz,. .. ,Ax) in IIf=, X.

If (X*, d*) is a countably infinite collection of metric spaces and X :

il"-a, is the product space then the d,- metrictopology and the product

topology on X are the same , where either

a d'r,(no,uo)
dl*,v)=E*ff:
:
r
d(s,d: ror1t'(t's") : ! S n< oo)
.,
F for c: (r,") and g - (yr)'in X.
r
t
F

r
F
rt
t
!
?
:
t
i
i

I
More exarnples of metric spaces

l) Let
3

X: {(rr, n2,q) € IRB :

L.? - U.
i=L
For r : (rr,rz,rz) and g: (At,y2,W) in X, set d(r,y) to be the distance
between s and y measured along the (unique) circle, passing through ir, y
and 0. Then (x,d,) is a metric space. note that this metric is diflerent from

the derived metric on X , derived from lR.3 rvith the usual metric of distance
between two points is the distance measured along a stiaight line connecting

the elements r and g.

2)Forn)2let

S,,-1 - {(rr,rr,...sn)€ E, : |rl* 1}.

i=l
If r = (*r,rr,...*^) and y = (Ut,Az,...Ur,) are two elements in .9r-1, deflne
d(x,u) as the unique angle 0, 0 ( 01r, that is subtended at 0, the center
of the 5'-1, by the two lines or and, oy. (or is the line joining 0 and r.)
That is, 0 < 0: d(r,y) ( zr. and '
n.
d(*,y) = arccor(I r$r).
i=1

Verifying the triangle inequality for the two examples above, requires non

trivial calculation.
3) If / is a distance metric, and, g is a monotonically increasing real-valued
function, with g(0) : 0, and g" 1 0, then g . / also determines a metric.
Log(f + 1) is an example. The only tricky part is the triangular inequality.
 Let a, b and c be the lengths of the sides of
a tria,gie, thus c .-a+b.
Since g is increasing,
9(c) < g(a+ 6). We only need shorv that g(a) +g(b) is
wen larger than 9(a + b).

Hold a fixed and ret r be a contiruous variabre that starts at 0 and

increases through b and bevond.
Let h(r)
- g(a) + g(r) - g(a* e). Note
that h(0) : 0. The derivative of h is g,(r) g,(a*r).
- If this is negative
tlen g'(a + r) is larger than g,(r). By the mean
value theorem, g,, is positive
somewhere between x and a * x. yet g"is
never positive, hence h, is never
uegative' Again, the mean value theorem
tells us that hcan never get smaller,
else h would be negative. Thus ft.(6)
is at least as rarge as h(0), which is 0.
Thus g(o) + g(b) > g(@ + b), and the
triangular inequarity holds.

2 Metric Topology
I*t (x,d) be a metric space. For o in x and r) 0, the open (crosed) bail
vith r as center and r as radius, denoted by B(r,r) (B[r,r]), is given by

B(r,r): {y e X : d,(a,y) <r}

and I

Bfx,rl : {y e X : d,(r,y) S r}

"respectively.
we now show that if non-empty, the intersection
0f two open ball$ c0n-
tains an open ball. Let z be in B(r,r) n B(y,s).
Let 11 : d(z,r) and
q: d,(z,g). Then 11 { r and s1 ( s. Select d > 0 such that

2d<min{r-rrtr-rr}.
Then it is easy to see that B(2,6) e B(r,r) n B(y,s).
The metric spa,ce (X, d)has a d- metric topology, induced on it. A subset
U of X is open in the d- metric topology if U is either empty or can be
vritten as union of open balls. pquivalently, U is open if given any fr in (J,

there is a positive number r such that B(r, r) g u. Observe that this indeed
defines a topology on X as the collection of open balls qualifies to be a base
for a topology on x. It is clear from the definition of open sets that x is

open and arbitrary union of open sets is again open. If U and V are two
open sets and r is in U t^t tr/ then there are two positive numbers, say, r and

s such that

B(x,r)e U and B(x,s) gV.

Ihe intersection of the two balls, being non-empty, contains an open ball

B(x,t), with t > 0, (, - min{r,s}). Clearly, B(x,t) g Un7. Since r in

(; nV was chosen arbitrarily, this implies U nV is open. Using induction,

we trow conclude that finite intersection of open sets is again open. It now
follows that the collection of open sets, generated by the collection of open

balls as a base, forms a topology on the metric space X. This topology is

called the d-metric topology on Xl It is clear that different metrics on X
give raise to different metric topologies on X.If d is the only metric involved

in discussion, the d- metric topology is simply called the metric topology.

Exercise Let d,a be a metric on X for i- 1,2. Show that the d1 metric
topology on X is weaker than the d2 metric topology if there is a K > 0 such
rhat d,2(x,A) S Kd{r,y) for all r and y in X.
Exercise Show that an open ball is an open set and a closed ball is a closed
set. If X is a normed linear space, show that Bfu.rl is the closure of. B(x,r),
i

[' f. any r in X and r > oand that the diameter of B[r, r] (or B(r,r)) eqla]s
in a metric space
1 er. Also, give an example to show that this is not true
that the diameter of Bfx,rl can be < Zr.(Hint: Consider the
discrete
h *u
I metric).

[ *o.r"rgence of sequences in a metric spacelet (rr) be a sequence in

t \
--- to s r^
-:-in X if for any \t iffnr
[ . metric space X r € X. Note that (;u,,) converges
and

qen set U containing r there is a positive integer ]f sueh that

E

I
I xn €[J'V n ) N'
t
e) g U
I n U is any open set containing r, there is au e > 0 such that B(c'
positive integer 1g - lf, such
and so (o,,) converges to r in X if there is a
t
I that

I n*€B(x,e)' vnZ'N'
T
Thus (rr,) converges to s in the metric space X' if given e ) 0' there is a
]
pmitive integer N: N. such that
I
I d(',*n)(e,vnzn

I u equivalently r,, € B(r,e) for ad n 2 N' If X is a normed linear space'

then (c,) e x converges to u in X,if given e ) 0, there is a positive integer

I
F: ,l. such that
I
I d(s,c*) = llo-"*ll {e' v,,) N'

I 3 Topologicar properties of a merrrc space

fI
E

Eact 3.L. Metri,c spaces are first countable'

I
-I
E7
I
I
II
I
 Proof' Let X be a metric space and r € X. Consirier the countable collection
{B(r,,rrr)}il=r, where (rr) is a sequence of positive nurnbers converging to 0.
If u is any open set containing r, then there is a s > 0 such that B(r,
s) e
L-. Since limrr*oo rn :0, there is a positive integer ly', for which rN {
s- so, B(r, rr) ! B(r, s) g u. That is, the element e has a countable
neighbourhood base, viz, the countable collection of open
balls {B(r ,r,)}.?=t.
since t in x and the open set u containing u was chosen arbitrarily, this
implies X is first countable topological space. tr
Fact 3.2. A separable metric space is second countable.

Proof. Let A : {rn : n ) x. consider the countable col-

1} be dense in
lection {B(*,,11i),1< a < oo and r
sn< oo} of open balls. It is easily
rerified that this collection forms a base for the metric topology
on X. tl

Metric spaces have strong separation properties. we will show that

any
metric space is Hausdorff and in fact, is normal. Let x be a metric space and
nl and 12be two distinct elements of x. Then d,(r1,r2) > 0. Let r ME2)-
-
then the open balls B(*n,r), ,i L,2 aredisjoint
- ancl are open sets containing

-r; for i.:1,2. Thus the elementstrl and fi2 cil,TL be separated by disjoint
open sets and X is Hausdorff.

Fact 3.3. A metri,c space is normal.

P"""f. R..f., Theorem 12.2 of Munkros !

Thus a metric space has strong separation properties. In particular, a
metric spaces is Hausdorff and regular.
Exercise If Z is a Hausdorff topological space and (r") is a sequence in Z
tlen (r") converges to at most one element in Z.

Examples of topological spaces, which are not metrizable.

I) R with finite or countable complement topology is not metrizable as, both

the spaces are not Hausdorfl. If X is IR. with countable complement topology,
ttren X is not first countable and if {x*: n > 1} is not a finite set then the

sequence (r") does not have a limit point in X.

2) R with the lower limit topology is first countable and separable but not

second countable. So it is not metrizable.

3) Let 4 : {lln : n > 1}. Consider IR, having usual neighbourhood base at

all non- zero points, while sets of the form (e, e)\,rl , where e varies over all
positive numbers, form a neighbourhood base at 0. This topology on R is
called the k- topology. Note that IR. with the &- topology is Hausdorff but

not regular. The set A is closed in IR. with k- topology and 0 d A.However,
0 and A can not be separated by open sets.

4)An uncountable product of lR, with itself is not metrizable. See Example 2

ou section 21, Page L49 of Munkresl

Since a metric space is first countable, its topologieal properties can be

formulated in terms of sequences. For instance we have the following char-

acterization of closed sets.

Fact 3.4. Let X be a metric space and, A I X. Then A i,s a closed subset
of X iff eaery conuergent sequence (r") g A, conuerges to a li,mit in A.

Proof. If A is closed and (r,) e ,4 is convergent, let r be the unique limit of

 (o'), in x' we have to show that n e A. we shou, trrat e € A :A. That is,
z is a limit point of A. For any e > 0 there
is positive integer N such that
e, e B(t,e) for n) N. Thus c,y € An B(r,e).
Since e ) 0 was chosen
arbitrarily, this implies A intersects every
open set containing r and.s is a
Iimif psinf ef /.

conversely, assume that every convergent

sequence in .4 converges to an
element in -4. we have to show
that r is crosed. suppose not Then there
is a z e ,4\a. Consider rhe neighbourhood
base {(B(r ,L/n)}f=rof r-e,
z e A, we can get rn e A n B(r,l/n) for each n. Note that

0>
#L d(r,xn) S
Jim tf n: 0.

So, (rr) e ,4 converges to r but r is not in .4. This co*.tradicts our assump_
tion. So, A must be closed.
tr

4 Continuous Maps

Let x and Y be toporogicalspaces and

/: x -+ y be amap. we say / is
continuous on X if /-1(U) is open In X, whenever U is open in y. If B is a
base for the topology on x then
/ is continuous on x if and only if f-r(u)
is open in X, whenever U e B.

5' ' X, we say.f is continuous at r if U is an open subset of y containing

/(o) trren th're is an open set y of x,containingc sucrr thal gu.
!(v)
It is easily verified that / is continuous on x if and only if / is continuous
at each point of x. Further if e € x, Br and
E}2 are neighbourhood bases
at s and /(r) respectivery, then is continuous
/ at s iff for each (J € Bz

10
thereisaVeBlSuchthat/(V)eU.WerecalltiratifXisametric
spaceandrisinXthentheclassofallopenballswithcenteratrform
a neighbourhood base at r. Thus
if X and Y are metric spaces, then / is
a 6' - 6 ) 0 such
continuous at in X if and only if given € ) 0' there is
r
of r in X' we get the
that /(B(r,d)) g B(J(r),e)' If the 5 is independent
notion,of uniform continuitY'

Definition4.t.LetXand,Ybemetricspacesandf:X_+Yt,scontinu.
ols.Thernapli,ssaidtobeuniformlyconti,nuousonXifgi,uene>othere
rsd>0suchthat
e), for atl r e x'
f (8(*,6)) q B(/(r),

Metricspacesarefirstcountable.Thatisevelypointofametricspacehas
a countable neighbourhood base.
In a first countable space) the topological
this
.u,. o. formulated in terms of sequences and in particular,
o*o*,,,..
we have
holds in a metric sPace' For instance'

Eact4.t..LetXand,Ybefi,rstcountablespaces.Then
then(r) i'nU'
is openiffwheneaernlt-+ n eu
i's euentually
1. U IX
gX is closed'if wheneuer (rn) !F andnn-r r' thenr e F'
2. F

*3.fzX_+Yiscontinuousiffwheneuerfrn-+rinXth,enf(r*)-+/(g)
inY,
tr
Proof. exercise

However,ingeneraltopologicalspaces'sequencesareinadequatetode-
topological properties. consider for example the space IRR with
scribe the
1t
the product topology. Recall that if X : fl Xo is a product space with
product topology and zn: (zno) is a sequence in X then (2") converges to

x : (zotpno) if and only if lim n-+a zna : zq, for each a. If E is the subset of X
eontaining all arrays that have only 0's ancl l's and have only finite number

of 0's, then the zero element is in the closure of. E. However, if (r") is a

squence in E, then there is a countable subset A of R. such that if r e lR.\A

then the rth coordinate of rr, is 1 , for all n. It is now clear that (r") can not

oonverge to the zero element.

Continuous maps on compact spaces

Aact 4.2. Let X andY be metri,c sl)aces and f : X + Y be a continuous

nup. Il X i,s compact, then f is uniformlg continuous.

P*ol. See theorem27.6 on Page192 of Munkres tr

tbct 4.3. LetX beacomp,acttopologicalspaceandf :X+lR esa contin-

wlLs rnap. Then f is bound,ed and f ottains i,ts supremum and, infimum on

x.
Proof. For any positive integer n let (In : {r € X : f (r) e (-n'n)}' Con-

tinuity of / implies each uly is open in X and clearly (u*)?=, form an open
cover of X. As X is comapct, X has a finite subcover , say, (Ur,,X=r' It now

follows that l/(o) I s ttt for all r in x, where M'- sup{ni : 1 ( i S k}.

T}US J iS bOunded on -)(. Fo" tL. rest of the proot refer Theorem 27.4 on

Page 190 of Munkres tr

Fact 4.4. Let X and Y be topological spaces, X compact and Y Hausd,orff.

If f : X -+Y is a bi,jectiue, cont'i,nuous m,ap' then f i,s a homeomorphism'

L2
Proof. refer Theorem 26.6 on Page 183 of Munkres n
Fact 4.5. Continuous i,mage of a compact space i,s com,,pact

Remark 4.1. h is a good ecercise to list out the topologi,cal properti,es pre-

sented, (or not preseraed,) under continuous rnaps. For instance, continuous
images of separable spaces are again separable whereas continuous images o!
Eausd,orff spo,ces need, not be Hausd,orff. (See Erampte 13.g on Page 87 o!
S- Witlard,). Comopctness and, connectedness are two of the important topo-

bgical properties preseraed by continuous nxa,ps. Note that l},L) can not the

antinuous image ol t},ll as the former is not compact, while the later is.
Eence they can not be homeomorphic. Si,milarly R can not be homeomorphi,c

to [0,1], while it is homeomorphic to (0,1).

Eact 4.6. tlniform limit of continuous functi,ons i,s again conti,nuous.

Proof. Theorem 21.6 on Page 148 of Munkres tr

Maps on Metric spaces

Let X be a metric space. i

1. A constant map on a metric space is corrtinuous.

2. If Y is a subset of a metric space X, the inclusion map i : Y -+ X

given by i(r): r is a continuous map .

3. lf Ais a subset of a metric space and c is in X, we define the distance

of the element from the set A, d(r,A) is given by

d(x, A): inf{d(r, a) : a € A}.

13
 Note that d(x,A):0 if and only if s € A. It is easy to verify that if
c and A arc in X then

ld(r, A) - d(s,,A)l < d(r,y)

and the map r -+ d,(x,A) from X into IR. is Lipschitz continuous on X.

i S n. Fix any i,, 1 S i S n

4. Let (Xn,dt) be a metric space for 1 S
and defing Pi , fllr Xt -+ Xi by Pi(*r,n2t"' ,nn) : ri, for any
(rr,*r,...,nr) e IILrXr. The map P; is calied the projection onto

the coordinate space Xi and is continuous on IIL, &.

5. The metric d on a metric space can be considered as a function from

XxX -+ IR. and is Lipschitz continuous on X x X, endowed with, for

instance, the 12 metric mentioned earlier. Observe that if a - (q,a2)

and y : (At,Uz) arein XrX, then

d,(r* xz) 1 d,(q,yr) * d(vr, yr) * d,(az, az)

and

d(ar, a) 1 d(ar,?r) + d(u1, u2) * d,(r2, g2).

Thus

d,(r1, 12) - d(ar, yz) 3 d(rr, a) * d,(r2, y2)

and

d(yr,yr\ - d(aurz) < d,(n,a) * d(r2,s2)

and hence

ld(* r, rz) - d(y t, a z)l 3 d,(r 1, y ) + d,(* r, a) < J, @

L4
 is uniformly continuous'
6. Any map on a discrete metric spa'ce

maps is again continuous'

7. Composition of two uniformly continuous

given by s(r' t) : rt is continuous

8. The scaling map s : lR x Rtr -+ lR'
but not uniformlY continuous'
X Y be a map'
dr) bt two metric spaces and t : -+
9. Let (X, dr) and (Y,

Then / is called an i'sometry if

dr(',a) -- dzff(r)' /(s))' f'orall r'vi'nX'

If/isanisometryitiseasilyverifiedthat/isacontinuous,t_1map.

5 ComPact sPaces

Various notions of comPactness'

of (open) subsets of X is
t€t X be a toPological space' Then a collection

said to be an (open) couer of x

if.x is the union of these (open) sets' Let

UbeanopencoverofXlfVisasubcollectionofU,whichisalsoacover
of X.

l.XissaidtobecompoctifeveryopencoverofXhasafinitesubcover.
every infinite subset of X has a
z.Xis said to be li'mit point compactif

limit Point in X'

3.XissaidtobecountablycompactifeverycountableopencoverofX
' has a finite subcover'

15
 4. X is said to be sequenti,ally compocf if every sequence in X has a sub-

sequence that converges to an element in X'

Clearly compact spaces are countably compact' rve now show

Fact 5.1. Let X be aT1 space. Then x is countably compact i,f and only i'f
X i,s limi,t point comPact.

Proof. + Assume A I X does not have a cluster point. Then A must be

closed and discrete ( every point of A has an open nbd that does not contain

any other point of A). If A is countably infinite, let A : {r,, : n } 1}. For
each n, select open set ufl containing r,} such that r* is not in un for m t' n.
\ow {Lr,, : n ) 1} and A" form a countable open cover of X but clearly, this
does not have a finite subcover.

e Let U, be a countable open cover of X. If this has n finite subcover we can

select rn $ U,?=ru;, for each n.Then {rn : n > 1} is an infinite set. For, if it is
finite then there is k e N such that rn -- n -/f for infinite n,. But rp e U* fot

some rn and so rn € (J* for infinite n. This is not possible, by construction

of (r,). s {r, i n > 1} is an infinite set which has a cluster point, say, r.
Then r € (J* for some rn. since ,, tt tr, there is an open nbd I/ of r such
that V e U*and ri (V for L <i, lrn' Clearly V ){rn: n 2 1}:0 and
this contradicts r is a cluster point of {un: n 2 1}'
tr

a
Fact 5.2. Sequenti,ally compact spaces are limi't poi,nt compact' Conuersely

Tt, f,rSt C1untable topological s1ace is sequentialht cornpact,

iJ ii is lirnit poinl

compact.

Proof. That sequentially compact spaces are limit point compact is easily
verified. we only prove the second statement. Let (rr) be a sequence in

16
x. If the set {r,, : n ) 1} is finite, then clearly (lr,) has a constant and
hence convergent subsequence. So, assume
{rn: n ) 1} is an infinite set.
Since x is limit point compact, this set has a cluster point say, o. Using first

muntability of X, we can get a countable neighbourhood base (ur)fl1 at r.

choose zlr € N such that rn, € [{. Assume inductivery, finr,fin2,... ,finj_r
have been chosen so that

n1 (-n2(...(rlj_r
and

fin,e U1, forl<?< j-L.

since x is fi, there is an open set vi such that s € V but rn, ) [, for 1 (
i < j - 1. Select any nni € Uj n Vi. Clearly ni ) ni_r and r,,, € U3. This
completes the induction. It is now easy to see that the subsequence (rrr) of
(rr,) converges to r and X is sequentially compact. D

hample Let Y - {0,1} have the indiscrete topology and X : Z+x y,with
the product topology. Then x is limit point compact, for if (n., 0) € A g x,
then (n, l)is a cluster point of A and vice versa. However, X is not compact
as the open cover ({n} x Y)Er do'es not have a finite subcover. X is not
sequentially compact either, for the sequence, for instan ce, (n,0) has no

coqrergent subsequence.

Examples can be constructed to show that compactness sequential com-

pastness do not imply each other.

We now. proceed to show that in a metric space all the above mentioned

four notions bf compactness coincide. For this we need to define the Lebesgue

number of an open cover.

L7
Definition 5.t. Let X be a metric spo,ce and,W be an open couer of X. We

sog 5 > 0 is o Lebesgue number for the open coaer\J ,f A 9 X with diameter
of A (equals sup{d(r,u) : n,a are in A}) stri,ctly less than 6 then there i,s a

U e {.} containi,ng A.

Any open cover of a compact metric space has a Lebesgue number, as

shown below.

Fact 5.3. Let X be a me:tri,c space. Then any open couer oJ X has a Lebesgue

number.

Prcof. Let {J be an open cover of X. For any r € X there is an open set

t' e U such that r € tJ. Select positive number e, such that the open ball
B(r,e,\ 9U. {B(*,t) , " € X} of X and
Now consider the open cover

usiltg compactness of X get a finite subcover, say, {B(r1,$, L < i S kl,

of this cover. Let d - min{?:1S i s,h}. Then d > 0. we now show that
delta is a Lebesgue number of lU.

Let A g X have diameter strictly less than d. Fix any z € A. For some
i,1< i1k, ze B(xi,er,). SelectaW Ae A. Wehave

d(ri,,a) S d(u, r) + il'l(z,y) < frace*,2 + 6 1 eu.

Thus g € B(r6,err). It is clear from the construction of the open balls

*
,(*,e,) that there is an open set 7 in {J containing B(ri, er,) and hence I/
contains .4. n

We now show that the above result holds for a sequentially compact
metric space. More precisely,

18
Proposition 5.4. Let X be a sequenti,ally compact metri,c space. Then any

opefl couer of X has a Lebesgue number.

Prrof. Let {J be an open cover of X. Suppose {J does not have a Lebesgue

number. Then for any positive integer n there is a subset An of. X with
r{iemsfsr of, An strictly less than lf n, and An not contained in any of the
sets in IIJ. Select rn e. Anfor each n and.let (rrn) be a convergent subsequence

of (CI"), converging to say, a € X. Now a is in some member U e [.I and we

can select e ) 0 such that B(a,e) I U. now choose positive integer i large
enough so that

d,(a,nn,).
i ""0 tl"n < f,.
\\-e now shornr that An, e U and this would contradict the construction f the
s€ts A,l. Select arry z 6 An,.Then

d,(a., z) S d(a,xnr) * d(*n,,, n . ; * tf u < e.

Thus z € B(a,e\ e U. Since z € An,was chosen arbitrarily , Ani c (J. tr

R.emark 5.1. Let X be a metri,c space and, (r^) be a sequence in X. Assume

thattherei,se >0 suchthatd(xn,r*)Ze i,f nlm. Then(rp) cannot

i
haae any conuergent subsequence. To see this, consi,der any subsequence (rn,)

ol @) and any element r of X. Note that if (r") conuerges to r then the

open batl B@,* shoulil contain the sequence (rn) euentually. But this i,s not

$ssible and, the ball B(r,, i) ,nn contain at most nne el,ernent of the saquance
trn,), , For if an, e n@,, i) Ior i = j and m, then

d(*n,,rn*) S d(xn-i,r) + d,(r,rn*) 1Z* i

",
onil this giues a contradiction.

19
 We are now in a position to prove the main result of this section.

Theorem 5.5. Let X be a metri,c space. Then TFAE'

o) X is compact.
b) X is countably comPact.

c) X is limit point comPact.

d) X is sequentially comPact.

Proof. o) + b) is trivial. b) + a) follows from Fact 5'1. Fact 5.2 shows

c) + d,) holds. However, we reprove it here using the fact lhat X is a metric

space. Let (r*) ! r be a sequence. if the set {r,, : n > 1} is finite, then

clearly (r*) has a constant and hence convergent subsequence' So, assume

{rn: n ) 1} is an infinite set. By c) this set has a cluster point say, r. Choose

n1 € N such that fin, e B(r, 1). Assume inductively, rnr',frr2,' '' , tr,r-t have

been chosen so that

n1 1n21 ..' l ni-t

and

rno e B(x,lli), for 1 ( i<i - 1.

rt : min{wf : rsisi - 1' tl i}'

Then 4 > 0 and ) l}nB(r,4) is non-empty. select atLy nni e B(t,ril
{r, : n,

Clearly ni) ni-tand d(r, X) < 1/j. This completes the induction'
It is

trow easy to see that the subsequence (rnr) of (rr) converges to r and
X is
sequentially comPact.

We now prove d,) + a). Assume the metric space X is sequentiallY

compact. We first show that for anY e ) 0, there is a finite covering of X

 ryer balls of radius e. suppose not. Then there is a, positive e such
[I &, J can not be covered
r by finite number of open balls of radius epsi,lon.
m now construct a sequence (r,r) in x as follows. Fir.st select any 11 in
I
r eud observe that the open ball B(*,,,e) does not cover x. so we can
J
* rz € X\B(rr,e). Having chosen nt,r2,... ,rn inductively, choose
f
4o-: € X\ uil, B(rn,e). Thus by induction we construct the sequence (r,).
I
5$f,€ that d(r,,.,-r,rt) ) e for all L S i. 3n and this is true for ali n € N. It
f
clear that (r,) can not have any convergent subsequence, by Remark
t Ir*
l.et [I be an open cover of X. We need to prove that this cover has a
f
fuite subcover. By assumption d) and proposition 5.a, U has a Lebesgue
]
mrrbel, say d. If e : , by the above, x can be covered by finite number of
f
I -u-"
balls, say (8;)f=, of radius e. Since each B; is a set of diameter strictly
[
H* than d, we can get a finite collection of open sets fisuch that U6 € [J and
$
It A C IJ;, for 1 ( i < k. Since (f,)f=, cover X, so does (I/,)f=, and {J has a
i frulite subcover. hence X is compact. tr
i
l.

i Exercise Show that if X is a fi- second countable space then X is compact

tr and only if X is countably compa6t.
sre now present a characterization of compact, metric spaces. For this we

mned the notion of totally bounded sets.

Definition 5.2. A metric space x is cal,ledtotatta bounded il lor euarue ! 0,

X enn be couered by finite number of open balls, each of rad,ius e.

Definition 5.3. A metri,c space is said to be complete if euery Cauchy se-

Wence in X conuerges to a limit i,n X.

21.
Exercise Study Examples L and 2, on Page 291 of Munkres.
Exercise i) Show that a totally bounded set is bounded-
ii) Show that the closure of a totally bounded set is agaio totally bounded.

Theorem 5.6. A metric spoce i,s compact i,f and only i,f i,t i,s totally bounded

ond, complete.

Proof. Theorem 45.1 on Page 292 of Munkres

22
Notes on Se.
Refer Lemma 10.2 on Page 82 of Munkres

Eact 5.7. Euery countable subset o/,So has a /ub < Q.

Proof. Let A be a countable subset of 5o. Clearly the union of sections of

elements of A is a countable set and since ,9e is uncountable, B :

I 0. Sn\A
Let zbe the smallest element of B. Then n €. A ++ ,D < z.This implies z * Q.
Clearty z is an upper bound of ,4 and in fact, the lub of A. tr

Note that So is first countable. For if r is in So for any z < r and y > fr
. there are only countable number of elements between z and fi or fr and y.

Thus countable number of open intervals form a neighbourhood base at r.

-{Iso So is Hausdorff.

Eact 5.8. So as compact

Pmof. (See page 117 of Willard) Let lIJ be an open cover of Let a1 be
^9o,
the least element of So such that (ar,C)] is contained in some element Ut of.

U. If a1 I L,let a2 be the least element of ^fo such that (or, orl is contained
in some U2 of. W. Continue this process. Then for some tu, en : 1, since

otherwise we would have asequence a4) a2 )... and the set {ar:n2 L}
docs not have a least element, which contradicts the fact that ,9o is well
ordered.So {Ur,(Jr,... ,[Jnl covers all of ,5e, except perhaps 1 and So can
bo covered ty .r, n *! sets from {J. n

Exercise from Tl/illard-L7.GrZ on Page125 ^9o

is sequentially compact

but not compact.

23
'i.

fblution Recall that if x a first countable space !11 topological space, then

x is limit point compact if and only if it is sequentially compact' since s63

b limit point compact (Example 2 on Page195 of Munkres), it

is seqqentially

the compact space '9o'

compact. But Ss is not compact as it is not closed in

6 Complete metric sPaces

f)efinition 6.L. A metri,c space x is said to be complete i,f euery cauchy

quence i,n X conaerges to a limit in X '

Definition 6.2. A subset A ol a topologi,cal spa,ce i,s sai,d to be nowhere dense

,l th" interior of A is emPtY.

6.t. of rationals haue empty i,nterior but Q :

R,emark Note that Q, the set

space as interior. In ony t;opological sp}"ce the bound'arg ol

B, hos the whole
(m open set is nowhere ilense' (Bound'ary of A is An 4"1'

Theorem 6.1. ,4 metric X is complete iJ and, only if for euery nested'

space

sqt ence (S,) : (S[rr,, r*)) ol closed spheres in X such that

rn -+ 0 os

n -+ x, the intersection nf=15" I !'

Completion of a metric space

6

LetXandYbemetricspacesandd:X_+Ybeanisometry.We
y'
i.lentify X with tho suboet O(X) of Y and say X is a subset of

X be a metri,c space. A complete metri'c space x* is

Definition 6.3. Let
@tted a completion of X il X is a dense subset of X*'

24
 Completion of a metric space :

As we now show, an incomplete metric space can ahvays be

I
enlarged (in an essentially unique way) to give a complete metric space.
F

Definition:-
Given a metric space E with closure [R], u complete metric space R* is
F
I

i
i
called acompletion of Rif R c R* and [R] : R*, i'e', if R is asubset of 'E*
I

er.erywhere dense in R*.

I
l

Example 1. Clearly R* : R if R is already complete (see Problem 7).

)

Example 2. The space of all real numbers is the completion of the space of

all rational numbers.

Theorem 4. Every metric space R has a completion. This completion is

unique to within an isometric mapping carrying every point a € R into

itself.

Proof:- The proof is somewhat lengthy, but completely straight-forward.

First we prove the uniqueness, showing that if .B- and R** are two completions

of R, then there is a one-to-one mapping tr** : V@.) of R* onto -B** such

that p(r) -r for all r € R and

-i
pr(r',A*) : pz(r**,y**1

(a**: V@")), where p1 is the distance in R* and p2the distance in R**'

The required mapping p is constructed as follows : Let X* be an arbitrary

pOint 0f R+. Thon, Lyth. J"f,"itio" of . "or'rpletion, there in a ooquonce {rn}

of points of R converging to ,r** C E**, since E** is complete. It is clear
that r** is independent of the choice of the sequence {ir:,,} converging to the
point r. (why?). If we set p(r) -- r for all r € -8, since if r,, -+ n e R,

25
 then obviously z: r* € E*, g** : o. Moreover, suppose nn -) fi*rUn 1A*
in ft*, while rr, ) x**,Un -) U** in ^R**. Then, if p is the distance in .B,

p(r*,a*):
*lp* pr(rn,yn) :,rlyl p(rn,an)

(see Probleil 3, p, 54), while at the same time

p(r**,y**) :,ry pz(rn,yn):

rlTL p(rn,A).

But (8) and (8')together imply (7).

We must now prove the existence of a completion of -8. Given an arbitrary

metric space r, we say that two Cauchy sequence {r"} and {rJ} in R are
equivalent and write {*n} - {rr,-} if

lim p(r",xi) -- 0.
As anticipated by the notation and terminology, - is reflexive, symmetric

and transitive, i.e., n', iS an equivalence relation in the sense of Sec. 1.4.
Therefore the set of all Cauchy sequences of points in the space .E can be

partitioned into classes of equivalent sequences. Let these classes be the

points of new space .R*. Then we dBfine the distance between two arbitrary

points fi*,U* € E* by the formula

i
pt(r*,y*) :,l5t p(rn,an),
I

L* a.y ll*.p"""errt*,tir"ll of r*
I
t
whgro {r-} is (uamely, any Cauchy sequence in
i
I
the class z*) and {g"} ir any representative of y*.
I
r
! The next step is to verify that (9) is in fact a distance,, i.€., that (9)
I
I
t exists, is independent of the choice of the sequences {r,} e r*, {yn} € a*,
t
I
26

l
and satisfies the three properties of a distance figuring in Definition 1, p. 37.

Given any 6 > 0, it follows from the triangle inequality in .R (recall Problem
1b, p.45)that

I P(**,a) - P(nn,,Un')l

: I p(*n,a"\ - P(nn,,y") * P(nn,,u) - P(rn',an')l

Sl p@n,an) - P(nn,,a;l+l p(rn,,an) - P(rn,,,un)l

for all sufficiently large n and n'. Therefore the sequence of real numbers

{S,} : { p(rn,g,)} is fund.amental and hence has a limit. This limit is

independent of the choice {rr} € r*,tgr,} € g*. In fact, suppose

{r,,}, {",1} € r*,{a|},{y*-} e !J*-

Then

I p(*n,U)- p(xi,y{)l I p(*n,n;)+ p(a",y{),

by a calculation analogous to (10). But

- n-ly* :
lim p(s*,xi) p(Un,a{) :0.
?r-+oo '
I
since {r,,} {Ui, and hence
7

,lTL p(rn,an): ,lyt p@{ ,a{).

As for the three properties of a metric, it is obvious that pt(n*,y*) :

h(A.,r-), and thg feet thet p,(u*,a*) :0 if .,,,d only if s* : g* is an
immediate consequence of the definition of equivalent Cauchy sequences. To

verify the triangle inequality in .R*, we start from the triangle inequality

p(n,,zn) 3 p(sn,an)* p(y",2")

27
 in the originar space R and then takd
the limit as n -+ oo, obtaining

,lSL p(no,zn) s,ryL p(rn,,un)+

,tlrrl p(un,zn),

i.e.,

pt(u* , r*) ( pt(r*,y.) + pr(a", z*).

we now come to the crucial step of showing
that .E* is a compretion of
R' Suppose thai with every point s e R,we
associate the class r* € .B* of
all Cauchy sequences converging to X. Let

': "'g1'"' 9:,,1$!9n'

Then clearly

p(r,u) p(rn,an)
- ,F*
(recall Problem 3, p.b4), while
on the other hand

gt(fr*,u-) = ,ryL g(fin,an),

by definition. Therefore

and hence the mapping of .B into .B* carrying

r into r* is isometric. Ac-
*cordingly, we need no longer distinguish
between the original space .B and
its image in *, in particular between the two
metrics p and pr (recall the
relevant comments on p. 44). In other
words, .rt can be regarded as a subset
of 8*. The theorem will be proved once
we succeed in showing that
1) B is everywhere dense in &*, i.e.,
[R] : p;
2) R. is complete.

28
 To this end, given any point r* € .R* and any e ) 0, choose a represen-
tative of ff*, namely a cauchy sequence
{rr} in the class r*. Let N be such
that p(r",r|) S e for all n,h,) N. Then

p(nn,n*) --,lyl p@n,r,) S e

1f n ) r{, i.e., every neighborhood of the point r* contains a point of B. It
follows that [Rl : ft.
Finally to show that B* is complete, we first note that by the very defini-
tion of R*, any cauchy sequence
{rr} consisting of points in R converges to
some point in R*, namely to the point r* € .B* defined by {rr}. Moreover,
since B is dense in R*, given any cauchy sequence
{ri} consisting of points
in R*, we can find an equivalent sequence
{r,r} consisting of points in R. In
fact, we need only choose rn to be any point on R such that p(xn,e) < L/n.
The resulting sequence {rrr} is fundamental, and, as just shown,
converges
to a point r* € fi*. But then the sequence {ri} arso converges to r*.

29
. References

1. Topology by James R. Muukres ( Low priced edition) Pearson and

Prentice hall.

2. General Topology by Stephen Willard, Addison- Weseley.

3. Topology by James Dugundji, Universal Book stall, New Delhi (Low

priced edition)

4. Introduction to Real Analysis by A.N. Kolmogrov and s.v.Fomin (En-

glish translation by Richard A. Silverman) Dover Publications Inc

30
 CONTINUOUS FUNCflO]VS

S'n!$sNanY
AlasapPa Univesiiy'
Kuaikudi

CHAPTE& 1

LIMITS

a ssqlelce aad tle linii of

*e shell de6@ tie liBit ol
In this chapier
rvhich wiil be used itr
tle subsqtrcri
$me prcpertiB
a tuNiior and derirc

sequence ol reaL
nuobe$' (d"IeN is said io
D"$otioo t L"i (oJ"'o
r > o, 3 N(.) suc! ihat
conwere€b 0t dM wriiien

ld,l< '' vn z N(4

nunb€B'
tn shat follo{s,(o-),€ viU be & sequerce of real
{e sav ihai ihe }inii ol
d. exisis as
ll {c) coFerges io 0'
0.
,d,O aldb v.irLeo e linL dd^_ Oedaa'so'i'''n
_ l)ifl a"'- 0'
r," 1". r,".rU"a+"i'oliba o'
to a real EuDber I il - -0.
a" I
,.r".- o *tO io -"*'""
First Properties of limits'

h, i" a s"q"c"c" ""cI

tu I b" 1 {
 Prool:-Lete > 0 besiveao"
+ o + ING) € N

la"l< 6Yt > NG) lu"l< o"vn z No

vn 2 No+N(') Thclrd6tlui6" + 0'

convergins boih
2. ret(o") dd (dJ be hrc *quenrei

Prcol:_ Let e >04'+ o + 3 N1G) € Ii

<.Yn Z l,lttDa - O 'r ba':
Vn
r-
md{Alr('). N'll4)Then
irn z ^rt''
I?r,{G) =

l(q,+ )l <ld- l+ lh,l

. <€+.=2'
This shor€ thai + ba + 0'
'n

> 0 b€-gi@!. Choose ,

thtt I a" I < > N(,r)
N(r) such
''
l.\14, <rvn : N(ir)

4. lf." + 0, thetr ii is bouded

PNoflLei€ >obe61en'Let on -) 0 Then,: N(') € Ii such

> N(') Let N = md(la,l,la,l,
laxc),1
thdtla"l<.,vn
 LeiM=ms(N,NG)) Thd I""I<av^e N' Th$ (o") h

5 Iras is colwrsent, then ii itlounddd.

Proof: Let d, converge io /. Then, bv defrnition a" -i+ 0' Hne@'

by (a), d" , b boud€d

o"l=1o,, I+il< a' ll+ lL

Hence, I a, I < M+ I i I wlise j|I is a bound ol I d" - I I rhis sIoN

6. i,et a" + 0,4 + 0. Then d!r" + 0

Proofr (r") h cone!8eni =+ (,") c bouMed bv (5)' Ler M bc s'i

lD.l S M. . . l o.Di | < M I o" I Bv (3), Ma' | 0 I'Ien@ br (1)'

7. Itlitu r6a" qist"s, then the iidi is unique'

Proofr Lei i,m be irvo diflerent limiis o! (aJ". We shali plove ihat

i=m.Let. >obeErven.o^+l +ld" /l< rvn 2nr{t)

o, + m +la"-n Ls .vn z Nrk)' ]'dNk) = ms(Nr(')'
NxG))'

Let n > NG) be fiaed Thea, 4 > [IG) ud a > A''?k) 1heetorc'

ld.-ll< €edlo" mL<

' rherefore,

lr -l:l; ("i)+(," -)l<lt *,1*l* -\/ '+'-2"'

..ll ftl< o.Butll ml> o ilen'e'll-'n =0 1=n
8. 1fa" + I
+0-
r0.
by (2), (o"-1) + (b"

i Im
Da - a, ihen, aa6.

(j)
la"b' - Im l:l (o, - l)'' - llb' - ni) I

b" is convergeli impli6 b' is bouded' Lei M he suclr thai

RHS ol (1) is les ih or equal to

I ," I < M v r EeDce'the
0 dd IIL'-m l'
0'
M Ia.-lI+i Ib'-m I Bv(3)'Ir'Id'-iI+
lm )
+ o' flen@ bv (1)' d''" 0
,",*, O, (,,, o" ot n)
'n"
itence, bY de6tritio!,4"0" + im'

> > N'

10. Suplo$ a" + I' i+o'TlrcnlN € Nsu'htlatlo'l 9Vn
I >lNG) € N
Proof:ki ' > obesuchthat' < 4'o'+
*,chtLatlo.-rl s rvn > N(')'Ia"I-IiI<Io"-iI+
,,",-,,,' . t ' !t" ^"'"'-L ''a '- "r
> ri'
vn:,,vr.t .'"",a /l + +"^ ^f '"lero'N
posiiive iniesd NG)'

i l, ll 0' Ttrel x'hich is deiftd l0I all bui ilitelv nau

11. Let 0" ^!
 Prooi- By (10),1N € N s.t o,, >+>ovn > N. '.*naks
saNe V n> N. Also I ds I c boutrded beloq bv tne 2ositire number
Llv"> N.

l*-il= rirBiv" > N.o"+ I +laa r1+ o. Honce bv (3)

sd0),1*-ilr o inpryin6 ihai *+ i
12. If o" --t I ed ,. + m I 0, iho ihe sequcnce ;"" rvhich is dcnrcd

lor all but ffniiely m&Y,'s + ;:

Proof t * = 4. *. Now the esult rollo$s rrom (e) sd (10)
13, lfd, + I, theD, for any nxed positi{e i eger p' urc sequerce l),, = atr+r

a.l$ convdS6 to L

Proof:- By de6niiion, giveD 6> 0, th*e exitts Nk) € N such

that I a. < e v r > N(€) ChoGe NG) lalge enonsL sucn 1,]1at

Nft) > p. Then, it c obvious ihat d"l<.vn > -ryG) 7

A given sequence n€ed not the conv€rgent al\r&Is' Eencc, $e havo ihe

Dc,ffnition 2.
A equ€nce (o^)issaid io iliwerge to + 6 il VN € N !M € N

sucL rhat os > NVn >M.

,l' (d,); sid l" dilerse ro €it vN € N' l'l'I €

*que"& N

such tl.i on < NVn >M.

 It is clear lrcm tle deEnilions ihrt a" divergls io +* ifi -o, di)€r8es io

Deanition 4.
A real nunber I is 6.id to be a limit Poift of the squence (4") il
v € > O, d" - I l< r fo! infiniiely meY n3

By ile Bolzano-Wendlds ibeoren, a bouded iDfiDile sequencc has al-

Let{z") be d bounded squence Loi , be the Eet oi all ljnrit poinis of

(oJ. Thetr.E is a bounded 6el In faci. the iorrer bound oI ine sequence is a

lo{er boud for E and ihe tpper bound ol ihe *4nence is an {pper boutrd
Io! ,. Tnereiore slb ed lub for-E dGt.

Tle alb of , i3 oUed the lowe. limit ot the 6equencc a is deroied bv

lim i.fa" or t'y !jE, --4.

Deffrition 6.
The lub of , is caued tie uPper limit ol ihe sequefte and it is den'ted

by Unsup o" or by lim" --a^

Proposition ?. The lover and upper lim olasquen@ (atr) o( ljtrit

Prcof:- Let nbe the loNer linii otile *quene (oJ' Let 6 > 0 bc Civen'

We shall prove thai tne inienal (m ., m + .) coniains inffniietv nanv di s'

Si"cen is $. *r ofor i!-ir poi s ol tl,"..q"e"_' tl'e'c *i"ts

slL ot{L.
a limit point i sqy ol the sequence (hicL is < n+' ClrNP t, > 0 su'I tlat
 q (m,n+')'sincelisdlinitpoiniorihesequercei
'h.intervd(l-6,1+6) lire
rhe inte@l {, - d,l+ 6) conrains
infrnitelv muv oi3' HeDce obviouslv

inffnite\ nanr oi's ad lrnce obviouslv' t[e

inieml (m,m + €) containE
a''s' Thus n is a limil poiri'
inieNal {m - <, m + e) coniaiG ininitelv manv

o'prcwdrod' 'h' Lpppr Lmi o'd 6a1'Pn'"iral'oJ

Srmrlarlv ir 'd
lmit poini ol thal sequence

The above ProPosiiior is ol interest

b{euse il seneral ihe slb
Blmdk.
md ihe lub of s *i need not belors

PigPg!!E!-L
linii of (4") i0 v d > 0'
A real Nnb{ m is rhe 1o\€r
but filitelx oslJ n's dd
(i) a, > n - .lor aU

(ii) o" < m + € lor i'frnitely nanY !!'

E!eg!
Lei m be ile lmr li iiola''Thenmisalnnit'ointot(4")'TIdeloE'
l< Thus' a" < m+ r
Bivetr . > 0, a ininiieli manv r's sucli ihai Ia'-m '
(ii) is proftd'
fo! innniiely m@v n's' Thus
Ior inflniielv nanv n's Thm
bv ile BOLZANO-
a' < m
Suppde
' sequence {nich is
ams tto" ttto" exists a liDii po i fo! lhe
woms,
soi of linit
< ihai n is the lorver bound r't ihe
., This confadicts
m - ThDs (i) is lrotd'
fo! atl bui filiteLv oarv n\'
points. ltence, d" > m - €

colve6eiY, duFe (i) atrd (ii)'

lihil n.inl P ,l6im,u nte
(i) Inel;s Aar & NdLd z n 6" Lo r

6 > l] such ihat frr + 6<m.Thenm1+

6=n €

a lirui PoiN. Choose

 po:n_
d'l' 6]
ror sose \O Sro'er'i's[n 'hPid''rna"T'_
*":rry manr o ' BLr o 'r
j a' r'"' nl"-r\ manr
:, :; ;" *
"., - H"neLh"trbo'''" Lor'mi
;;.-;'.rbFB.dradn':on'
""'';;':'"'""""''"r ol
n a0bearo' b")dio'n"""
,.,, ;;;" ;.:'.,,,
> O Sin@
I -::" :":::1,:",::";":", :::"
in60rir\ monv ponr:
lL= n+r for somP' is less ilan
limit Point o! the 6equen'd rvhictr
*- *- . - t, '""'" ".'tt' " linit poir6 rlence
bould ror tne sL or
;;.. ;";- ; "-'"' " 'o*u ""
rhe lo{q limit is m'

lor the upper

d dalogols chuacteriTaiion
Tle follo{ing Proposiiio! is
lron ine P(vi'us
****' or erse ca' bo dedu.ed
,-r. ;;; ;. ;**
(d")'
usine ihe lact ihot for anv sequence
Proposition

llnsuP d" = -iiBinf(-aJ

A real numl,e'I i" rhe uon{ Ini' ol1_'"rn 'n b! 'qder""

(i) For dv r > o, ihere are idniielv Bdv

> o, o' < { + ' ro! aI bui

(ii) For any €
(o ) is mNoruent ifi
proposition 10. A boulldod ssqtorce
i e{c) b6 a uliqus limit Poi'|"
iE
r:a) nPtr
ro a r"dr !"nber
;;:;." ,'; ,hs o- i6 conv"lsalr
gien. > 0, r I'/G) € N Nch tL3t
ld"-{ l< €v a z N(€)'

mdv 4'3 tie' selce

fie!.eotrrEidetheint€r€l
(l-''f+') o v atoGi Bniielv

rie in ihe ilierai ({ - 6r + €) v' > 0'

;;;;;; .,
"" "'"""!ce

>
- liminfon < 2'Y'
o
I suPa'

lin sup < lin inf a'

'"
Strt
limsup o' > linida" alva'&

lif strP d" = lif, inl d"

ColvdselY lssune tbat

limsupd" = lininta" ={ 8aY'

Ne s@ t!&i a' <

l+€
ofilo lim id dd linsuD
Hoe bv ile chdactsisaiion dv
;;;J;;*'' a^ >-d {-'
ror aribni nnii€rv
n'B

r Io! aI btr! ffo'eD mdv

s :'' tbe'e @sE
Hse,z-t ! 5 -- ' '

1""-'l<
I
This prectelY mea6 tbat
a" - t'

in deieminils \rlether ! s1!er

ReEsk. Tle sbove Proposiiioa is uselul
!*rul ir \rc do noi
or rct' Ii is especiauv
;;.**."" '" "'*n"!i in ce ihe sequence is cotrveBeni'
,.," ,.,**t**U*
" 'tO" 'imii j3 io osciuate iI
D€lnition 11 A bouBled sequ'nce said

linstPa,, > lin in{ d"

IiDinfdi = -1 aDd
sequeNe'
exmPle of an oscillating

hence s€ stde tlem siiloui

laci3 e edv io Blabiicn ald

(r") be tvo bouded sequences' Then'

1. Iimiafo, + liniaf 0, S lioilf(a"+b')'

if eiths (o^) d ('') is conre!8oLt'

2. Equoliw in (1) lolds

3. ljminlo- = - lin sup -d"'

4. linslPa, = - lihi d"

5. lissu!(d"+ IlJ < Lins!p4^+linsupo"'

il either (aa) ot (h) G cdNdcuLt'
6. Equaritv in (5) holds
 lunciion de6ned
Loi J be s rcel-aslued
t tmn Poini of X'
is said ro
ro be
of 6r ro., € X, t I 'o
De6lition 12 The iimii '
srV'(5)
€ >0' : 6
.iist i!l aeal Nober I
e x,lr-ro 1< 6r + ro
lJ(') I l:.v"
thdt lioit
ihe c4e ol rqnenc6
j(.)d,+'0,'€.x''
. I. , + 5o sisis ald
eqnal6

.!ql" .l(.) =
|
1! inu tuntrior I necu N'
.t tb.limii ol ,('l c r -

i' then' v equence ('J ot

and equals
Proposition 13' Il .lil+l JG) dists
exisis eILd eauals
l'
* - 'J(tJ
o.**, t .n* t**u* 'slim"
Proot_ L€i ro
and be equar
,rrl+" J(r) erci '

o, u"o"nid' o?'o' l6 >0suchthdtIJ(c)-tI< 'V''x'

/ Jo'
.rchrhar'r -rol'' d'r'd'
"n",,
\., j.\ 0..,r1..
3 \1d) € Nsrlr'-rol1'
sitrce r" ro'
-
N(o) rus precrser
nedDi t!al' rinh - -/(n'
,,;";-;,.'; "z
1l
 (r^) of poinis of X
J(') eisis if lor e\erv sequence
Piop6itioE 14 ,lrl!.
sequence
iidii is indepcrdeni ol the
,nr. ,",u * .., ri'l t,l *ots ed itre

pr\:ou P'opor':on
'"-"r, ,*
,, * , n- beeo prar"d ir tt- e*isis od
;:,;"",; vseqrcnce'" +'0" € x'iim' --r(r")
sequeDce' let I be tle conmon limii
,t ti-i, i" ,oa"o"oa"n' ot
" '1"

,ujo- l(,)
t; I bv ihe Previons
prcpGiiion -{sune
iioit mlst be equal
exists,tlen the

,ltjl}, J(,)

l > 0 sach thlt Y n € N, ac, € x,

dos aot dist Then, bv deiril'ion' '
-rh,har I ,, ..0, <. * do'Jl, J -r l- '' r' 'i
l' BJ' rhP u'' oat ' J r i ' l> rYrrN
B\ ."sumprron. /rr.l
c@iEdicts ilis' Hse'

a
SoBetidq thouel lne inii J(r) '
ol

il, dpproa'Ies oo eiiher lron ihe nght

exisi

fi6e ca56, m sav ihal rigft limit lr€sp'

fo' J(,) si€ts dd E mi!t'6 6
lG) )

RiSht Lisit
ti '0
i6 said to hare a rigLt liEit
De[Ditior 15. J
lumber i stch tidt V' >0,I
d > 06ilJ(')-l l<
€Fsts' it i' uni$e
Ptopcitro! 16. If nght limit
lidils Let >0be
Prcof ! Let i aod mbe l*o right '
f &, 6, boiL > 0 $ch tl13i

ll(r)- ll< .v, € ('0, ft + 6r)nx

m l< 'v' €(co' to+ d').'x

tJ(,) -
Tho d > 0 d it is €ithd dr o! d!' I*i
Ifr = ditr(6r, d,).
d
tu+d') Boi! IJ(2)-l I
Th€!, , e (,i, '0+6r)n('o'
d6<e
lr-m | = lr -J(') +J(G)-m I
<lr-J(')1+lJ(')-ml
< e+ e=2.
sitr@ € > 0 i!dbiir'rY, I l-m l: o. Bui ll-m lZ
I i -m l=0, im Yilstbsi I =m'
 hnii is denoicd 6v
!l righi linii disis, then the unique righi

lim l{rl

Deffnition 17. , ! Ieft iimit at ro il

is said to larc

numbcr m such thdt V . >0, ld

>0 sucn tnrr Lrr')

tle uiquetr6s ol iie loft hniis cs

be
Tnc lol@n,g Prog6itio! aboui
tnc Droot
!tured eoroSolslv s in Proposition 16 ilence $e o'nit

PropositioD 18. Il telt limit exisis' it is u

que

is den'ted bv
Il left linjt exisis, ihen lie uniqle leli tinit

,tr1q, fk)

,r14" J(o)

bur boih right and lett linns mrv caisi' \Ne shtll give exan_
may nol exisi,

pl6 oI suc! functio$ late!'

rigni and leli linits ai ft oxisi and
Proposiiio! 19.,1!I!. l(c) essis ifi boih

ihdt
Let lm J(r)esi and be io l. TlEn, V. > o, 3 l, > o such

' 114
ll(,)- i1l t, Yx € (ro-d,,0+ 0n
(,o,10+6)nx aod L.Ilr)-1 11.dr € lrr-d ro)nx'
 both dghi dd lett tidits ai di* dd are equar
t{6e '0
CoNeselv,tei boih the
rigli ad leli tioiis sist ai ' poilt 'o
bv dednition' siven
>
eqaal. lai i be the com on limit Theq '
disi 6l, 6i boih > O 6uch ihdi

€ ('0,'0+6r)nx ed ll(')-ll3 6, Vx € l,o-d,,ro)ox

lf(.)-ll<..vx
tn'tif d =sin(6r'")' iler d >
0sd
Tlis impli6

lJ(,)-il < €, v' e ('o-d''o+r')'' + co'

sisis drd is equar io i

This pr€ci*Iv E@s tlai iim'r 4#& J(')

15
 CHAPTER II
CONTINUOUS TUNCTIONS
intuitivelvi
*e deine ihe miiotr ol d coDtiDuous fun'tior'
In ihis cl.Ialter,
ihe grePh ol I dos &i
brenli'
a tunctior J is coniinuous if
Lei X be a sub@i ol lR'
X+0
denned oi x i6
said to be
#;;;. rear''awarumtion'i
e xir !' >o'36 > o sucnihai
;;;;;'*''.,
€ x suchinsil' rol<
d
L(.)-J(,o)I< 'vc

< c@ be replaced bv lJ(t)-'(co) I

1. The hequaiiiv I J(c) - f(50) I '

" < c'n be repraced bv 1 r-'0 I !'
.".;;;;';;. i'-r0 I d

ol &
is a local prope v i'e ile contiauitv
2. The ootion of continuitv itr a
' depelds onrv on dP
varuer or tre runciion
;;;;;' *'' *
neighborhood of ihe Point'

ai a point i[
Proposition 21 J G @nirnuous '0

J(.) diris a equals JGo)'

Ther' bY 'leiniiion' Vr
>
!t t Point ro'
Prcof: A$ude J is contiruoug .,' This PEci*tY
l6 > olJG)-'('o)l s .vc e
X, lc-'ol<
o,

neals thai
*i"ta
lrs" l(r)
 Codesel, sum' ilai
tio i(5) ensis ald equars J(ro)'
:i,9"
> O''Jttt lrt,|' d-, x,
Tnstr. bv oehn"ron' d' > O' I6
rbPn' r\' roPruahrr I lr)'
lLr0 :t
r I ftr dd lr to I t o BJr
bv'{ hene'rr''r - ''r'.i' ' '
d
,.,i0,1r,,'*t*'rt"r
is conii!'ous at
X, I , -,0 I < 6 Tlis p@ciselv nems tlat '0'
' ('") of points
* , i' coniiruous st ro ifi Y squence
",.*.oi"
colversias to ,6 JG")
r
'('")
Thi6 to11o* fron tLe
Prop6iiios l3 'trd 14'
?roof:

gires useiui c torion to

detcFftIe {llcther
Remdk.The abore p'opedv '
is or lot at & giYen point'
a givd lunction
'oniitruos
Ex@Ples of cootiluoE tunctios'

1. All the corNiatrt tunciions'

3. l,l
Th.t ! il ,l G coltiduous rouo$

ll,l- l! ll< l'- ! I v c' ! eR

fun'tioG
td prodlct df initelv hmv c'ntiulors
Propo.ition 23' The str6
Proof ! This iouows innediaielv lrom tlr above Proposiiior ud ihe proD-

erties ol the limiis proved in ihe earlier Chlpter'

ahe ahove Proposiiion and ihe e,mpl6 mentioned above ioflv ihai mv

pollnonial with Pal coeficienis G continuous'

6* oiher dmpls 6 {e go otr'

we shall
deined on
P.opositiotr 24. Suppose , is r r€l'vdlued c!ftinuous lunciion
an inierval I ud suppose , is a continuous tunciion de6ned on an i'ierval

rvhich coniaiN ine range o! l, ihen roJ is coniinuous on 1'

Proof: Lei ," be a seqtrence ol poifts belonsitrg io I coNesnrg io a point

ri € L t let u' prove ihat ,. J('") I e'l('J stue / G coniinuous'

J{r") + l(ro). siDce e is coniiNous, !(l(r,,)) J !(J('0))'
Tlis shovs

thai sol is coniinuo6 ai co.

As an application ol ile aboe Proposition, Ne see ihai if / G coftnruous'

arc continuous for all n bv obselviry ihat L J l=l r I oJ aRd

I J 1 ard J'

of
Prop€rties of continuous function on compact scts
lR

so e inpogtant plopeliies ol real valued coniinuots

Below, Ne prole
sets se use is ihat
Iunciion o! comp&is 6eis The proleriv ol comPAci
a subsequcnce ihat
given a seqlence ol poinis in a conpaci sei' ihere e\Gts

is conwrgent to o Point o[ ihat compaci *t'

dotu$d 0n r 30np i
Theorem 25. Elrorv roel-vahod continuous tunrtion J
sci I( is boulded and ttiains its bounds'
Pr..f r Ld,'-"T'"',::.::'"-:*",^,''.1"l.1.
( $) 6uchinl l rr'"'
Suppornoi.Then,Y'
l r' €
r" ""1 ' @n3'6e
":*.^'.",," t- " "'"-,."n' "ub'"qu"r''
- "",,'.'"" 'r rrr' ' -rr "
ior 'rr0
:;":'; ",, '

ll lG,,) =1J('*)lz '*'+ JI*III(r"')=+&'

n."., 1',0'F d n""' aBdrb'naL/' "1'"'',1", . n rn'.
'rherefo'e, I a rPJ nunrber
Il sulh tha! Lr(tr) I S
(hoas ihat J 6bounned' L"
"T.*;" p'de 'a'l/''aro irsrd-'dJdnplo-und'
SLLPo_
' - 4 d!l' '\a' ,I' io' ' '
i = 6ur,./(r)' Lei s Pro"e u''" - '" - '(
r" '''-'r I("Lq'lrt
a", "r "n" 0"0""'t" "t"up r
"",.
ll'") > t- ;
1

("') stv' Let + '0'

Tnei since J
(r") hN a coNsseni subseqoeice '"'
h coaiiiuous at r",J('^,) j J(co)

<l +l l=r- /Lr4r :,r

,-l < l(,*) J(,,,'r_r
suPf is aihined'
l rr'*' i(tu) = 1. Hclce
dft-@ H-c" JG"-) ']
wdy, ii can !e Proved ihai
Io a sinil& ol riiaining
in alotler {av !v arplying ihe properiv
Or i[ can be pro{ed

"";:"":"'",.' /i'co iJou i'r '" I ' ' " "" 'r
'
 lei n = inlj(')' BY ihe
above'

m' i'e ine

Thh ibplies ih:i ,(!) =

t luciior defiNd or a seix + 0 J Gsaidio

let I be

.ontinuous iiv < > 0' l5 > 0

u€ x' lr -r] l<
ll(r)- iirll: 'ir'

io
coltiruiiv is a n'ti'n soci&ted
We edpldize ihsi uniforB
Re6dk:
-.-",""."" .in,s.'p6'. ' '" ''' '' ' 'ni,
";:";". _or"'nui' "' / :"r
o' Lr"'urr''
,r.,.a"," t **'*""''ull r\en r is
on sei
uniromrv coniinuo*
;";:";;" ; "";"" 's
^ '
ol'
coaiiruous ai elerY Poiai
'' on E' vt > 0' :6 >
;;t;", e r' sr'"" t i"niro''tv "o*iluous
;';;;",;,,,' !rJcE$"r " 'r dr''f,''
i;':;*.";,';,,. ro' d.'\enoo\ioL1' tI'' I x'
al r0'
ThE proles lhar I is contrnuous
srppG" / rd R'nJ I '" ir"'n''dbr'"'
;:i.'-'" "rar€ri'ina o'\ " a i'dodr
" ;
r
"o
";;;;' ;"'" "' """ '|.bouro'o
.nI.
"J,""r,- i' ine interior or r'Bv irre
o" bouad or I J' I on
' '0"
"*lh'oren ""
lor ddivatiaes
mean ulle
ll" - !/
v € r' I lG) - J0) l:
I
v lJr(")
'' sonrc
in ihe open segnenl
joinins I atrd U In Ddticalar'for
lor &ne point
'
20
 I V.. ! € I,
Thdelore,
Poini . in ihe interior of
OsuchthatMd < €
1lG) - J(s) L< n l'-
< ,r. TlG Prcv6 ihat J
ihen.lJ(,) -.r(!) l< 'v
h unifoml! coniiruoN

as rirc
The above Propcition implv
thai silr is uifoslv "nrinuous
siniiarlv' cos' is unifordl\'cortinlous' e'
deivatir cc, is bouded ard
a' This
rterlal (-6'a) lor ^nv real nuni']er
n unilomlv continuou in strv
bv e" in iln
incrcding tunciion is bonnded
is hecanse e' beins a nonotonic

lNc-
coniiruous But rot all cofthuoN
By Propositior 26 aI ilese $e
Exampies de d in the enine eal
iions are uniformlv 'ontiDuors ""
line, The proois vill be givsr in ihe iuionah'

ilorvever. @ have t\e foilo{ing'

in anv conpact tet is uriloinlv
Theor€m 28. Arv coniinuons function

sei lei r 'i(' Lei ' > 0 be given'

Proof lei K be a conpaci '0
funciion denred on r tet 'o e
r
Lei , !e a real valueil coniitruols

.t"", n "oo,-'"o, *,o,: '('o' 4 > 0 such lJ(' inieF'r

ihri ,|(") Ls
to tre o'en
;v, € r"""nih'tl'-"I< 'r('0' ')A$ociate "
r open irte!$Is fom an
O, - aq",,, * q"l o" .o Ydies oer i!'se

* U Sh* I{ i" c"'pur' l{ i" co"otd Lv flnitolv manv ol

.*. -*,

2\
 r0 be ihe Porois su(h tIat

U \1,---'"' +- n-t

2'
ile nirinuo or d nnlte set c, ol lositile rcal NDbers'

lr - rl< 6. r e X +3 r sucb tLat

lv c,l =le-r+(" cJl

<l! cl+l' ''l
a 5n lq:]1$'ti + lGt'
= d(.t: 4
tott' l J(c)- J(cJ
! € (,r - d('ii4,q +d('n') nenc"'
I
.'. boih, sd
th3i
ud lr(!) J(,J l{e < i' rnis inPli6

lr(,) J0) I <ll(t) - l(c,)l+ ll('') i0)l<;+;="

Hence J is uaiJolnly @ntinuou'''

tunction
LetE beag ofR Let J b€ a unilomlv coninruous

extension foi J 6 a nniformlv

coniituou6
Then I a uique
9' E + R such ih6i 9 is Mitomlv
i.e 3 a udque lunction

22
 €D 5! !n
a ss€qn€od 5n
iltarro €- r rh^ - "r,r >osuchrb[
@uiluouEr
grwb' /q--
Sa J iB ulifonnlY
n,- < 6.r" + + (,J
-r
I ltrl - J(') li €' Y
''r
e "l" '' - '0
-'A '_ N tbar l"-Jnlt
tldc€\ -I rP'
6uclr
1C5udY rque!@'
am : N(6) Th6'
l< '' vnnz
IV(d)
l(")I - J('")
Sincc B is codple'e
n Cuu'lv *qu6e'
,.nu"t ** ''U'" '
"t" io a r€'r !!ober' ol the
) co!ve!s6
r .e s!"u
. ,. -,-"
lrd€ rr&i i
i. iodepeldesi
;IbethetsitoI'G')

T-:::#::T"'::"- "'i ::1i':"'-1,.i.':;";". I,;

#ff ffitYiJJ:?-:'T-'ilr:"i:::'Jr"l'
";':,;'lT::-:"J:::T*;
r
.,,,.ri,
or,l=l '(')i''E"
,,,,
crd6 h c udrororv
colti!'ll
--^ ,,
*-1" o. ,," 0","* o"r** ," f ."*
Iat . ud 6 be 6beiore'.E! "

*',|,
;'i.,l *'-'" "*"-;'P;;;;"9;;
"l"J
h(r) = "
tEr Pir -
dd u. The\ bv de6!ihio4'
 boiL
the& qisis a gositile iatecer NG) sav strc! iLat

n(,)-Jk,l dd li(s) J0')l ' :! 'vn > $G)

6n J,md!4 r v + lN(,) € Nsucltlatlorh
l'a-'I
and lvr !l de < 1 'nerelore'

1", v"l =l(," ')+(t !)+0-YJl

< 1,, ,l+l'-!l+lv-!"1
s l+ l,-!l+l < d
rncrerore. foi au r > mu(Nk)'N(,), \€
hde

+ h('") - n(i/')+ n(!"] - n(v)

l ii(r) - n(e) I = [i(,) -,i(c')
I

< I i!(r) - ],('J I + I h(tJ - I + I n(v") rr(e) I

'(!J
lJ('") "r(!")l+LJ0'J r(s)l
< Ln(,)- rk,) l+
S '+'+'=3(
Thus tle cltim that i' is unitomlv continuos is proved'
o

r€lativelv compact il E G
De6nition 30. A set E e R is said io be

We see fton the abole tislen a from ihc prcpe ies ol coniinuous
reli_
lunctions on compact sois thai ! unifomly continuous finction on anv

titly coflP&i set is bounded'

The ssunption ol Ni{om in the abolo rLcdem '^n not be
'ontinuitv
we see ihai thc lunction
! deined on
\dved h Seneral. A! an example
n .antr., b" "''"ndpd $ "
(''^*"'l: " ";
fu o'tron rhetr t {illbe
.:,1.'Ji: J,l.l,"l
bodioo
ds rcntr Nous
^Fndable

TheoreD
IEteraeiliate Valu€
a,b € l be suc! ihat J(a) < J(')'
31 Let I be ao inieNal Let
Theorem ro in lne
Then iliere exisis lotu
o
Lci o be such ihor,(a)
< a < J{l')
dependins on
dhai\e, o < iorb<asuchihar
iniervar [r,b] or in lb'al

*sune ihat a <

Lei
"I
=
Niilioui los ol gensslitv
Ne ''
"roofi(.,6)
t € IJG) <d)'rnenAl0
suppde nor, in@ eithd f{') < o d J(") > d-
.,,,"'*-r", .t
r''''" '! o'(n'
.n.r.nL\ar lr J 'c' u'hi\a'
". a'|\"'Ia'r"
'-."'.::;",..;;,, d'ir r
1'"ao!' rI'l / 6
'tlr' s'ndr"_ 'rl'4'
. '., a-' ""'"0'
suopos" rr") o. .".,.,n.,a.0.0.
<11')'Choose0 >u
rd r >obesnclrthdio+I a\!
'r
-"' '''"h trarrJr 'l')'''
,1d.SIoe / scon nuous"'
i,.;il:; .;- ; rnae".i e' u"
u"\'tar" o '
"-"."0,"^'n-
, 1 . A
But. = suP^ --- - l{ tu'I'r'i baL

,,.'' "r" o-''o))-)r1'

tlcn@ JI'l = d'
I(r) > o+4v "1'-6'cr
 tolloNins dctuilion'
Molivated bv abole propertv' se nake ihe
tle
is said io lave lhe I er_
Deffniiion 32. A Iu iion deffned in $ inlerral
lor a[ a sucl ilDt
nediaie Elue Fopertv (1VP in short) ifv a' b e I' and

(a,b)o! (b'a)dependins o! vhdlEr

a <b'r0 <d
l(a) <a <J(b),lc€

1!e reai-slued lun'tiors

The above theorem savs tLat zti "ntinuous
delined on iute@ls lave ile iVP
the coniinn'$ funciions' i'c
a
Rroek Ha,ing lVP does not charscterize
plcniv of d@Dl6
coltinuous' W€ sholl see
funciio. having IVP need not 6e
preciselv' Datboux iheoren si'tes
tlai ihe deiu_
in ile next chapiei NloE
The ded'aiive !€ed n't be 'oni
uous'
iive ol sy iunctior hd ihe M'

UEifoih colvetg€lce
ri Lei (L) he a *quence or loai -
De6nition 33. Lei X be a non_void
poiniwi* to a Eal elrcd lunction l'(l,) is said
valued iunciioN conversins

io converse to, uniformlv on X if V6>0' r'{(e)s'i Vr >NG)

l/,1J)- /Lr)l: ' nr <

ol leal-ul*d
lurciions
P$p@ition 34. Lei (J") be a seqacrce 'o!firuous
.oderees io I urilomlv' tietr J
is
deined on aset E q B SuDpose ,"

Lei.o € E. Fo! 6rX

 -'Jr'' ! r ' ' I . ' ' ) 'J"' 0 -/rorl
JLro , l I
' ''t" ^t

l"rJ' t" tt " ' J"tra ltlo

slJ" 'l''r" "
to J uriloolv on siaer r>0 lN(€)st Vn >
J" conv{ses ''
N(.)
e I'
lL(rr- l(r)lt 'vr
.ixnsislaiue>NG)
l, >osu.hilai l.r,(') J^('") I <'v'
ai
Shce .f" is continuous '6

rien.e, ,r lr - ro l ! 6, ths

lJ(')- J('o)l

5i
T)rus, J is coDtiruou 'o' B

of coniin_
It is loi true tlar ile limir of ! point{is€ coNergeni sequerce
o$ tunciion is contirtros'
l(.) lidl"(') Thetr I = xol
0
Ex@Ple: Jn(r) = ra' <
t 3 1 Lei =
ilue to
ie halc tle iolofirs lleoreE
Th$ , is trot corti o$' sov€&er'

o''ln" runctionB \YiLl he

upper serlcoltitruous
*r"n
"*, -u
o,
io corsider ihe
prootno{' ii is enoueh
.",::;;";:;*" 'ihe

l rn-;ons J. and I as conriouols

, _ -,-.on,,!.doL5J,,npd
setrn
Theorem 35 (Dioi)Let f' beas'quenceofLowc'
 codpet et r sch t!8t,tr(') < J"+(') v' € ( dd let
on
uifornlv to J'
bs upp* *Bi @athnou6 Tho J' colvdg6
Md J" ls Ls c
PFon- Ict . > 0. f i! !p!d sdd @niiNo$
is op@ v >
i' u...c. se€, Lq = {ilJG) - ') < 'i '
vi 9 ui+t\a

J"(61 + J(') + (= ufq:'

}( h @Bp&t, I s finiie subco@i Hdce' I nrn2''t 3'iI( =

Sile
U: UIJ:. -.- U U:.,
T!@, sioe {/i' 9 U; 4ru
1".,v = ro(,*"r, 'r) '!ha'K-

t.€. vn >N,lr"(')-'G) l= J(c) -''(o) < €v' € r' rniB

prasaly De@ tbai J" @oaers6 ulitortr v

to / o! r'

28
 CIIAP{ER I1I
Moootodc F\rnctios'

ol funciions catled
nonoio c tulc
Ee!e. ie sttdv tIe importot class

or rnnciio, boi!
risht and ren ri,its
crss
.,J';";;;;"' ""tB
Iurc'|lor/o"n'edoi a's" t cRb5a:d
:il';;;;. ^..,-,,", i'
"::T;"'" (re"p mono'ouic' nn'irr"r"a'ins
"';'""""a:itrs
::.;'',..,.nehsr' . i:l' ::'.'.
it s'ltteo 6 is r 1,,';.."""""
'rs
moloton'' noo_decENiog
Ll J
non-in6€sjns, t is Nnite! as ,l l ' orR is
r dcn'ed o! asubsei
:;;.";.';..r-'ed ruDcrion '
or nolotoaic
"*:. monoionn non'ddiredins
"ithd
";-'":; """
poili oi hoin ghi ald
is noroionic, ihen at
ewrv
''
te shall Nsurnc ilrci f I
loss oi eetrerdlrt)
Proof t Niihout

,
- i.I l(.)
equals L
us prow that tlLe
right linit ol J disis di '0 'nd
lei
;;;;;;;-".,,,"" > o'z e E' z > r0sud'ilair(z)
, <
qi"*l1,vv < .J(v) < JG) /\'r ' ',.V,
-

,,"."".", >0 H"r'einLha'nr vor'1'o'6l

,";,: .=,".
29
siNer(s) z J(,0)v! e (ft'rd+61
-r <.Vs € (10,.0+6)'
r = .i*J(,),1J0) - r l= J(l/)

tIe light limit of J at

This proves thai
linii lor J endis ai everY roi of E'
We nN Prove thai ihe IeIt

",i(r)
> J(')

' vl/ € ('o o'ro)'llo)-ml=

neirelJ(r)-ml=n-r(!) v! <
'0'
, -J(9, < I ThJqPlr lldn'(blsareF'v nonl orr'
For dv tunciion il the ight iimit
lor J(') dists at a Donlt
J(!0+) ll ihe teii linrii
tor J(l
ishi lihit ai ,0 is de&ied bv

poini r0, ther the left limil ai 'o

is denoted bvl('d-)'
and ir J
,r. II J t, ihei hc.-) : J(c.) < I('o+)
tr

;;;;.".'."
iry ibnned at'!' Furiher' ir' <1] ihe!
,i,-, t nt, > J(r'+) is

,h+) < J0-) if it

Proor: T Lei 'o € E' L* 3
A$ume J
. Tlis Lehsku€V6
<
r!m, siire J t,J(j) < J(") I J(i) 'o@d

vt> ,0, J(,0-) = *P,.."JG) < J(

30
 s 1'
J(ro ) < J('") < J(c"+) 'l
-r('o+) +
Hence.

,l"l "- -f, **' cr)("-) s rG") <

J("+) < lG") !

j("-)
rhen' J('+) = inr' >' l(') : l(i) J{!-) =
Lei, < ?.Let' < r < !
.,-' - rBr Hence i(r+) ! J('_l'
r" i:t
rl;;,1,..,; - "" '"""'nnAdatr-'{r0'
''dis@ni'nruou'
I F nor co'rtinuo6 at
it i
" "r;".,","'""'""""""*"' *" t"".
odnt ro r E rr

a' r
,n ei,b{ rh' ':E'.t ol | ! L ' ' tr t "::::'"I
r"16'n'd'h
:',,;",,;;,-;::,,.:' ;.R.,.d i.tr/ro'1
redennina ihe $rue
a'i co bv suiiab\
;:;:. ";;; ;".: ," ,'"
"",'inuons discortnruitv
- io be a ponri or remov'bre
H;'.;;:;" '" "'d
Iutrction 1!L!tr
t"""*na" n' Lpi ,J be a nonotonr'
/J'L < J\t)')n I
r
ILL'Iq U'h'n
- eJ.,ori lr'r 'rr
p.."f,_ s.pn-" I t 'Tr't bvPrcp'"itron3!' 'ie!'o
j(co) < J('o+)
T\en j(r!+)= JGo-) = -r(co)
Stppde I is coDiinuos at 'o
i]'e! iire eaualiiv ,(,0-) < J('i+)
Suppose J(ft+) = J('o-)'
ihe linit ol
by PrcPosition 19, ihai

iG)6 ', +'o',

oI Jl,)exhis s r a
ra'r € E
= J(10) =.1(ro+)
+ linii
l(10-)
31
 ihai , is coniiNons ai to'
and cquals ,(ro) 'Ilrh
prechelv rneans
..ninrous ai ,o impvntg rl1li J
is
11, .!, ihcn -l T and lerc J G

Tne' tne 'eal runbe! J('o+) l('0 )

DeEnition42. LeiJl Lei'i €
' i(ro)
is called ihe juopot J al' $d is de@ied
'0 lunciio{
,a' *t noinis of disco iani\ ol a monoiori(
","o..oa" 'nt "
Iei is
]-* , * iutrciion' \iilhoui loss oI seroralitJ'
"*r,- " ^**^ic
ol dGcontinuitv oI J'
Lei D be i\e sei of poi is

D: uf=LD o I-n' il
n € N' n I-n nl is
to ihrl V
ro prole , is co{niable' sdncietri
'rore '
thsi is bouaded
i.e vitt'out has ol
goEraliil" Be can assune
'""r,
cou,rtuble. ' > i)
U'-EIi(c) > o)'rd'" = 1"
'11(')
",***."
,t,,,'
': tnai D is countable suficiont
io prcae ildi
tn".. , = ot*
" dtMllv pr've ilut
p" is € N'
o . ,r, ,. "t"t"O'" 'U'shal
,'""r t' 'initevn
ol gcneDliiv'
t points i! wiihonl loss
rr,"", ,' '- o",
u'"iitrct
's
that tr < r'' ' < r''
"' slall ssune
R
('(1'r) -i("))+
u(r'+) -f("-l)+
il- = uo,+t -n'r-))+
iiir"*r ,r"^-l rG'-) + (r'n) :rG"-)
is
+ (r(a+)

Each cxDression in bncre*

,,,.-1" ,' .ff"-' l('--)+J('-+)
 inrufG)
Lrrr'r < j(,^+) - J(11-)

Bui )]I i(r,) z i$ji5') : ivr'

.. d < n(.supsJ(O -,r€nr.'l'))

D" is: ln(a-Bl neEd

Tlicrelore, the Nnberolelenenisin
rience een is Iiniie Thererore'
.nd r1= inf, € ,r(') 'n '

f\lEctioE of Bounded Vdiaiion' ol fulciions

ds ol monoionic tunciiors
is iie cl6s
Cio*lv related io ihe
is very
.f bounded adiatioE' Tnis clNS in a closd
*L P = {ro'rL' ' ,r,) eicnenis
Deinition 44, A 6nite
< 'r<
io bc a pdtition ollo,Dlila='o
Lounded i
e!!al h said
la,bl

ol [a' bl il I is a rea!"'lued ruaciion

Given a Frtiiion ?
ihe sum s; s tt ' l.I(''") - l('J I
'* 'renre
r d o be the *r oi alt Pa ili6ns ol [a' t'l

a"-,-* * "''"" t''rnliotr'/d'n' do'1 lo'"dho'1d'd'n'q'ol

variation il
ruction ol boutrded
10,6l is
said to be a

suD Sl < +co'

is olboDdod variaiion
Prcposition 46 A monoion'c futrct'on
o.-n( t W: hour ro$ ol s"neraliv'
F u &5! n! '' a /'
io''' sin'P
- _ ' j' r oJrliL'on ol
r.erP={o=ro

/(0)-'r(')
llx,+,) -l(r,)1=tlJu'-r)-/(''))=
J(a) <
+ s, is consta tunction an p. supz e ,sl = J(l)
Hence.
" ' lounded u iion'
a ltrncrion ot
+@ $, is rear-vahed' ,' o
'is

a{iiaiion' su!"
ll J is . lsction ol nouaded
of J over l''bl
is caued rhe toral triation
ranalion
Proportion 4? \ tunction
olbounded

proof:lela < r < b' Ih€n P = lo r'r'l

kx

., si =l i(') - ji') l+ I /1b)- J(') I ! YJu

l(")-'f(o) I + I Jlbl_/(a) l: ri
LJtr)l I J(4) I + I JG) I - I J(')
I < I

.ljc)l < 4!9r!91' "' J,isbounded

'

Itr < v' 166 v.i, s v"1'

Proposiiion 43
<v!"

. *",-" tl'^t vlv < +-'Ld

t oblious iI Vf,
"rcor pdtition ol inr inteNal [d'rl'
P=\a=ro<'1
34
 = !l is faliriion o'
Tlrrctore,o=la=co<,r, '
1.,!1.
sl+
s6 = sr+ ll(?) -,G) ls6 s v1, = I

ol .tl parr,t,ons o( ld,rl $e re inct

Taliing supreduo o{er
i!€ ci6

v",r 1 Y"r aod %.+lJ(!)-lltlLl /"'

+ y.:dndx j 4e-JG) *e
noromric
iroposition as Both tbefrLnciion'

Proof l BY ihe Prelious PtuP6ition'

ue
Also b! the Plevious lrop6itio&
e
v,;+(.lo)-r(')) <%' i'e %'-f(') 3%"-J(v)
B

of lounded r iaiion is
Proposition SO Everv lnnction
nonotoaic T lunctions

v.. and
y",' J
Proof tr(,) = %,,-(v',-J(r))vr
+ I = v". -(y.-l).As
is a difiden@ of i\Yo oonoionic
are T furciions bv
ibe prelious proposiiion' J
proposition 51. Il a < t iho vJt = vl' + vJb
< 6'
h obliout if
tt*. S rJ, dd vl, : /Jj ile Droposition
''
"".", r(, ";,o 'Ihererore lei $ asiunE
drxi both l'l' dd
-'g, '** 0' I a
"n*.
ti** definiiion ol supreDrum siven I >
* t** the
", or lx'r'. such trL'i sl' > vl'
€
"1, *d *"itioi o'
;;:;;; ", l.,i " a sav or
;. ; . "i, ' 'rhe loints or a o' lom a pa$ition
"'

sl=sl.+ -/ c, - ,vr,.r+rl,r,- t=Y,l+l"d-2'

dbifary, Yl, + YII > vJ,!

vJr <v!,+vk
be s'i
pdtiiion or la'!l L't '
= o <,. .. < = be a
'" 'i

1'(xl Ilr')l
l.l(r+,)- rlr')l < lj(r*r)- /1r)l+
a Pdtition or [o''] ed
. -. < rt, < ,) corsiiiutes

< ," r) consiitutes a pdiiiion o! ["' U]

=
sav ol la' bl
and tho* Jl O, consiiiutc a lariiiion 7t

hat
L l(ru) - IkJ I <l JG*') - lGl + 1 l('!) - JkJ I
L 're

sL ssL,+aL, : i(, t vll

tor an, parliiion P ol la'Il
s, < vl,+vlo
 vt. < v! +Y!..*rrs .vh= vL+v!.b
Iorey,suchthst o < c < D'
o
lntrciion iB 4i
Sine the &t of loint6 of di@onhnuities ot a notuinnic
*t ol points oi dtco in ti6 ot a nrnction ol bounded
most ouniable, ihe
ndt coutable. For il J i6 5 flaction of bouded €riation
Eiaiion i6 also at
is the 6et
r, whN i snd, m moloiolic fulctios' 'e
if
ud if/ = i -
ot al, poilts ol dimniinuiti6 of 9, iha D,
q D/l u since Dn &d
',' B coNiable'
D/
D/, are at aGt coutable, D, U D, i! coloiable' Heoce'
 LNei and Upper Seh! continuous F\rnctioD
V >
ii J G coniinuous ai a point '! ineni '
jG) - J(,.) l< rv'siirrlr-'ol<
d

<a
i.e -€ <J(,)-J(ro) < 'YI{ii!l'-'iJ
onc side ol thc above
anJ
ale those Nhich sdiGlv
Seni coniinuous fulction

on dn open iniervai r is
;";"","" A rear-,zlued iunciion J derilled
"r. (ls''' h sholi) iI
*a," * *tt t"t*us ai a Doint c0 e I
"**
o. ro, , o, o ** ** lt') > J(c0)- 'V '
Niih l'-'01 t 6

l(') rvlFrc o is an o'en In

By de[nnioa, Iini,-"0 J(') = sup'int'€'
lininl'-' J(')
,"-', tt'."lf') < l(r0)ob\iouslr Ndhcnce'
"*,.t"'"
sup"itrt.E"J(,) < J('o) lor all Iu!'iions 'i'
deined on an orren inie^ar
I is
;;.;;" ;.. rnnction I
^ "''''"'"ed
1." c. ai ro ifi lim inr"-a J (') = I ('o)
('o)' io pde
(') l6s tllan or eq"al to J
Prcor:- siace, iin irr"-- J
is alNa's
i[at hninr'_" ' >
is suficieni io prore
,,-'""-'" =
't '(])
'O' 'O'
"o*,*r:5''" ao ' r'J(\r''d n'\
/G"). :
'0
'r:o"lt'n'S'en '
t
",-* (vr Mth lr-r! l1
Itxor- tt) tttr'- 'Y <
, *,*,^.*r""
(ro-,,,,0+ 6) ;inl.e'l(') u l('o)-€
'-' r rhis beile true v' > 0'
r.'.. *o,i,r,.,it') > inf"'(r) > J('") -
rFinr,-," J(,) > r('o)
38
 conveMlv dsune r'hai
lininl'-'" JG) =
'('0)
6 me ihai tnra' Jlr) :
o'udLh'"nr-'' r'' r'r0\
,
''^*:';"-;:"";.".'ie^
" "uP, 'lr')
ii rs' J o
,;,.;; ttr' :tt.o)' ? o'L"e tr
',,
i€
54 J h l's'c d elery loint ol an
Proposition
\lisopen !\ € R
L e rl./(rl> L
Proof: A*ume I C l's'r' ai creIY N'nt ol
€ rlr(c)> r'} Lei co € u'
kiu={c
> o sucn rhai l('u) (> -\ -
Choo* '
I 6 > 0such fiai I t-'i l:5+I('):
SiNe J isl'sc at c0'

'ror_ ' \ LooPn

x. , th*rm,llit\"'i
rl{, r,o- o.'. - = n!\ fl
€ r I J(r) > \l is or'a
conle6elv. Nsune that lr
t'I. . I'' Lr Lo'a b o
,.
.;-. ;
';.,.;;,.
""""".
:6>osu,'
"aL' i "l:1.' i,,",.,.
r vr € lr0 - o
rhs oDl6 that .l(r) > J('0)-

rsrrv :' mi *'* -'::,

Proooqi(ion 55 1\P slp'pnlm
ot a ""o'r
inf mum or
qr'''' u nL- or Lo\P' s"{r
rh' "
l, l" "* -^" ":''
"'" lunctior i6lowcr se't
conti.uous ""tt""tt" .,...,.,, t ,,ciion dclined as
fan\ of lo$c! semi'contLtru'
Proorr Lei (I)r€ be a
'
39
 PI> Al= LJ|rlr € il'> )}
{,.rI on,r' H r"'r' sr
;" ", ;" .6arrPmDero0'hE''sn'r

Ths, stpr . r .ii is ls c

- heu tutr'ior
;',, ,, ,;'"""' "'Lqorro'r-n: i
,.',
','.1
t, t"I^t'\!.I Ir rr-: rr'r'J'rr
-_'r,"* RHS is e
in ihe inicrsecii'n on ihe
,,, , """n
-esbe!
"'"'"' liliie open seis is open'
unber oi
ihe
,,"* t*"""ttt"n of a
"r* "".. ""
set in ihe RHS is oPen'
Eence J is i''''

on a *i is lo\Ler bounddl und

Proposition 56- A hc lun'tion 'oB!a'i
atiains its lover bound' c noi
"'" Isc suppos
4-"n- o * tt'-t et in R' Let be

"* ' suci i\ai J(:,'J < -,r' '

arv n' : r" € i(
bouniled below, ihetr siven
(c^) rrs a .N{setri bsquence wii\oni loss oI
;; i"
""'r""' r"" - 0

;;,,"""" NUr"'ra'r''i'r'|fi"'o'\q-n'
)= J{r!)
Then,lim'nIllr') > lrm'nr--?" JL'

q,n@.lr,t ntn- l'n- 'Jrr') --6

ihat J is rnr ' varucd'
He(e' I is
t-." ii,i = - - *-'onirdic..

lr, e J(sr /(JJ :m+:

leim=inrr(r).Thm Vn € N,
Wiihoui loss ol
is conp&i' (r") les
contrscni subse'ruercc
since r a
 L'r - r0'
.enerair.,,pnata'sLnerholr 'P'li 'ior'Pg"'
lh"n 'fl:rlr _6,r'' 'r'Fl'F'Ft_'"/ ' ""b\
<m
.fG,) <*+ ivn +lininrJ('J
> m' Eence' J(r.) ='a''rrus l
at't"ins
.,i"1 "*lr,,l
"...",1
its lover bound at
'o

Examples ol lsc Iunctions

funcii'n is lo$ct ieni c'niinuoui
Obviousiv everv continuols
of U ie lsc'
ll I/ is d open sei i' R the chaacierisii' funcrio'
coninruous functioDs
Firsi Ploperties of lowe' seDi
ri " 'ron i lo(e' 'qi'r
I SJT or r q0i'" nltrbq or l^'

This lolows ftom the lact ihai

loi anv i$o lunciions'

lini Jr + lininfi

for iny '\ > 0 n hc'

2. I1, is lsc' ihen '\,
iic' then llPre exisis
Proposition 57 lI J > o and

suc\ ihai J = Lim J"'

J" or coniiNons lunctioos
Prool:_ Fist ssnne ihat J x' lor sone U = I 0
sis such thar r" e
indesing squerce I(" of co Paci
tunciions such ihai J' = 1 ot r.,,0 S l" Sr
U. Lei J" be a coniitruous
 and hnJ" = I = rd
Since Il" t md it is e$v to ch4k llat l" l l6c luDc-
tt be proved tlLai or no!_neadiva
,.* t",r" r"""t'' "-"' "- of chlrac_
positire linoar conLinatioas
,a"', o - t."-t, "-n "I Sniie

sets
",".-,lunciions ol oPe!
reristi.
o!" > 0 v i and ! r'
=,t'r", **'" = It''-x'"'r'"* <gi+tr
to- fi = supnsn." {!de 9,tr'" is coniinuous !mmdr]-r
and nrcrcdnrg Ii
cdy cneck
;; ;"'= ,": ;";. ,. 's '"
', "'"'inuons
tl,,'i ,i^ 1 I

_ semi continuous (u s'c

is sad to bc upper
A real ralued fu'ciion
loNcr '
semi continuous
in snori) if -l is
cd
coltinuous lunction
The troperri6 of uppcr seFi
I
,hoipollo$ersenrcort'nuou"l'Drirotrsb)'on$uqii6

rrrItru.scdtr0€ |'n*f' - '" /1rr=

ll'J
€R
rrlrou."cl'lJ1') < \icorenvr
J'o\'
L', ro u"' lun'io'
01' ofio1 d i' boJnJ d

and tlLe
of upper semi coniirruous tunciions
(a) The inidn
ol a ramily
arc t's c'
of upper semi contintrous lunciions
number
supEmum ol a flniie
brquen(e
on a co'npaci sci h r linrtr oltr de(redsrng
(5) A v u s.c luuciion

42
 open inter!'ll ]. De$ne
be a funciion deflned or an

l@
lk) = tininr r(u)
a l" lund'on
ProDosition s9' 1'< Jtrb"
Lau'pro\""' 'l'|c_ I -1i'r 'r
o,""r,_
-;,; ""''*'-^O"r r' rL D' b'h" dobni ' n or '' 'h' 'c r/ r sn
." ," r0 - L Lb"a'l
dcr nr"n"..r'
-,.:;;:;.;"""rr.
':;";;.;;
""..,, iB - L\'od' rHq"
, . ,., ",,,. s,'F':'a'
;. ';;,'l' P

,,,'"'."",: ;'" . r \'n- vr'a' L''-'r'orn'ord'

,,;
sec tllat c q E' lience
-6 open'
's
tr

ihai for anJ iu(tion l' deffned s

sidil.r wtv it can bE Pro!€d
ln
"]::.;. r'1 ! 'Eeerr) "P'
,
^
.;,,, ." ,pD''| -ni d'r-srr
bo h i j a" ""r laff
1". ; ;'' ;::,;,-'""''"q "nd
l.l;"i',,"
be a bounde'l futrltion dehrrr 'tr
Dennitioo 60 Lel I

= linsuDJ(a) - linnll J(')

t+ uUrr) =l(') - I(')

is ctUed ihe osciUation

ol I ai
'' and
a ronrl.:egaiive tuncrion
ttt oscillation is al\$vs
h is obvious ihai

s hc 457 b ur' and I6lst'

rhdt tt
F i0 /J r - 0
i..,."""-"t t'""t";rJtr ron 'orl' 'uol
^
 > O' e a neighbon ood
4i t' T!6' givetr
'
!,ei J be @niiNos

l'O) - J(') l< rvs €

''
(2)

i(,)-. < ,i2r,l(v) < 6}'SJ0) =ri$f Jo)

,Lr z
$!'€d^Y' j '',rrl r t.'l his
ed =
J0) 1.i(,)+'ve (s)
< J(')+6i6 rT*!Jo) < J(o)+''
ht$DJO)

(2) &nd (3) imPly r'b'r'

> o'
rffaP J(s) - lio*d J(ri) l '€vd

This iDPli6 ih8i

li65upfts) - l9grJ(v)
1u

-llr,gfrjb) >
o s]NeYs
ndsupJb)

,* *n i1e; = rig,g I0)

l0) =L
u-""n11s1 = rio.s;r
 'l
- dw' t > 0'
a oeighboJrhood

dL. (a)
sup Jo) < l+die' l(v)
< l+'v! €

liminflk) =l + v' > 0' I s @iglbourhood o':

inlro J(9) > I - E' This inpti€ ihat

(5)
l(s)>l-'v'€d1'
(4) e<l (5) inpiy that ir Y € drndl
r-. < Jfu) <i+u

l-'<J(')<l+€'

ljo)-'(')l< 2c\latn62'
-k S i(!)-i(') < 2€'i.q
G cotrtitrlols tt
Thi! p.eciselv n€ac thsi ''
'
of uv n"rnde'l tunct:on is
sel ot poitlB ofcontisuitv
Proposiliotr 62 Tn'
is s coulabie inrFrstioD ofop'tr sets
aC, s@ i.€. it
Doints otrL;'o'v is
:"i";.;;;;;"-
Lhe
''|
ssr ''| 'ite
""p.$Lion
vani"h6 i " it i" {" = 0}'
;;;,;;;;
r
"(';')
"" ""'",'"o
1- (6)
< ;}
{r ldrlr) = o) = n* {r lu(J'r)
a5
 u(Jir) i5 !!9er snlcortiNonq
oi (6) i6 G,
i! (6) is open. Iiscer tle *i h ihe BIIS
o
ms be eoltv
ot @ltinuitv of s ftrlctioa
Eroek Tle &t of points
'* that t!€ 8_
J* o" ,'* t *"* t!€ BaiE c6iegory Thmreh
Eelce tlde dom'ot
dist a E r €rued
,J";;'" ;"'"" ;; *.
at sll r'tioral poilts utl dis@athloa
,]l"*1. u "*"" ""u'""*
tuctiotr from 18 + lRthai is co itruoE
Oo tbe oild hand ihere di6is a
for
inu.u6 ai s[ rdiiolsl poinB' See 12]
di 6[ ifational Poi'ts ed diEco
 erence6

.
H5j:Iffi:1111T:ffiEdirior' Um*r ;- -- "-
d
Mdhdnattd
A @vse ol
rana
Te
"1";l h

DelD,,v""
Delhr, 1999
--" chi,{ edirioo. 'orr
Pdncipks or:::::Tj":3l;;, -''""'",l'
Fr Rudio\^Isrra' """-

I"., n'*""u o**"n'

*'
"I""'*
D€'i rion !.,, Lr jb!sqrdld fudr! o L!,Ll .q o! i.lo il
i4r ri;r = i!.. rq:}r, softd i
, ptr i i! Lr.dft , ih! poin r, ed \!e srr rd l L iirt rd[bL lL!
!r, r,sdE!.Li /irlriL.&riBtiEot It r I.I idii.t ixlh
&ryFir n l.b.,u , t s ad !du.r iNtt^ @ b,r,l

rheoren {.2 Lt I L. de6rcd or li,bl lI I E iLider ii..Lh r . poi0i

'
J.li,r, E! I n@^tiuos r a

Prcd, crc^ ,3r /

11:r![Lrln
=LjE
= r'1ili =. e\Gt. {Lr $ lii rni =r(a)(tB
 d B !+i(! = II +i: = L *d
',".* l,iji
r+ir:r e* -i
r I k mi dtdsutide (

rheoeB4.3i Ld , sd e ed6rddllLl!its! @edifce

; m r.^

G) (l+ !)'(xl = I'(r)+ elr)

16) I I r)1n = flr) eG)+ Ilr r'G)

j,, r= d!1!t4411, $bFo !Li tro i l

= 111:1:r+ d1+
tr! lg",
/'G) + e1x) q.'q ed thb P6\s (4

= l* ^'9r9*
rqg ,(,ll +
= lr ,I ltj , t,kl 'rEli l

= ly,L
q=+ li-.,(r) I + lil")' lx", +1r I

n,", |*. r+e

- ,- *!9= r.- d+94-'5'
- L';; ",.l45!.'r
:i",r.,,s!a"

: (ohaindedi ib')
ur. Iu
{&
eques d lqbl, r'(')dib
ior
3i ile .rkl ! ,l(i) = '('(i))
p.i
r. ed n(r) = e'L/LrrlI'1o)
orihe &ns E P
hE
e= J(r) B) de&turlid

i(, J(') = lt - ') t''G) + (i)

1
L4 "= I11) No! (1) dd c)
inprr L(') L(r)

= ( , fk)+"(1) lU(E)+ n,l

= lm. U'c)+qr lla'Ukl)+ i'(1)l l

qrlltlr(r))+ rh', nr('l)i

=1r G) + ih,

= 1/1,r + 0l Itu(r)) + 0l = I {') e'u("

qh6. L{4* h n,=o rhr PoG dui

d1r) = , (f(,)) I1r) rtk lonPkt'5 ihe floor

(r'dr
ncBdibq 4.5, L* , L)l'trdahrdL'-i-u'*'*{*
D'dlMmrm rhcLminJm ilorrr'n
\$$ tLdL f hbr
".,'','",,,,./",

'' ',
;.","" "". "" "

Prcof: ci4 d I L6!hariE

.tll r 6(r) > !1q)- i(r) dp4 du h i oiinLn r !&c i44L)
r(r-o rm[bq]ihuuo
hsei5irlii ir 1!,1) dihr

L(u e(() I/'(,) rhi pqs il[ {rL6rco

t.", i""6''
rrrr, rtr! 6oe G apo '.G,b)dwid, l(l r(o)=p-olr1d
Prcor
'
Ill qlr) =, h th! pi.lioN ii@Io 17

aheorem !.e i suppoe J c diflLod&bi (! 6)

'
1rlf ilr) :0Yi.ldol rFn / rmdddfa\ rrlrrts
iL)r lh):ov,rG,6) ihs I * (N,!
i!) lr I1r).o!rrG,L,),lio I;

Prdi Fr q,5, h (a,t) b drir

*Lr 4 3, i[d. is a pobt ! fl1) 4) d] lr'tr
'rtroEo
lG) /\r!r=1,. illL/) (3)
Th€o{B 4,10 : slp96e l
G
r1r r= I1,+) /'(1-) rio r > 0 sqnkN lr'(a'i
); ht
ard a.G,b)ilLrhri /o- /'h ) rito! ir'r ,)dd
r Lrr /G+f i rir r n
ud /'l(i,) sdr iha! /n,) I >t i Ilr,)
r >lr&nd€et
@ yhh.,l drnt /(v)=r'rt
4ro so,Io.4'bl ,G+)- I IJ-), vhols d!! rli FE
'*t

TleoieE 4.12 1 L',Hdlnart tutl

v&e-@ ! o < i <+6so0ort

41 , ,",, - ". (i)

.Itr 0@d,rlr0br 'o (5)

 {

{eb!oohi .! G,b) d ibi

,ln /lll
-t, -,"t
i,r^
,i$ ,? e (7) su@6e (5)hd'& rhlA

dD tud ooir
'I!€! b kdris ! ixln i!
(s)' &
'{
(r) >r(u)sd,(")

iii.,- #.H
(6) shos trBid{efsF t o'(o'q)

t9)..
\or (s) ud ( )sLov'h Io4

t!)."
,(,)
d (6) brds'
sd ttiru. (5)

, -4j1 ,", ,., ..

Ndr 0,) ed (13) pi@e iM it'l

ihe th@tn ! L2i! rD

oLsN th* ihe diimsi ot
r (tirii!
n ,(, + @ u (6) w' ** Pdd
Lru' !
rr4!d!dF/
!.-..ncor r b, IiNdsF'rl Ii re

L/,t to,rr, .,ro'shofvhi

l' d df rt'rxtt'
on. l'r is 6utd tn!d{idit!f
 ha
d r1r(,) N4 E D sm s! r4ro\ 'uEo \sn[
",r.bee

rletm 114, (Tqrtors iLdeu)

$oe , t r iir t!rcdd o h'bl' n Gr !$iic
,t\4 eGhtuoi{ t' (rtl
F@riissoll,bf
dkrNr Fhc oI ls.bl dd &iD!

{f,o

et)= P(r) n(' r)'

^,
LLI uPL6 dEi PrNil'') = ltrlol
 !d! I cdi&t n6t !,
r" - '1,{r+iu r'1, =i

Itril /(o)=L 1=0 + i

x{ ! t (0,!n) rhs 6!

,(,r = r+ % i,t:. hu!!

I/(rl 2hi1 I
drc 1= k+n !+=F1 ade
lt" Ge=o + r=

rh@enr 4.17 istrePc / n

aodI i diir(onnbLe h (a,u)
Llt) n.)l<O_")i'G)l
prcori D.6e ? = I(d)- /(.),sddriiit otl -' JO'l$ o i I' l',

pohi r ! s'i rtt

*e ols rr* ibdlo' ihq!; a {''u)

o(i) dld =(r ddG)=(b o)'''(')

Col d(.,): r'(J(i)-

'ILol)-

1. ,= t-o) 1.. fln 1 3O

d n Lr(d) i(ol I ; li cl I lr)

ii d.rir. iii lppo md r@r tu'mrn'stii!l!5 qdrr
 i rra ! 'd rl
(t E] ihd I is Riems' stblljs in€B$l! !w F'bl{
tr

cpet to oddwnt /'Flol d

t ,,.= I tr,
l"

/' ,,"* /' rL,r,, ""

Li"
nor sd'{!: d'5d d I a-

$t ra\t $upLid d rNrortucse 4(rl=

r
L.t sd nerhd a(')= ''rhdw$ib
/. .. .1.' r(.i &, Il I(')i!. fl- ,(n/!'
d
t,l ,lP I)sd ^." asp4tiEi} hned
LrrP
t.R o,.'td. l: I o l: tt-

." ,; L.o. J' r'''" "

DplI Pi!fll inh6d!ot I d{r lr

hl
 Pl sd &'wqtLd & ! P!tilrenBor

Thso!e'!'.3ixP.GaEtneE€dolP.ill!
LiP, t. o) 3 LlP" t o) 0)

P'',@n
Pod: rI,!NE0)od(,)!h P hdo*PoiilEtthtr
t$16rc b Po* (rl ed 12) 6r ihe ('
ih! \unbs d Poi6 onc b o@'
G s asff dd P= {o= i, !' '' J':r} !"r
I -14, J,i i,t'r, r,, r+! " ' 'rl vith rL I < /
<'L

Di -, = .-, i,,j < .. i(') , ad

IAn= !I tG)sEu.r
TeD 14 !d, ud 4 < d?
 +aLo(,,) 4t ) l n,Lolr') 4(r', l
=(!L n')lok ) !G,-,)
+(4- n,)Lok) o('rr :!
TllN r(. , ,, a) > ,(c t, o) sLd
ttP lit<u\P t o) TtL orPbk dr Pid

: *euP
14 / o) < rI('' olld
'1' P' '
\ "^ d tPlo LP-t

fh&EB'.'; f Ido r ll rda

*-',""'.; PiL!avnEol iislrliLl Ld P = nuR

: l,lPl La) rl's €

I'(n,,,o) ! I(P,Lol < u(?'/ al

Lt?,. t. a) a tl?2. I ol $hqL ".! Ekspolq a

side,ail4rP?it&LlqhiMsid!,W96
il rd".I-Ir" ft"
"Prd' '1"
!'d

si4r! L,! r! do'r' ri !

u\P, J,o\-L\P J o) <'

. f*r*. I t-
"- t:- t

;.,,', . -"'','"'
"'"'"'"
",
uEs.'ftidprN0.Jsd?.Jd

uw r'"t- f" ru ' 1

L
 rhLLlP, o-Ir" Idi < ih'rcnL 'irrooi

Gl x (3) hords Jor eis P 3id

P= q .-'l dd Lr ' r d'

tbrr{(3) hd G
,&i rrrlAo rc
oL,-,,..1 tl:,]/r'1 m{
rLlr /. Rlo)ddftc$!''h*o{LblhoB
1tL, r(rJ ^ q- ll i1"l< '
(31'
Poor'rfoFni3@d6
louor(b) hr " $r t "* ^'*p"*'l-n q1
nPmr
esnrci rrdP.lLrl,IL5r 'i"

tl=, I I('')- r(ii I ^

o' 3
rL, rr,A q - ti=,

ada.tna)^q< i ,,,,., = ,r" r"r

<t:t,t^ < LI(P

 hor& rhs eol6 (r
/ f i(o) sd (3)

e' I mlrbl
fk^i.ots'u rfo truofdl'bl { I

d/oi.sdnd'"{"'!fo'4n /
,No!i' l
k iia d@d ht,ir Lqbl, redotr
i
6>o !! 6d l .Ik) - /(') L < ' Nh{eu l' 'l<

,(P, J, a) r(A r, a) = !j=,( - n')) ! {

Mr

<t;=1'Aq
= !l=' la(a) "(1'-)l
'
: 4"'l I
'14'") oG)l< !
= 4lo0)
.ha{ l. sL or r I im c"5 ' e !'oor

ah.d6d5ssi6lNnbqsql6lolDrsth[
 f",.,.-,-,
1".^^'
rh r., oy Fn o(P={.0,5. &}o.0,1lvrr,i, <,,.6!
orBi,wh e @=oaDd 1r=1ror{sY I E!rcc
,(p, r)= i r', A,.=,*d r{P, I)= t q an=0,

I trd.=rIUP.r-t ud / /\rd= a r(P. n=o

lsEr he!. ftN / e,
o lo 1! rts rs nq br sDclu&d !{

Thorem 5.9: lI I is nondioric on La,bl, d iI a is srtinss o I!bl'

Ploor I Ld s id auEe th ' , L iolt6he

os0 hbldi c4 d@iGw
hqlsiis o hrl, by ihe ibrmedah !
tir*,',\ecs rind apeiird P= { 4, r" .' } orl',b! $'rr rL

ad &= fl', ,),loroery i so,

 atP, t, a) \P, t a) = tl=,tMr nJ^o,
= t:-(,('J /k' ')!r+il3l
= 4\4u(,, il6)l

rh4ebE, bl ir*E 5 6, * &idud! rb. / r i(a) dL ltr.Ll Asto s

DrcoI hol& ln desnr ruldioE /.

corid{,he rue.i! r i I r,1l + lo,ri d.ied s

I

t-
rilq Ly iL, pEabN ih@l@ t e /. no Fltlqh rlDqL ,L@1

rheqen 6.10 ! F@ I i bold.d o h,bl, t 66 @'r li4idv @ary

@-h ofdi*mriiu,tr 6 h,bl dd . i

. I n dnodiNou ao l.i(a)
Poo.!LrEEtr/= p /(.)
i r dr@dirm. Ld. >0b!
 q
riliEiy m i, di{od rnslns lu,,ql lqrl
{d dr dli Nb o$
qN6 a(4)- o(!') n165 (rq
'
oift or ti (! iIa i! ih! its

rrct!, !/l r'hih Edi p6rh

! !rri'nl?bbbrr' onFt+r '
*t x
rie,orihunvor / or th. rcEFd
( r lrndnll(r)- l0) < NhqEn'
ru s!, rrEt *ht >0 '
r.( !.red ! vl< 6
No, tsrsIou,rFfr bo P={ror!
r'}orLa'Llbrobvs

I( - n, < 2 Io {is I Ndr trL! rrli it r'-r n d

Nd. rhar
4!dih! qthe! !,1-,( <l

an o{ ( ir' _
Ll(P. / o) - ,(c ./, o) = (t1l.
., sn. ql + (the nd ('ii- a''
L G 'L'l

< 0h!sid Aedq 1,

2rr
ro {hdL r, , i 6.D! q) + . t:=, A
q

s e.neb 6ry, t 6 5ho"5 sd l'

'ie4u

Drnre /il 1.rl ; l101bv

 I r r,.r,.-lt"rlrt
i')=i, n,.i;I
riiqe n:t I,! r t 6,rlhv

1l ere! ih4h
r&!. br 6€ F4bs iLom 5.r, I f x( o) @ I 1'

/ is !,1 n@dorc snd .I b ror

'otriinuou'

@rih@s @ I m, M 1 and ,(r) = d(l(')oltbl rki i<11')q

vhEld Lr !l < d&d,,u € tn,'4

!('lbvihermt6,ihlei"'Fdm' P= {'o q' a}
sic J€

As *.d. ki ^,=,.,Ii1..,./k)
F!r'o d 14;=, , ..rnmi !i=, ir
A=b M, e '- 4sd !={r 14 fl : '}
lll l ' j, by ,{ t!tt! oi ,, re h ! ii'. d : f
ME,ui i,; <!(rher ,(- -sq .r d('ll

r l6!,.t,.!(,v, JAo,j' tli, n,l44,

- atP. l. a) LlP, L a) /- i
dhqr ! 4q <, rhereforc. '(e
= tLiii ,irrd- IrMl-mir
< . t_ \q+lr I
^.,
4 0(6r- olo r+, 'lola - o r+:n
^.: ir x(o) rLisrcDPrd6 dtr
'd

n+ 11. nl !l cJrL. Fl !r h!

nd" /l /. ,,
l.,Ll,
"{ Ld
rlr /. !( o) q h,blsd n 0 <. <6,rh$ lrn(a)@Llcledoi
. bt. *d jj /d"= j,'ra"+ d r1"
id. J I voi. bl tr i, ,o

L.r rI I i !( oL)atrd J.i(or' ihs I f,Rl o! + o, u'i

I tt\q+.t= l: t dq+ l: t14:
o'o
"4 hr/ " d -
't

Prcd : G) La . > o e Bnr! sE! /i . n( a) {i ,r t !( q) u F,bl,

trtP.t nt LlP, ,, o) < t, i Ltv or dE th@fti .'6 L{

P- nuPr rhu 6r.hs.m (!)
llP r,. ar t(P, n ol <; (&)
-P,. :

(t)
P\P n.q+ nl" t,a)l lr(P.n,a)+r(PJr,')l<'
!r) : I J +)n\
p r,Lrr+ u l,lil
'Pl a 'L\d I
r! ol : ,(P l o)+ ul?, ,2, o) 0o)
'rh8. L! l!1. f0hN u(P L+ /" t) - LlP. J,+ i" a) t'
rholfl56u,pliBs{ r+ r,. n(a)olrLl
trtP. t\ a) < t: nda++. a\P, t
lj(r+ irdo : ,(P, n+ ri, a) s i /,d.- f, r.,.+. rrr)
s@r{'1 13) 3od (r0) mprJ iria'

I: I: rd" ,. An+
^d"+
sh( . >0nsb raol ll1) ud 0,

r.= 0ira.n=0.xtorsd c I n do=

rhGoror6rp rd(a)
l:.n r"-o rr" >o,d- br ./jlr)=. hr I {11
iLp .lL(r)=. p nG)i

i/Ir,, .lL, o) = .u(P, n, a)sd ,lP, . r' ol: c.(e ,' ol

rhrtu (&) impri6 d'i ,(P . n o) I(P, c rr, or < + $ thd
./ i rl o),dd .Ld cn ao= c I n do.
rI. < o. th!! u(e . i o) = +..1P, n. .) l,i r(P, t a) =
.utp \, a), utp, c t\ ol - .(P .. n, a) < ud &s
. n ! i( o) oi 1a.,. Dd .Il d = ..fl r, d =r.
rit p,.{' c)
"n " "

(rl cio rh n : ll, , r i( o) dL Lr,rl rEtr io&l

n r n( o), dd
D riiior1r0,r,..,,Jorla,Dl ,4I . ,, ILl,) J , ,'!!.,,Llx)
&d i(c n, o) < .1P. /, a), "d trm! ,:n ri ! l nd o.rrd
rL{ by6d(056,$eE rPd bn fdh,6l$d Lr

h . urLl 1r3) idds

. bdurss
hr Pj= P.L,clud Pr= ?.l..rl rio PL;rrlriboofhll
ard I1r t d @dh! of lc rrl lIorotr, ,(r, i, a) .i4, r, (] :
rJlP i. a) ,1r, /, a) tu i = L. rhus, r,i 031, \r 6 L'i4. i tl
1,14. Iol < rrorl=12Hor.,br t,er i6, rtn(o)ou

l.!l {d d{ h,bl ibder u lP, t. a) = ulP'. t. a) + ulL. J. a)

6d Ln'l.o)= Lt.A. !. o)+ LtPl, J, a).11r.$crt shPrv dri

cio,ii r.!(,)dF,bl8d lG) irtrllol'l Ld P=

(dl i

l4.Ji. , x,l &aFrirbnofF,bl re0 ir i 4: i4 I 11

Hoe Mlaol- oG)t= M i A
", :i -, a d . 4P, r. "r :
< i r,a",: v i 4., = ,t"t)- "G)l'r6"

/" /d" :
!r'dr 'L'
(.) .r4 r.i(onud /!E(o'@La'Ll rk!. br uv.dtibr
(hd
Pd Labj @ hM, u1!, /, oL + ar) = ulr, /, I )+ L(r1 I. o, qnr
,1P,I a, + o' = r(P,l, oL)+,lP i o, It!rc. rE& nac iu'
r.nlq+ o)oilibldi.i: r4d,+ a)=.tr i,q+ I rdq

rh{ tor u! Dninbi Pd!bl,,aLxt

utPlca)=.ulP.ra)3\t

Hr{ re 4rrrir. lLar J.,e(. o) o li,ri ad ll Iri,o) =! I rao

rh$ren 5.f ,II lr r(4 d ,.i(o) or h,bl,6!l

(b) I .i(o)sd .f rd. :.il l.r d"

Prcor,cilorL* I!niu)snd er!(o)oilaLl tr.'thb i1'l= I
b d€ i I {! a! @(rde thd l?. i(o)
'h.oren
re€bE,btudoasiu(n li+,)1-(/,rr-rL(i(or
a.d I cl rLi p&Qs (r)
o r €(
trQhh d(/)= 11 h dr ih@rei 5 n' w! e! @ trd!s
rLtslo) choG..: +1&ih" c.Ilida
!: l,t.)= . l: l'1a= Il.ldo: L'Ll ! a, ir Nitrsirc
 r 4<3< /s6u'ddoh6l,rtr@ ircN*
h,
(r ,,ih I /do= r(,

Prcof, Ld P=i4,!, . i') &sr lrttDo

'LiLl
r.Prhq i + r dY h 5r
'=
!,
^q=od ili od
ar = r ard borc ,la i, a) = r' = riL
^ 'lP, 'r
14 r Ilrad nL + I(4$
_
rhL, of@utu pr4E illi I t n( o) oi La,bloi l.! r / o
 t c"r(!,,) L <
"i ", rr",rr :r i

.r,r = i .rt, .,r-u*t,r=,i,

i5D *M* rd",= g a L'ra
I t
J.'"?dqt< Mlqor qk)l
!:", ." o < rr.,,er $ 4prv i

l" t"'= l. tt". l.

I ttv ,
r"= ,N,) =t I tda I l '^,
sh* {l) G rr "h* i* -pi&. r + r.bv
reer-f !h0tbv x+1 x+,, so,o
i rL.ir /. sE!. r s{,'rurY
t . ,G,l riE oi prd$ ur oor

Ld J re a boum€d err ui&d fundiotr on la bL rln J'

qiy n r o t i h r,* 6q , da= d ,(.) " G) /
.i.L "'
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!={'o q ' !}oIh'61$d

ttP. o) L\P .i) < ' 1io

|rl4 ! r,ilLdrh* A4=

Eb
oc,) - o(1r-,) : . (,)(4 r.-r)
: jt, ror ot'I I rh@ro 5 ?
^'i,

i r;r,r ;trtla, . ' o?)

*;; ,,.r' ,,,,rr' LrG)1 rlu !7),

"= ."*<! 'r

I rt",ta", :i=, rl't;t"lr"t

i
= tE, rr!io r,)ar _ t / t)ollr^1 <
r i l;(r) -

M.+ rLs oL\ o' : '

^.tuud{. t /ts,)ao : '

i !.^., . /P
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lL\Plo\ DPlo <.

Aeh (rsl rmpli6, 6req 4!1,,', ihd'(P. l, i) = tl=, n ^ or <
1,

i i(,,t,r", < v.* i rt"t;ls.)AquLdtr q'(cr'o)'

'ii .* i ;r s'.'r"',, ti'j ,-+" " '(P, I
t) ! ii '+ r' o)
'{P'
"rr

I 'J.I P IO
L\P
(20 * lrs fw
sba 06) .@ Ioe 6f{ Ei*msr oI P, Oe) ud
(re) rd (20 iEp\' roloti€lv thrt
Ior *a leildEi dI P rhodor

r' da t: I ar
-

r: ,, o'..d. _
, * r: rd.= I l' o .d rd 'i
ahs r f n( oi if od otrv lo!E@labl'odhstldcaeb*
I: J,t"= l: rtitdt'),t.
rh@reE ( chss. orw bk)
'
'fn a irtdY hcd's
Suppc. d N
!r A B! qh llbl sq 6.
r. D ".!, " ! D$, o eq o0lA'61 '

il dl,)lrh! a. i( r) ed
Prcd,fu,.1. itlP la
p{iiiion a=ih,. ,"ldld,Bl dihei=d(}l sh(dt

rr$p /i, o lr, ,, ..14u*ap ,(, @ 1,.-1. ,i &qse { G

rh{.f.e, $r hsE rl( A,,,r,) = ,(P, I o) s{r(o e,!):,(P,i aj

ito"

rrs I . !(a) d la.bli ed drv iI efi(r)s lA Bl, mn u dr.sc

, ,i',,8

I: tt,)d= I: rdP= l: sdr' t r(d(lrc1r)dr lrs rcisr

l"' ,ko)t d (!l d! = L' Jc) c,
$]u 4= d(!) atrd ,= d(r)

ah@!@ 5.rc, Ld /. nohbl [or o < i : d, dcriB

x(") = .1"' lt) 11

rL4 . tr odhD6 d ls,L! i i, L.nqe, r /n@(isra{@

adF,bl s{ ,rdtneE ir! xo, d r(J,= ,1,!)
Proori suPFe rld) srv,hla,bl r.o<,<,:r,
s4 rlrr rr) i= f .,(4a < M(! r).Lyrto@ 5t: tr
,,J (rr aL{, ror 6ior . > 0, v. rurc .(r) rl,) < .. rnrE\lr
! I < i: sd r, ,4d,.1 rLhlr
ddItr .itu6 hlryd rql!,Ll
lh@ h&E a
Jt) il5q) <.i.!q!r

,r!l:+ ni) l- tq! llln!) r(q)le

1
-! ll rl,) n&) d

rris pole ihd 11,o)= /(,0)

rh@Eo 5.r : Lrh r@&Eshr iborln o, mL.isl

rr r!Fql&bl' i.rtr4!L!lLit!rc ndeluEih I.il.!tr irr
. r, d@ .I^' r(.) e =
= i0)
.(o)
PEdi Ld t > 0 be 3L*n sLD /.
r=14. 1! .'"ldhblslhd
B! th€ nern nalE ti! an, thaE {s [o
r(
",) .( ,i n = r"( irl ri I,-Ll
t r( .,) 1 r( - .( r, Jl = rrd) .Gl. rhle
I = tt '.)
roE. rry rlorcn 57 (.), E hw Ft.6) Flc4 J: !ti) d! =

l rl, )^. - l,'./kr4l < .

1." n, e= .(i) rk),

"iii -,rd* m. P-d

rr@o 5.22 : (hisrbtr by pads)

MbNo la,bl i= r.P ed

J"' .kr ,(4 & : .(i) col fk) 6(r) - .tl l, c(!) a.

J:rtJ) dli) = .G) c1.) + f(,) ck)

= FA)rO)+
Itde'LylMpuiosihems',1,wh't
^4eA)
,'0r c(!) .c) l?G) = l*.G)dk)da
= J: Ft.") ,t.4 b + t c@ k.
^,)

DenniiiDn r.r3 : rd i, L, .. ) Ir b, bouft d reel rlwd tumiom o

la,bl ddret /=(n,r,, ,l, b ihe d6pddL4 ma Edla,bl
rb d Ld a 6e ! eodooerLv bcE$rs luodb\ or l{ hl *$t d!'
I t r(a) n.n(ol 6erry r=L
): !r,=t 1, ldo t. t da

fleorcm524, ( r5.d , oql3.blhs rr, I. !@ E'l.adn

b lsbhlei d6fn i $ irlb E(d

tr J riF l.lil b lLd ir I

^t th&
sus rundo oqh.bl I

tt, t tu aho I1= (./j +

.,s( o I hlouE ofiL! @tbun, d

5u rhN I .!toto14,6l
, =l.irod!=1rh !err =tido

!.= ]Lil=Lt,t lt,=t:tLt ll/,3- P\ sae

'"" " ''"Itr ! 't b

L']-l"'L/r,r..,t: tt l"t ""

t ,,,
, ,.8 l

tr 1lot = 10t, ri!.ikd&dcd

.. r ro.A'",.1... do 0..a.. -,.,0 I

ilP1)= t r(!,) r(a, n odwddE

., "o.ol
tr r(1) < -,.LaLe$x'hd 1*rcciddEod !NDer
^(,
i(elna Ert,q itul 1(q), ..nd,il,o,r(&!!!.rr4dd
iltr DoLl[orarotrs tr 1] so, oI!
^(C
ri {irr $.!ch.@6u@tMt i

' ao.' o'd,,oL b

,r( ',) i,, ,) L= LIi:, i(llir : l"l, rl') a''i'i'*

t'
rll\ lLPn: fl r(t) I dI r tE i, ,r Fd ioE P lYlor '{ ck

0b!si$ shc ? k uLidDrv

(ne@s.iLrq,es.dts., >! tu'h th!' liG)-1'(t)l< '
i JLq P=t bl

! r' P[^!
i Tto {or
' L< i
tr i.r 11r) L < . s ths' t(1) i i( 4) L+ . Hor!
Ij f(,) & -< l;:,lr7G,l +,l
= .1.'',1t(rt+rG,) ?(i)l& +.i''
i -r,'.:,7(t) d + l;-Lt1G,) 1(')la
1+ ' a ir

i nr.l - ltri ,) l+ L:" t(rt)-l(tl /l+taI'

< .h,r r(r,,i) + . r q + . 4 & =
1 r(rJ 11r'_r) +trr'