Colonialism: Architecture, Anthropology and

Globalization in India
Documentation of Indian Architecture
The Identity of an Empire – The Indo-Saracenic Style

Anda Cristina Popescu

Matriculation number: 14-983-720

Architectural Anthropology: 18th to 21st Centuries

Prof. Dr. Sonja Hildebrand, Prof. Elena Chestnova
AA 2014-15, Master, sem II
Table of Contents

Introduction 3

I. Exploring Indian Art and Architecture

Premises and Methods of Documentation 4
The Early Travelers
The Picturesque and the Artists 6
Scientific Archeology and the Antiquarians 7

II. Understanding the Sanskrit Texts

A Cultural Division 9
Ram Raz and the “Essay” 10

III. The British Empire – A Question of Identity

The Beginning of an Empire 13
The Debate of Mayo College 15
The Indo-Saracenic Style 16

Conclusion 18

Bibliography 19
Introduction

During the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, Europe was
marked by constant changes ranging from esthetic values to technical development.
The discoveries of new cultures challenged the perceptions upon art and architecture
while stimulating the development of new tools and methodologies for investigating
the past.

In this context, the present essay focuses on the interest of Western society in Indian
culture, culminating with the emergence of the British Empire and its search for a
new architecture to represent its identity.

We will start by describing the changes in western society that led to and influenced
the investigations of the Indian territory. Later on, following the trail of the first
researchers of Indian art and architecture, we will point out three different
approaches towards the task of documenting history.

In the following chapter we focus on the work of the Indian scholar Ram Raz and
his particular type of inquiry that made possible the understanding of ancient texts
written in Sanskrit and set an important example for the next generations of
intellectuals.

Starting with a depiction of the beginning of British colonization in India, the last
chapter concentrates on the Empire’s search for a new architectural identity studied
through the debate for the Mayo College design. We will trace the formation of the
Indo-Saracenic style and its sources of inspiration.

The final part brings together and summarizes the main points of the paper in order
to offer a better understanding of the continuity of the events.

3
 I. Exploring Indian Art and Architecture
Fig 1. Anquetil-Duperron, ground plans
and other details of cave temples in
Zend-Avesta, 1754
Source:
Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned
Monsters. A History of European
Reactions to Indian Art, The University
of Chicago Press, 1977, p.109
Fig 2. Carsten Niebuhr, sectional
drawing of a column in Elephanta,
1778
Source:
Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned
Monsters. A History of European
Reactions to Indian Art, The University
of Chicago Press, 1977, p.110
Premises and Methods of Documentation
In order to understand the breakthroughs of the Indian art investigation and
documentation it is important to highlight the changes in mentality and aesthetics that
took place in the second part of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
nineteenth century Europe.
In the context of the Greek and Gothic revival enabled by a romantic vision of the
past, Europe opened its gates towards the world encouraging new visual experiences,
phenomenon later known as “Grand Tour”. In the same time the discipline of
scientific archeology was starting to take shape, rapidly becoming an important
instrument for investigating the past. Another important development, subsequently
named the second Renascence or “la renaissance orientale”, was the discovery of
Sanskrit. Later on, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, archeology made
possible the finding of the Ajanta caves.1
While these discoveries led to new questions concerning the origin of art and the
quest of a first nation, the role of symbolism and religion, the impact of natural, social
and political factors in the development of art among a nation, and the overall
importance of Indian art, they simultaneously opened a path for a more systematic
approach concerned with classifications and acquisition of relevant data.
The Early Travelers
The first important descriptions of Indian art came to Europe in the second half of the
eighteenth century, from French and British travelers in the shape of journals. These
sketches and notes offered the antiquarians and scholars valuable information on
Indian art and formed the base for numerous speculations since a broader knowledge
of Indian mythology was missing at that time.
1
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.105-107
4

Fig 3. Carsten Niebuhr, sketch of Siva
Mahesamurti at Elephanta, 1778
Source:
Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned
Monsters. A History of European
Reactions to Indian Art, The University
of Chicago Press, 1977, p.112
Fig 4. Le Gentil, drawing of gopura
from the temple of Vilnour, 1779
Source:
Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned
Monsters. A History of European
Reactions to Indian Art, The University
of Chicago Press, 1977, p.114
An important figure of this time is A. H. Anquetil-Duperron who arrived in India in
1754. His interest in learning the Asian languages enabled the translation of “Zend-
Avesta” in 1771 and later the “Upanishads” in 1804. Although concerned more with
Hindu art and architecture described in literature, he provided accurate floor-plans
for the temples at Yogeswari, Mandapeswar, Elephanta and Kanheri. Because of the
returning interest in medieval art at that time, Anquetil compared the sculptures from
Ellora with the ones in Notre Dame in Paris.2 Another important name was the Danish
Carsten Niebuhr who focused more on measurements and drawings. His
unprecedented detailed representations of the sculptures at Elephanta made a great
impression among European intellectuals. The objects of the travelers’ observations
were often judged with subjectivism and placed on a scale of values related to Greek,
Roman and Egyptian art.3
“In truth, they (the sculptures from Elephanta) are not as beautiful as the bas-reliefs and
statues of the Greek and Roman masters, but far superior to the design and arrangement
of Egyptian figures, and besides, very beautiful in relation to their great antiquity”4
In 1779, the works of Le Gentil de la Galasière, a member of the French academy of
sciences, were published. Among studying the Hindu zodiac and astronomical
systems, Le Gentil also discussed religion and architecture in the area of the
Coromandel coast, focusing on types of buildings and materials. Furthermore, he
provided measured drawings of the gopuras of Vilnour and Chincacol temples and
he was the first to discover the position of the constructions in relation to the cardinal
points. The pyramidal shape of the gopuras was historically associated with the
5
Egyptian pyramids by antiquarians. Like Anquetil before him, Le Gentil also
compares elements of Indian architecture, in this case the gopuras, with those
belonging to Gothic:
“The four faces were overloaded with ornament; these were not architectural ornaments,
but figures carved in three-quarters relief, as in the portals of our gothic churches […]
these works reveal the Indian ignorance of design […] The figures that surround these
2
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.108
3
Ibid. p.112
4
Niebuhr, Carsten, Voyage en Arabie et en d’autres pays circonvoisins, II Utrecht, 1779, p.26
5
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.115
5

Fig 5. Pierre Sonnerat, aerial view of
of a temple on Coromandel coast, 1782
Source:
Mitter, Partha, Much Maligned
Monsters. A History of European
Reactions to Indian Art, The University
of Chicago Press, 1977, p.118
Fig 6. William Hodges, view of part of
the city of Benares, 1781
Source:
http://www.magnoliabox.com/art/6580
65/view-of-part-of-the-city-of-benares-
c1781-grey-wash-with-brush
(consulted august 23rd)
pyramids are exactly similar in taste to those which are preserved in our Gothic
churches, and the kind of mausoleum and stone sculptures seen here belong to the times
which we call barbaric and Gothic.”6
Another significant contribution was brought by Pierre Sonnerat in his “Voyages aux
Indes Orientales” published in 1782 that contained drawings and descriptions related
to iconography. He was intrigued by the contrast of antique Indian art and the
“degenerate state of the contemporary Indians” and considered the lack of progress
in the eastern arts as a consequence of political conflicts and rough climate
conditions.7
In the late eighteenth century, India became part of the controversy started a century
before on the origin of society, initially oscillating between the Egyptians and later
on other societies including China. The growing interest in gigantic structures
influenced by the appearance of a new aesthetic notion, that of the sublime, drew
attention to India’s cave temples and their supposed antiquity. Placing India in the
role of “cradle of humanity”, opinion shared by the former discussed characters and
also Voltaire, explained the enormous amount of time necessary to build such
gigantic structures as well as “the lack of a sense of design”.8
The Picturesque and the Artists
As Europe’s definition of beauty became wider with the concept of the sublime and
the picturesque, we can notice the shift from the classical rigor to the interest towards
the medieval art. This served as context for the new generation of travelers that
appreciated Indian art and architecture for their aesthetic values. For that reason they
chose to present their subjects along with the surrounding scenery offering Europe a
new view on Asian art and architecture.
A pioneer in the technique of aquatint and one of the first to define a style of Indian
architecture was the artist William Hodges who travelled in India between 1779 and
1784. In his works, “A Dissertation on the Prototypes of Architecture: Hindoo,
6
Le Gentil, G. J., “Voyage dans les mers de l’Inde”, I, Paris, 1779, p.576
7
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.116
8
Ibid. p.120
6

Fig 7. Thomas and William Daniell,
Hindoo temple Bangalore, 1800
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/182499
57@N00/360167063
(consulted august 23rd)
Fig 8. Pavilion in Melchet Park, 1800
Source:
http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlinee
x/kinggeorge/a/003ktop00000043u046a
0000.html
(consulted august 23rd)
Fig 9. Sezincote house
Source:
http://www.geocaching.com/geocache/
GC19BX0_sezincote-stroll-2-gateway-
to-nowhere?guid=a832f3c3-27c4-4169-
bfd3-2bd2bda861d1
(consulted august 23rd)
Moorish and Gothic” (1787) and “Select Views in India” (1785-8), he described the
practice of architecture in India trying to avoid the European tendency of relating all
traditions to the Classical rules. He acknowledged the originality of Indian art and its
emergence from a particular environment:9
“architecture undoubtedly should, and must, be adapted to all the climates and countries
which mankind inhabit, and is variously, more than any other art, influenced and
modified by the nature of the climate and materials, as well as by the habits and pursuits
of the inhabitants.”10
The most notable results of the picturesque movement were the drawings of Thomas
Daniell and his nephew William, who travelled on the eastern continent in 1785.
Their drawings in aquatint, opened to a British audience residing both in India as well
as in Britain, portrayed the Indian temples in their original landscapes. In their work,
the series “Oriental Scenery” (1794-1808), the Daniells audience.11
Daniells’ landscapes and portrayal of Indian architecture reached a high influence in
Britain. Their aquatints were used as inspiration for the design of architectural
ornaments and after their return to England they contributed to the design of two
country houses, Melchet Park and Sezincote. Furthermore, inspired by their “Oriental
Scenary”, Humphrey Repton included Hindoo motives in his proposal for the design
for the Brighton royal pavilion.12
Scientific Archeology and the Antiquarians
The eighteenth century is renowned for major archeological discoveries starting with
Herculaneum in 1738 and Pompeii in 1748. As a consequence, new methods of
research were developed and subsequently put in practice by English travelers,
9
Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-1901”, PHD
Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
2010, p.33
10
Hodges, William, 1793, p.64
11
Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-1901”, PHD
Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
2010, p.30
12
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.129
7

Fig 10. James Wales, interior of the
Elephanta temple, 1794
Source:
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pri
tchett/00routesdata/0500_0599/elephan
ta/drawings/drawings.html
(consulted august 23rd)
culminating with the journey to Athens of James Steward and Nicholas Revett.13 The
founding of The Society of Antiquaries in 1717 in London made all the early
European expeditions possible. Continuing the “British archeological tradition in
Europe”14, Richard Gough, the Society’s director since 1771, puts forward a
methodology using comparison in his work “A Comparative View of the Ancient
Monuments of India” in 1785. Since he never visited India, his study was based on
earlier observations from travelers and focused on the cave temples near Bombay, in
particular Ellora and Elephanta. Immediately followed by visual representations,
James Wales’s “Temple of Elephanta”, the complex mysterious interiors of the cave
with its imposing columns “challenged early colonial perceptions about the lack of
artistry in early Indian culture”15.
Communication between the Society and the antiquarians in Britain facilitated the
transfer of data and incited the curiosity of the Western world. After the East India
Company defeated the leader of Bengal in the Plassey battle in 1757, the British
control was assured and opened new possibilities for trade and exploration.16
From the second part of the eighteenth century until the first part of the nineteenth,
Indian art and architecture challenged the western world’s esthetic perception, scale
of values and view upon history. Starting with the early travelers writing their
impressions in journals and the picturesque artists that built a new language of
expression, and continuing with the antiquarians that set the beginning for a more
systematic approach to research, Europe barely scratched the surface of
understanding the Indian culture. In the next chapter we will discuss the progress of
research as we follow the significant work of an Indian scholar, Ram Raz, whose
translations of Indian texts allowed remarkable progress in the field of architecture
history.
13
Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to Indian Art”, The
University of Chicago Press, 1977, p.140
14
Ibid. p.142
15
Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-1901”, PHD
Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
2010, p.28
16
Ibid .p.29
8
II. Understanding the Sanskrit Texts
A Cultural Division

Acquiring and categorizing information about Indian culture, history and geography
came as a necessity of the British colonialism in its attempt to comprehend the
controlled subcontinent and the South Asian society. As a result, the region was
divided on account of religion and caste forming two main social categories: Hindus
and Muslims. Although in reality this kind of organization would imply a more
complex classification, the two radical categories also came to determine the
interpretation of architecture testimonies.17

As we discussed earlier, until the beginning of the nineteenth century the research
methods used in order to accomplish this were mainly observations and drawings of
the existent built environment. Although substantial efforts have been made, little
progress was made in the study if Indian shastric texts related to architecture. Most
of the discovered texts were dated between 500-1500AD, even though there was
evidence that architectural practice and theory existed since 1500-1000BC.18 These
texts were considered by the Asiatic Society as “critical sources of knowledge”19 and
as possible answer to the question of a national architectural identity rooted in the
“subcontinent’s unadulterated “classical”, and more significantly “Hindoo” past.” In
order to concentrate solely on a pure “Hindu” tradition, the texts dated between the
twelfth and the eighteenth century were not considered relevant. 20

One of the most important names that helped trace the “Hindu” identity Ram Raz, an
Indian scholar engaged by the British authority in translating the surviving shastras.
In his “Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus” he confronted theoretical knowledge

17
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.463
18
Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-1901”, PHD
Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
2010, p.36
19
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.463
20
Ibid.
9

Fig 11. Ram Raz, the relative
proportions of parts of columns, Ram
Raz, Essay on the Architecture of the
Hindus, London: Royal Asiatic Society
of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834,
plate IV
Source:
http://www.jstor.org/action/showImage
?doi=10.1525/jsah.2012.71.4.462&iNa
me=master.img-
000.jpg&w=462&h=605
(consulted august 23rd)
Fig 12. H. H. Cole, Gopura of
Ranganatha temple, Srirangam, Tamil
Nadu, India, ca. thirteenth–seventeenth
century, 1884
Source:
http://www.jstor.org/action/showImage
?doi=10.1525/jsah.2012.71.4.462&iNa
me=master.img-
016.jpg&w=313&h=357
(consulted august 23rd)
found in the Sanskrit manuscripts with existent buildings and illustrated the text with
his personal drawings.21
Ram Raz and the “Essay”
The context in which Ram Raz’s activity started consisted on one hand of the
previous efforts of British collectors and scholars like William Jones, Colin
Mackenzie and Horace Hayman Wilson along with their assistants. Their method of
inquiry consisted of mapping the Indian territory, illustrating, documenting and
translating texts in English (the lack of knowledge in Sanskrit left this task to
assistants). On the other hand, the Indian scholar was influenced by the rigid division
between Hindu and Islamic architecture.
Ram Raz’s focused on the texts called silpashāstra that mainly discussed southern
India architectural style preferences. The types of constructions described ranged
from religious and secular to town planning and organization. Most of the analysis
was done on the text known as Mānasāra, concerned with matters of spatial
organization of functions in buildings and towns in correlation with the human being
and its interaction with the physical as well as spiritual world.22 Furthermore, the
system of classification used in the building instructions was based on individual
parts and their typology through analogy23, fact that came in contradiction with the
Enlightenment ideas of classification embraced by Western society.
Ram Raz’s “Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus”, containing translations and
analysis illustrated with his own drawings, was published in 1834 by the Royal
Asiatic Society. He was challenged by the task of bringing together manuscripts, their
translation and their interpretation through the prism of his architectural and
philosophical knowledge. Because of his conviction of the division between Hindu
and Muslim, he considered that the object of his study represented an archaic
21
Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-1901”, PHD
Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
2010, p.36
22
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.464
23
Ibid.
10

Fig 13. Ram Raz, a Vimana
consisting of five stories, Essay on the
Architecture of the Hindus, London:
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, 1834, plate XXXII
Source:
http://www.jstor.org/action/showImage
?doi=10.1525/jsah.2012.71.4.462&iNa
me=master.img-
017.jpg&w=325&h=429
(consulted august 23rd)
Fig 14. Ram Raz, “Indian orders”,
Essay on the Architecture of the
Hindus, London: Royal Asiatic Society
of Great Britain and Ireland, 1834,
plate VII
Source:
http://www.jstor.org/action/showImage
?doi=10.1525/jsah.2012.71.4.462&iNa
me=master.img-
013.jpg&w=325&h=504
(consulted august 23rd)
knowledge irrelevant to contemporary practices, although the texts were still used as
a supplement for the masons’ traditional craft mostly transmitted orally at that time.24
While consulting with craftsmen and masons, Ram Raz noticed that they owe their
knowledge to previous generations and they are unfamiliar with the Sanskrit texts.
Since architecture wasn’t considered a profession among elites, intellectuals that
could read Sanskrit were unaware of the terminology used in the manuscripts.25
In Mānasāra, building components are treated as individual parts that are classified
through analogy and their position in relation with the building. This formed a
“general set of guidelines”26 that allowed the builders to create combinations of
elements.
Drawing existent buildings, a process proved fundamental to colonialism, allowed
Ram Raz to fill the gaps in the descriptions provided by the texts and helped him to
recreate architectural forms. By doing this, he was able to categorize different
typologies that brought him closer to a more universal understanding. Influenced by
the European tendency for ordonnance and standardization, Ram Raz invented a
“Hindu” order divided in “four principal parts, namely, upapītha or pedestal, the
athisthāna or base, the sthamba or pillar, and the prastāra or entablature […] pillars
of Indian architecture may, with respect to the dimensions, be divided into seven
sorts.”27 Therefore he managed to transform the numerous individual elements into a
finite system of classification that he compared to the Western system of ordonnance:
“Ram Raz aligned the “orders of India” with those of Greece and Rome, in an attempt
to claim parity with a much-admired Greco-Roman tradition while effectively
maintaining a distinction between his own interpretations of Indian tradition and that of
the colonizers.”28
Assuming the role of translator, architect, philosopher and interpret, Ram Raz
managed to find a language in order to communicate the essence of Indian
24
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.474
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid. p.476
27
Raz, Ram, “Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus”, 1834, p.22, 29
28
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.483
11
architecture along with its principles to a Western world ruled by strong beliefs.
Although highly influenced by his context that forced him to formulate his research
within certain boundaries, Ram Raz’s “Essay” provided material on Indian
architecture as well as methodology for further generations of scholars.29

The first chapters of the presented essay provide an image on the inquiries and
discoveries in Indian art and architecture during the second part of the eighteenth
century and the beginning of the nineteenth. These notions will serve as background
for a better understanding of the factors that shaped the decisions made by the British
Empire in search for a new colonial architectural identity. These matters will be
discussed in the following chapter along with the emergence of the Indo-Saracenic
style.

29
Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in South Asia”,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4, Special Issue on Architectural
Representation 2, 2012, p.485
12
 III. The British Empire – A Question of Identity
Fig 15. Company painting depicting
an official of the East India
Company, c. 1760
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Indi
a_Company#/media/File:Portrait_of_E
ast_India_Company_official.jpg
(consulted august 23rd)
The Beginning of an Empire
When the British traders of East India Company arrived in India the scene was
governed by an intense commercial activity undertook by the Portuguese (present in
Goa and Bombay for a century), Danish, French, Swedish and Dutch traders. The
Company gained administrative rights over Mandras in 1639 and received ownership
of Bombay thirty years after. By defeating the Nawab, East India Company gained
control over Bengal. Later on, in 1773, the British Parliament named the Governor
of Calcutta Governor-General Supreme of the British Colony. The power shifted
from Calcutta in 1912 and New Delhi became the new capital.30
Until the middle of nineteenth century, the British were concerned in expanding and
stabilizing their control over the Indian subcontinent. As a consequence their interest
in architecture was negligible nor did they want to invest in such matters. At that
time, the only notable architecture could be found in the presidency capitals of
Madras, Bombay and Calcutta. The intention of the style adopted here was to express
an “extension of Europe in Asia”31. Madras and Calcuta had a predominant classical
style, while Bombay embraced the gothic style.
A year after the “Sepoy Mutiny” revolt that covered northern India in 1857, direct
Crown rule was established, and the East India Company’s activity was brought to
an end. While their power stabilized, the British “began to formulate the ideology of
an empire”32. As a result, they start focusing their attention on launching building
programs and assigning architects in each province.
During the late nineteenth century, the British support research initiatives in order to
understand the history and culture of the Indians. As a central figure in this inquiry,
James Fergusson documented Indian architecture using the new technology of
30
Sengupta, R., “Old Cultures in the New World. Monuments in Their Built Environment and
Historical Context. Preservation and Interpretation of Colonial Gothic Architecture at Allahabad in
India”, source: http://www.international.icomos.org/publications/wash102.pdf (consulted august
15th), p.769
31
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”,
Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984, p.39
32
Ibid. p.40
13

Fig 16. James Fergusson, The tomb
of Nawab Safdar Jang, near Delhi,
c. 1760; an example of the
“Saracenic”-styled architecture of
India’s Muslim rulers, History of
Indian and Eastern Architecture,
Vol. II, plate XXXIV
Source:
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and
the Representation of Empire: India,
1860-1910”, Representations 6, The
Regents of the University of California,
1984, p.43
Fig 17. The Revenue Board
Buildings, Madras, Builder 31,
1870, p.1047
Source:
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and
the Representation of Empire: India,
1860-1910”, Representations 6, The
Regents of the University of California,
1984, p.44
photography. His very influential work, “History of Indian and Eastern Architecture”,
was published in 1876.
In the attempt of creating a grasping social structure the British divided India’s
population, therefore its culture, history and art, intro two major categories based on
religious association: Hindu and Muslim (issue discussed in the previous chapter).
Although he recognized a wide variety of styles, Fergusson describes the architecture
belonging to the “Hindu” category as the buildings constructed under Hindu rulers,
while the ones erected under Muslim reigns were attributed to “Saracenic”, “a term
for Islam derived from the European encounter with the Arabs of the early
conquests”33.
Lord Napier, another important name of that time, discussed the two styles of
architecture trying to assign specific architectural programs for each. In a speech held
in 1870, he described the “Hindu” style as “imposing” and “poetic”, but lacking the
necessary esthetics and structural stability needed for public programs. Taking into
account its climate adaptability he considers the style suited for dwellings. He thought
of the characteristics and expression of the “Saracenic”, the use of the arch and dome,
in relation to the Roman and Byzantine Empires, therefore considered it “the most
suited for the representation of an empire”34.
R. F. Chisholm, entitled by Napier to the function of Government Architect, was
given the task to design for the Madras Board of Revenue a building in the
“Saracenic” style. Although Chisholm’s early work promoted the Italian and the
Byzantine styles as suited for the Empire, the new proposal marked the beginning of
a new architecture. Together with Chisholm, architects throughout India were
working on developing a new “Indic style”
33
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”,
Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984, p.41
34
Ibid. p.42
14

Fig 18. The Mayo College, Ajmere,
c. 1895
Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_Co
Colle#/media/File:Mayo_college_QE3
_75.jpg
(consulted august 23rd)
The Debate of Mayo College
In 1875, a commission was formed in order to set the design for Mayo College in
Ajmere. The school had to meet the requirements of an English boarding school and
its purpose was to instruct royal members of the ruling family in Rajputana. The
decision concerning the architectural style of the building gave rise to a controversy
that lasted for five years during which seven different proposals were submitted. The
process undertook in finding a solution for the school became equivalent to that of
the Empire’s search of finding its suitable architectural expression.
Three different approaches were suggested: “the Classical, the mixed “Hindo-
Saracenic”, and the “pure” Hindu”35. After the rejection of the first proposal handed
by J. Gordon, inspired by Greek models, the request for a “Hindoo” design generated
the problem of inspiration models. One option was considered to be the Jar capital of
Dig, while the other, the architecture of the ancient Hindu temples. Since the first
option was preferred, Gordon traveled for inspiration and later brought forward a
proposal in a style that he described as “modern Hindoo or Indian saracene style”36.
When he was asked for an opinion, General Alexander Cunningham, who was well
aware of the two Hindu and Muslim styles and what they consist of, concluded that
the model of inspiration chosen is part of an Islamic tradition and, therefore, the
proposed design too. Since the contemporary Hindoo architecture, noted Lord
Northbrook, borrowed from the Islamic side, a mixed style for the new college could
also be appropriate.
The final design was made by Major C. Mant and it was based on his earlier high
school project at Kolhapur, built in an Indic style. Mant later discusses his proposal:
“great care has been taken, in preparing this design, to use only such Mahommedan
features and forms as the Hindus of Rajputana have themselves universally adopted,
and in using them, to so subordinate them to Hindu feeling and treatment, and to so
supplement them by purely Hindu forms and details, that the whole building may be
almost literally described, as being an adaptation of modern Hindu domestic
35
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”,
Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984, p.45-46
36
Ibid. p.47
15

Fig 19. An ornamental chattri on
the roof of the Albert Hall,
Janimpur, c. 1876
Source:
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and
the Representation of Empire: India,
1860-1910”, Representations 6, The
Regents of the University of California,
1984, p.50
Fig 20. Fergusson, The Audience
Hall, Bijapur, c.1600, History of
Indian and Eastern Architecture,
Vol. II, p.278
Source:
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and
the Representation of Empire: India,
1860-1910”, Representations 6, The
Regents of the University of California,
1984, p.52
architecture, and therefore thoroughly suitable, as far as architectural style is concerned,
for a College in which the sons of Rajput Chiefs and Nobles are to be educated.”37
The rejection of the Hindoo design was justified as the lack of a “pure” model,
adaptive qualities or power of political representation.
The Indo-Saracenic Style
After the construction of the Mayo College, the Indo-Saracenic became an official
style for the British colonies. In its mixture of the two identities, the style stood as
representation for the attribution of Indian culture by the British. The architectural
programs built in Indo-Saracenic were destined for Indians but the content and
functionality were set in accordance with colonial values (mostly museums). The
Albert Hall in Janipur and The Prince of Wales Museum in Bombay are among
significant examples of the style.
In an attempt to connect to the line of descend of the Rajputs and Mughals, the British
searched for models in the northern medieval cities. Soon, the label of “Hindu-
Saracenic” was applied to numerous buildings in Gaur, Bijapur, Ahmedabad,Amber
and Janipur.
The vast amount of models of inspiration and the absence of strict rules gave the
architects a complete freedom in combining elements38. As Chisholm stated that the
architect
“may choose the comparatively easy archeological road, copying piecemeal and
wholesale structures of the past, or he may endeavor to master that spirit which produced
such works, and select, reject, and modify the forms to suit the altered conditions.”39
As the use of the style spread in the late nineteenth century, certain guidelines were
set regarding the purpose of buildings in Indo-Saracenic style. It was often used for
public constructions destined for shared use (both British and Indians) like museums,
schools, banks, railway stations etc. In the case of buildings used mainly by
37
Mant, C., “General Description of the Design for Mayo College”, B. & R.- Civil Bldg. Procs.,
1877, No.6
38
Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”,
Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984, p.52-55
39
Chisholm, “New College for the Gaekwar of Baroda”, TRIBA 1882-83, 141
16
Europeans, Indo-Saracenic ornamental elements and decoration were added on a
gothic structure (Victoria Railway Terminal Bombay). Gothic was also chosen for
the architecture of churches.

After struggling to understand the unfamiliar cultural environment, the British

colonies used their acquired knowledge as a tool of order and control. The use of
Indian elements in order to create the identity of the Empire played a double role:
“these structures proclaimed the supremacy of the British as they sought to reshape
India”40.

Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India, 1860-1910”,
40

Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984, p.62

17
Conclusion

In order to understand a completely new culture, different from the familiar concepts
and values, it wasn’t enough for the Western world to create new methods of inquiry
or to try to apply known procedures and adapt the gathered information to existent
standards and orders. It wasn’t until the change in Europe’s rigid beliefs that the
essence and meaning of the Indian world started to untangle.

Because of the division of Indian population and culture in the two categories, Hindu
and Muslim, the freedom and variety of the Indian culture could not be understood.
Furthermore, the limitation of the object of study lead to ignorance of significant
evidence of the past. Ram Raz focused only on the manuscripts about “pure Hindoo”
architecture with the goal of finding specific information, instead of investigating all
the material at hand.

In search for an expression of an Empire that seeks to understand its grounds, the
proposed dichotomy Hindoo-Muslim proved to be insufficient and too rigid even for
the ideas of the British colonists. As with the language used by Ram Raz to speak of
the Indian culture to the Europeans (drawings in known standards), the Indo-
Saracenic style can be seen as a necessary compromise in order to mediate two
distinct identities.

18
 Bibliography

1. Chisholm, “New College for the Gaekwar of Baroda”, TRIBA 1882-83, 141
2. Desai, Madhuri, “Interpreting an Architectural Past. Ram Raz and the Treatise in
South Asia”, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 71, No. 4,
Special Issue on Architectural Representation 2, 2012
3. Gordon, Sophie, “Monumental Visions: Architectural Photography in India, 1840-
1901”, PHD Thesis, Department of History of Art, School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London, 2010
4. Le Gentil, G. J., “Voyage dans les mers de l’Inde”, I, Paris, 1779
5. Mant, C., “General Description of the Design for Mayo College”, B. & R.- Civil
Bldg. Procs., 1877, No.6
6. Metcalf, Thomas R., “Architecture and the Representation of Empire: India,
1860-1910”, Representations 6, The Regents of the University of California, 1984
7. Niebuhr, Carsten, Voyage en Arabie et en d’autres pays circonvoisins, II Utrecht,
1779
8. Partha, Mitter, “Much Maligned Monsters. A History of European Reactions to
Indian Art”, The University of Chicago Press, 1977
9. Raz, Ram, “Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus”, 1834
10. Sengupta, R., “Old Cultures in the New World. Monuments in Their Built
Environment and Historical Context. Preservation and Interpretation of Colonial
Gothic Architecture at Allahabad in India”, source:
http://www.international.icomos.org/publications/wash102.pdf (consulted august
15th)

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