Solar

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In today’s era, energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds of work
of human beings and nature. Everything what happens in the world is the expression of
the flow of energy in one of its forms. Solar energy is considered a suitable alternative
for a variety of applications. It is an abundant renewable resource, freely available
everywhere in adequate amounts, making it one of the most promising, clean, non-
pollution sources. As per a research on solar energy, sun gives 1000 times more energy
than what we consume in the whole year. The earth receives on an average 5331kW/m2
per day of solar radiations, making solar energy the most abundant natural resource in
the area. Solar energy devices hold a large potential for use in a variety of applications
in developing countries. Presently a number of solar energy devices like solar dryer,
solar cooker, solar water heater, solar distillation, solar photovoltaic pumps and solar
photovoltaic lighting etc. systems are being commercialized worldwide. From this the
idea of using solar energy is born.
Solar drying offers an effective method of utilizing solar energy for meeting a
considerable demand for drying energy and hence, protecting the environment.
Preservation of fruits, vegetables, and food are essential for keeping them for a long
time without further deterioration in the quality of the product. Several process
technologies have been employed on an industrial scale to preserve food products,
drying is especially suited for developing countries with poorly established low
temperature and thermal processing facilities. It offers a highly effective and practical
means of preservation to reduce postharvest losses. Drying is a simple process of
moisture removal from a product in order to reach the desired moisture content and is
an energy intensive operation. The prime objective of drying apart from extended
storage life can also be quality enhancement, ease of handling, further processing and
sanitation and is probably the oldest method of food preservation.
Solar energy is available only during the day; its application requires efficient thermal
energy storage so that the excess heat collected during sunshine hours may be stored
for later use during the night. Energy storage is defined as the temporary holding of
energy in the form of hot substances for later utilization. Energy storage plays important
N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 1
role in conserving available energy and improving its utilization i.e. stabilizing demand
side energy. Storage of solar energy is important for the future success of solar energy
utilization.
The major problem is the selection of materials having suitable thermo physical
characteristics in which solar energy in the form of heat can be stored. In sensible heat
storage, thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of a solid or liquid by using
its heat capacity. The sensible heat storage system utilizes the heat capacity and the
change in temperature of the material during the process of charging and discharging.
Phase change materials (PCM) are latent heat storage materials. The thermal energy
transfer occurs when a material changes from solid to liquid, or liquid to solid. This is
called a change in state, or phase. Initially, these solid–liquid PCMs perform like
conventional storage materials; their temperature rises as they absorb heat. Unlike
conventional (sensible) storage materials, PCM absorbs and release heat at a nearly
constant temperature. They store 5–14 times more heat per unit volume than sensible
storage materials. The amount of heat stored depends on the specific heat of the
medium, the temperature change and the amount of storage material. The main
intention behind building a solar dryer is to help the local environment and stop
deforestation. Previously designed solar dryers unable to store heat for later use and
could only be used between the hours of 10 am to 4 pm, peak sun hours. The goal of a
system is to store energy that allows dry food products after sunset. Drying with solar
dryers is an energy efficient, pollution-free way to help fight global warming and take
advantage of nature's free, inexhaustible energy supply and we have to use it very neatly
and in a large manner.
1.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF SOLAR DRYER

The drying means removing the moisture and water vapors contents in the product.
Earlier were drying the food in the sense of keeping the food in a plate or on a ground
i.e. the open drying system. Open sun drying is the most commonly used methods to
preserve agricultural Products like grains, fruits and vegetables in place second most
developing countries. Such drying under hostile climate conditions leads to severe
losses in the quantity and quality of the dried. These losses related to contamination by
dirt, dust and infestation by insects, rodents and animals. Therefore, the introduction of
solar dryers in developing countries can reduce crop losses; improve the quality of the
dried product significantly when compared to the traditional methods of drying, such
as sun or shade drying. Solar drying methods are usually classified into four products
and categories according to the mechanism by which the energy, used to remove
moisture, is transferred to the product. Dryers have been developed and used to dry
agricultural products in order to improve shelf life.
Solar dryers are specialized devices that control the drying process and protect
agricultural produce from damage by insect, pets, dust and rain. In comparison to
natural “Sun drying” solar dryers generate higher temperatures, lower relative
humidity, lower moisture content in product and reduced spoilage during the drying
process. In addition, it takes less space, takes less time and relatively inexpensive
compared to artificial drying method. Thus, solar drying is a better alternative solution
to all the drawbacks of natural drying and artificial drying.
1.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Solapur city receives solar energy which is far more than the total energy consumption
of the district. Solapur city is one of the few locations with long days and plenty of
sunshine amongst the other locations in Maharashtra. Solapur’s latitude angle is 17oN
and longitude angle is 75oE and solar radiations are an average 670 W/m2. This zone,
having abundant solar energy available, is suitable for harnessing solar energy for a
number of applications. In areas with similar intensity of solar radiation, solar energy
could be easily harnessed. Food crops are usually for immediate consumption needs,
resulting in wastage of food surpluses during the short harvest periods and scarcity
during post harvest periods. Drying is one of the methods used to preserve food
products for longer periods. It has been established as the most efficient preservation
technique for most tropical crops. Conventional type solar dryers are already available
in the market, but still it is not very famous to use in day to day life. The problem is that
it required a large drying time and it can work only in the presence of solar radiation,
but our normal solar drying schedule is between 10 am to 4 pm, so these solar dryers
cannot be used for drying in the evening time. In spite of the existing one, studied them
well and designed one new type of solar dryer which can work in both that is during
day and after sunset, also it requires less drying time as compared to existing solar dryer.

The drying is also done by open sun solar drying but the problems with open sun solar
drying as, the open sun solar drying is not much efficient, the products obtained are
not that much dried and that much quality products are getting, time required for drying
is maximum, rate of drying obtained is very less also not protected from rain, insects,
birds etc. There are very few solar dryers like indirect type solar dryers who can store
the solar energy and this stored energy can be utilized after the sunset.
1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

As per the present market condition, there are few solar dryers which can be used after
the sunset. This project presents the design, construction and performance of a solar
dryer for food preservation. In the dryer, the heated air from a separate solar air heater
(collector) is passed through a grain bed (trays) and at the same time the drying cabinet
absorbs solar energy directly through the transparent roof. The reflector used because
it gives additional input to the solar dryer system. This solar dryer system designed for
drying grapes because it is having higher moisture content and 2000 gm of grapes is
taken for drying purpose, for that the minimum area of solar collector required is 0.5
m2 area and nearly 11 hours are required as per calculations. Other products are also
dried such as spinach, potato, onion and chili. The phase change material TONO therm
M-65 is used for storing the solar energy and life of this material is 200000 cycles, cycle
means from solid to liquid conversion and liquid to solid conversion this is one cycle.
The dryer exhibited sufficient ability to dry food items reasonably rapidly to a safe
moisture level and simultaneously it ensures a superior quality of the dried product. The
results obtained during the test period revealed that the temperatures inside the dryer
and solar collector were much higher than the ambient temperature during most hours
of the daylight.
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

The present work aims that, “Analysis of solar dryer by using energy storing material”.
There are several researchers working on energy conservation and energy efficiency.
As per the present market condition, there are few solar dryers which can be used after
the sunset. So the solar energy can be stored with the help of energy storing material
and this stored energy can be used after the sunset. The main aim is to predict the
performance of solar dryer by using energy storing material.

1.5.1 Proposed Work
The main aim of the dissertation is to predict the performance of solar dryer by using
energy storing material.
Literature Review
The literature related to solar dryer systems and energy storing material, design and
fabrication will be considered for the review. Literature related to innovations and new
technologies in the solar dryer systems will also be considered. Based on review of
literature the research gap will be identified and conclusion will be made about the
scope of the work.
Study of Solar Dryer

The study related to the different solar dryer system such as a direct solar dryer system,
indirect solar dryer system and mixed mode solar dryer system, natural convection
(passive) solar dryer system and forced convection (active) solar dryer system, again
the detail study of components such as solar collector, drying chamber, air inlet and
outlet system etc.
Design of Solar Dryer

The solar dryer system is designed such a way that it is a little bit different and newer
than the presently available in the world.
Fabrication of Solar Dryer

Fabrication of a solar dryer system is done locally by using the available materials,
which is having good corrosive resistance and good strength.
Analysis of Solar Dryer

Analysis of a solar dryer system is done by varying velocity of air and used different
food products such as spinach, potato, onion, chili and grapes.
Analysis of Flat Plate Collector

The analysis of flat plate collector is done by using computational fluid dynamics
software to validate the observations of air velocity and air temperature. In this two sub
software’s are there gambit and fluent.

Results and Discussion
Testing of a solar dryer system is done by with and without energy storing material and
natural and forced convection.
1.6 WORK ACTIVITY PLAN
SR. NO. ACTIVITY DURATION

1 Literature review July – September 2014
2 Study of solar dryer systems October – November 2014
3 Design of solar dryer December 2014
4 Collecting the raw materials January 2015
5 Fabrication of solar dryer February 2015
6 Testing, result and discussion March 2015
7 Analysis April 2015
8 Documentation and report writing May 2015
1.7 OUTLINE OF DISSERTATION

This dissertation consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 is introduction to solar energy;
solar dryer and energy storing material, in this discussed about the history of solar
drying, objectives, problem identification, the scope of the project and the work activity
plan. Chapter 2 is a literature review, where in this opinion and a different finding of
various researchers is discussed in this work. Chapter 3 includes the theoretical
background of solar dryer, energy storing material and design of solar dryer. Chapter 4
includes experimental set-up and discussed the functions, size, material selection and
manufacturing process of all components. Chapter 5 deals with the testing, results, and
analysis of solar dryer in this the tests were carried out on different food samples at
different atmospheric conditions, at different air flow rate, with and without energy
storing material also the analysis of flat plate collector by using CFD is done. Chapter
6 is the overall conclusion of the project and discussed about the future scope in that
discussed what will be the future arrangements to modify this project. References in
that listed all the references which are directly or indirectly used for this project. There
are total six annexures those are supporting and most useful documents for this project
work like international paper publications through this project work, meteorological
data, list of PCMs, drying samples information, visit report and calculations.
1.8 SUMMARY

In this chapter there is an introduction about a solar energy, solar dryer and energy
storing material. One of the applications of solar energy is solar dryer and solar energy
can be stored in the energy storing material like sensible heat storing material and latent
heat storing materials also discussed. The historical review is summarized, from this
summarized data come, this project has chosen; to complete this task the planning has
done also the scope behind this project is discussed. Finally the outline of this
dissertation report is discussed.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Many papers have been published in the area of solar energy, solar dryer and energy
storing materials. The literature related to solar dryer systems and energy storing
material, design and fabrication is considered for the review. Literature related to
innovations and new technologies in the solar dryer systems also considered. The
scientists from different countries have presented their thesis and the papers about the
solar dryer, energy storing materials and their results and conclusions of those papers
are reviewed and discussed below.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Amedorme S. K. et al. [1] They have designed and constructed the indirect forced
convention solar crop dyer for drying moringa leaves. They have constructed a dryer
by using locally available materials. They have taken a batch of moringa leaves 2 kg by
mass, having an initial moisture content of 80 % from which 1.556 kg of water is
required to be removed to have it dried to a desired moisture content of 10 %. Initially
they assumed drying time of 24-30 hours for the anticipated test location Kumasi with
latitude angle of 6.7oN they expected an average solar intensity of 320 W/m2 and
ambient conditions of 25oC and 77 % relative humidity. According to their design a
minimum of 0.62 m2 of solar collection area is required for drying efficiency of 25%.
Ogheneruona D. E. and Yusuf O. L. [2] They have designed and fabricated the direct
natural convection solar dryer to dry tapioca in rural areas. They have taken 7.56 m2
area of solar collector to dry a batch of 100 kg tapioca in 20 hours (two days drying
period). The initial and final moisture content considered were 79 % and 10 %
respectively. The solar radiation incident they got 13 MJ/m2/day.
Bolaji B. O. et al. [3] They have designed, constructed and tested the solar wind
ventilated cabinet dryer in Nigeria on latitude 7.5oN. They observed that drying with
the solar cabinet dryer showed better results than open air-drying. During the period of
testing, they got an average air velocity through the solar dryer was 1.62 m/s. They
found maximum drying air temperatures was 64 0C inside the dryer.
Gaeta A. A. [4] He had designed and analyzed a cylindrical section solar drying system.
His system consists of a solar flat plate collector with area of 1.21 m2 and he designed
for the purpose of drying 70 kg of bean crop. He had tested performance of the solar air
collector using three air flow rates. While testing he observed solar radiation intensity
of 750 W/m² and air flow rate of 2.43 kg/hr. He got an maximum value of average
thermal efficiency was 25.64 % of the solar air collector obtained at an air flow rate of
4.05 kg/hr, and minimum average thermal efficiency is 18.63 % at air flow rate of 2.43
kg/hr. At the time of testing the initial moisture content of beans was 70 % and final
moisture content was 14% when the air flow rate of 2.43 kg/hr.
Mohanraj M. and Chandrasekar P. [5] They have designed; fabricated and
investigated an indirect forced convection solar dryer integrated with heat storage
material was for drying chili. The dryer with heat storage material enables to maintain
consistent air temperature inside the dryer. They dried chili from initial moisture
content of 72.8 % to the final moisture content about 9.2 % and 9.7 % in the bottom
and the top trays respectively. They concluded that, forced convection solar dryer is
more suitable for producing high quality dried chili and the inclusion of heat storage
material increases the drying time by about 4 hours per day.
Forson F. K. et al. [6] They have designed a mixed-mode natural convection solar crop
dryer for drying cassava and other crops. They have taken a batch of cassava 160 kg by
mass, having an initial moisture content of 67 % wet basis from which 100 kg of water
is required to be removed to have final moisture content of 17 % wet basis. Initially
they assumed drying time of 30–36 hours with an expected average solar radiance of
400W/m2 and ambient conditions of 25.1oC and 77.8 % relative humidity. After their
test they concluded that, minimum of 42.4 m2 of solar collector area, according to the
design, is required for an expected drying efficiency of 12.5 % with solar irradiance of
340.4 W/m2, drying time of 35.5 hours was realized and the drying efficiency was
evaluated as 12.3 %.
Paul B. and Singh S. [7] They have designed and developed a laboratory scale forced
convection mirror booster based solar dryer was for drying red chili under the climatic
condition of Malwa region , Indore having latitude angle of 22.44°N and longitude
angle of 75.5°E which is located in Madhya Pradesh, India. This solar dryer consists of
a box type absorber and drying chamber enclosed with glass cover, fitted with one fan
operated by a photovoltaic module. The north face of the dryer was kept insulated, and
having door to load and unload material in trays. They got experimental results that the
reduction of drying time of chilies was nearly 83 % in comparison to open sun drying
and the average time required to dry 1.5 kg chilies from moisture content of 89.09% to
4.36% on wet basis was observed as 16 hours.
Sharma A. et al. [8] Their work summarizes that the investigation and analysis of the
available thermal energy storage systems incorporating PCMs for use in different
applications. From this work they concluded that the use of a latent heat storage system
using PCMs is an effective way of storing thermal energy and has the advantages of
high-energy storage density. PCMs have been widely used in latent heat thermal storage
systems for solar engineering applications. There are large numbers of PCMs that melt
and solidify at a wide range of temperatures, making them attractive in a number of
applications.
Ayyappan S. [9] He developed a natural convection solar tunnel dryer integrated with
sensible heat storage material to test its performance for copra drying. He carried out
experiments with and without the integration of heat storage materials. He used sand as
the heat storage material in the solar tunnel dryer. He observed that the dryer reduced
the moisture content of copra from 52 % to 7.2 % in 52 hours and 78 hours respectively
with and without the heat storage material. He also tested the same product and same
quantity with open sun drying; he found that the moisture content reduced from 52.3 %
to about 7.8 % in 172 hours. He estimated an average solar tunnel dryer thermal
efficiency was 18 % in both the drying modes.
Shalaby S. M. and Sebaii S. A. [10] This is the review paper on solar drying of
agricultural product, in this they concluded that one of the most important potential
applications of solar energy is the solar drying of agricultural products. Losses of fruits
and vegetables during their drying in developing countries are estimated to be 30–40%
of production. Among the different types of solar dryers, the indirect mode forced
convection solar dryer has been demonstrate to be superior in the speed and quality of
drying. Since the solar air heater is the most important component of the indirect solar
drying system, improvement of the solar air heater would led to better performance of
the drying system. Incorporating of sensible and/or latent heat storage media within the
solar drying systems accelerate the drying process during the night time and low
intensity solar radiation periods and exclude the need for using auxiliary heat sources
during low solar radiation seasons. The latent storage media is preferable compared to
the sensible store media to achieve nearly constant drying air temperature during the
drying process. However, the phase change materials should be investigated in view of
their chemical stability and compatibility with the containing materials before their
integration within the drying system.

Pardhi C. B. and Bagoria J. L. [11] This paper describes the development of dryer
considerations followed by the results of experiments to compare the performance of
the smooth and the roughed plate collector. They have concluded that, based on the
preliminary investigations under controlled condition of drying experiments, a mixed-
mode solar dryer with forced convection using smooth and rough plate solar collector
was constructed. The thermal performance of solar collector was found to be poorer
because of low convective heat transfer from the absorber plate to air. The maximum
air temperature in the dryer, under this condition, was 64.1°C. The dryer was loaded
with 3 kg of grapes having an initial moisture content of 81.4%, and the final desired
moisture content of 18.6% was achieved within 4 days while it was 8 days for open sun
drying. This prototype dryer was designed and constructed to have a maximum
collector area of 1.03 m2.
Joshua F. [12] This is a project on design, construction and testing of a simple solar
maize dryer. It is design in such a way that solar radiation is not incident directly on the
maize, but preheated air warmed during its flow through a low pressure thermos phonic
solar energy air heater or collector made up of an insulating material (polystyrene) of
size 100mm x 50mm x 25.4mm, absorber plate as aluminium sheet painted black of
size 100mm x 50mm and a cover glass of 5 mm thickness measuring 100mm x 50mm
all arranged in this order contributed to the heating. The test results gave temperature
above 45oC in the drying chamber, and the moisture content of 50 kg of maize reduced
to about 12.5 % in three days of 9 hours each day of drying.
Cengiz Y. and Cakmak G. [13] In this study of solar energy supported, swirling flow
new drying system is designed and artificial drying of grapes grown around Turkey is
investigated. With the developed swirling flow dryer with airy solar collector it is
examined that drying occurs homogenously and lower moisture values are obtained in
when compared with classical drying system. Also it is found that with an increase in
the drying air velocity decreases drying time. When air directing elements are placed
inside drying chamber and rotating element to the entrance, it is examined that drying
time gets shorter compared to that of natural drying. Thus,
drying time which is 200 h in natural conditions decrease to 80 h with an air velocity
of 1.5 m/s with the developed solar energy supported swirling flow dryer.
Farid M. M. et al. [14] This paper reviews previous work on latent heat storage and
provides an insight to recent efforts to develop new classes of phase change materials
(PCMs) for use in energy storage. Latent heat storage is one of the most efficient ways
of storing thermal energy. Unlike the sensible heat storage method, the latent heat
storage method provides much higher storage density, with a smaller temperature
difference between storing and releasing heat. Paraffin waxes are cheap and have
moderate thermal energy storage density but low thermal conductivity and, hence,
require large surface area. Hydrated salts have larger energy storage density and higher
thermal conductivity but experience super cooling and phase segregation, and hence,
their application requires the use of some nucleating and thickening agents. The main
advantages of PCM encapsulation are providing large heat transfer area, reduction of
the PCMs reactivity towards the outside environment and controlling the changes in
volume of the storage materials as phase change occurs. The different applications in
which the phase change method of heat storage can be applied are also reviewed in this
paper.
2.3 SUMMARY
In this chapter, the history of solar dryer, energy storing materials and the evolution of
solar dryer were already invented at that time and also they were used very well. Based
on a review of the literature research gap is identified and conclusion made about the
scope of the work. As time passed the evolution made, the concept got spread all over
the world and originated from different countries and also made some terrific
improvements in the solar dryer. The combination of solar dryer and the latent heat
storing materials (PCMs) is very rare because the handling of PCM itself is a major task
and the cost of PCM is higher than the sensible heat storing materials. Finally from this
literature review come to know that no one used the TONO therm M-64 PCM. The
importance of using this particular PCM, it is having more energy storing capacity and
life of this PCM than other latent heat storing materials.

CHAPTER THREE
THORY AND DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, explained about the theoretical background of solar dryer, energy
storing materials and detailed design of the indirect type solar dryer. Based on basic
principles deciding each and every component, materials for solar dryer and energy
storing material also discussed the overall system in detail.
3.2 SOLAR DRYER

All varieties of foods in our day to day life needs some way of preservation; mainly to
reduce or stop spoilage, to make it available throughout a year, to maintain desired
levels of nutritional properties for the longest possible time span and to make value
added products. Amongst these, spoilage is the foremost reason for employing food
preservation techniques. Spoilage or deterioration of food occurs during handling or
due to mechanical, physical, chemical or microbial damage. Out of these, chemical and
microbial damages are the most frequent causes. Microbial growth depends on the
storage conditions and the moisture level in the product. Different micro-organisms
have different growth rates depending on the conditions. Commonly employed methods
for food preservation are, freezing, vacuum packing, canning, preserving in syrup, food
irradiation, adding preservatives and most popular dehydration or drying. One of the
biggest advantages of dried foods is that they take much less storage space than canned
or frozen foods.
Drying is one of the most cost-effective ways of preserving foods of all varieties which
involves removal of water by the application of heat. A variety of food sub-types are
pre-served using drying, such as marine products, meat products as well as all fruits and
vegetables. The pre and post processing steps are very important to reduce the drying
load as well as to make better quality products. Various pre-processing steps such as
osmotic dehydration, blanching, salting, soaking are used depending on the food variety
to be dried. Whereas post-processing such as coating, packaging also has a great
importance after drying of food products.
It is very important to understand basic concepts of drying before heading to the de-
tailed study of this complex phenomenon of heat, mass and momentum transfer. This
chapter mainly discusses the basic terms used in the field of drying. It is useful to note
the following unique features of drying which make it a fascinating and challenging
area for research and development, not just for food sectors but also for other
applications:
i) Product size may range from microns to tens of centimeters (in thickness or
depth)
ii) Product porosity may range from zero to 99.9 percent
iii) Drying times range from 0.25 sec (drying of tissue paper) to five months (for
certain hardwood species)
iv) Production capacities may range from 0.10 kg/hours to 100 ton/hours
v) Drying temperatures range from below the triple point to above the critical point
of the liquid
vi) Heat may be transferred continuously or intermittently by convection,
conduction, radiation
“Sun drying” is the earliest method of drying farm produce ever known to man and it
involves simply laying the agricultural products in the sun on mats, roofs or drying
floors. Open sun drying is the most commonly used methods to preserve agricultural
products like grains, fruits and vegetables in place second most developing countries.
Such drying under hostile climate conditions leads to severe losses in the quantity and
quality of the dried. These losses related to contamination by dirt, dust and infestation
by insects and animals. Therefore, the introduction of solar dryers in developing
countries can reduce crop losses; improve the quality of the dried product significantly
when compared to the traditional methods of drying.
Drying is defined as, a process of moisture removal from the substance (material or
product) due to simultaneous heat and mass transfer. Drying is an excellent way to
preserve food and solar food dryers are appropriate food preservation technology for
sustainable development. Drying was probably the first ever food preserving method
used by man, even before cooking. It involves the removal of moisture from agricultural
produce so as to provide a product that can be safely stored for a longer period of time.
The removal of moisture prevents the growth and reproduction of microorganisms like
bacteria, yeast and minimizes many of the moisture-mediated deteriorative reactions. It
brings about a substantial reduction in weight and volume, minimizing packing,
storage, and transportation costs and enables stability of the product under ambient
temperatures. These features are especially important for developing countries, in
military feeding and space food formulations.
Due to the current trends towards higher cost of fossil fuels and uncertainty regarding
future cost and availability, use of solar energy in food processing will probably
increase and become more economically feasible in the near future. Moreover, may be
useful as a means of heating air for artificial dryers to reduce fuel costs. Solar food
drying can be used in most areas, but how quickly the food dries are affected by many
variables, especially the amount of sunlight, temperature, air mass flow rate and relative
humidity. Typical drying times in solar dryers range from 1 to 5 days depending on sun,
air movement, humidity and the type of food to be dried. The dryer reduces the drying
time, protects from rain, dust, insects, birds, etc dryer gives better quality of dried
products though this better market price will obtain. The dried products are weighed
nearly 1/4 to 1/9 times of fresh product so it reduces the area of storing place, travelling
charges etc. most important thing about solar dryer it is absolutely safe technology, no
running costs and pollution free also it improves bargaining position of farmers and
open a new market.
3.2.1 Applications
There are some following applications of solar dryer as listed below,
Industrial Application
The dried products under this category are used for selling purpose like fish, meat,
raisins, dates, apple chips, coffee, tea etc.
Home Applications
The dried products under this category are used for cooking purpose such as ginger,
garlic, spices, pepper etc.
Medical Applications
The dried products under this category are used in ayurveda and for making medicines
for example neem, tulasi etc.
Other Application
Other applications are drying of vegetables and fruits.
3.2.2 Classification of Solar Dryer

Drying equipment may be classified in several ways. The two most useful
classifications are based on the first method of classification reveals differences in dryer
design and operation, while the second method is most useful in the selection of a group
of dryers for preliminary consideration in a given drying problem.
Figure 3.1 Classifications of Solar Dryer Systems
A classification chart of drying equipment on the basis of heat transfer is shown in
Figure 3.1. This chart classifies dryers as direct or indirect, with subclasses of
continuous or batch wise operation. Solar energy drying systems are classified
primarily according to their heating modes and the manner in which the solar heat is
utilized. In broad terms, they can be classified into two major groups, namely, Passive
solar-energy drying systems (conventionally termed natural-circulation solar drying
systems) and active solar-energy drying systems (most types of which are often termed
hybrid solar dryers).
Direct Dryers
These are also known as convective dryers are by far the most common. About 85
percent of industrial dryers are estimated to be of this type despite their relatively low
thermal efficiency caused by the difficulty in recovering the latent heat of vaporization
contained in the dryer exhaust in a cost-effective manner. Hot air produced by indirect
heating or directs firing is the most common drying medium, although for some special
applications superheated steam has recently been shown to yield higher efficiency and
often higher product quality. In direct dryers, the drying media contacts the material to
be dried directly and supplies the heat required for drying by convection; the evaporated
moisture is carried away from the drying medium.
Figure 3.2 Direct Type Solar Dryer [15]

In direct type dryers, the agricultural product is placed in shallow layers in a blackened
enclosure with a transparent cover. The solar radiations are directly absorbed by the
product itself. The food product is heated up and the moisture from the product
evaporates and goes out by the natural convection/circulation. Figure 3.2 is a pictorial
view of direct type solar dryer; it is a type of dryer in which solar radiation is directly
absorbed by the product to be dried. It is also called as natural convection cabinet dryer
since the solar radiation is directly fall on the product; the quality of the product is

reduced. This dryer comprises of a drying chamber that is covered by a transparent
cover made of glass or plastic. The drying chamber is usually a shallow, insulated box
with air-holes in it to allow air to enter.
Indirect Dryers
These types of dryers involve supplying of heat to the drying material without direct
contact with the heat transfer medium, i.e., heat is transferred from the heat transfer
medium (steam, hot gas, thermal fluids, etc.) to the wet solid by conduction. In these
dryers the food product is placed in a drying chamber. The air is heated in solar air
heaters and then blown through the drying chamber. In some of the designs, dryers
receive direct solar radiations and also heated air from solar air heaters. In these dryers
manipulations of temperature, humidity and drying rate is possible to some extent.
Figure 3.3 Indirect Type Solar Dryer [16]

Figure 3.3 describes the principle of indirect solar drying. The solar radiation gained by
the system is utilized to heat the air which flows through the product to be dried in this
dryer. Heated air is blown through the drying chamber by natural circulation or forced
circulation. If naturally flowed air is circulated in chamber then it is called as natural
convection and if any external media used to blow air then it is called as forced
convection solar dryer system. At the top of drying chamber vents are provided through
which moisture is removed. In the indirect type of solar drying systems a better control
over drying is achieved.

3.2.3 Steps for Drying Food
The following steps are involved in drying of a particular product,
i) Selection: - The product should be fresh and undamaged.
ii) Cleaning: - The product should be washed and disinfected.
iii) Pre-treatment and Preparation: - The product should be peeled, sliced, quench
in salt solution etc.
iv) Drying: - After all the above steps done the product is kept for drying
v) Cooling Down: - Wait till the temperature of dried product comes down to
atmospheric condition.
vi) Packaging: - After drying the product is packed in airtight jars or plastic
containers. And later for selling sealed in plastic bags, plastic freezer bags are
safe and durable. Packaging is required to prevent insect losses and to avoid re-
gaining moisture.
vii) Storage: - After packing the dried food product should keep at dry and dark
places.
3.2.4 Selection of Solar Dryer

The diversity of food products, has introduced many types and combinations of solar
dryers to the food industry. The methods of supplying heat and transporting the
moisture and the drying product are the basic variations between different types of solar
dryers. The following table shows that on which parameter the solar dryer should be
selected, how to select a solar dryer its physical features and thermal performance in
these two parameters are primarily considered, other features are related to drying
product and cost.

Table 3.1 Typical Check List for Preliminary Evaluation and Selection of Dryer
Sr.No. Parameters Features
Physical features of  Type, size and shape
dryer  Collector area
1  Drying capacity, tray area and the number
of trays
 Loading/unloading convenience
Thermal performance  Solar radiation
 Drying time/drying rate
2  Dryer/drying efficiency
 Drying air temperature
 Air flow rate
Properties of the  Physical characteristics (wet/dry)

3 material being handled  Corrosivenes
 Particle size
Drying characteristics  Initial moisture content

4 of the material  Final moisture content (maximum)
 Permissible drying temperature
Flow of material to and  Quantity to be handled
5 from the dryer  Continuous or batch operation
 Process prior to drying
Product qualities  Shrinkage
6  Appearance
 Flavor
Facilities available at  Space
7 the site of installation  Temperature, humidity and clean air
 Exhaust-air outlet
Economics  Cost of dryer
8  Cost of drying
3.3 ENERGY STORING MATERIALS
Energy storage plays an important role in conserving available energy and storage of
solar energy is important for the future success of solar energy utilization. The materials
which can store energy those are known as Energy Storing Materials. Energy can be
stored in the form of sensible heat and latent heat, the material which can store the
sensible heat those materials are known as sensible heat storing materials likewise the
material which can store the latent heat those materials are known as latent heat storing
materials.

The brief classification of thermal storage materials are as follows:
Figure 3.4 Classifications of Thermal Energy Storage Materials [18]
3.3.1 Sensible Heat Storage
The most commonly used methods of thermal energy storage are the sensible heat
method. In this common method is to heat a substance, increasing its temperature,
thereby storing the heat as internal energy within the material. If there is no change of
phase or chemical composition associated with the heating process, then the process is
considered to be one of sensible heat storage. In sensible heat storage, thermal energy
is stored by raising the temperature of a solid or liquid by using its heat capacity. The
sensible heat storage system utilizes the heat capacity and the change in temperature of
the material during the process of charging and discharging. The amount of heat stored
depends on the specific heat of the medium, the temperature change and the amount of
storage material. The sensible heat can be stored in gravel, sand, bricks, rock, different
oils etc. Aside from the heat transfer processes associated with the addition or removal
of heat from the substance, the amount of heat E that can be stored in a sensible heat

storage is directly proportional to the specific heat Cp and mass m of the material and
the temperature range associated with the process ΔT
E  mCpT ……………………………(3.1)
For this reason to increase energy density solids (e.g. rock, concrete, sand, etc.) and
liquids (e.g. Water, glycol, oils, etc.) of high mass and specific heat are usually
considered for sensible heat storage. A high energy density (i.e. Storage capacity per
unit volume) is important as it allows the storage to be compact thereby reducing the
cost of the storage vessel and its installation.
Desirable characteristics of the sensible storage material include the following:
i) High thermal heat capacity
ii) High thermal diffusivity
iii) High density
iv) Reversible heating and cooling
v) Chemical and geometrical stability
vi) Non combustible, non corrosive and non toxic
vii) Low vapor pressure to reduce the cost of containment
3.3.2 Latent Heat Storage Materials

Latent heat storage uses the latent heat of the material to store thermal energy. Latent
heat is the amount of heat absorbed or released during the change of the material from
one phase to another phase. Two types of latent heat are known, latent heat of fusion
and latent heat of vaporization. Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat absorbed or
released when the material changes from the solid phase to the liquid phase or vice
versa, while the latent heat of vaporization is the amount of thermal energy absorbed or
released when the material changes from the liquid phase to the vapor phase or vice
versa. Indeed, latent heat of vaporization is not paying attention for latent thermal
energy storage applications because of the large change in the volume accompanied by
this type of phase change. The latent heat method of storage has attracted a large number
of applications. This method of heat energy storage provides much higher energy
storage density with a smaller temperature swing when compared with the sensible heat
storage method.

Latent heat storage is one of the most efficient ways of storing thermal energy. In latent
thermal energy storage systems, energy is stored during the phase change. Due to the
specific heat of a typical medium and the high enthalpy change during phase change,
the latent heat change is usually greater than the sensible heat change for a given system
size. Unlike the sensible heat storage method, the latent heat storage method provides
much higher storage density, with a smaller temperature difference between storing and
releasing heat. The storing capacity of heat is higher in latent heat storing materials than
sensible heat storing materials at an equal mass of material.
3.4 PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS

Phase change materials (PCM) are latent heat storage materials. The thermal energy
transfer occurs when a material changes from solid to liquid, or liquid to solid. This is
called a change in state, or phase. Initially, these solid–liquid PCMs perform like
conventional storage materials; their temperature rises as they absorb heat. Unlike
conventional (sensible) storage materials, PCM absorbs and release heat at a nearly
constant temperature. They store 5–14 times more heat per unit volume than sensible
storage materials such as water, masonry, or rock. A large number of PCMs are known
to melt with a heat of fusion in any required range. However, for their employment as
latent heat storage materials, these materials must exhibit certain desirable
thermodynamic, kinetic and chemical properties. Moreover, economic considerations
and easy availability of these materials has to be kept in mind.
3.4.1 Properties of Phase Change Materials

The PCM to be used in the design of thermal-storage systems should passes desirable
thermo physical and chemical properties. In order to select the best qualified PCM as a
storage media some criteria’s are mentioned
Thermodynamic Properties
i). Large enthalpy of transition with respect to the volume of the storage unit
ii). Phase change temperature fitted to application
iii). Latent heat should be as high as possible to minimize the mass
iv). Fixed and clearly determined phase change temperature (freeze/melt point)
v). Lower change of volume during phase change
vi). High density, so that a smaller container volume holds the material
Chemical Properties
i). No chemical decomposition, so that the latent TES system life is assured
ii). Non-corrosiveness to construction material
iii). Long term chemical stability
iv). Non-poisonous, non-toxic, non-explosive, non-dangerous, non-flammable
Physical Properties
i). Limited changes in density to avoid problems with the storage tank
ii). High density with low density variation
iii). Small units size
Economic Properties
i). Available in large quantities
ii). Cheap in order to make the system economically feasible.
Phase change material is latent heat storage materials. As the source temperature rises,
the chemical bonds within the PCM break up as the material changes phase from solid
to liquid. The phase change is a heat-seeking (endothermic) process and therefore, the
PCM absorbs heat. The heat stored during the phase change process (melting) of the
material is called latent heat.
The stored energy during a latent storage process can be evaluated as:
Q  m  Lh …………………………………….(3.2)
3.4.2 Classification of Latent Heat Storage Materials

A large number of PCMs (organic, inorganic and eutectic) are available in any required
temperature range. A classification of PCMs is discussed below. There are a large
number of organic and inorganic chemical materials, which can be identified as PCM
from the point of view melting temperature and latent heat of fusion.
Organic

Organic materials are further described as paraffin and non-paraffin. Organic materials
include congruent melting means melt and freeze repeatedly without phase segregation
and consequent degradation of their latent heat of fusion, self nucleation means they
crystallize with little or no super cooling and usually non-corrosiveness.
Paraffin’s
Paraffin wax consists of a mixture of mostly straight chain alkenes CH3–(CH2)–CH3.
The crystallization of the (CH3) - chain release a large amount of latent heat. Both the
melting point and latent heat of fusion increase with chain length. Paraffin qualifies as
the heat of fusion storage materials due to their availability in a large temperature range.
Due to cost consideration, however, only technical grade paraffin’s may be used as
PCMs in latent heat storage systems. Paraffin is safe, reliable, predictable, less
expensive and non-corrosive. They are chemically inert and stable below 500oC, show
little volume changes on melting and have low vapor pressure in the melt form. For
these properties of the paraffin’s, system-using paraffin usually has very long freeze–
melt cycle. They show some undesirable properties such as low thermal conductivity,
non compatible with the plastic container and moderately flammable.
Non-Paraffin’s
The non-paraffin organic are the most numerous of the phase change materials with
highly varied properties. Each of these materials will have its own properties unlike the
paraffin’s, which have very similar properties. This is the largest category of
candidate’s materials for phase change storage. These materials are flammable and
should not be exposed to excessive high temperature, flames or oxidizing agents. The
non paraffin’s having high heat of fusion, inflammability, low thermal conductivity,
low flash points, varying levels of toxicity and instability at high temperatures, but the
major drawbacks of non paraffin’s are their cost, which are 2–2.5 times greater than
that of technical grade paraffin’s. They are also mild corrosive.
Inorganic
Inorganic materials are further classified as salt hydrate and metallic. These phase
change materials do not super cool appreciably and their heats of fusion do not degrade
with cycling. These are further classified as salt hydrates, metallic and eutectic. The
inorganic PCM having some properties like these are having a high latent heat of fusion
per unit volume, relatively high thermal conductivity (almost double of the paraffin’s),
and small volume changes on melting. They are not very corrosive, compatible with
plastics and only slightly toxic. But the major problem with this is as the PCM is the
most of them, which are judged suitable for use in thermal storage, melts incongruently.
The solid salt, due to its higher density, settles down at the bottom of the container and
is unavailable for recombination with water during the reverse process of freezing.
Eutectic
The eutectic is a minimum-melting composition of two or more components, each of
which melts and freezes congruently forming a mixture of the component crystals
during solidification. A large number of eutectics of inorganic and organic compounds
have been reported. Eutectics are generally better than straight inorganic PCMs with
respect to segregation.
3.5 DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER
The design part it plays a very important role in any engineering. The detailed design
of a solar dryer system is discussed below, in that some data assumed wherever it is
required.
3.5.1 Design Considerations for Solar Dryer

The following some considerations are very important in the solar dryer design,
i) Temperature - The minimum temperature for drying food is 30°C (assumed)
and the maximum temperature is 65°C, therefore 45°C and above is considered
average and normal for drying samples and some other.
ii) Drying time - Drying times range from 0.25 sec (drying of tissue paper) to five
months (for hardwood)
iii) Air gap - It is suggested that for hot climate passive solar dryers, a gap of 7 cm
(0.07m) should be created as air vent (inlet) and air passage [19].
iv) Flat plate collector - The metal sheet thickness of 0.8–1.2 mm, the outer cover
is glass for the collector. The efficiency of the flat plat collector is 30%.
v) Area of solar flat plate collector is 0.5 m2 and width is 0.5 m.
vi) Dryer Trays - Net cloth can be used as dryer screen or trays to pass air
circulation within the drying chamber. The design of the dry chamber making
use of wooden wall sides and a glass top (tilted).

vii) Location- The latitude angle and longitude angle of solapur city is 17oN and
75oE respectively with average solar radiations of 670 W/m2.
viii) The drying sample is taken grapes because it contains maximum initial
moisture and requires maximum drying time among testing samples and mass of
drying food sample is 2 kg.
3.5.2 Assumptions
For any system deigning there are some assumptions and considerations are required,
following assumptions taken for designing solar dryer system;
i). Initial and final moisture content in grapes are 85% and 18 % respectively.
ii). Latent heat of vaporization of water is 2257 kJ/kg.
iii). Density of air 1.225 kg/m3.
iv). Absorptivity of absorber plate is 0.9
v). Heat removal factor of absorber plate is 0.1
3.5.3 Design of Solar Dryer System Components

In design the local meteorological data taken into considerations like location, weather
conditions, etc.
The Energy Required to Dry 2 kg Grapes
Mass of water to be evaporated from grapes,
 m  mf 
mw  m p   i 
 100  m
 f  …..…………………..(3.3)
 mw  1.6342kg
The energy required evaporating 1.6342 kg of water from grapes,
E p  mw  Lv
…………………………(3.4)
E p  3688389.4 Joule
There are two main parameters required for calculation of solar dryer components;
those are drying time and solar collector area. Here any one parameter should be
assumed, so it is easy to assume area and that is 0.5 m2. This assumed area, it is a
combination of solar collector’s width and length. To determine the length and width
here taken three cases,

i) Case-I, assume width as 0.3 meters, so by dividing the area, the length is 1.667
meters and length to width ratio is 5.55, in this case the length of collector is
long the drawback of this case is the heated air may slightly cool down at the
entrance of dryer chamber.
ii) Case-II, assume width as 0.5 meters, so by dividing the area, the length is 1
meter and length to width ratio is 2, this case a very suitable because the heating
of air may get maximum than other cases.
iii) Case-III, assume width as 0.7 meters, so by dividing the area, the length is 0.71
meter and length to width ratio is 1, in this case heating of air is less than
previous one.
Energy Gain by Air from Radiation

Ea  I c Acc ..………………………(3.5)
Ea  100.5 Watt
Calculating Drying Time,

The energy required evaporating = Energy gain by air from radiation x time
 E p  E a td
……..……….…………. (3.6)
3688389.4  100.5  td
td  36700seconds
 td  10.19hour
Mass Flow Rate of Air (ma),

Mass flow rate = (Inlet area of solar collector x Velocity of air) x density of air
ma  ( A  va )  a
…..…..……….…………. (3.7)
A  h w
 A  0.07  0.5  0.035m 2
Velocity of air at location, va  1.2 m/s
 ma  0.5145 kg/sec
Determination of Heat Losses from Solar Air Collector

The energy balance on the absorber is obtained by equating the total heat gained in the
total heat lost by the absorber of collector; it is givenby equation (3.8). Therefore,
I c Ac  Qu  Qcond  Qconv  Qrad  Q
……………………… (3.8)
The three heat loss terms Qcond, Qconv and Qrad are usually combined into one term QL,
expressed by equation (3.9),
QL  Qcond  Qconv  Qrad

……………………… (3.9)
The reflected energy from flat plate collector is given by equation (3.10),
 Q   I c Ac
…..………………… (3.10)
Q  28.81 Watt
The useful energy gain by is given by equation (3.11).
Qu  mC pa T
…..………………… (3.11)
Qu  206.83 Watt
I c Ac  Qu  QL  Q
…..………………… (3.12)
 QL  I c Ac  Qu  Q
QL  97.36 Watt
Now calculating the Qcond, Qconv and Qrad from equation (3.9)
As the thickness of absorber plate is 1 mm it very thin, hence neglecting the heat lost
by conduction mode. Hence  Qcond  0

Convection and radiation heat loss can be calculated by using equation (3.13),
Qrad   A(Tsurface 4  Tsurrounding 4 )
…..………………… (3.13)
Qrad  14.86 Watt
Qconv can be calculated From equation (3.9) and (3.13)
Qconv  QL  Qrad
…..………………… (3.14)
Qconv  82.50 Watt
.
Determination of the Base Insulator Thickness for the Collector
The rate of heat loss from air is equal to the rate of heat conduction through the
insulation. Thickness of base insulator can be calculated by using equation (3.15),

KAc Tout  Ta 
FR maC pa Tout  Tin  
tb
………….……………(3.15)
KAc
tb 
FR maC pa
tb  0.0099m  9.9mm
Number of Trays,
There is no any relation or formula to calculate the number of trays hence it is can be
determined by volume of grapes occupied on a flat surface. In a 1 m2 area nearly 4 kg
grapes occupy. Hence, here taken a quantity of grapes is 2 kg for this area requires is
0.5 m2, but the area of each tray is 0.2025 m2 (0.45m x 0.45 m) by calculation the
number of layers are 2.47 hence this grape are divided into three layers.
3.6 SELECTION OF PCM FOR SOLAR DRYER
The selection of PCM itself is a very critical condition because to select the PCM some
important parameters are necessary, such as melting temperature, latent heat, heat
storing capacity, etc. The PCM is used for storing the solar energy, that stored solar
energy can be used after the sunset. It acts like a flywheel, a phase-change material
(PCM) is a substance with a high heat of fusion which, melting and solidifying at a
certain temperature, is capable of storing and releasing large amounts of energy. Heat
is absorbed or released when the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa;
thus, PCMs are classified as latent heat storage (LHS) units. Tono therm M-65 PCM is
used 10 kg, which melts at 65 to 67 oC, it is having 215 kJ/kg latent heat and 0.75
kJ/kg.K specific heat. It is white solid at room temperature.
Table 3.2 Properties of Phase Change Material (Tono therm M-65)

Sr. No. Property Typical Value
1 Form and Appearance White Solid at Room Temp.
2 Phase Change Temperature 65 to 68 oC
3 Melting Temperature 65 oC
4 Freezing Temperature 63 oC

5 Latent Heat 215 kJ/kg
6 Specific Heat 0.75 kJ/kg.K
Photograph 3.1 Phase Change Material (Tono therm M-65)
The latent storing in PCM is given by equation (3.2),
Q  m  Lh
Q  2150kJ
3.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter discussed about solar dryer and its types, applications of solar dryer,
steps followed for drying, selection parameters of solar dryer, energy storing materials,
sensible heat storing materials, latent heat storing material and its types, selection of
PCM for proposed solar dryer system, properties of PCM, considerations and
assumptions for system design, design of solar dryer system components, types of heat
losses and thickness of insulation to reduce heat loss these all are discussed in detail.

CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter construction and working of the overall system is explained in detail.
The different components of system and their function explained. The reason for
selecting particular material for particular components and fabrication process of all
components such as frame of solar dryer, solar collector, PCM storage tank, tray,
reflectors and stand for the blower disused.
4.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The proposed experimental set-up consists of different components such as,
i). Solar flat plate collector

ii). Phase change material storage tank
iii). Drying chamber
iv). Trays
v). Blower
vi). Reflectors
vii). Insulation
viii). Supporting system for blower and reflector
ix). Measuring Instruments
Photograph 4.1 shows the experimental set-up. The solar dryer consists of flat plate
solar collector (air heater) of area 0.5 m2 (1×0.5) connected with drying chamber. The
solar collector has 2 mm thick galvanized sheet as absorber plate coated with black
paint to absorb solar radiation. The absorber plate is placed directly behind the
transparent cover (glass) with a layer of air separating it from the cover. The air to be
heated passes between the transparent cover (glass) and the absorber plate. To increase
the temperature of the air by the greenhouse effect, a glass cover of 5 mm thickness was
placed. The gap between the glass and the absorber surface was maintained at 70 mm
for air circulation. The drying chamber is made up of a bakelite sheet of 4 mm thickness
with width, depth and cross sectional height of (0.5×0.5×0.375) m respectively. The
solar air heater was tilted to an angle about 30o with respect to horizontal. The system
is faced to south direction because to absorb maximum solar radiations.

Photograph 4.1 Experimental Set-up

4.2.1 Solar Flat Plate Collector
The solar flat plate collector is consisting of absorber plate and top cover. The size of
flat plate collector is 0.5 meter wide and 1 meter length, the distance between absorber
plate and top cover is 0.07 meters. The absorber plate is made up of galvanized iron
sheet and thickness of 2 mm. The absorber plate is painted with black color, to absorb
more solar energy. The material chosen for the top cover of flat plate collector is glass,
because glass is having more transmissivity. A plain modiguard glass of size 0.5 meter
width and 1 meter long with a thickness of 6 mm is used. The absorptivity of absorber
plate is 0.86 and transmissivity of glass is 0.9. The sides of flat plate collector are made
up of bakelite sheet. Photograph 4.2 is PCM storage tank and absorber plate.
Photograph 4.2 Absorber and PCM Storage Tank

4.2.2 PCM Storage Tank
Photograph 4.2 shows the image of PCM storage tank. This is a very important
component; the selection of storage unit for PCM is a very critical task, after discussing
finally modified the absorber plate as a PCM storage tank. The manufacturing process
used is bending and soldering, the leak proof soldering is done because after melting
the PCM converts into a liquid state for this the leak proof joints are required. The
material and thickness of absorber plate is same as a PCM storage tank; the size of the
tank is 0.5 meter wide, 1 meter length and 0.05 meter in height and volume of the tank
is 0.25 m3.
4.2.3 Drying Chamber
In drying chamber the food products are kept for drying, the food products are kept on
trays. The drying chamber is made by using bakelite plywood sheet of 4 mm thickness.
The drying chamber is made up of a bakelite sheet of 4 mm thickness with width, depth
and cross sectional height of (0.5×0.5×0.375 meter) respectively and volume is 0.09375
m3. The bakelite plywood sheet is used for sides of the solar dryer chamber because to
avoid the conductive heat losses from dryer chamber, thermal conductivity is 0.024
W/m.K, this is lowest thermal conductivity in plywood. Weight is the most important
parameter for selecting bakelite sheet because it weighs nearly 1/4 time compared to 4
mm plywood.
4.2.4 Trays
The trays are used for keeping the food products on this and this tray loaded into drying
chamber. There are total three trays are used which are of size 0.45 meter by 0.45 meter
in width and length. The trays are manufactured by using one inch wooden flat strip for
making its outer body (frame) and nylon mesh wire as a surface for tray. The nylon is
used because it is having better strength than other fabric material, corrosive resistance
and comparatively cheaper than stainless steel meshes wire. Photograph 4.3 shows
image of one tray which is used for keeping food sample on this, likewise three trays
are used.

Photograph 4.3 Tray
4.2.5 Blower
Photograph 4.4 shows image of blower which is used in experimental set-up. The
blower is used to increase the mass flow rate of air, by this reduction in drying time
occurs. The blower’s mass flow rate of air is 2.2 m3/minute, the power of the blower is
500 watts and this is sufficient for drying a food samples. The outlet of the blower is
kept at the inlet of solar flat plate collector. The air is get heated from solar flat plate
collector and this heated air is passed into drying chamber.
Photograph 4.4 Blower

4.2.6 Supporting System for Blower and Reflector
The supporting system (stand) for the blower is used to mount the blower on the top
surface. The distance between ground level and the inlet of the solar flat plate collector
is 0.25 meters. The supporting system is manufactured by using a mild steel bar of
diameter 8 mm, and these bars are joined by welding process. The height of the stand
is 0.25 meters, width and length is 0.2 meters. Photograph 4.5 shows image of
supporting system for blower. The supporting system for a reflector is necessary
because the sun is not fixed at a particular position, as sun’s direction is changing the
less solar radiations falls on the reflector. To utilize maximum solar radiations falls on
a reflector, locking system is used to adjust the reflection angle of the reflector and this
locking system supports the reflectors. The holes are provided on both sides of locking
system, to adjust the tilt angle of reflectors.
Photograph 4.5 Blower’s Stand
4.2.7 Reflectors
To reduce the drying time two main parameters are required one is temperature (heat)
and other is mass flow rate of air. Reflectors are used to increase the temperature at flat
plate collector side; from this the air gets an extra heat. The material for reflectors it
should reflect more absorber sunlight for that purpose stainless steel grade 304 of 24
gauges in thickness is used. Two reflectors are used and dimension of each reflector is
are 1 meter in length and 0.35 meters in width, the reflectivity of this stainless steel
grade 304 is 0.9.

4.2.8 Insulation
The material having high thermal conductivity is a good heat conductor and the material
having low thermal conductivity is a good insulator. Thermal insulation is the reduction
of heat transfer (the transfer of thermal energy between objects of differing
temperature) between objects in thermal contact. Thermal insulation can be achieved
with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes
and material for this purpose the insulation is required. Insulation is provided at bottom
of the PCM storage tank to reduce the heat losses from the bottom side, the material
used as an insulator is glass wool because it is having thermal conductivity of 0.04
W/m.K. The size of insulation material provided is 1 meter long and 0.5 meters in
width, thickness of 0.01 meters (from the calculation).
4.2.9 Frame
The function of frame is to support the whole system. The solar dryer system’s frame
is made up of one inch iron L type angle and one inch iron square pipe. Total weight of
frame is 24 kg including 6 wheels, wheels are provided for support as well as for
travelling purpose. Here welding process is used for making the frame. Welding process
is used for making permanent joints for the frame. The frame is painted with white paint
to reflect the solar radiations and to avoid corrosion.
4.3 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity. In the physical

sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining
and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established
standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a
number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. In this
experimental set-up, measuring instruments used are thermometer, Lux meter,
anemometer and digital weighing machine.
4.3.1 Thermometer
A thermometer is a occupy space and has mass, temperature or a temperature gradient.

A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a
mercury-in-glass thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with

temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into a numerical value
(e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass thermometer). The mercury
filled thermometer of range 0 to 110 oC is used after calibration. Figure 4.1 shows image
of thermometer.
Calibration of Thermometer
Thermometer is calibrated by ice point method and boiling point method. In ice point
method the crushed ice is taken into a insulated beaker and filled some tap water to
remove air gaps, thermometer is inserted for calibration into the beaker and two inches
clearance is kept from bottom side of beaker after four to five minutes, waited up to the
stable reading shown on thermometer and marked this point as a zero degree celsius but
the thermometer which is used for calibration is shown one degree celsisu so from this
calibration one degree is the error. In bolilng point method the water is taken into a
insulated beaker and started heating the water, thermometer is inserted for calibration
into the beaker and two inches clearance is kept from bottom side of beaker after four
to five minutes, the reading taken when the water is start boiling and waited up to the
stable reading shown on thermometer and marked this point as a 100 degree celsius but
the thermometer which is used for calibration is shown 101 degree celsisu so from this
calibration one degree is the error.
Figure 4.1 Thermometer

4.3.2 Lux Meter
A Lux meter is a device for measuring brightness, specifically the intensity with which
the brightness. This is different than measurements of the actual light energy produced
by or reflected from an object or light source. The lux is a unit of measurement of
brightness, or more accurately, illuminance. A lux meter works by using a photo cell to
capture light. The meter, then converts this light to an electrical current, and measuring
this current allows the device to calculate the lux value of the light it captured. The solar
measuring device like lux meter allows the user to record direct sunlight over an
extended period of time. There are different types of lux meters are available in this
project HTC LX102 model; figure 4.2 shows images of HTC LX 102 model which is
used for measuring solar intensity readings. This model is high quality lux meter, it is
works on battery power, it is having high sensitive sensor it is very accurate in both
high and low intensities and fast and accurate readings can be taken by LCD display
which is provided on this equipment. Lux meter measures the solar intensity in terms
of lux, to convert this lux into watt there is a relation between lux and watt.
1 Lux = 0.0149 W/m2 ………………………………..(4.1)
Figure 4.2 Lux Meter Figure 4.3 Anemometer

4.3.3 Anemometer
Natural wind in the open air is a three-dimensional vector that has the directions of
north, south, east and west in addition to vertical components and magnitude (i.e., wind
speed). As the vertical component is ignored for most operational meteorological
purposes, surface wind is practically considered as a two-dimensional vector. An
anemometer or wind meter is a device used for measuring wind speed, and is a common
weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, meaning
wind, and is used to describe any air speed measurement instrument used in
meteorology or aerodynamics. Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that
measure the wind's speed, and those that measure the wind's pressure. There are
different models of anemometer; in this experiment anemometer AM-4200 model is
used, this measures the wind speed, high quality anemometer, works on battery power,
it is having low friction ball vane wheels is accurate in both high and low velocities and
fast and accurate readings can be taken by LCD display which is provided on this
model.
Figure 4.3 shows image of anemometer Am-4200 which is used in this experimentation.
The error analysis of anemometer done by measuring reading with anemometer and
validating this result with CFD software, actual output velocity obtained by measuring
equipment anemometer is 1.8 m/s, by analysis of flat plate collector using CFD shows
output velocity as 1.9 m/s.
4.3.4 Digital Weighing Machine

Digital weighing scale is better than mechanical scale in various ways. Digital weighing
scale is able to display reading in numerical form which allows user to read the
measurement result quickly. Moreover, most of the digital weighing scales support auto
zeroing feature which helps minimizing the incur error caused by wear-and-tear or
environmental factors. Nowadays, digital weighing scales for low load measurement
(30kg and below) are commonly used in supermarket, retail shops and also households.
More features support can be implemented in the digital weighing scale through
changing the software and electronic board design. Figure 4.4 shows image of digital
weighing machine,

Figure 4.4 Digital Weighing Machine
Table 4.1 Measurement equipments

VARIABLE DEVICE RANGE
Temperature Thermometer 0 to 110 oC
Solar intensity Lux meter 0 to 200000 lux
Wind speed Anemometer 0.8 to 30 m/s
weight Weighing machine 0 to 10 kg
The above table shows the list of measuring equipments, from these equipments which
variables are measured and their range.
4.4 METHODOLOGY FOR EXPERIMENTATION
This is very important parameter to develop any system, the detailed experimental
procedure is discussed below; the following experimental steps are involved in drying
of grapes, spinach, potato, onion and chili.
i). Selection - This is most important and primary step for drying any product. The
selected such food products which are fresh and undamaged. Spinach, potato,
chili and onion are taken 1 kg and only grapes are taken 2 kg.
ii). Cleaning - After selecting the food product the washing is done to remove the
mud, bacteria which are on the outer surface of products.

iii). Pre-treatment and Preparation - The washed products are moved for pre-
treatment like peeling, slicing, quenching, etc. the different pre-treatments used
for different products are as follows,
a) Pretreatment for potatoes
The potatoes are cut in the form of slices before blanching. After potatoes are
cut in desirable form, they are blanched by heating, either in steam or hot water.
Blanching destroys or inactivates enzymes; otherwise, potatoes may darken
during dehydration and develop off-flavors and off-odors during storage.
Degree of blanching has a very marked effect on the texture and appearance of
the finished product as well as on the way the potato tissue dehydrates and
reconstitutes. The potatoes are sulfide immediately after blanching using
sodium sulfite, sodium bi-sulfite, sodium meta bi-sulfite, or combinations.
Sulfite protects the product from non enzymatic browning or scorching during
dehydration and increases the storage life of the product under adverse
temperature conditions.
b) Pretreatment for grapes
Application of an oil emulsion or a dilute alkaline solution is a common practice
to accelerate the drying process by reducing the resistance to moisture transfer
of the surface skin of grapes, and by improving the internal moisture diffusion
coefficient. The pre-treatments will cause an increase in the drying rate,
particularly at the early stage of drying process. Dipping of grape bunches in a
solution of 15 ml ethyl oleate (Deeping oil) and 25 gm potassium carbonate for
2-4 minutes is common practice. Some commercial grape drying oils are
available in the market and extensively in use. The dipping durations
significantly affected the moisture content, color intensity other quality
attributes.
c) Pre-treatment for onions, chilies and spinach
The pre-treatment for onion is followed in this experiment is slicing the onions
into 3-4 mm thickness. Chilies and spinach they have not pre-treated. After the
slicing onions, spinach and chilies are equally distributed in all three trays.
iv). Drying - After all the above steps done the product is kept for drying. The drying
is done in four major cases such as,
a) Natural convection drying (Case –I) – In this case the drying is done by without
any external agency, only the naturally flowed air. The natural air is having a
less velocity and that to vary time to time means no constant air flow so the
mass flow rate is less in this case.
b) Forced convection drying (Case –II) – In this case drying is done by using an
external agency (air blower) to reduce the drying time as well as analysis
purpose. The air flowed at constant velocity, there is no any problem regarding
varying flow rate.
c) Forced convection drying with phase change material (Case –III) – In this case
the drying is done by using air blower and energy storing material as phase
change material for backup purpose. In this case 10 kg of PCM is used to store
the solar energy; this stored energy can be utilized after the sunset or during no
sunshine (clouds).
d) Natural convection drying with phase change material (Case –IV) – This case
is slightly different than the case -III blower is not used.
v). Measuring readings with instruments – This is the final step, in this the observed
readings are noted down, there are four main reading are important such as
temperature, air velocity, relative humidity and solar intensity. The temperature
is measured by using a thermometer, velocity is measured by using anemometer
and solar intensity is measured by Lux meter.
4.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter the construction and working of the overall system are explained in
detail. The different component of system and the functions of each component are also
explained. The reason for selecting material for particular components and also the
fabrication processes for all components such as PCM storage rank, flat plate collector,
trays, blower, supporting system for blower, reflector, supporting system for reflector,
insulation, measuring instruments and its calibration, range, experimental methodology
in that experimental procedure and pre-treatments for samples are explained in detail.

CHAPTER FIVE
RESULT AND DISCCUSION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the observations and results of the test carried out under this work.
The observations are of the performance analysis test carried on the set-up. The results
include the performance during daytime and evening. These results are analyzed and
discussed in this chapter.
5.2 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
The performance analysis of this system carried out by testing this experimental set-up
under different atmospheric conditions (temperature), different air flow rate and
different food samples and compared these results, this is necessary for the purpose of
evaluation of system parameters.
5.2.1 Results of Natural Convection (Case-I)
The following tables show results of natural convection,
Table 5.1 Observations of Natural Convection of Spinach on 03/03/2015
Time Ta(oC) Ic (LUX) Tin (oC) Tout(oC) Tt (oC) Tm (oC) Tb (oC)

10:30 am 35 102300 35 36 28 27 27
11:00 am 36 102800 38 39 34 34 32
11:30 am 36 103500 42 47 36 33 35
12 noon 36 103900 44 49 40 37 40
12:30 pm 37 104400 45 50 41 40 41
The system installed in solar radiations at 10:30 am; at that the time initial weight 1000
gm and initial temperature of food sample 27oC. It increased gradually; because of the
solar radiations and maximum solar intensity observed 104400 LUX, and wind speed
1.94 m/sec. At this conditions weight of dried sample obtained 92 gm, the moisture
removed 90.8% from the food sample in 2 hours at a drying rate of 454 gm/hr.

10:30 am 36 102500 36 37 28 27 27
11:00 am 37 103200 40 44 37 34 36
11:30 am 37 103900 44 48 38 33 38
12 noon 38 104300 45 51 41 37 41
12:17 pm 38 104500 46 52 42 41 42
removed 91% from food sample in 1 hour 47 minutes at a drying rate of 510 gm/hr.

10:30 am 37 102800 37 38 27 26 26
11:00 am 38 103400 44 47 34 32 34
11:30 am 38 103800 46 50 39 36 39
12 noon 39 104100 47 51 41 39 40
12:12 pm 39 104300 49 53 42 41 42
removed 91.1% from food sample in 1 hour 42 minutes at a drying rate of 535.8 gm/hr.

SPINACH DRYING TIME COMPARISON
125
120
120
Drying Time (Minutes) 115
110 107
105 102
Series1
100
95
90
TEST 1 TEST 2 TEST 3
Test Days
Figure 5.1 Drying Time Comparison of Spinach
PERCENTAGE MOISTURE REMOVED

91.15 91.1
91.1
91.05 91
91
% Moisture
90.95
90.9
90.85 90.8 Series1
90.8
90.75
90.7
90.65
Test Days
Figure 5.2 Percentage Moisture Removed from Spinach
Figure 5.1 represents the comparison of drying time and figure 5.2 represents the
percentage of moisture removed from spinach in test 1, 2 and 3. The drying time and
moisture removed in test 1, 2 and 3 are 120, 107 and 102 minutes and 90.8, 91 and 91.1
respectively. The minimum drying time and maximum percentage of moisture removed
is obtained in test 3 because of better atmospheric temperature and solar intensity were
available at the time of test 3 compared to test 1 and 2.

Table 5.4 Observations of Natural Convection of Potato on 03/03/2015

12:30 pm 38 104400 38 39 26 25 25
01:00 pm 37 104600 39 42 31 29 28
01:30 pm 37 103800 41 44 34 32 33
02:00 pm 37 103000 42 46 37 33 35
02:30 pm 36 102600 43 48 39 36 38
03:00 pm 36 102100 44 49 40 39 40
The system installed in solar radiations at 12:30 pm; at that the time initial weight 1000
removed 84.1% from food sample in 2 hours 30 minutes at a drying rate of 336 gm/hr.
Table 5.5 Observations of Natural Convection of Potato on 10/03/2015

12:30 pm 38 104500 38 39 26 26 26
01:00 pm 37 104800 40 43 33 32 32
01:30 pm 37 104300 41 44 36 34 35
02:00 pm 37 104000 42 46 38 36 37
02:30 pm 36 103400 43 47 41 39 40
02:46 pm 36 103100 43 48 42 40 42
The system installed in solar radiations at 12:30 pm; at that the time initial temperature
of food sample 26oC and initial weight 1000 gm. It increased gradually; because of the
removed 84.9% from food sample in 2 hours 16 minutes at a drying rate of 374.4 gm/hr.
Table 5.6: Observations of Natural Convection of Potato on 17/03/2015

12:30 pm 39 104400 39 40 26 26 26
01:00 pm 38 104100 41 44 34 33 34
01:30 pm 38 103700 42 45 37 35 36
02:00 pm 37 103400 43 47 40 38 39
02:30 pm 37 102900 44 49 41 40 41
02:42 pm 36 102700 44 49 42 41 42

POTATO DRYING TIME COMPARISON

155
150
150
Drying Time (Minutes)
145
140
136
135 132 Series1
130
125
120
Test Days
Figure 5.3 Drying Time Comparison of Potato

85.4
85.2
85.2
85 84.9
84.8
% Moisture
84.6
84.4
84.2 84.1 Series1
84
83.8
83.6
83.4
Test Days
Figure 5.4 Percentage Moisture Removed from Potato
percentage of moisture removed from potato in test 1, 2 and 3. The drying time and
moisture removed in test 1, 2 and 3 are 150, 136 and 132 minutes and 84.1, 84.9 and

85.2 respectively. The minimum drying time and maximum percentage of moisture
removed is obtained in test 3 because of better atmospheric temperature and solar
intensity were available at the time of test 3 compared to test 1 and 2.
Table 5.7 Observations of Natural Convection of Onion on 04/03/2015

11:30 am 35 102400 36 37 27 26 26
12:30 pm 36 103200 40 45 36 30 33
01:30 pm 36 103900 42 47 39 37 36
02:30 pm 35 102000 45 51 40 38 38
03:30 pm 34 99200 48 53 41 39 39
04:00 pm 33 97000 49 53 42 41 41

11:30 am 36 102700 36 37 27 27 27
12:30pm 38 103600 42 46 34 33 34
01:30 pm 37 104200 45 49 36 35 37
02:30 pm 37 103000 49 51 40 39 39
03:30 pm 36 101800 47 50 41 40 41
03:45 pm 36 100400 45 48 42 40 41
solar radiations and solar intensity 104200 LUX, and wind speed 2.04 m/sec. At this
conditions weight of dried sample obtained 128 gm, moisture removed 87.2% from
food sample in 4 hours 15 minutes at a drying rate of 205.2 gm/hr.

11:30 am 37 101600 38 41 30 29 30
12:30 pm 38 103400 44 48 36 34 35

01:30 pm 39 104500 46 49 39 37 38
02:30 pm 39 103600 49 50 42 39 41
03:30 pm 38 100200 48 52 43 41 42
03:40 pm 38 100000 47 52 43 42 43
ONION DRYING TIME COMPARISON

275
270
270
265
260
255
255
250 Series1
250
245
240
Test Days
Figure 5.5 Drying Time Comparison of Onion

87.6 87.5
87.4
87.2
87.2
% Moisture
87
86.8
86.6
86.6 Series1
86.4
86.2
86
Test Days
Figure 5.6 Percentage Moisture Removed from Onion

removed 87.5% from food sample in 4 hours 10 minutes at a drying rate of 210 gm/hr
percentage of moisture removed from onion in test 1, 2 and 3. The drying time and
removed is obtained in test 3 because of better atmospheric temperature and solar
Table 5.10 Observations of Natural Convection of Chili on 05/03/2015

10:00 am 35 101200 35 35 27 26 26
11:00 am 36 101900 36 39 30 27 29
12 noon 37 103200 39 44 35 32 34
01:00 pm 38 104000 42 46 37 35 36
02:00 pm 37 102800 44 50 40 38 40
03:00 pm 37 101600 33 33 33 32 32
04:00 pm 36 100000 36 39 36 33 34
04:45 pm 35 98400 38 43 38 33 36


10:00 am 36 101300 36 36 27 27 27
11:00 am 36 102200 39 43 33 32 32
12 noon 38 103500 43 48 38 35 36
01:00 pm 38 104200 45 51 40 37 39
02:00 pm 37 102900 45 49 44 40 43
03:00 pm 36 101800 43 47 33 32 40
04:00 pm 36 100400 36 39 36 36 36
04:35 pm 35 98900 39 43 40 38 39
removed 84.4% from food sample in 7 hours 35 minutes at a drying rate of 111gm/hr.

10:00 am 36 101000 36 36 27 27 27
11:00 am 37 102400 39 43 32 32 32
12 noon 38 103800 44 48 38 36 36
01:00 pm 38 104400 46 51 41 37 39
02:00 pm 38 103000 48 49 43 41 44
03:00 pm 37 101500 44 47 43 39 42
04:00 pm 36 100500 40 43 41 37 38
04:30 pm 35 98200 39 42 40 38 38
removed 84.7% from food sample in 7 hours 40 minutes at a drying rate of 112.8 gm/hr.

CHILI DRYING TIME COMPARISON
470
465
465
460
455
455
450 Series1
450
445
440
Test Days
Figure 5.7 Drying Time Comparison of Chili

84.8 84.7
84.7
84.6
84.5 84.4
% Moisture
84.4
84.3
84.2 84.1 Series1
84.1
84
83.9
83.8
Test Days
Figure 5.8 Percentage Moisture Removed from Chili
removed obtained in test 3 because of better atmospheric temperature and solar

Table 5.13 Observations of Natural Convection of Grapes on 06/03/2015,
07/03/2015, 08/03/2015 and 09/03/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 35 101100 35 35 26 26 26
11 am 35 101500 37 40 29 28 29
12 noon 36 102000 39 43 32 32 31
1 pm 36 102600 41 44 34 34 34
2 pm 37 102400 42 46 37 36 37
3 pm 37 101800 41 45 39 38 38
4 pm 36 100700 39 43 41 40 39
5 pm 35 98000 37 40 42 42 41
SECOND DAY
10 am 34 101300 34 34 34 33 33
11 am 35 101900 36 39 36 36 36
12 noon 36 102200 38 41 37 37 37
1 pm 36 102800 40 44 39 38 38
2 pm 36 103000 42 45 40 39 39
3 pm 35 102600 44 49 41 41 40
4 pm 34 101200 41 45 42 40 41
5 pm 33 99600 39 43 40 39 40
THIRD DAY
10 am 35 101100 35 35 35 35 34
11 am 36 101600 36 39 37 36 37
12 noon 37 102000 40 43 39 38 39
1 pm 37 102500 41 44 40 40 41
2 pm 38 102900 43 46 41 41 42
3 pm 37 101600 43 47 42 42 43
4 pm 36 101000 41 44 41 40 42
5 pm 35 99900 39 42 40 39 40
FORTH DAY
10 am 36 102000 36 36 36 36 36
11 am 37 102300 38 42 38 38 38
12 noon 37 103100 41 45 41 40 41
1 pm 38 103600 42 46 43 42 42
2 pm 38 103900 44 49 44 43 43
3 pm 37 102800 44 48 44 44 44
4 pm 36 101400 41 44 42 42 42
5 pm 35 99800 39 41 41 40 41
The system installed in solar radiations at 10:00 am of continuously four days and at
that the time initial weight 2000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 26oC. It
increased gradually; because of the solar radiations and maximum solar intensity
observed 102600, 102800, 102900 and 103600 LUX, and wind speed 2.05, 2.25, 2.07

and 1.87 m/sec from day one to four respectively. At this conditions weight of dried
sample obtained 559 gm, the moisture removed 72.05% from food sample in 28 hours
at a drying rate of 51.6 gm/hr.

14/03/2015, 15/03/2015 and 16/03/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 36 98000 36 36 26 26 26
11 am 36 99700 37 41 28 27 28
12 noon 37 101600 40 45 33 33 34
1 pm 37 102200 43 48 35 34 35
2 pm 38 102600 43 47 38 37 37
3 pm 38 101800 40 44 38 37 39
4 pm 37 101200 38 44 40 40 40
5 pm 35 99200 37 41 42 42 44
SECOND DAY
10 am 35 98900 35 35 35 35 35
11 am 36 101700 36 40 37 37 37
12 noon 37 102100 39 44 39 38 39
1 pm 37 102600 41 46 41 40 41
2 pm 37 103000 43 47 42 41 42
3 pm 36 102400 44 48 42 41 42
4 pm 35 101600 42 45 43 40 43
5 pm 34 100000 41 44 41 41 42
THIRD DAY
10 am 36 100200 36 36 36 36 36
11 am 37 101000 38 42 38 37 38
12 noon 38 101600 42 46 39 38 39
1 pm 38 102100 42 47 41 40 41
2 pm 39 102600 44 48 42 42 41
3 pm 38 102000 43 47 43 43 43
4 pm 37 100300 42 45 42 42 41
5 pm 35 98200 40 43 40 40 40
FORTH DAY
10 am 37 99200 37 37 37 36 37
11 am 38 101600 39 43 38 38 38
12 noon 39 102500 42 46 40 40 40
1 pm 39 103100 43 48 42 41 41
2 pm 38 102800 44 48 44 44 44
3 pm 37 102200 43 47 45 45 45
4 pm 36 101300 42 45 43 42 43

observed 102600, 103000, 102600 and 103100 from day one to four respectively LUX,
and wind speed 2.16, 2.10, 1.92 and 1.96 m/sec from day one to four respectively. At
this conditions weight of dried sample obtained 550 gm, the moisture removed 72.50%
from food sample in 27 hours at a drying rate of 54 gm/hr.

21/03/2015, 22/03/2015 and 23/03/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 36 98000 36 36 26 26 26
11 am 36 99700 37 41 28 27 28
12 noon 37 101600 40 45 33 33 34
1 pm 37 102200 43 48 35 34 35
2 pm 38 102600 43 47 38 37 37
3 pm 38 101800 40 44 38 37 39
4 pm 37 101200 38 44 40 40 40
5 pm 35 99200 37 41 42 42 44
SECOND DAY
10 am 35 98900 35 35 35 35 35
11 am 36 101700 36 40 37 37 37
12 noon 37 102100 39 44 39 38 39
1 pm 37 102600 41 46 41 40 41
2 pm 37 103000 43 47 42 41 42
3 pm 36 102400 44 48 42 41 42
4 pm 35 101600 42 45 43 40 43
5 pm 34 100000 41 44 41 41 42
THIRD DAY
10 am 36 100200 36 36 36 36 36
11 am 37 101000 38 42 38 37 38
12 noon 38 101600 42 46 39 38 39
1 pm 38 102100 42 47 41 40 41
2 pm 39 102600 44 48 42 42 41
3 pm 38 102000 43 47 43 43 43
4 pm 37 100300 42 45 42 42 41
5 pm 35 98200 40 43 40 40 40
FOURTH DAY
10 am 37 99200 37 37 37 36 37
11 am 38 101600 39 43 38 38 38
12 noon 39 102500 42 46 40 40 40
1 pm 39 103100 43 48 42 41 41
2 pm 38 102800 44 48 43 42 42
3 pm 37 102200 43 47 44 43 43
3:30 pm 37 101500 43 47 44 44 44

observed 102600, 102800, 102900 and 103600 from day one to four respectively LUX,
and wind speed 2.32, 2.40, 2.43 and 2.35 m/sec from day one to four respectively. At
from food sample in 26 hours 30 minutes at a drying rate of 55.2 gm/hr.
GRAPES DRYING TIME COMPARISON

1660 1650
1650
1640
1630 1620
1620
1610
1600 1590 Series1
1590
1580
1570
1560
Test Days
Figure 5.9 Drying Time Comparison of Grapes

73
72.8
72.8
72.6 72.5
% Moisture
72.4
72.2
72.05 Series1
72
71.8
71.6
Test Days
Figure 5.10 Percentage Moisture Removed from Grapes

moisture removed in test 1, 2 and 3 are 1650, 1620 and 1590 and 72.05, 72.5 and 72.8
respectively. The minimum drying time and maximum percentage of moisture removed
is obtained in test 3 because of better atmospheric temperature and solar intensity were
available at the time of test 3 compared to test 1 and 2.
5.2.2 Results of Forced Convection (Case-II)
The following tables shows the results of forced convection,
Table 5.16 Observations of Forced Convection of Spinach on 24/03/2015

10:30am 37 101600 37 37 28 28 28
11:00 am 37 102400 39 42 34 33 34
11:30am 38 103300 41 46 38 37 37
11:45 am 38 103800 43 48 41 40 41
removed 91.5% from food sample in 1 hour 15 minutes at a drying rate of 732 gm/hr.
Table 5.17 Observations of Forced Convection of Potato on 24/03/2015

12:30 pm 38 102500 38 38 26 26 26
01:00 pm 39 103200 42 46 33 33 33
01:30 pm 40 103600 45 49 37 37 38
02:00 pm 40 103200 46 51 40 40 40
02:15 pm 40 103000 46 51 41 41 41

removed 85.6% from food sample in 1 hour 45 minutes at a drying rate of 489 gm/hr.
Table 5.18 Observations of Forced Convection of Onion on 25/03/2015

11:30 am 38 102900 38 38 27 27 27
12 noon 39 103400 40 43 30 29 30
12:30 pm 39 103600 42 45 33 33 33
01:00 pm 39 103900 43 48 35 35 36
01:30 pm 38 103700 44 48 37 37 38
02:00 pm 38 103100 46 51 39 38 39
02:20 pm 37 102700 47 51 41 41 41
Table 5.19 Observations of Forced Convection of Chili on 26/03/2015

10:00 am 38 101200 38 38 28 28 28
11:00 am 39 102300 40 42 31 30 31
12 noon 40 103000 42 45 34 34 34
01:00 pm 39 103200 43 47 36 36 37
02:00 pm 38 102600 46 50 39 39 40
03:00 pm 36 1015000 44 49 40 40 41
03:15 pm 36 100300 43 47 41 41 42
Table 5.20 Observations of Forced Convection of Grapes on 29/03/2015,

30/03/2015 and 31/03/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 38 100500 38 38 28 28 28
11 am 39 101200 39 41 30 29 30
12 noon 40 102400 41 44 33 32 33
1 pm 39 102900 42 46 36 35 36
2 pm 38 102600 44 49 37 37 37
3 pm 36 101900 43 48 39 39 40
4 pm 35 101000 41 44 40 40 41
5 pm 34 99000 39 42 42 41 43
SECOND DAY
10 am 38 100700 38 38 38 38 38
11 am 39 101800 40 42 40 40 41
12 noon 39 102700 41 44 42 42 42
1 pm 40 103200 43 48 44 43 44
2 pm 38 102800 44 49 45 44 45
3 pm 36 102200 45 50 46 45 46
4 pm 35 101100 43 47 47 46 47
5 pm 34 98600 42 45 48 48 48
THIRD DAY
10 am 38 100000 38 38 38 38 38
11 am 39 101300 40 43 40 40 40
12 noon 39 101900 42 46 41 41 41
1 pm 38 102700 43 47 42 41 42
2 pm 37 102400 45 49 43 43 44
3 pm 36 102000 44 48 45 45 45
4 pm 36 100400 42 46 45 45 46
5 pm 35 97800 41 44 46 46 46
The system installed in solar radiations at 10:00 am of continuously three days and at
observed 102900, 103200 and 102700 respectively LUX, and wind speed 2.01, 1.95
and 1.88 m/sec from day one to three respectively. At this conditions weight of dried
sample obtained 536 gm, the moisture removed 73.20% from food sample in 21 hour
5.2.3 Results of Forced Convection with PCM (Case-III)

In this case blower is used as an external agency to reduce and compare the drying time.
The testing of spinach and potato are taken as first the PCM is melted and then used
this stored energy for drying the samples, but testing of onion, chili and grapes readings
are taken as simultaneously means side by side melting the PCM and drying and the
stored energy is used after sunset.
The following tables shows results of forced convection with Phase Change Material,
Table 5.21 Observations of Forced Convection with PCM of Spinach on

02/04/2015
Time Ta(oC) TPCM(oC) Tin (oC) Tout(oC) Tt (oC) Tm (oC) Tb (oC)

05:00 pm 39 78 49 54 28 28 28
05:30 pm 38 76 47 52 32 32 33
06:00 pm 38 75 45 49 35 33 35
06:10 pm 37 73 44 47 38 38 38
The system installed in solar radiations at 12 noon to store the solar energy in PCM; the
stored energy is utilizing after 5 pm at that the time initial weight 1000 gm and initial
temperature of food sample 28oC. It increased gradually; because of the solar radiations
and maximum solar intensity observed 103200 LUX, and wind speed 2.82 m/sec. At
from food sample in 1 hour 10 minutes at a drying rate of 786.6 gm/hr.
Table 5.22 Observations of Forced Convection with PCM of potato on 03/04/2015

DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 40 78 49 54 28 28 28
05:30 pm 39 76 47 52 32 32 32
06:00 pm 39 75 45 49 36 35 36
06:30 pm 38 73 44 47 38 37 38
06:35 pm 37 72 44 47 39 39 39

from food sample in 1 hour 35 minutes at a drying rate of 541.8 gm/hr.
Table 5.23 Observations of Forced Convection with PCM of Onion on 04/04/2015

DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 39 79 50 55 28 28 28
05:30 pm 38 77 49 54 31 30 31
06:00 pm 38 76 47 52 33 32 33
06:30 pm 36 74 46 50 36 35 35
07:00 pm 36 72 45 49 38 37 38
07:30 pm 35 71 44 47 39 38 39
08:00 pm 35 70 43 46 40 40 40
this conditions weight of dried sample obtained 120 gm, the moisture removed 88%
from food sample in 3 hours at a drying rate of 293.4 gm/hr.
Table 5.24 Observations of Forced Convection with PCM of Chili on 05/04/2015

03:00 pm 39 100200 51 56 28 28 28
04:00 pm 38 99800 50 55 32 32 33
DRYING WITH PCM
Time Ta( C) TPCM( C) Tin (oC) Tout(oC) Tt (oC)
o o
Tm (oC) Tb (oC)
05:00 pm 38 79 48 52 35 35 36
06:00 pm 36 77 47 51 37 37 37
07:00 pm 36 76 46 49 39 39 40
08:00 pm 35 74 45 48 38 38 39
08:10 pm 35 72 44 46 37 37 37
The system installed in solar radiations at 12 noon for drying and simultaneously,
storing of solar energy in PCM is also carried, and this stored energy is utilizing after 5
pm, but loaded the food samples in drying chamber at 3 pm; at that the time initial
weight 1000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 28oC. It increased gradually;
because of the solar radiations and maximum solar intensity observed 103200 LUX,

and wind speed 2.86 m/sec. At this conditions weight of dried sample obtained 145 gm,
the moisture removed 85.5% from food sample in 5 hours 10 minutes at a drying rate
of 165.6 gm/hr.
Table 5.25 Observations of Forced Convection with PCM of Grapes on

06/04/2015 and 07/04/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 38 100500 38 38 29 29 29
11 am 39 101200 40 43 32 32 32
12 noon 39 102400 43 47 34 33 34
1 pm 40 102900 48 53 35 34 35
2 pm 40 102600 50 55 38 37 37
3 pm 39 101900 51 56 40 39 39
4 pm 37 101000 49 48 42 40 40
DRYING WITH PCM
Time Ta( C) TPCM( C) Tin (oC) Tout(oC) Tt (oC)
o o
Tm (oC) Tb (oC)
5 pm 36 79 47 51 43 42 43
6 pm 35 76 46 50 44 43 43
7 pm 34 72 43 46 43 41 42
8 pm 34 69 40 42 41 41 41
SECOND DAY
Time Ta( C) Ic (LUX) Tin (oC) Tout(oC) Tt (oC)
o Tm (oC) Tb (oC)
10 am 38 100700 38 38 38 38 38
11 am 39 101800 40 42 40 40 40
12 noon 39 102700 43 45 42 41 42
1 pm 40 103200 44 48 44 43 44
2 pm 38 102800 45 50 45 45 45
3 pm 36 102200 46 50 46 46 46
4 pm 35 101100 44 49 47 46 47
DRYING WITH PCM
5 pm 35 79 47 51 48 48 48
6 pm 34 76 46 50 46 46 46
7 pm 34 73 43 46 43 44 43
The system installed in solar radiations at 10:00 pm for drying and simultaneously,
pm at that the time initial weight 2000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 26oC.
It increased gradually; because of the solar radiations and maximum solar intensity
observed 102900 and 103200 LUX respectively, and wind speed 2.74 and 2.63 m/sec

on day one and two respectively. At this conditions weight of dried sample obtained
530 gm, the moisture removed 73.50% from food sample in 21 hour at a drying rate of
77.4 gm/hr.
5.2.4 Results of Natural Convection with PCM (Case-IV)
The following tables shows results of natural convection with Phase Change Material,
Table 5.26 Observations of Natural Convection with PCM of Spinach 08/04/2015

DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 39 79 50 55 29 29 29
05:30 pm 39 77 49 53 36 35 36
06:00 pm 38 75 47 51 38 38 38
06:30 pm 38 72 46 49 40 39 39
06:45 pm 37 70 45 48 41 41 41
pm; at that the time initial weight 1000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 29oC.
observed 103900 LUX, and wind speed 2.95 m/sec. At this conditions weight of dried
sample obtained 90 gm, the moisture removed 91% from food sample in 1 hour 45
minutes at a drying rate of 520 gm/hr.
Table 5.27 Observations of Natural Convection with PCM of Potato 09/04/2015

DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 39 79 50 55 28 28 28
05:30 pm 38 76 48 53 33 32 33
06:00 pm 38 74 47 51 35 35 36
06:30 pm 37 72 45 48 37 36 37
07:00 pm 36 69 43 46 40 40 40
pm; at that the time initial weight 1000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 28oC.
observed 103900 LUX, and wind speed 2.60 m/sec. At this conditions weight of dried

sample obtained 143 gm, the moisture removed 85.7% from food sample in 2 hours at
a drying rate of 428.5 gm/hr.
Table 5.28 Observations of natural convection with PCM of onion on 10/04/2015

03:00 pm 40 102900 45 49 30 30 30
04:00 pm 39 102000 46 50 34 33 34
DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 38 78 48 53 36 35 36
06:00 pm 37 75 49 54 37 36 37
07:00 pm 36 73 47 50 39 37 39
08:00 pm 35 70 44 46 38 38 38
pm, but loaded the food samples in drying chamber at 3 pm; at that the time initial
weight 1000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 29oC. It increased gradually;
because of the solar radiations and maximum solar intensity observed 103900 LUX,
and wind speed 2.20 m/sec. weight of dried sample is 122 gm, the moisture removed
87.80% from food sample in 3 hours 50 minutes at a drying rate of 229.2 gm/hr.
Table 5.29 Observations of natural convection with PCM of Chili on 11/04/2015

01:00 pm 40 102300 42 46 29 29 29
02:00 pm 41 103000 44 50 35 35 36
03:00 pm 39 102400 45 49 37 37 38
04:00 pm 38 101600 44 48 38 38 39
DRYING WITH PCM
05:00 pm 36 78 48 53 39 39 40
06:00 pm 35 76 47 51 41 40 40
07:00 pm 35 73 45 49 42 42 42
08:00 pm 34 71 43 46 43 43 43
Table 5.30 Observations of Natural Convection with PCM of grapes on
12/04/2015, 13/04/2015 and 14/04/2015

FIRST DAY
10 am 38 100400 38 38 30 30 30
11 am 39 101200 40 43 33 32 32
12 noon 40 102300 42 45 34 33 33

1 pm 41 103000 43 47 35 34 34
2 pm 40 102600 45 49 36 35 35
3 pm 39 102000 42 46 37 36 36
4 pm 36 101200 40 43 38 37 37
DRYING WITH PCM
5 pm 36 78 48 53 39 38 38
6 pm 35 76 47 51 40 39 39
7 pm 35 73 45 49 41 41 41
8 pm 34 71 43 46 42 42 42
SECOND DAY
10 am 38 100200 38 38 38 38 38
11 am 40 101400 40 42 39 39 40
12 noon 41 102600 42 45 40 40 41
1 pm 41 102900 43 47 41 41 42
2 pm 40 102400 44 48 41 41 42
3 pm 39 101800 45 49 40 40 40
4 pm 38 101000 43 46 41 40 40
DRYING WITH PCM
5 pm 36 79 50 55 42 41 41
6 pm 35 76 49 53 43 42 42
7 pm 35 74 47 50 43 43 43
8 pm 34 72 43 45 44 44 44
THIRD DAY
10 am 37 100100 37 37 37 37 37
11 am 39 101300 40 43 38 38 38
12 noon 40 102000 42 45 39 39 39
1 pm 41 102700 44 48 39 40 40
2 pm 39 101800 45 49 40 41 41
3 pm 38 101200 43 47 41 40 40
4 pm 37 99800 43 46 42 41 41
DRYING WITH PCM
Time Ta(oC) TPCM( C) Tin (oC) Tout(oC)
o
Tt (oC) Tm (oC) Tb (oC)
5 pm 36 79 49 54 43 42 42
6 pm 35 77 48 53 44 43 43
7 pm 35 76 46 50 44 44 44
The system installed in solar radiations at 10:00 pm for drying and simultaneously,
pm at that the time initial weight 2000 gm and initial temperature of food sample 28oC.
observed 103000, 102900 and 102700 respectively LUX, and wind speed 1.83, 1.50

and 1.89 m/sec from day one to three respectively. At this conditions weight of dried
sample obtained 550 gm, the moisture removed 72.50% from food sample in 32 hours
Photograph 5.1 Images of Dried Samples
5.3 DISCUSSION
As per the all readings it is observed that, the solar intensity is increasing from 10 am
to 1 pm, it is the maximum solar intensity of that day and the atmospheric temperature
also increasing, after 1 pm solar intensity gradually decreasing so the atmospheric

temperature is also decreasing this is due to the sun angle changes and its direction. The
drying time is depends on the atmospheric conditions, if the atmospheric temperature
is more the drying time is less and vice-versa. The performance of the system is directly
based on atmospheric condition, the intensity of the solar radiation, airflow rate and
food sample. The performance of an indirect type solar dryer, integrated with latent heat
storage material designed, fabricated and investigated for drying spinach, potato, onion
chili and grapes. The dryer with heat storage material enables to maintain consistent air
temperature inside the dryer.
5.4 ANALYSIS OF FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR BY USING CFD
CFD is a sophisticated, computer based simulation of systems involving fluid flow, heat
transfer and related phenomena. CFD involves the solution of the governing laws of
fluid dynamics numerically. The complex set of partial differential equations is solved
on in geometrical domain divided into small volumes known as mesh or grid. CFD is
predicting what will happen, quantitatively, when fluids flow, often with the
complications of: simultaneous flow of heat, mass transfer, phase change (e.g. melting,
freezing, boiling), chemical reaction (e.g. combustion, rusting), mechanical movement
(e.g. pistons, fans, rudders, etc.). Application areas such as aerospace, automobile,
chemical process industries, biomedical power generation system, marine, oil and gas
electronic system, solar systems etc.
Three main steps are there in this analysis namely pre-processor, solver and post-
processor. This CFD software is divided into two sub software Gambit and Fluent. In
pre-processor the geometry is drawn, first the vertices should drawn from this vertices
the outline is generated after this geometry is meshed with quad meshing for this the
gambit 2.4.6 version is used, in solver applying the boundary conditions and solving
the problem, in post-processor executed, and displaying the results of output the
problem in contour plot for the solver and post-processor the fluent 6.3.26 version is
used.
5.4.1 Pre-processor (GAMBIT)

The sub-steps are in this are as follows,
Step No. 1: Locating the Vertices

Operation → Geometry → Vertex → x = 0 and y = 0, x = 1.0 and y = 0, x = 1.0 and y
= 0.238, x = 1.2 and y = 0.23, x = 1.2 and y = 0.27, x = 1.0 and y = 0.23, x=1.0 and
y=0.5, and x=0 and y=0.5.
Step No.2: Creating the Edges - Connecting all the vertices to form Edges.
Operation → Geometry → Edge → Create straight edge → Select all points → Apply
Step No.3: Creating the Face - Connecting all the edges to form the one Face.
Operation → Geometry → Face → Create face → Select all edges → Label → Apply
Step No.4: Meshing
Operation → Mesh → Select face → Element- Quad → Type – Map → Spacing –
Interval size → 0.001 → Apply
Step No. 5: Boundary Types
i). Operation → Zones → Specify boundary types → Name – edge 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and
7 → Type – Wall
ii). Operation → Zones → Specify boundary types → Name – edge 4 → Type –
velocity in → 18 m/s
iii). Operation → Zones → Specify boundary types → Name – edge 8 → Type –
pressure outlet
iv). Operation → Zones → Specify continuum Types → Name – face1 → Type –
fluid → entity – faces → Select face label → Apply
Step No. 6: Saving

File → Export → mesh → d:\cfd\problem.msh
5.4.2 Solver (FLUENT)

Step No. 7: Reading the case

File → Read → case → d:\cfd\problem.msh
Step No. 8: Checking the Grids
Grid → check → done

Step No. 9: Defining the Model
Define → models → solver → density based → 1.22 kg/m3 → Ok

Define → materials → material type → fluid → air → Ok
Step No. 10: Defining Boundary Conditions

i). Define → operating condition → 101325 pascal → Ok
ii). Define → boundary conditions → zone → default interior → interior
iii). Define → boundary conditions → zone → fluid → air
iv). Define → boundary conditions → zone → in → velocity inlet → 18 m/s → Ok
→ Thermal → Temperature → 323 Kelvin
v). Define → boundary conditions → zone → out → gauge pressure → Ok →
Thermal → Temperature → 318 Kelvin
vi). Define → boundary conditions → zone → symmetry → symmetry
vii). Define → boundary conditions → zone → wall → wall → Thermal →
Temperature → 308 Kelvin
Step No. 11: Solving the Problem

i). Solve → Initialize → initialize → done
ii). Solve → Iterate → iterate → interval size → 1 → done
5.4.3 Post-processor
Step No. 12: Executing the Results

i). Display → contours → contours of velocity magnitude → symmetry → filled
ii). Display → contours → contours of static temperature → symmetry → filled

Figure 5.1 Contours of Velocity Magnitude
Figure 5.2 Contours of Temperature

The CFD analysis is done because to know the point to point variation in flat plate
collector temperature and velocity and CFD provides whole field information and more
insight. The actual output velocity obtained by measuring equipment anemometer is 1.8
m/s, by analysis of flat plate collector using CFD shows output velocity as 1.9 m/s,
there is an error of 5.2 % which is came to know by this analysis. The outlet temperature
is 50 oC.
5.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter the performance analysis of experimental set-up carried out, the tono
therm M-65 PCM used as an energy storing material. After analyzing all the readings
come to know that, a solar dryer system can be successfully used for drying during the
day as well as in the evening. To analyze these system four different cases were carried
out like natural convection, forced convection, forced convection with PCM and natural
convection with PCM. In this experiment total 30 readings are taken on five different
food samples like spinach, potato, onions, chili, and grapes. Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) is nothing but analysis of flowing fluid under various parameters like
temperature, pressure, velocity, etc. The main advantage of CFD is minimized
repetitions of experimentation and physical prototyping. Experimentation can then
focus on the most promising of these and also the cost, effort and error. The point to
point variation is calculated.

CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE OF FURTHER STUDIES
6.1 CONCLUSION
From the test carried out, the following conclusions were made. The solar dryer can
raise the ambient air temperature to a considerable high value for increasing the drying
rate of agricultural crops. The sample inside the dryer requires less attention, like attack
of the sample by rain or pest (both human and animals), pollution, compared with those
in the open sun drying.
i). The reduction in drying occurs by increasing air flow rate.

ii). The inclusion of energy storing material increases the drying time after sunset
by about 3 hours per day.
iii). The food items are also well protected in the solar dryer than in the open sun,
thus minimizing the case of pest and insect attack and also contamination.
iv). Although the dryer was used to dry grapes, it can be used to dry other crops like
spinach, potato, onion and chili etc.
v). The capital cost involved in the construction of a solar dryer is much lower to
that of a mechanical dryer and the running cost is negligible.
vi). The drying time of grapes by natural convection, forced convection, forced
convection with PCM and natural convection with PCM are 27 hours, 21 hours
21 hours (16 hours of solar) and 32 hours (25 hours of solar) respectively.
vii). The drying time of spinach by natural convection, forced convection, forced
convection with PCM and natural convection with PCM are 1 hour 47 minutes,
1 hour 15 minutes, 1 hour 10 minutes, and1 hour 45 minutes.
viii). The drying time of potato by natural convection, forced convection, forced
convection with PCM and natural convection with PCM are 2 hours 16 minutes,
1 hour 45 minutes, 1 hour 35 minutes, and 3 hours 50 minutes.
ix). The drying time of onion by natural convection, forced convection, forced
3 hours 15 minutes, 3 hours, and 3 hours 50 minutes.
x). The drying time of chili by natural convection, forced convection, forced
5 hour 15 minutes, 5 hours 10 minutes, and 7 hours.

xi). The reduction in drying time of grapes by forced convection is 22.2 % compared
to natural convection.
xii). The reduction in drying time of grapes by forced convection with PCM is 40.7%
compared to natural convection.
xiii). Forced convection with PCM solar dryer is more suitable to reduce drying time
and helps in producing high quality of dried samples.
xiv). The CFD analysis gives output temperature as 50 oC and outlet velocity as 1.9
m/s.
6.2 SCOPE FOR FUTURE STUDIES
The performance of existing solar food dryers can still be improved upon especially in
the aspect of reducing the drying time, and probably storage of heat energy within the
system by increasing the size of the solar collector. They are some future scopes on this
project those are as follows,
i). The manual reflector tracking system used in this project can be replaced by an
automatic tracking system, so that reflectors can be automatically tracked
according to direction of the sun.
ii). Instead of keeping the system outside, it can be kept inside of room for that the
solar parabolic dish and piping system are required. The solar parabolic reflector
will concentrate the solar radiations at single point so at that point the pipe will
be kept from that pipe a natural air will blow and this heated air will be discharge
in dryer chamber.
iii). In this project latent heat storing material is used, instead of this lower cost
sensible heat storing material can be used.
iv). This system can be converted into a hybrid system by providing a DC heater so
it can run 24 hours, and this heater runs by solar energy only.
v). The color of dried grapes should not change.

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ANNEXURE I
PAPER PUBLICATIONS BASED ON PROJECT WORK
1. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS

i). Papade, C. V., and Boda, M. A., 2014, “Analysis of Solar Dryer by using CFD”,
International Journal of Advances in Management, Technology, Engineering
and Science, 3(5), pp. 5-8.
ii). Papade, C. V., and Boda, M. A., 2015, “Design and Development of Indirect
Type Solar Dryer with Energy Storing Material”, International Journal of
Innovative Research in Advanced Engineering, 1(12), pp. 109-114.
2. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
i). International conference attended on Paradigm shift in Commerce, Engineering,
Technology and Social Science on 8th February 2014 at K.J.Somaiya College of
Arts, Commerce and Science, Kopargaon, Dist Ahmednagar (Maharashtra).

ANNEXURE II
METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF SOLAPUR
The following table shows the meteorological conditions of solapur having attitude
angle 17oN and longitude angle 75oE,in this table the average weather conditions of
solapur is shown [www.weatheronline.in/weather/maps/city/solapur]
Table : Solapur average weather conditions monthly

Months Temperature Wind Relative Solar
(oc) Speed (m/s) Humidity (%) Radiation(w/m2)
January 31 1.59 40.25 645
February 32 1.92 42.50 723
March 37 2.13 51.00 798
April 40 2.69 41.75 807
May 42 3.75 36.50 804
June 34 4.43 70.25 636
July 32 4.25 81.75 570
August 31 3.84 76.00 558
September 30 2.60 71.80 615
October 28 1.94 66.00 633
November 28 1.72 60.75 621
December 27 1.62 55.40 630

ANNEXURE III
LIST OF PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS
Table : List of Phase Change Materials [8]
Sr.No. Name Melting Temp. Latent Heat(kJ/kg)

(oC)
1 Gallium 30 80.3
2 Cerrolow eutectic 58 90.9
3 Cerrobond eutectic 61 25
4 Tono therm M-65 65 215
5 Bi-In eutectic 72 25
6 Thymol 52 115
7 Oxolate 54 178
8 Dinto tolune 70 111
9 Catechol 104 207
10 Acetanilide 119 222

ANNEXURE IV
INFORMATIONS OF VARIOUS DRYING SAMPLES
The temperature of food samples plays an important role, from the following table
shows the initial and final moisture content in percentage present inside the product,
and the maximum temperature allowable for drying the product from this table one can
easily know how much maximum temperature should reach in the dryer chamber so
control of dryer chamber temperature is occurs easily.
Table: Initial and Final Moisture Contents, and Maximum Temperatures

Allowable for Drying Various Samples [17]
Products Initial moisture Final moisture Max. temp of products
content (%) content (%) for drying (oC)
Apple 85 15 55
Banana 80 15-20 70
Cabbage 80 4 55
Carrot 70 5 75
Cauliflower 80 6 65
Chilies 80 10 75
Coffee 80 20 65
Corn 24 14 50
Cotton seed 50 9 75
Fish 80 5 65
Garlic 80 4 55
Grapes 85 18 65
Green peas 80 5 65
Maize 35 15 60
Onion 80 4 55
Pineapple 80 20 65
Potato 75 13 75
Rice 24 11 50
Spinach 80 10 60
Sweet potato 75 7 75

ANNEXURE V
VISIT REPORT
Location: - Near Forty Farms, Solapur – Vairag road, Nannaj, Soalpur.
Name of Farmer: - Mr. Anil Dhabade
The world production of grapes is presently 65,486,235 million tons and India accounts
for 1.2 million tons of grapes, which makes a share of 1.83 percent of the world
production and 3 percent of the total fruit production in the country. Area under this
fruit has been increased by 50% and its production by 71% in the country in the last
decade due to the economic importance of this fruit. Its economic significance is due to
good backup of the grape industry in terms of backward and forward linkage that offers
employment to a large number of skilled and unskilled people on the farm, trade and
service. India has achieved the highest productivity of 20% in the production of grapes.
Presently in India about 78 percent of grapes are used for eating purposes, nearly 17-
20 percent is dried for raisin production, while 1.5 percent is used for juice and only 0.5
percent is used in manufacturing wine. Though this fruit is processed to the largest
extent relative to other fruits in the country the processing of this fruit in our country is
very less as compared to the traditional grape growing countries in the world where
more than 80 percent of the produce is processed in the form of wine, raisin and juice.
In India, the grapes are mostly produced in Sangli, Solapur and Nashik districts of
Maharashtra and Bijapur district in Karnataka. Out of the total production of 1.3 million
tons of grapes, around 15-17% of the fresh produce is dried into raisins. At 2003, the
raisin production reached to 65,000 tons, which stands 3rd in the world after USA and
Turkey. In spite of such a huge production, India has not yet attempted to export raisins.
Raisin is mostly produced from the varieties viz. Thompson Seedless and its clones like
Manik Chaman. The technique of raisin production in India is dipping the grapes in
2.4% potassium carbonate, and 1.5% ethyl oleate (dipping oil) in 1000 liter of water.
A. CHARACTERS OF GOOD RAISIN

Good and uniform appearance of produce in terms of its color, size and smooth texture.
More pulp content and a pleasing taste; free from injuries so that no sugar coat outside
and intactness of skin and its outer layers.
B. GLOBAL RAISIN PRODUCTION

USA, Turkey and South Africa are the largest raisin producers at the global level
besides Greece, Australia, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Russia and others. India has
achieved the raisin production level, i.e. in the range of 55,000 to 65,000 tons next to
Turkey at world level, although there is no price stability for raisin production in last
two years due to saturation of production. Efforts on improvement in the quality of the
Indian raisins, imported of the product are yet to be initiated for the export market by
the Indian industry.
C. GRAPE VARIETIES FOR RAISIN MAKING

Major production of raisin (90%) in the world is from Thompson seedless. In India,
Thompson Seedless and its mutant’s viz. Sonaka, Tas-A-Ganesh. Manik Chaman are
mainly used for raisin production although Arkavati variety developed at Indian
Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore found to be the best due to its
high yield for this product.
D. TECHNOLOGY FOR RAISIN PRODUCTION

Grape berry has juice/pulp containing sugar, acids, vitamin and minerals and outer
protective skin with different layers. Drying process has to be selective to remove the
water from berry without affecting the outer skin structure. The outer layer only protects
the berries from getting dried in fresh form. During storage at low temperature, the
water moves out. Waxy layer on the grape skin is the main target of various
pretreatment of grape for quickening the drying process. Many treatments have been
worked out in different countries after various research trials and an appropriate and
economic treatment of drying of grapes. A water solution containing 2.5 kg of
potassium carbonate and 1.5 L of ethyl oleate (dipping oil) in every 100 liter of water
for dipping grapes has been suggested. A dipping time of 3 minutes duration has been
recommended to increase water removal.
Steps for Drying of Grapes in Industry

i). Cleaning – Cleaning is done by using water to remove the chemical on grapes
ii). Peeling – Peeling is done because to keep the grapes on tray
iii). Pre-treatment and drying – The pre-treatment is done by dipping 1000 kg of
grapes in a solution of 1000 ml of ethyl oleate (Deeping oil) and 2.5 kg of
potassium carbonate for 2-4 minutes is common practices, after six days once
again deeped into two third solution, and after next six days once again deeped
into one third of fresh solution. Finally on 18th day the dried grapes are shipped
for washing, the washing process takes one day.
iv). Packing – Finally packing is done in LDPE jars and bags on 19th day.
E. PACKING AND STORAGE

Raisins are very hygroscopic. Contact to moisture may result in mold, rot and
fermentation and if a fermentation process is initiated, it may eventually affect the entire
lot. Under appropriate temperature and humidity conditions, there is a risk of infestation
by beetles, rats, mice and ants. To maintain the quality of raisins and increasing shelf
life, storage at low temperature is always advised. During storage period, the product
turns sticky and hard due to exudates syrup and moisture loss. To overcome this
problem the application of edible coating suggests being of proper assistance. This
coating can affect the respiration and moisture loss. The performance of pectin film was
found better than gum and starch coatings. Raisin storage in darkness is found to
maintain their quality. The final packing of produce is done in 400 gauge low density
ployethene film bags and stored in corrugated boxes of 5 to 15 kg capacity at low
temperature (4°C) to withstand the mechanical, climatic, biotic and chemical stresses
to which raisins may be exposed during transport, storage and cargo handling and
preserve the original raisin color and prevent the attack of pests. Thus there is a big
potential of raisin industry in India in terms of the marketing of this product in domestic
and international market for import substitution and better utilization.

ANNEXURE VI
CALCULATIONS
Efficiency of solar dryer can be calculated as,
mw Lv

I c Act
The total moisture content evaporated by system from all the samples is 197.15 kg and
to evaporate this much moisture solar time required is 154.2 hours and by PCM solar
time is 123.45 hours. Here calculating efficiencies with and without PCM,
Without PCM,
197.15  2257000
 100
670  0.5 154.2  3600
  23.92%
With PCM,
197.15  2257000
 100
670  0.5 123.45  3600
  29.88%
The efficiency of solar dryer system with PCM is higher than without PCM.

Solar

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CHAPTER ONE

1.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF SOLAR DRYER

1.3 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 3

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

1.5 OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 4

Study of Solar Dryer

Design of Solar Dryer

Fabrication of Solar Dryer

Analysis of Solar Dryer

Analysis of Flat Plate Collector

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 5

1.6 WORK ACTIVITY PLAN

SR. NO. ACTIVITY DURATION

1.7 OUTLINE OF DISSERTATION

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 6

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 7

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 10

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 12

3.2 SOLAR DRYER

3.2.2 Classification of Solar Dryer

Figure 3.2 Direct Type Solar Dryer [15]

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 17

Figure 3.3 Indirect Type Solar Dryer [16]

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 18

3.2.4 Selection of Solar Dryer

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 19

Properties of the  Physical characteristics (wet/dry)

Drying characteristics  Initial moisture content

3.3 ENERGY STORING MATERIALS

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 20

Figure 3.4 Classifications of Thermal Energy Storage Materials [18]

3.3.1 Sensible Heat Storage

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 21

3.3.2 Latent Heat Storage Materials

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 22

3.4 PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS

3.4.1 Properties of Phase Change Materials

3.4.2 Classification of Latent Heat Storage Materials

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 24

3.5 DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER

3.5.1 Design Considerations for Solar Dryer

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 26

3.5.3 Design of Solar Dryer System Components

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 27

Energy Gain by Air from Radiation

Calculating Drying Time,

Mass Flow Rate of Air (ma),

Velocity of air at location, va  1.2 m/s

Determination of Heat Losses from Solar Air Collector

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 28

QL  Qcond  Qconv  Qrad

The useful energy gain by is given by equation (3.11).

by conduction mode. Hence  Qcond  0

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 29

tb  0.0099m  9.9mm

3.6 SELECTION OF PCM FOR SOLAR DRYER

Table 3.2 Properties of Phase Change Material (Tono therm M-65)

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 30

Photograph 3.1 Phase Change Material (Tono therm M-65)

The latent storing in PCM is given by equation (3.2),

N.K. ORCHID College of Engineering & Technology, Solapur. 31