8

ORBIT
Volume 29 • Number 1 • 2009
Volume 29 • Number 1 • 2009

Turn it Down
TURN IT DOWN
Reducing Operating Expenses through Condition Monitoring
INSIDE THIS ISSUE

• Cover Story: Reducing OpEx at Valero Paulsboro
• Recip Valve Temperature Measurements
• Diagnosing a Governor Problem at EQUATE
• Asset Management 101 – Part 1
• In-Situ Balancing at Australia’s Power & Water Corp.
EDITOR’S NOTE
A Technical Publication for Advancing

the Practice of Operating Asset Condition
Monitoring, Diagnostics, and
Performance Optimization
Vol.29 No.1 2009
Publisher Your Feedback: Helping Us Help You

GE Energy In the drawer beside my desk are copies of every issue of ORBIT
Editor published since its inception. In fact, as I write this, I’m holding the
Steve Sabin premier edition in my hands. It carried a date of “Summer 1980”
Design & Production Coordination
and consisted of four pages.
Earl Stewart
Clearly, the publication has seen numerous changes since those humble
Design
beginnings. But as we soon enter 2010, and with it ORBIT magazine’s 30th
Gina Alteri
anniversary, one thing hasn’t changed: the importance of your feedback.
Circulation
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Printer thoughts via our Reader Survey? Your responses are extremely valuable
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months in advance of those who don’t participate in the survey.
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ORBIT is published three times per year

by GE Energy and is available online at
www.orbit-magazine.com Steve Sabin – Editor
Questions, suggestions, and letters to
the editor may be addressed to: P.S. This new “virtual magazine” format is designed to augment—not
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GEA17893 merchandise gift basket valued at more than $500 (see page 87 for more
information).
A Technical Publication for Advancing
the Practice of Operating Asset Condition
Monitoring, Diagnostics, and
Performance Optimization
Vol.29 No.1 2009
Cover Story CONTRIBUTORS

EQUATE Petrochemical Company
64 Using Decision Support to Reduce OpEx at Valero Paulsboro Joy P. Francis
Case Histories Power & Water Corporation

Ron Atwell (retired)
4 Keeping the Lights on in Darwin Bas Meys
36 Diagnosing a Steam Turbine Governor Problem at EQUATE Petrochemical David Nguyen
David Rossi
Recip Tips Valero Energy Company
16 Valve Temperature Measurement for Reciprocating Compressors Al Gomes
Jayesh Patel
Announcements GE Energy
63 www.bentlyuserforum.org Andrew Bell
Larry Covino
86 Reader Survey Chris Engdahl
Michael Hanifan
Applications Brian Howard
44 Application Considerations for Eddy-Current Proximity Probes John Kingham
Nathan Littrell
72 Relationship of Influence Coefficients Between Static-Couple and Jeff Schnitzer
John Yu
Multiplane Methods on Two-Plane Balancing
CREDITS
New Products and Applications
Photo on pages 4–5 courtesy of Tony Martin,
53 Predictive Emissions Monitoring Darwin, Australia. Used by permission.
56 Rightrax Online Corrosion/Erosion Monitoring Now Photos on pages 8 and 10 courtesy of Power
& Water Corporation. Used by permission.
Supported in System 1* Software
Photos on pages 36–38, 41, and 42
58 An All-New Monitoring Solution for Wind Turbines
courtesy of EQUATE Petrochemical
59 GEnyus* System for GE Reciprocating Compressors Company. Used by permission.
Now Integrated with System 1* Software Photo on page 64 courtesy of Valero Energy
Company. Used by permission.
60 Relief Valve Leak Detection
TRADEMARKS
From The Desk of
The * symbol denotes a tradename,
14 Reducing OpEx Through Condition Monitoring trademark, or registered trademark
of General Electric Company or Bently
Back to Basics Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary
of General Electric Company.
30 Asset Management 101: Part 1 – Maintenance Strategy Overview
Crystal Reports is a registered trademark of
Business Object S.A., an SAP company.
Microsoft and Excel are trademarks or

registered trademarks of Microsoft
Corporation.
TaylorMade and Noodle are trademarks or

registered trademarks of TaylorMade adidas
Golf Company.
Woodward and Peak are trademarks or

registered trademarks of Woodward
Governor Company.
CASE HISTORY
Modern, tropical, and multicultural, Darwin’s wharf precinct

perfectly captures the appealing lifestyle that has made the
city Australia’s fastest growing capital. Attracting a youthful
and highly diverse population from Australia’s Southern states
and the surrounding South East Asia region, an energy supply
that keeps pace with Darwin’s burgeoning population is critical.
(Photo courtesy of Tony Martin, Darwin, Australia. Used by permission.)
4 O R B I T Vol.29
Vol.28 No.1 2009
2008
CASE HISTORY
Keeping the Lights on in
DARWIN
How accurate machinery data and in-situ trim
balancing of an aeroderivative gas turbine allowed
Darwin, Australia-based Power & Water Corporation
to meet the region’s electricity demands during the
critical wet season.
POWER & WATER CORPORATION

David Rossi
Technical Specialist
david.rossi@powerwater.com.au
Ron Atwell (retired)
Generation North, Operation Manager
ron.atwell@powerwater.com.au
Bas Meys
Mechanical Engineer
bas.meys@powerwater.com.au
David Nguyen
Senior Mechanical Service Engineer
david.nguyen@powerwater.com.au
GE ENERGY
Chris Engdahl
Field Application Engineer,
Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring
chris.engdahl@ge.com
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 OR B I T 5
CASE HISTORY
D
arwin is the capital city of Background
Australia’s Northern Territory
In mid-2006, Unit 7 was taken offline for general
(NT), also known as the “Top
maintenance and to address specific repairs needed on
End,” a vast outback region
the inlet gearbox (IGB). After the unit was brought back
rich in natural beauty and
to service, high vibration was measured at the turbine
mineral deposits. With a land
rear frame accelerometer filtered to LP shaft speed (TRF
area almost the size of Alaska,
LP channel) while operating within the 10-15MW range.
and a small, dynamic population, the Northern
While the unit remained in this load range, frequent
Territory currently enjoys economic growth driven
vibration alarms (above 1.5 inches/sec pk) occurred.
by investment in major infrastructure projects in
However, as the unit moved into higher load ranges, the
transportation, LNG, gas-to-liquids, minerals, and
TRF LP vibration decreased and remained below 1 inch/
power generation.
sec pk. Consequently, PWC restricted the machine from
The Power and Water Corporation (PWC) is the NT’s prolonged operation within the low-load range until
provider of electricity, water, and sewer services. the unit could be taken offline for further investigation
PWC is now one of the largest businesses in the during a planned outage later in the year.
NT with assets in excess of AUS$1.2 billion, 750
The planned outage called for a unit control upgrade,
employees, and more than 77,000 customers.
replacement of the thrust balance valve, and inspection
PWC’s current installed capacity is 399 megawatts of the complete engine package. It also provided the
with the largest gas turbine power station (232 window of opportunity that PWC’s diagnostic engineers
megawatts) at Channel Island, located on Darwin needed to investigate the low-load vibration problem.
Harbour’s Middle Arm. This power station consists Plans were made to connect temporary data acquisition
of five GE Frame 6 gas turbines, two of which are instrumentation, beyond the basic protection system
used in a combined cycle configuration with one (Figure 1) provided with the turbine-generator package.
Mitsubishi steam turbine, and one GE LM6000PC As the machine was not fitted with permanent online
aeroderivative gas turbine (see sidebar on page 7). condition monitoring capabilities, such as via System 1*
software, this temporary additional instrumentation
This GE LM6000 turbine, “Unit 7,” is an important
would capture transient (i.e., start-up and shut-down)
peaking unit on the PWC grid, supporting domestic
data as well as steady-state data, allowing the PWC
and industrial demand particularly through the
team to conduct advanced machinery analysis.
critical wet season periods when power demand in
the tropics hits its ever-increasing peak. The PWC engineering team already had a strong back-
ground in rotating machinery testing and troubleshooting.
When increased vibration levels threatened to
Many on the PWC staff had attended GE’s Bently Nevada*
load-limit the operation of this turbine, PWC
training courses, including Machinery Diagnostics. This
engineers needed to find a solution to keep the
training had equipped them with a solid foundation
machine in-service with minimum impact to
in vibration analysis techniques, rotating machinery
production. This case history discusses how the
condition monitoring methodologies, and rotor dynamic
PWC team carried out a quick and effective in-situ
fundamentals, providing them with the confidence to
trim balance of the LP rotor, minimizing downtime
tackle complex machinery problems in the field.
and delivering customer value during the peak
demand period. Continued on page 8.
6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

SIDEBAR ARTICLE
LM6000
the
ENGINE
The General Electric LM6000 is derived from the CF6- sensor. The standard procedure whenever excessive 1X
80C2 turbofan, proven as one of the most economical vibration indicates an unbalance condition is to remove
aircraft engines currently in service, applied to 11 the engine and ship it to a GE-approved workshop for
wide body aircraft including Airbus’ A300 & A310, and overhaul and balancing.
Boeing’s 767. In its “LM” (Land and Marine) form it has
Balancing Considerations
been modified to make it more suitable for marine
In-situ balancing of the LM6000 is difficult, as the HP
propulsion and industrial power generation use.
rotor, running as a spool on the main LP rotor, is almost
These include an expanded turbine section to convert
inaccessible when the machine is in operation. No
thrust into shaft power, struts for deck mounting, and
Keyphasor* reference can be installed, and in fact the
reworked controls packages for power generation. It has
only speed-related signal is taken from the accessory
wide applications, including peaking power plants, fast
gearbox output, a multi-stage gearbox, linking starter
ferries and high speed cargo ship propulsion. To date,
motor, air compressor, and oil pump to the HP rotor. A
there are over 600 GE LM6000 units in power generation
proximity probe on the accessory gearbox gives a speed
service worldwide.
signal suitable for control and the HP vibration tracking
The LM6000 provides 40.7 MW from either end of the filter, but to get a steady phase signal requires a bank of
low-pressure rotor, rotating at 3,600 rpm. The twin spool three Bently Nevada TK16 “Keyphasor Multiplier Divider”
design allows the low pressure turbine to be directly units (now also embedded within the new ADRE* 408
coupled to a generator, although for 50 Hz generation, Keyphasor card). Consequently, trim balancing of the
a step-down gearbox is used. Its high efficiency and HP rotor cannot generally be done in-situ, although
installation flexibility make it ideal also for a wide variety accurate measurement of the HP shaft 1X vibration
of utility power generation and industrial applications, vector does provide important diagnostic information
especially peaking and cogeneration plants. on the machine.
Vibration Measurements Trim balancing of the LP rotor is rarely performed in-situ,

Vibration measurement on the LM6000 consists of as a change in residual imbalance often indicates an
two high temperature accelerometers mounted to underlying problem demanding inspection and repair.
the underside of the casing at points designated as The nature of vibration measurement and typical
“compressor rear frame” (CRF) and “turbine rear frame” thermal-related vibration response on aeroderivative
(TRF). Using a Bently Nevada* Aeroderivative Monitor, turbines make field balancing challenging, but
each signal is processed through a tracking filter, fortunately, the LM6000 is equipped with coupling hubs
looking at a narrow band around both the LP rotor at either end of the turbine, enabling addition of balance
speed and HP rotor speed, giving four 1X monitoring weights when necessary.
parameters, plus broadband measurements from each
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7
CASE HISTORY
In fourth quarter 2006, the outage was conducted as integrity, provided they could run the machine within the
planned. During re-commissioning, vibration testing OEM’s recommended limits for vibration amplitude.
was carried out by PWC personnel utilizing two ADRE*
Collaboration with GE engineers led to the conclusion
208 data acquisition instruments connected to the
that the LP rotor was unbalanced; however, the cause of
Bently Nevada 3300 series protection system. Because
the unbalance was not clear. Possibilities ranged from
GE Aviation also uses the ADRE system, and because the
blade damage to blade erosion to a mechanical- or
ADRE data formats are consistent with GE’s Installation
thermal-related incident that had affected the rotor
and Field Service Standard, PWC would be able to easily
during the previous overhaul. While an inspection and
share the collected data with GE Aviation specialists in
precision reassembly was the appropriate permanent
Cincinnati if a second opinion was required.
solution, with the wet season fast approaching,
unplanned downtime for Unit 7 was not feasible. After
conferring further with GE engineers, PWC decided to
perform an in-situ trim balance of the LP rotor as an
interim measure. If successful, this would reduce the TRF
LP vibration, thus removing the operational constraints
that precluded the unit from running in low-load condi-
tions when needed.
Figure 1. Data acquisition instrumentation set

up in the turbine control cabin, adjacent to the
Bently Nevada 3300 series protection system.
Figure 2. Typical frequency spectrum for the TRF

accelerometer. Note dominant peaks at LP (3600
Analysis rpm) and HP (9750 rpm) shaft speeds, with major-
Review of the start-up data collected during re- ity of vibration coincident with LP shaft speed.
commissioning showed that the previously identified
high-amplitude vibration at the Turbine Rear Frame
(TRF) sensor was still present; further, it indicated that Trim Balancing
the vibration was occurring primarily at the LP shaft
speed (Figure 2). It was established that the vibration Phase Reference Challenges
response appeared repeatable from run to run, and As the LM6000 was fitted only with multi-tooth wheels
largely unchanged from earlier in the year. The PWC for speed detection on the HP and LP rotors, no phase-
team assessed that there was no progressive deteriora- locked Keyphasor* signal was available for calculating
tion to machine condition and likely no risk to machine the 1X vibration vector needed for rotor balancing.
8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

The Bently Nevada ADRE* System
SIDEBAR ARTICLE
Introduced in the early 1980s as part of the Bently When ADRE Sxp software is connected to the 408
Nevada product line, the term ADRE is actually an instrument, real-time diagnostic display and on-the-fly
acronym meaning “Automated Diagnostics for Rotating configuration changes are available. The 408 unit can
Equipment.” The system automated the then labor- also operate completely independent of the laptop display.
intensive task of replaying rotating machinery vibration
A DC to 50 kHz bandwidth is available on all channels
data through analogue tracking filters to manually plot
simultaneously, with 24-bit data acquisition and
out each diagnostic data set.
configurable spectral resolution (up to 6400 lines). The
The ADRE 208 units were first introduced in 1993, 408 can be configured as a digital recorder, streaming
allowing diagnostic engineers to digitally capture up real-time data directly to its 130 GB internal storage for
to 16 channels of machinery data simultaneously. The post-processing as needed.
units acquired data automatically during machine
For more information, visit www.ge-energy.com/adre
transients or during steady-state testing, presenting the
data in the correct formats for analysis, reporting, and
balancing. Although the 208 has recently been super-
seded by the newer ADRE 408, many practitioners in
the machinery diagnostics field still rely on the 208 as a
dependable workhorse for rotating machinery analysis.
The latest addition to this family, the ADRE 408, takes

the machinery diagnostics capabilities even further,
supporting 24 channels of turbomachinery data capture
per unit, and allowing interconnection of up to 4 units.
The TK16 Keyphasor multiplier/divider functionality is
integrated within the Keyphasor card, and the system is
suited to machine speeds from 1 rpm up to 120,000 rpm.
Together with GE Field Service personnel it was decided to position is determined. Nevertheless, this technique
install a temporary Keyphasor sensor at the Main Gearbox does provide good diagnostic information that might
input shaft. This would enable collection of synchronous, otherwise be unavailable. Due to the complex gear
transient vibration data for best diagnosis capability. ratios of the accessory gearbox, three TK16’s had to be
brought in from GE’s Singapore office for this purpose.
To better assess the HP spool shaft, a true Keyphasor
could not be fitted, but it was possible to use the Bently
Trial Weight Challenges
Nevada TK16 Keyphasor Multiplier/Divider to modify
The machine was started up on 3 November 2006 and
the speed sensor pulse according to the gear ratio, thus
ramped to its full load of 42 MW, remaining at this load
generating a steady simulated signal. The resulting
condition until 9 November when the opportunity arose
simulated Keyphasor signal only remains locked while a
to begin the trim balancing. The unit was shut down and
clean input signal is present to the TK16, so for each run
allowed to cool overnight, enabling PWC personnel to
of the machine, a new relative reference measurement
place the initial trial weight.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 9
CASE HISTORY
Final selection of weights, of course, comes down to the

available selection of standard weights and unoccupied
balance holes. However, as with any balancing job,
judicious choice of the initial trial weight amount is key
to achieving good results with the fewest number of
runs. When available, data from previous balancing jobs
showing the machine’s response to weight should be
drawn upon. In addition, the so-called “10 percent rule”
should be observed (i.e., the centrifugal force generated
by the trial weight should not exceed 10% of the rotor
weight). Based on both of the above, PWC’s choice for an
initial trial weight amount was 91 grams. Because the
Figure 3. Sectional view of the LM6000 engine
gearbox and generator are coupled to the compressor
showing measurement and trim-balance
end, this weight was placed at the exhaust end balance correction plane locations.
plane (Figure 5).
While industrial gas turbines usually are (or can be)

fitted with X/Y proximity probes, this is not the case for
aeroderivatives. This presents challenges for vibration
diagnostics in general, and balancing in particular.
With shaft-observing probes, changes in rotor mode
shape under varying speed conditions as well as the
machine’s response to additional rotor mass can be
directly measured at the rotor. This makes balancing
more straightforward and allows a more scientific
approach to selection of the initial trial weight’s location.
Aeroderivatives, in contrast, use casing vibration sen-
Figure 4. Looking back towards the turbine from
sors that are often far removed from the rotor/bearing
inside the exhaust diffuser. This machine is coupled
assemblies. Rotor mode shape cannot be observed at the compressor end, so the exhaust end balance
directly. Further, the response at the casing can involve plane on the LP shaft is easily accessible.
extremely complex transfer functions due to the
circuitous paths the vibration forces must travel before
reaching the sensors. Consequently, it can be difficult
to predict how a mass addition to the rotor is going to
affect the casing vibration some distance away. For the
case at hand, weight was being added at the exhaust
end balance plane, but the effects of this weight were
being measured via casing vibration (velocity) vectors at
the CRF and TRF locations. Precluded from a highly sci-
entific approach for the reasons noted above, PWC drew
on the accumulated knowledge of those with LM6000
balancing experience. Best available information from
these experienced practitioners suggested that the
location of the trial mass should be roughly opposite the Figure 5. Location of trial weights (highlighted) at
TRF LP filtered 1X velocity vector. exhaust end balance plane.
1 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

CASE HISTORY
Figure 6. Graphical balancing methodology showing the TRF LP filtered vibration vectors. The change vector
(C) would ideally be rotated to eliminate the original vector (O), suggesting a clockwise move of the trial mass
of around 60 degrees to balance for low-load vibration. The high-load change vector, on the other hand,
suggests a counter-clockwise move of the mass for an ideal solution.
Multiple Operating State Challenges Results

Compounding the challenges already listed, PWC
The initial trial weight actually caused deterioration in the
needed to balance the machine such that vibration
TRF LP filtered vibration response at full load conditions,
was within allowable limits (1 in/sec pk) for two distinct
although the CRF LP response remained well within limits at
operating states (low load and full load) at two distinct
all times. As illustrated in the graphical balancing worksheet
measurement locations (TRF and CRF). This meant a
(Figure 6), the indicated solutions for each operating condi-
total of four vibration vectors had to be minimized by a
tion appear at first to be mutually exclusive.
single mass addition.
However, by reviewing the calibration data, performing
Adding to the complexity, the vibration vectors at low
various manual calculations, and checking predictions,
load and full load were almost opposite in phase. Thus,
a compromise solution was determined. The initial
a balance solution that yielded acceptable vibration
weights were to be removed and a final balance weight
levels under low-load conditions might lead to unac-
of just 32.9 grams @ 75 degrees right from TDC installed.
ceptable vibration response at full-load conditions, and
vice-versa. Therefore, a compromise had to be found The machine was shut down after the calibration run on
which would allow the turbine to operate with accept- 11 November and this final correction mass was added
able vibration through the entire load range, lifting the within hours, freeing the machine for service.
previously imposed restriction that precluded operation
Unit 7 was restarted, ramped up to full load, and heat
under low-load conditions.
soaked. Then, it was placed in low-load conditions to
collect final balance data. As hoped, the measured
1X amplitude at the TRF LP channel remained below
1 inches/sec pk throughout the testing under the full
range of loads (Table 1). As a result, it was agreed that
the unit could be returned to unrestricted operation.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 1 1
CASE HISTORY
Table 1. Summary of trim balancing results

Vibration data at 10MW load. Vibration data at Full load.
TRF LP 1X CRF LP 1X TRF LP 1X CRF LP 1X
(in/sec pk @ Deg) (in/sec pk @ Deg) (in/sec pk @ Deg) (in/sec pk @ Deg)
Original Run 3/11/06 0.78 @ 224º 0.48 @ 358º

Original Run 9/11/06 1.43 @ 52º 0.77 @ 60º
Trial Mass 90.5 @ 14º right from TDC mark
(removed after run) (32.9g @ 5º, 32.9g @ 15º, and 25.6g @ 25º)
Calibration Run 11/11/06 1.22 @ 7º 0.69 @ 42º 1.44 @ 258º 0.36 @ 60º
Final Correction Mass 32.9g @ 75º right from TDC
Final Run 12/11/06 0.72 @ 46º 0.56 @ 55º 0.91 @ 250º 0.5 @ 24º
Figure 7. Comparison of TRF LP vibration before (left) and after (right) trim balancing. Prior to balancing, the
vibration amplitude consistently exceeded allowable limits when operating under low-load conditions (blue
curve), restricting operation to only high-load conditions. After balancing, the compromise solution enabled
the machine to remain within allowable limits under all load conditions.
Conclusion PWC was able to avoid an unplanned outage to swap

out the engine for off-site inspection and balancing,
The in-situ trim balancing carried out by PWC’s in-house
saving more than one week of production and many
team allowed Unit 7 to operate across all load ranges
hundreds of hours in the shop.
without exceeding vibration limits. Figure 7 contrasts the
before/after results, showing how the discreet change in LP Finally, it must be noted that while the use of sophisticated
rotor balance has been effective in achieving this objective. instrumentation was vital to the successful outcome of
this case history, the training to use that instrumentation
The operation limitation imposed earlier was lifted,
was equally vital. PWC’s investment in technical training
returning full availability to the asset. In fact, Unit 7
assured that when the time came for critical decisions
has since recorded 99.96% availability and has been
regarding the unit, the necessary skills to interpret and
instrumental in ensuring an uninterrupted supply of
apply machinery data were resident in their personnel.
electricity during the Northern Territory’s wet-season,
* denotes a trademark of Bently Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned
when demand peaks at 258 MW.
subsidiary of General Electric Company.
1 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
CASE HISTORY
SIDEBAR ARTICLE
Field Balancing Calculations –

When Theory Meets Practice
The basic equation used in the Influence Coefficient weight may be added or subtracted), and multiple
method of balancing is: solution points (i.e., several load and/or speed conditions
for which vibration limits must be met). Mathematically,
where:
this corresponds to multiple equations and multiple
is the final resultant vibration vector, variables that must be simultaneously satisfied. For a
unique solution to exist, the number of variables must
is the initial vibration vector,
be less than or equal to the number of equations. In
is the “influence coefficient” vector describing practice, the number of correction planes rarely equals
the relationship between correction plane and the number measurement planes and/or solution
measurement plane. This is determined points. The problem thus becomes mathematically
experimentally by adding the trial mass and indeterminate, requiring a compromise “best-fit”
analysing the response. solution that doesn’t violate key constraints.
is the change in mass causing the vibration change. While it is practical to perform manual calculations and
iterate to a good compromise solution when only one
A basic premise of the Influence Coefficient method
or two measurement planes and one or two solution
is that a linear relationship exists between the cause
points are involved, this quickly becomes unwieldy as
(change in mass) and effect (change in vibration vector).
more variables are added. To address such situations,
Thus, provided the trial mass doesn’t cause a vibration
GE’s Bently BALANCE* software is available, developed
amplitude response outside the linear range (and, of
specifically to address complex multi-plane balancing
course, doesn’t exceed permissible limits), a suitable
situations where numerous solution points must be
balance solution can be derived from the resulting data.
satisfied. In addition to performing the necessary calcu-
In the simple case, after the Influence coefficient is
lations, the software displays the predicted full transient
determined by the initial trial weight addition, the final
response using data imported from ADRE* or System 1*
solution can be easily calculated such that:
databases when testing various balance solutions.
i.e., GE provides technical training that covers the funda-

mentals of machinery balancing and incorporates the
use of Bently BALANCE software in hands-on laboratory
This methodology is relatively easy to implement and
exercises. To learn more, go to www.ge-energy.com/bently
lends itself to a simple graphical format, familiar to
and enter “balancing fundamentals” in the search box.
most readers.
For additional information about Bently BALANCE
However, complexities arise when applied under
software, follow the instructions above, but enter
real-world rather than textbook conditions. Machines
“Bently BALANCE” in the search box.
often have multiple measurement planes (i.e., vibration
sensors at multiple axial locations along the rotor), subsidiary of General Electric Company.
multiple correction planes (i.e., axial locations at which
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 1 3
FROM THE DESK OF
Reducing OpEx Through Condition Monitoring
I
recognize that our solutions are most often Consider a large process compressor with high
applied on only the highly critical turboma- vibration. Condition monitoring allowed the customer
chinery in a plant. However, an increasing to avoid a shutdown and inspection to determine the
number of customers are using our solutions cause. In this case, the software gave clear indication
more broadly to address all classes of assets of root cause as electrostatic discharge that had
across the plant. eroded part of the bearing and opened the clearances.
Although vibration was high, the cause was known
Why?
and the situation could be closely watched, allowing
Because they have discovered that the value of the machine to run until the next planned outage,
condition monitoring isn’t limited to just their critical nine months away. Maintenance expense savings?
turbomachinery. They have also discovered that the Essentially the labor costs that an inspection would
value of condition monitoring isn’t just in reducing main- have entailed. However, these costs were trivial in
tenance expenses, but in reducing operating expenses. comparison to the operating expense impact: three days
of lost production at a cost of several million dollars.
The operative word here is value. Customers use our
products and services because they find value in them. Consider these additional examples:
I’m continually reminded of this simple truth as I engage
• A customer uses System 1* software to monitor
in one of the most rewarding aspects of my job: visiting
performance and improve efficiency on a compressor
with customers. In most instances, our conversations
train, saving fuel. That’s an operating expense.
start with them sharing how our products and services
are delivering value. Obviously, I like that feedback. • A customer uses the Decision Support module in
There are also occasions when customers tell me that System 1 software to detect leaking rupture disks,
we have missed the mark. I appreciate that feedback as helping avoid regulatory fines and penalties. That’s
well because by taking the time to meet with me they an operating expense.
are indirectly sending the same message: they see value
• A customer uses our 3500 system to closely monitor
in condition monitoring—so much value that it’s worth
a problematic air blower, adjusting process conditions
insisting we get it right.
and loads to keep it running until a planned outage,
A moment ago, I mentioned that the value in condition avoiding the need to rent several portable units for
monitoring is not just the “M” in O&M expenses, but also make-up air. That’s an operating expense.
the “O.” Indeed, its impact on operating expenses is
• A customer uses our Machinery Diagnostics Services
often an order of magnitude larger than its impact on
(MDS) team to quickly diagnose the root cause of
maintenance expenses.
high vibration trips on a steam turbine as a thermally
Jeff Schnitzer – General Manager, Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring – GE Energy – jeff.schnitzer@ge.com
1 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
…WHILE CONDITION MONITORING IMPACTS THE “M” IN O&M
EXPENSES, ITS IMPACT ON THE “O” IS OFTEN EVEN BIGGER.
induced rub, allowing them to meet dispatch You’ll also notice that several of these examples don’t
commitments rather than incur availability tariffs. even involve rotating machinery, which underscores
That’s an operating expense. another point I made earlier: our solutions are delivering
value on assets throughout the plant—not just on critical
• A customer uses our Trendmaster* Pro system to
turbomachinery. This is particularly encouraging because
monitor for leaks in relief valves, allowing rapid
we have worked very hard to develop solutions that will
intervention to minimize the loss of extremely expen-
also address the many other asset types in your plant.
sive finished product. That’s an operating expense.
As you consider where our condition monitoring
• A customer uses our remote service capabilities to
solutions can deliver value in your business, I encourage
upgrade the condition monitoring software on their
you to think as broadly as the customers showcased a
offshore platforms, saving weeks of labor, per-diem
few paragraphs ago. They think “plantwide,” not just
charges, and the costs of helicopter transportation
“critical turbomachinery.” And, they think of ROI for
to half a dozen separate facilities. That’s an
their condition monitoring investments in terms of
operating expense.
operating expenses, not just maintenance expenses.
These are just a few examples among dozens more I They have learned first-hand that while the savings in
could have cited. Nor are these contrived examples. Each maintenance expenses can be substantial, the savings
one reflects an actual success story—real customers, real in operating expenses can be even more substantial.
sites, real scenarios, and real operating expense savings. [Editor’s Note: The rupture disk and relief valve scenarios are discussed
in this issue of ORBIT on pages 60 and 68 respectively.]
RECIP TIPS
Valve Temperature Measurement

for Reciprocating Compressors
eciprocating compressor users frequently report that valve failures rank among the leading
causes of unplanned outages [1,2]. They apply a number of technologies to assess the condition
of the valve to better manage their compressors. One technique that has been around for years—
perhaps decades—is valve or valve cover temperature [3,4].
Properly understood and applied, this measurement provides valuable insight into reciprocating
compressor cylinder valve health. This article reviews the successes and limitations of this measurement
and discusses the three primary methods of monitoring valve temperature, comparing the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
Measurement Application When reciprocating compressor valves fail, they can

no longer provide effective sealing. This allows small
The reciprocating compressor valve is, in principle, a
quantities of gas to escape the valve. In the case of
check valve. Figure 1 shows a cross-sectional schematic
the suction valve, compressed gas escapes into the
of a valve (the figure does not show valves springs and
suction manifold and in the case of the discharge valve,
other internals).
compressed gas escapes back into the cylinder. In both
The valve operates on differential pressure. For a suction cases, the leak introduces the same gas back into the
valve, when the pressure inside the cylinder falls below compression process where it is heated again. The
the suction manifold pressure, the valve opens and gas re-compression results in a temperature increase near
flows into the cylinder. The bottom illustration in Figure 1 the valve.
shows how the sealing elements seat against the guard
Industry has applied several different techniques to
when the valve is open. When the pressure inside the
measure this local temperature increase. These include
cylinder rises above the suction manifold pressure the
penetrating the valve cover to place the transducer
valve closes as shown in the top illustration.
near the valve, thermocouple washers underneath the
Discharge valves in a reciprocating compressor cylinder cover nuts or secured to the cover with a small screw,
open when the cylinder pressure exceeds the discharge penetrating the valve cover, penetrating the cylinder
manifold pressure and close when the cylinder pressure wall near the valve cover, etc. Although effectiveness
falls below discharge manifold pressure. differs somewhat across these techniques, all success-
fully provide an indication of increased temperature.
Brian Howard, P.E. – Sr. Technical Manager – Reciprocating Compressor Condition Monitoring – GE Energy – brian.howard@ge.com
1 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
Relating Valve Temperature

to Valve Condition
WHEN RECIPROCATING
The rise in temperature of the valve or valve cover
depends on the mass of re-compressed gas and the
COMPRESSOR VALVES
ratio of compression this gas experiences. So long as
the compression ratio remains constant, an increase in FAIL, THEY CAN NO
mass flow results in more heat transfer to the cover and
higher temperature. In a single cylinder arrangement
with a control valve that controls only on pressure, LONGER PROVIDE
the compression ratio remains relatively constant. In
contrast, as valve failure progresses in a multi-stage
EFFECTIVE SEALING…
arrangement, the compression ratio of the cylinder in
distress drops as the other stages begin to pick up load.
The decrease in compression ratio, even as leak mass THE LEAK INTRODUCES
flow increases due to deteriorating valve condition,
results in less heat being available and a decrease in
valve temperature.
THE SAME GAS BACK
INTO THE COMPRESSION
PROCESS WHERE IT IS
HEATED AGAIN. THE
RE-COMPRESSION RESULTS
IN A TEMPERATURE
INCREASE NEAR THE VALVE.
Figure 1. Reciprocating compressor suction

valve. Top shows valve closed and bottom
shows valve open.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 1 7
RECIP TIPS
LP Stg 2 DischW NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 177 deg F NA

Recip Compres From 12NOV2002 08:56:21 To 28NOV2002 08:56:21 Historical
LP Stg 2 Disch SW NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 170 deg F NA
LP Stg 2 Disch SE NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 184 deg F NA
LP Stg 2 Disch SE NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 175 deg F NA
LP Stg 2 Disch Temp NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 213 deg F NA
300 INVALID DATA
AMPLITUDE:
20 deg F/div
200
100
0
08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56 08:56
12NOV2002 14NOV2002 16NOV2002 18NOV2002 20NOV2002 22NOV2002 24NOV2002 26NOV2002 28NOV2002
TIME : 12 Hours /div
LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch

Displaced Volume Displaced Volume
Recip Compressor Tra From 12NOV2002 06:12:16 To 12NOV2002 06:12:16 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Tra From 24NOV2002 06:13:29 To 24NOV2002 06:13:29 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 2 West (CE) LP Stage 2 West (CE)
Recip Compressor Tra Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Tra Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 2 East (HE) Synch LP Stage 2 East (HE) Synch
LP Stage 2 East (HE) 1385.3 psig LP Stage 2 East (HE) 1099.6 psig
Displaced Volume 0% Displaced Volume 0%
TDC TDC
1500 1500
POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH GAUGE
1000 1000
100 psig/div
100 psig/div
500 500
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
5 %/div 5 %/div
LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch

LP Stage 2 West (CE) LP Stage 2 West (CE)
LP Stage 2 East (HE) Synch LP Stage 2 East (HE) Synch
LP Stage 2 East (HE) 1322.8 psig LP Stage 2 East (HE) 1100.4 psig
Displaced Volume 0% Displaced Volume 0%
TDC TDC
1500
1500
1000 1000
100 psig/div
100 psig/div
500 500
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
5 %/div 5 %/div
Figure 2. Failing discharge valve.
1 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
For an example of this phenomena consider a high- Over the next few days, the cover skin temperature of
pressure hydrogen cylinder instrumented with cylinder the distressed valve begins to drop. By 24 November,
pressure, discharge temperature, and valve cover skin the distressed valve cover skin temperature has fallen
temperatures. Figure 2 shows a valve failure progression to 215ºF. If valve temperature correlated accurately with
timeline for this cylinder. valve condition, one would expect the condition of the
valve to have improved.
The top left Pressure versus Volume (PV) curve shows
the cylinder pressure profile on 12 November. The plot In fact, as the PV diagram in the top right shows, valve
shows good agreement between the indicated cylinder condition has further deteriorated resulting in a signifi-
pressures and theoretical curves. Referring to the cant deviation between the indicated and theoretical
trend plot across the top of Figure 2, it can be observed curves as well as a further reduction in the compression
that on 12 November the discharge valve cover skin ratio of the cylinder
temperatures and the discharge temperature lie close
At this point, the rod load and rod reversals had dropped
to each other. Together, these observations indicate
near the limits recommended by the compressor OEM.
effective sealing by the piston rings and cylinder valves.
For this reason the plant shut the compressor down
On 13 November a leak develops in one of the crank end for overhaul.
discharge valves. This can be seen in the PV diagram
in the lower left of the plot where the actual pressure Secondary Temperature Effects
rises faster than the theoretical pressure. Valve cover of Valve Failure
skin temperature of the “LP Stage 2 Disch W” valve rises
The previous example focused the relationship between
quickly from 180ºF to 208ºF.
the temperature of the distressed valve cover and
At this point, the failure has a minimal impact on valve condition. The recirculation of gas at a particular
compression ratio. The valve failure did not adversely valve changes not only the temperature of the local
impact rod loads or rod reversals, so the plant decided valve cover, but also the temperature profile of other
to continue with operations. components of the cylinder.
By 18 or 19 November, the distressed valve cover skin A failing suction valve provides a good example of the
temperature reaches a maximum of 255ºF. The PV curve, secondary effects introduced by a valve failure. Figure
shown in the lower right of Figure 2, shows that the 3 shows the valve cover temperatures on the crank end
failure now begins to have a more noticeable impact in the left panes, and head end in the right panes. On all
on the compression ratio of the cylinder. The rod load trends, temperatures group together until the morning
and rod reversal of this cylinder and the other cylinders of August 19th.
servicing the compression stream were still acceptable,
so the plant continued to operate.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 1 9
RECIP TIPS
ValveTempEffects - Trend Plot [Figure03] Plot Number:__________

Company: None Enterprise: ValveTempEffects
Job Reference:
LP STG 1 Suct NW 14AUG2008 11:01:38 100 d LP STG 1 Suct NE 14AUG2008 11:01:38 108 d
Recip Compress From 14AUG2008 11:01:38 To 25AUG2008 11:01:3 Recip Compress From 14AUG2008 11:01:38 To 25AUG2008 11:01:3
LP STG 1 Suct W 14AUG2008 11:01:38 98 de LP STG 1 Suct E 14AUG2008 11:01:38 114 d
LP STG 1 Suct SW 14AUG2008 11:01:38 104 d LP STG 1 Suct SE 14AUG2008 11:01:38 103 d
LP STG 1 Suct Temp 14AUG2008 11:01:38 96 de LP STG 1 Suct Temp 14AUG2008 11:01:38 96 de
300 300
AMPLITUDE:
AMPLITUDE:
200 200
20 deg F/div
20 deg F/div
100 100
0 0
11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01
14AUG2008 18AUG2008 22AUG2008 14AUG2008 18AUG2008 22AUG2008
TIME : 12 Hours /div TIME : 12 Hours /div
LP STG 1 Disch NW 14AUG2008 11:01:38 175 d LP STG 1 Disch NE 14AUG2008 11:01:38 172 d
LP STG 1 Disch W 14AUG2008 11:01:38 184 d LP STG 1 Disch E 14AUG2008 11:01:38 177 d
LP STG 1 Disch SW 14AUG2008 11:01:38 186 d LP STG 1 Disch SE 14AUG2008 11:01:38 189 d
LP STG 1 Disch Temp 14AUG2008 11:01:38 208 d LP STG 1 Disch Temp 14AUG2008 11:01:38 208 d
300 300
SAMPLE FILTERING SAMPLE FILTERING
AMPLITUDE:
AMPLITUDE:
200 200
20 deg F/div
20 deg F/div
100 100
0 0
11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01 11:01
14AUG2008 18AUG2008 22AUG2008 14AUG2008 18AUG2008 22AUG2008
TIME : 12 Hours /div TIME : 12 Hours /div
System 1
Æ
Figure 3. LP stage 1 valve cover temperature trends.
Optimization and
Page 1 Diagnostic Platform
2 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
LP Stage 1 CE Synch 358.3 psig LP Stage 1 CE Synch 358.5 psig

Crank Angle 0 Degrees Crank Angle 0 Degrees
Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 00:58:59 To 19AUG2008 00:58:59 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 06:09:20 To 19AUG2008 06:09:20 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 1 CE 358.3 psig LP Stage 1 CE 358.5 psig
Recip Compressor Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 1 HE Synch 655.8 psig LP Stage 1 HE Synch 600.9 psig
Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 00:58:59 To 19AUG2008 00:58:59 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 06:09:20 To 19AUG2008 06:09:20 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 1 HE 655.8 psig LP Stage 1 HE 600.9 psig
Recip Compressor Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm Recip Compressor Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP STG 1 Xhead W Synch LP STG 1 Xhead W Synch
Crank Angle Crank Angle
Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 00:58:59 To 19AUG2008 00:58:59 Historical Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 06:09:20 To 19AUG2008 06:09:20 Historical
LP STG 1 Xhead W Filtered Sync LP STG 1 Xhead W Filtered Sync
Crank Angle Crank Angle
Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 00:58:59 To 19AUG2008 00:58:59 Historical Recip Compressor Train From 19AUG2008 06:09:20 To 19AUG2008 06:09:20 Historical
TDC TDC
700 700
4 4
2 2
0.5 g/div
0.5 g/div

G'S
600 0
G'S
600 0
-2 -2
20 psig/div
20 psig/div
-4 -4
500 500
2 2
1 1
0.2 g/div
0.2 g/div
G'S
400 0
G'S
400 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
300 300
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
20 Degrees/div
20 Degrees/div
Crank Angle
Crank Angle
Figure 4. Cylinder pressure and crosshead Figure 5. Cylinder pressure and crosshead
acceleration waveforms, before valve failure. acceleration waveforms, after valve failure.
Figure 4 shows cylinder pressure curves and crosshead with this valve cover. The rise in the “LP STG 1 Suct E”
accelerometer signals for this cylinder, typical for the temperature, adjacent to “LP STG 1 Suct NE”, results
time period prior to the morning of August 19th. The from the re-circulating gas heat effect spreading to
close agreement between the theoretical and indicated other valve covers.
pressure signifies effective cylinder trim sealing. Further,
The 20°F plus rise in the head end discharge valve
the high frequency crosshead accelerometer signal
group, “LP STG 1 Disch NE/E/SE” deserves attention as
shows only discrete events associated with normal
well. Either one or more of the discharge valves has
valve opening and closing.
a leak, or there is something about the leaking suction
Referring back to Figure 3, the consistency across the valve that changed the operating conditions of the
trend line ends on the morning of the 19th. At this point, discharge valves.
the plots show relative changes in temperature trends.
Figure 5 shows the indicated cylinder pressure curves
The “LP STG 1 Suct NE” trend line in top right pane
and crosshead acceleration after the suction valve leak
displays the most significant change; however other
began. The slower rise in pressure during the compres-
points also show changes. For example, the “LP STG
sion stroke on the head end indicates a leak from the
1 Suct E” and valve cover temperature rises as do the
cylinder to a low-pressure reservoir, such as the suction
head end discharge valve cover temperatures, “LP STG 1
manifold. The high frequency content crosshead accel-
Disch NE/E/SE.”
erometer waveform, shown on the top, shows a rise in
The sudden change in relative temperature values amplitude as the difference between internal cylinder
indicates a change in the sealing ability of the cylinder pressure and suction valve manifold pressure increases.
trim components. As discussed above, this results in This rise in amplitude results from internal cylinder gas
recirculation of gases and a local increase in valve cover leaking across the valve into the suction manifold. The
temperature. Given the relatively high change in the features of this plot confirm that only a suction valve
“LP STG 1 Suct NE” temperature relative to the other leak exists at this time.
changes, one can reasonably associate the valve failure
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 2 1
RECIP TIPS
With the possibility of a discharge valve leak eliminated, Review of Valve Temperature Installation
only the scenario of a leaking suction valve causing the Arrangements
rise in the discharge valve cover temperatures remains.
Three main approaches in valve temperature monitoring
At first glance, it seems unlikely that the suction valve
have gained acceptance. These three approaches are:
could impact the performance of the discharge valves.
The connection lies in the re-circulating gases under- 1. Valve cover skin temperature
neath the suction valve cover. While some of this gas 2. Valve cover temperature
does stay local to the valve cover, large portions of the 3. Internal valve temperature
gas re-enter the cylinder to be compressed, resulting in
The following sections describe the measurements in
a higher effective suction temperature for that end of
detail along with the advantages and disadvantages
the cylinder. Since the compression ratios remain the
of each approach. Table 1 on the following page
same on both ends of the cylinder, the discharge gas
summarizes the discussion.
temperature for the head rises with respect to the crank
end valve cover temperatures.
1. Valve Cover Skin Temperature
In this temperature arrangement, a small hole drilled
Relying on Valve Temperature and tapped in the valve cover provides anchorage for a
Alone for Cylinder Condition fastener securing a washer-style thermocouple to the
Valve temperature, combined with a trending tool, valve cover. Figure 6 shows this type of arrangement.
can provide a good indication of a failing valve at Obviously, this arrangement provides ready access for
the onset of failure. As the failure progresses, valve maintenance and reduced retrofit effort.
temperature becomes a poor predictor of valve health.
The approach does limit temperature sensor options
Valve leaks may also result in secondary temperature
as only thermocouple temperature sensors have been
effects in other parts of the cylinder, making it difficult
offered in this configuration. Further, it is not possible to
to confidently pinpoint the leaky valve. Further, it does
install an explosion-proof housing around the element,
not provide any insight into the forces acting on the
if plant hazardous area requirements dictate such an
compressor (i.e., rod load and rod reversal), making it
arrangement.
difficult to understand the stress the failure places upon
the compressor. Nor does cylinder pressure provide The impact of the ambient environment has the poten-
sufficient information to pinpoint which valve on a tial to reduce the effectiveness of the measurement.
particular end of a cylinder has failed. For these reasons, For example, consider the valve temperature mapping
valve temperature measurement’s primary value is as shown in Figure 7. This end of the cylinder has three dis-
a supporting evidence tool in PV analysis, but is not charge valves. Two of the valves, “LP Stg Disch NE” and
sufficient by itself to fully understand and manage the “LP Stg Disch NE”, lay at an angle with respect to the true
cylinder’s condition. horizontal axis. The LP Stg Disch E valve is horizontal.
2 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
Figure 6. Valve cover skin temperature.
Table 1. Valve Temperature Installation Arrangement Comparisons.
Valve cover skin temperature Valve cover temperature Internal valve temperature
Installation effort Minor Moderate Major
Effect of variables other

than valve condition on Major Moderate Moderate
measurement
Installation cost Minor Minor-Moderate Major
Allows explosion proof
No Yes Yes
housings?
Effort of removal for
Minor Minor-Moderate Minor-Moderate
valve maintenance
Temperature Sensor TC TC/RTD TC/RTD
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 2 3
RECIP TIPS
Neither radiative nor conductive heat transfer modes

provide significant cooling for valve covers; however,
convective cooling does provide noticeable heat trans-
fer. The angled valves allow hot air near the surface of
the valve cover to rise more easily than does the true
horizontal surface of the “LP Stg Disch E” valve cover.
This results in a higher temperature for those valve cov-
ers oriented in the true horizontal plane. For example,
the 6-9 degree spread shown in Figure 8 for a cylinder
in good condition is typical for discharge valve cover
arrangements like that represented in Figure 7. The
dependence of valve cover skin temperature on valve
cover orientation adds uncertainty to the measurement. Figure 7. Valve cover skin temperature layout.
Skin temperature elements experience exposure to
the elements. Figure 9 shows the valve cover skin
temperature over a 48-hour period. This valve cover
…VALVE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT’S
skin temperature data shows a high degree of variation
around 8:00 am on the 3rd of July. As the Pressure PRIMARY VALUE IS AS A SUPPORTING
versus Volume (PV) curves on the right show, cylinder
condition remained good throughout this time period. EVIDENCE TOOL IN PV ANALYSIS, BUT
The valve covers on the side show more variation as
IS NOT SUFFICIENT BY ITSELF TO FULLY
they receive more wind than does the valve on the
bottom of the cylinder. The 10-15°F variation in valve UNDERSTAND AND MANAGE THE
cover temperature over a short period of time due to
elemental exposure is typical for most valve cover skin CYLINDER’S CONDITION.
temperature installations.
LP Stg 1 Disch NE NA 24JUN2006 04:45:03 106 deg F NA LP Stage 1 East Synch

LP Stg 1 Disch E NA 24JUN2006 04:28:36 105 deg F NA Displaced Volume
LP Stg 1 Disch SE NA 24JUN2006 03:18:43 105 deg F NA Recip Train From 02JUN2006 03:18:11 To 02JUN2006 03:18:11 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stg 1 Disch Temp NA 24JUN2006 04:35:22 102 deg F NA LP Stage 1 East 697.0 psig
Displaced Volume 0%
Recip Train MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
300 TDC
INVALID DATA
800
250
700
20 psig/div
10 deg F/div
AMPLITUDE:
200
600
150
500
100
400
50 300
19:46 19:46 19:46 19:46 19:46 19:46 19:46
0 20 40 60 80 100
30MAY2006 06JUN2006 13JUN2006 20JUN2006 27JUN2006 04JUL2006 11JUL2006
5 %/div
TIME : 24 Hours /div Displaced Volume
Figure 8. Head end head discharge valve temperature trends (left side) and cylinder PV curve (right side).
2 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
LP Stage 1 East Synch

LP Stg 1 Disch NE NA 03JUN2006 07:51:49 160 deg F NA Displaced Volume Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
Recip Train From 03JUN2006 07:16:33 To 03JUN2006 07:16:33 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stg 1 Disch E NA 03JUN2006 07:59:37 177 deg F NA LP Stage 1 East 709.2 psig
0%
Displaced Volume
LP Stg 1 Disch SE NA 03JUN2006 08:52:17 176 deg F NA Recip Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
TDC
LP Stg 1 Disch Temp NA 03JUN2006 07:48:54 207 deg F NA 800
300
700

600
20 psig/div
500
250
400
10 deg F/div
AMPLITUDE:
300
0 20 40 60 80 100
200 5 %/div
Displaced Volume
LP Stage 1 East Synch

Displaced Volume
Recip Train From 03JUN2006 08:16:33 To 03JUN2006 08:16:33 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
LP Stage 1 East 713.1 psig
Displaced Volume 0%
Recip Train Reference MACHINE SPEED: 276 rpm
150 TDC
800
700

100 600
20 psig/div 500
400
50
01:00 09:00 17:00 01:00 09:00 17:00 01:00
02JUN2006 02JUN2006 02JUN2006 03JUN2006 03JUN2006 03JUN2006 04JUN2006 300
0 20 40 60 80 100
TIME : 2 Hours /div 5 %/div
Displaced Volume
Figure 9. Valve cover skin temperature (left side) and cylinder PV curve (right side).
2. Valve Cover Temperature Valve cover temperature has the advantage of not
The valve cover skin temperature installation approach requiring significant cover modification; however, the
can be modified slightly to allow explosion proof hous- installation—especially in the case of the explosion-
ings as well as to reduce the effects of exposure. Figure proof fittings—somewhat complicates maintenance
10 shows two examples of this valve approach, referred activities compared to valve cover skin temperature
to as valve cover temperature. installations.
In either case, a dimple or shallow hole receives the Figure 11 shows a photo of a typical non-explosion proof
temperature-sensitive portion of the transducer. The installation. In this installation, a compression-style
installation shown in the top pane does not require tube fitting threads into the valve cover and secures the
explosion-proof fittings allowing a bayonet connector temperature element rather than a bayonet connector.
with an armored cable style temperature transducer Although this installation requires more effort than the
to be used. In the case where the plant hazardous valve cover skin temperature approach, valve cover
area classifications require explosion-proof fittings an temperature typically experiences less influence from
explosion-proof head is installed into the bracket and orientation and environmental effects. The reduced
flexible conduit run from this head to the junction box. external influence can be demonstrated by consider-
ing the data provided by the sensor arrangement of
Figure 11 on a large hydrogen booster compressor in a
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 2 5
RECIP TIPS
refinery. (Note: The controls on this compressor include

hydraulically actuated “stepless” unloaders, so the PV
curves will appear altered from those of conventionally
operated compressor cylinder valves).
Figure 12 shows the valve temperature map for throw

4. The cylinder has three (3) suction valves and three (3)
discharge valves on each end. Stepless unloaders have
been installed on the suction valves.
Figure 13 shows the valve cover temperature trend

for the head end discharge valves from 05 Dec to 09
Dec. Compared to Figure 8, it can be observed that plot
shows closer agreement between the temperatures (~5-
7°F difference) for valve cover temperatures regardless
of orientation. Note that the PV curves show a slight
suction valve leak, which the temperature trends in
Figure 14 confirm to be Valve #56.
Figure 10. Valve cover temperature (top) and

valve cover temperature with explosion proof
fittings (bottom).
Figure 11. Valve cover temperature installation. Figure 12. Throw 4 valve cover temperature maps.
2 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
1stStage-HE4 Synch 407.4 psig

Valve #50 90° Left Temperature 05DEC2006 10:00:13 187 deg F NA Displaced Volume
TRAIN K-20
0%
From 05DEC2006 13:45:58 To 05DEC2006 13:45:58 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 360 rpm
N/A From 05DEC2006 11:00:00 To 09DEC2006 11:00:00 Historical 1stStage-HE4
Displaced Volume
407.4 psig
0%
Valve #54 90° Left Temperature 05DEC2006 09:48:59 180 deg F NA TRAIN K-20 Reference MACHINE SPEED: 360 rpm
N/A From 05DEC2006 11:00:00 To 09DEC2006 11:00:00 Historical

TDC
Valve #55 90° Left Temperature 05DEC2006 09:53:56 185 deg F NA 400
N/A From 05DEC2006 11:00:00 To 09DEC2006 11:00:00 Historical

300
300
20 psig/div
SAMPLE FILTERING
200
250 100
0
0 20 40 5 %/div 60 80 100
Displaced Volume
200
1stStage-HE4 Synch 399.8 psig
10 deg F/div
0%
AMPLITUDE:
Displaced Volume
TRAIN K-20 From 09DEC2006 10:06:13 To 09DEC2006 10:06:13 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 360 rpm
1stStage-HE4 From 09DEC2006 10:06:13 To 09DEC2006 10:06:13 399.8 psig
Displaced Volume 0%
TRAIN K-20 Reference MACHINE SPEED: 360 rpm
TDC
150
400

300
20 psig/div
100
200
100
50
11:00 11:00 11:00 11:00 11:00
05DEC2006 06DEC2006 07DEC2006 08DEC2006 09DEC2006 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
TIME : 4 Hours /div 5 %/div
Displaced Volume
Figure 13. 1st stage head end valve temperature trend and head end PV curves.
Valve #49 90° Left Temperature 05OCT2006 11:00:00 86 deg F NA

N/A From 05OCT2006 11:00:00 To 09DEC2006 11:00:00 Historical
150
SAMPLE FILTERING
100
10 deg F/div
AMPLITUDE:
50
0
11:00 11:00 11:00 11:00 11:00
05OCT2006 19OCT2006 02NOV2006 16NOV2006 30NOV2006
Figure 14. Suction valve temperature trends, head end.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 2 7
RECIP TIPS
3. Internal Valve Temperature

Re-circulating and re-compressing the gas gives rise
to the higher temperature observed at the valve cover.
The internal valve temperature design approach moves
the sensor closer to the valve where the gas first returns
to the manifold. Figure 15 shows a typical design for a
non-explosion proof installation. A slight modification
would be required to the thermowell to allow installation
of an explosion-proof head.
A penetration in the valve cover allows for a thermowell

to be installed, close to the valve. Within the thermowell,
an RTD or TC provides the actual temperature measure-
ment and sensing.
The proximity of the sensing element to the valve

provides better response time compared to either valve
cover skin temperature or valve cover temperature. In
addition, in most cases the measurement provides data
less influenced by environmental factors than either of
the other two measurements.
For many installations, temperature data from this

Figure 15. Internal valve temperature installation.
arrangement typically varies by 2-3°F, better than either
of the other two approaches. Figure 16 shows this data
and how closely the two crank end discharge internal
valve temperature trends track.
1st Stg CE Disch #3 45° Right 28DEC2006 21:43:13 79 deg F NA
Recip Compress From 28DEC2006 10:11:41 To 22JAN2007 16:11:41 Historical In some cases, it has been observed that the sensitivity
1st Stg CE Disch #4 90° Left 28DEC2006 21:43:13 80 deg F NA
Recip Compress From 28DEC2006 10:11:41 To 22JAN2007 16:11:41 Historical of the temperature sensor to transient conditions
300
within the valve assembly (i.e., dirt, debris, etc.) creates
SAMPLE FILTERING
changes in the valve temperature trend that do not
correlate with the overall health of the valve.
250
Figure 17 shows data from one such case. From 29

December onward, the data shows the temperature
10 deg F/div
AMPLITUDE:
200
of valve “1st Stg CE Suct #2” increases away from the

150
other suction valve temperature. This usually indicates a
leaking valve. The PV curves should show a deteriorating
suction valve as well. The PV curve in the top right pane
100
of Figure 17 shows the data at 29 December and the

lower right shows the data 22 January 2007. Although
50
10:11
28DEC2006
10:11
04JAN2007
10:11
11JAN2007
10:11
18JAN2007
both curves do show a minor leak, the cylinder pressure
curve does not change over the time period of the valve
Figure 16. Internal valve temperature trend. temperature trend plot, as would be expected for a
leaking valve.
2 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

RECIP TIPS
1st Stg CE Pres Synch 651.5psig

1st Stg CE Suct #1 45° Right 28DEC2006 10:11:41 77 deg F NA Displaced Volume
Recip Compressor Tra From 29DEC2006 06:43:02 To 29DEC2006 06:43:02
0%
Historical MACHINE SPEED: 327 rpm
Recip Compress From 28DEC2006 10:11:41 To 22JAN2007 16:11:41 1st Stg CE Pres
Displaced Volume
651.5psig
0%
1st Stg CE Suct #2 90° Left 28DEC2006 10:11:41 76 deg F NA Recip Compressor Tra
TDC
Reference MACHINE SPEED: 327 rpm
Recip Compress From 28DEC2006 10:11:41 To 22JAN2007 16:11:41

1000
SAMPLE FILTERING
800
20 psig/div
140
600
400
200
120
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
5 %/div
AMPLITUDE:
5 deg F/div
Displaced Volume
1st Stg CE Pres Synch 643.2psig
Displaced Volume 0%
100 Recip Compressor Tra From 22JAN2007 11:23:43 To 22JAN2007 11:23:43 Historical MACHINE SPEED: 327 rpm
1st Stg CE Pres 643.2psig
Displaced Volume 0%
Recip Compressor Tra Reference MACHINE SPEED: 327 rpm
TDC
1200

1000
80
50 psig/div
800
600
400
60
200
10:11 10:11 10:11 10:11 0

28DEC2006 04JAN2007 11JAN2007 18JAN2007 0 20 40 60 80 100
5 %/div
TIME : 24 Hours /div Displaced Volume
Figure 17. Crank end suction internal valve temperature and PV curves.
References
[1] Leonard, Stephen M. “Increasing the Reliability of Reciprocating Compressor on Hydrogen Service,” Hydrocarbon
Processing, January 1996.
[2] Manurung, Togar MP, et. al. “Reliability Improvement of a Reciprocating Compressor in an Oil Refinery.”
[3] Smith, Tim. “Quantum Chemical Uses Reciprocating Compressor Monitoring to Improve Reliability,” Orbit Magazine,
June 1996, pp. 13-16.
[4] Silcock, Don. “Reciprocating Compressor Instrumented for Machinery Management,” Orbit Magazine, June 1996, pp.
10-12.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 2 9
BACK TO BASICS
Asset Management 101

Part 1: Maintenance Strategy Overview
Larry Covino Michael Hanifan

Product Line Leader, Strategic Partnerships Lead Technologist, New Applications Engineer
Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring, Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring, GE Energy
GE Energy, lawrence.covino@ge.com mike.hanifan@ge.com
3 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
BACK TO BASICS
A
s industries contend with global IN PART 3, the final installment of this series,
competition, unprecedented economic we explore PCM in more detail with an overview
conditions, regulatory demands, environ- of both offline and online condition monitoring
mental concerns, and other pressures, systems and their role in PCM. Particular attention
the ability to manage their physical production is devoted to explaining the role of scanning-type
assets has become increasingly important. The online systems (both wired and wireless) as they
emphasis that industry now places on the asset pertain to moderate- and low-criticality assets,
management function can be readily noted simply and specific threshold criteria is offered to help
by observing the number of individuals that users determine when to move an asset from an
currently carry the title “Asset Manager” on their offline approach to an online approach. Part 3
business cards compared to just ten years ago. concludes with a discussion of the impact that
The asset manager’s first and most fundamental wireless technology has had on moving the online/
task in establishing an asset management pro- offline threshold further down the criticality scale,
gram is to identify the appropriate maintenance and explores the categories of assets most suit-
strategy(ies) warranted by each asset. Accordingly, able for wireless condition monitoring.
we are devoting a series of articles to this
important topic.
THE ASSET MANAGER’S FIRST

IN PART 1, we provide an overview of the
four basic maintenance strategies: Predictive
Maintenance (PdM), Preventive Maintenance AND MOST FUNDAMENTAL
(PM), Reactive Maintenance (RM), and Proactive-
Centered Maintenance (PCM). We also introduce TASK IN ESTABLISHING AN
the P-F curve and its relationship to these mainte-
nance strategies. Finally, we introduce the concept
of asset criticality. ASSET MANAGEMENT
PROGRAM IS TO IDENTIFY
IN PART 2, we explore the relationship
between P-F curves and asset criticality in
more depth, showing how an asset’s criticality THE APPROPRIATE
governs the level of analysis rigor necessary to
choose an appropriate maintenance strategy. The MAINTENANCE STRATEGY(IES)
various analysis methods are discussed, including
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM), Root Cause
Failure Analysis (RCFA), and Failure Modes and WARRANTED BY EACH ASSET.
Effects Analysis (FMEA), with guidance offered on
when (and when not) to apply each method. We
then review the four basic maintenance strategies
introduced in part 1, and establish the condition
monitoring methodologies and system require-
ments that correspond to each.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 3 1
BACK TO BASICS
Asset Management and the P-F Curve P-F curve as possible. This results in strong planning
and scheduling programs, with condition monitoring
Figure 1 shows an example of a Failure (P-F) curve, with
technologies as one of the key work identification
P representing the point in time when the potential
systems driving those programs. The maintenance and
failure can be detected, and F representing the point in
reliability teams spend the right amount of time identify-
time the asset reaches functional failure. While not all
ing failures earlier for each asset, enabling improved
failures manifest themselves in this manner, most failure
coordination to better plan and schedule maintenance
modes do have technologies that can detect failures
activities. Today’s challenging economic environment,
early in their failure cycle. The intent is to manage assets
combined with the costs of HSE (Health, Safety, and
at the top of this curve.
Environmental) and regulatory compliance, makes it
While most companies strive toward managing their imperative to optimize the return on investment for
assets proactively, many plants often find themselves maintenance activities.
managing assets in a reactive mode. They are
continually reacting to assets reaching functional failure Maintenance Strategies
without warning. This situation often results in spare
Below, we summarize the four fundamental mainte-
parts shortages due to limited planning time, increased
nance strategies in use today. It is important to note
overtime and callouts, and poorer quality repairs
that multiple strategies may be (and often are) applied
and documentation. All of this can inhibit the plant
to a single asset. The strategy(ies) chosen for a par-
from having the time and resources to complete the
ticular asset are a function of its criticality—a concept
repertoire of maintenance routines and move into a
explored later in this article—and its failure modes and
more predictive mode.
consequences. Certain failure modes, for example, may
have serious consequences, but are not be detect-
Best-in-Class Practices able by any currently available condition monitoring
Best-in-class maintenance and reliability performers technology. Routine quantitative inspections must be
typically manage the majority of assets as far up the carried out instead. Other failure modes on the same
Point where impending

failure is detected is Vibration
Oil Analysis
Potenial Failure (P) 1–9 months Thermography
1–6 months
3–12 weeks
Quantitative PM
P0 P1 5–8 weeks
P2
P3 Audible Noise
1–4 weeks
P4
Heat by touch
P5
1–5 days
P6
Smoke
0–0 days
P7
Point where asset
stops doing what its
P–F Interval users want it to do is
Failure (F)
Figure 1. Potential Failure to Actual Failure (P-F) Curve.
3 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

BACK TO BASICS
asset may have equally serious consequences, yet can through a condition monitoring (CM) program. It allows
be readily detectable by a particular technology, such planners and schedulers to schedule maintenance
as thermography. Such an asset would employ a mix of when it is most cost-effective and precedes functional
preventive maintenance (e.g., time-based inspections) failure. A condition monitoring program monitors the
and predictive maintenance (e.g., thermography). health of the asset early in the P-F cycle and helps
identify the required maintenance work. Ideally, this
1. Preventive Maintenance (PM) allows reliability and maintenance professionals to
A PM strategy is often based on OEM recommendations conduct all required maintenance on a given piece of
for specific production assets, with preventive main- equipment simultaneously, saving costly downtime.
tenance performed at specified time-based intervals.
CM programs have often been characterized as
The intervals are generally based on the MTBF (Mean
“vibration monitoring” programs. However, while
Time Between Failure) data compiled by the OEM. PM
vibration monitoring is a critical aspect of most CM
includes intrusive time-based inspections and requires
programs, there are more than 75 different types of
taking the asset out of service and opening it to look
non-intrusive CM technologies, such as oil particulate
for worn parts or incipient failures. Often, since an
analysis, temperature, thermography, and ultrasonics.
asset is opened for inspection, wearable parts may be
The selection of CM technology(ies) and corresponding
replaced even though they do not show wear. Also, any
data collection/analysis frequency is done on an asset-
intrusive maintenance has the potential of imparting
by-asset basis by considering both the asset’s criticality
maintenance-induced failures, often called infant
and it’s failure modes.
mortality. Since asset failures can happen between
scheduled maintenance intervals, a strictly time-based The goal of predictive maintenance is to use condition
strategy may not be right for many assets and certain monitoring technology to detect future failures through
failure patterns. the evaluation of early warning indicators. A robust PdM
program has many benefits over other maintenance
Quantitative preventive maintenance incorporates
strategies (see Table 1).
non-intrusive predictive maintenance inspections into
a preventive maintenance program. Using gauges to
measure belt tension on a motor-driven blower is an Table 1. Attributes of PdM/CBM.
example of a non-intrusive inspection to detect pending Benefits Methods
failure. In this case, tension can be measured without • After initial hardware • Compares physical
opening the machine and is one indicator of excessive costs, less expensive measurements against
roller, bearing, or belt wear. recurring maintenance engineering limits and
costs than preventive specifications
While such inspections are non-intrusive, they are still maintenance or • Tracks trends to detect
reactive maintenance changes from normal
time-based. Further, they cannot be performed on an (see Figure 2) • Uses state-of-the-art
asset unless the asset is shut down for testing. Therefore, • Early detection of technology to discover
while it does not result in the typical problems inherent in failures generates failures
maintenance work • Allows alarm limits to
intrusive inspections, it still results in a loss of production
plans, resulting in more be established
while the asset is shut down. This, in turn, may reduce the planned work rather • Employs continuous
life cycle of those assets for which starting and stopping than unplanned online monitoring,
incurs greater wear than steady-state operation. • Failure identification intermittent online
results in less downtime monitoring, or manual
during maintenance data collection,
2. Predictive Maintenance (PdM)/ depending on the
Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) asset failure cycle
PdM and CBM are synonymous. A CBM program evalu-
ates machinery via instrumentation, either periodically
or continuously, to determine its condition, usually
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 3 3
BACK TO BASICS
Once a robust PdM program is in place for an asset, PM Unfortunately, for many companies without good PM
routines can be reviewed and in many cases optimized and PdM programs, RM is not a deliberate strategy
or eliminated. As an example, assume that a particular applied to only selected assets; it is instead a vicious
OEM recommendation is to change a bearing after cycle where daily maintenance activities are dominated
30,000 hours of operation. With proper application of by unforeseen failures, hindering the transition to a
predictive technologies, the health of the bearing can be more proactive approach for managing assets.
monitored and managed to a high degree of reliability.
Indeed, RM may consume up to 80 percent of the total
By managing the health and condition of the asset,
time and budget of companies stuck in this mode.
time-based maintenance intervals can be extended or
eliminated altogether. Referring again to Figure 2, RM (i.e., RTF) also has the
dubious distinction of being the most expensive type of
Finally, PdM is not only more effective in driving early
maintenance when applied indiscriminately to all assets
warning and the ability to plan and schedule properly,
in the plant.
but it is also less costly than reactive and time-based
strategies (Figure 2). 4. Proactive-Centered Maintenance (PCM)
A one-size-fits-all approach utilizing RM has already
been shown to be the most expensive and least
effective maintenance strategy when indiscriminately
Cost of Maintenance applied to all assets. However, the same can be said
EPRI Power Generation Study (Modified)
for both PM and PdM. Simply applying any particular
18 strategy to all assets—independent of the asset’s
16
14 criticality—is non-optimal. PCM recognizes this and
$/HP/Year
12 emphasizes doing the right maintenance on the right

10
8 assets at the right time.
6
4 In most cases, a PCM approach increases the use of
2 PdM, while continuing to utilize PM. It also utilizes RM,
0
RTF PM PdM PCM but correctly limits this approach to assets with little
Types of Maintenance Programs or no consequences of failure. However, PCM’s purview
encompasses more than just where to apply RM, PM,
Figure 2. Potential Failure to Actual Failure and PdM. It also concerns itself with procedures, operat-
(P-F) Curve.
ing parameters, processes, and designs in order to limit
or prevent recurring failures, thus reducing the total
number of asset failures and extending the mean time
3. Reactive Maintenance (RM) between asset failures. A PCM program is continually
RM, sometimes referred to as “living life at the bottom of
being optimized with feedback from Root Cause Failure
the P-F curve,” is maintenance performed after a failure,
Analysis (RCFA) repairs, Quantitative PM’s, PdM routines,
or after an obvious, unforeseen threat of immediate fail-
CM systems, and operations. This feedback is used
ure. Running machines in run-to-failure (RTF) mode is an
proactively to keep assets in their optimal operating
appropriate strategy for assets where the consequence
condition.
of failure (including cost to replace) is so low that the
expenditure of valuable maintenance time doing PM or Referring again to Figure 2, PCM can result in up to a
PdM tasks cannot be justified. 42% reduction in maintenance costs when compared to
PM and up to a 59% reduction when compared to RM.
3 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

BACK TO BASICS
Asset Criticality Summary

As previously mentioned, determining the appropriate Four fundamental maintenance strategies exist today:
maintenance strategy(ies) for a particular asset is a RM, PM, PdM, and PCM. Ideally, the maintenance
function of the asset’s criticality, which is in turn a func- strategy(ies) selected for a particular asset will
tion of the consequences of failure for the asset. correspond to the asset’s criticality and failure modes/
consequences. Indeed, as the criticality of an asset
Table 2 summarizes the five broad criticality classifica-
increases, the more likely that it will require a mix of
tions for assets based on their consequences of failure.
maintenance strategies. RM, although a valid approach
Also included is the approximate percentage of assets
for some assets, is very costly when applied indiscrimi-
populating each category in a typical industrial plant.
nately. The widespread use of RM in a plant typically
The middle column in the table indicates the analysis
characterizes those with asset management programs
method used to establish the maintenance strategy.
in the bottom quartile amongst their peers. In contrast,
This linkage between methodology and maintenance
best-in-class performers typically use more predictive
strategy will be discussed in more detail in part 2 of this
maintenance than their peers, and have often moved
series of articles. For now, it is sufficient to note that the
beyond simple RM, PM, and PdM to Proactive-Centered
methodology employed depends on asset criticality, and
Maintenance which combines the elements of RM, PM,
asset criticality depends on the consequences of failure.
and PdM while proactively addressing factors such as
For example, it can be seen from Table 2 that “Highly operating parameters, processes, and designs to limit or
Critical” assets should always employ an RCM prevent recurring asset failures.
methodology to arrive at the appropriate maintenance
strategy(ies), while “Critical” assets may or may not STAY TUNED…Part 2 of this 3-part series continues our
discussion of asset criticality, showing its relationship to
employ an RCM methodology. Those with more serious the P-F curve. It also examines the analysis methods of
consequences of failure would employ RCM; those with Table 2 in considerably more detail. It then explores the
less serious consequences of failure would employ FMEA. particular condition monitoring system attributes
warranted by each asset criticality classification.
Table 2. Asset Criticality Classifications and Analysis Methods

Classification Analysis Method Distribution
(based on consequences of failure) (method used to determine mainte- (percentage of total assets)
nance strategy or strategies)
Highly Critical
Reliability Centered Maintenance
(RCM)
10–20%
Critical
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis

(FMEA)
Mid-Level Critical
30–40%
Low-Level Critical Asset-Specific, Pre-Defined 45–55%

Maintenance Templates
Non-Critical RTF 5–10%
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 3 5
CASE HISTORY
Diagnosing a Steam Turbine

Governor Problem at EQUATE Petrochemical
This case history documents how
GE Energy’s System 1* software
was used in identifying the root
cause of a unique high vibration
problem encountered during
the post-maintenance start-up
of a critical mechanical-drive
steam turbine at the EQUATE
Petrochemical complex in Kuwait.
Joy.P.Francis. – Specialist, Condition Monitoring – EQUATE Petrochemical Company, Kuwait – puthenjf@equate.com
3 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

CASE HISTORY
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 3 7
CASE HISTORY
Machine Description
The machine detailed in this case history is a 1547
kW back-pressure steam turbine (Figure 1) driving a
high-pressure multi-stage boiler feed pump at 4200
rpm. The turbine is forced lubricated, incorporates
tilting-pad thrust bearings at the steam end, and uses
a Woodward® Peak® 150 governor for speed control.
The entire train is monitored continuously via a Bently
Nevada 3500 Series Machinery Protection System
connected to System 1 software.
Figure 1. Back-pressure steam turbine running

Events Leading up to the at 4200 rpm and driving a multi-stage, high-
Machinery Problem pressure boiler feed pump (not shown in photo –
to right of coupling guard).
During a turnaround in April 2006, the existing labyrinth
seal was replaced with a special bearing isolator (BI) as
a part of a modification to arrest an oil leak from the
turbine bearings. This particular BI is slightly wider than
conventional designs; it also incorporates an extra oil
deflector ring at the bearing ends. The cross-sectional
diagram of Figure 2 shows the BIs and the oil deflectors
on the turbine rotor.
Initial Vibration Problem on

Outboard Bearing
On 5 April 2006, the turbine was started for an uncoupled
test run, and the shaft vibration amplitude at the exhaust
Figure 2. Cross-sectional diagram showing
end bearing recorded more than 100 microns pk-pk (3.94 arrangement of bearing isolators and oil
mils pk-pk), reaching the trip setpoint. With System 1 deflectors on turbine rotor.
software in place and providing continuous information
on machine condition, valuable data were captured and
available for diagnosis. However, since the Keyphasor*
probe was installed on the pump (not the turbine), only
shows the results of this run; analysis of this time signal
unfiltered vibration signals were available for analysis.
indicated high runout at the drive end probe landing
[Editor’s Note: Good engineering practice is to install a Keyphasor
phase reference transducer on the driver rather than on the driven area. This was initially puzzling because the turbine
machine, allowing a phase reference for uncoupled test runs, exactly inspection report showed acceptable shaft runout
as in the scenario described here. This is why industry standards such
as API 670 require the phase reference transducer to be mounted on values, conflicting with the most recently acquired data.
the driver rather than driven machine only.]
The turbine was shut down and runout tests were
The unit was then run at slow-roll speed to determine conducted on both bearings. Runout of 100 microns
whether the readings were in fact high vibration or pk-pk (3.94 mils pk-pk) and 26 microns pk-pk (1.0 mil
simply excessive mechanical/electrical runout. Figure 3 pk-pk) were detected at the exhaust and inlet ends
respectively.
3 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Figure 5. Following removal of the oil deflector
Figure 3. Timebase signatures gathered during
rings and reinstallation of the original labyrinth
slow-roll conditions from turbine exhaust (top)
seals, three separate startups were attempted
and inlet (bottom) bearing radial probes respec-
but aborted due to high vibration amplitudes.
tively. The waveforms are indicative slow-roll
runout or so-called “glitch.”
Figure 4. Cross-sectional diagram of turbine rotor

showing close proximity of oil deflector rings to
radial vibration probes. Because the face of the
oil deflector rings was not perfectly perpendicu-
lar, the wobble was observed by the probes and
accounted for the high slow-roll runout readings.
Figure 6. Timebase signatures gathered during
44 rpm slow-roll conditions from turbine exhaust
(top) and inlet (bottom) bearing radial probes
respectively. The amplitudes were considerably
lower than before removal of the oil deflector
rings, but still above API recommended limits.
CASE HISTORY
Investigation into the source of the runout focused on

the newly installed oil seal deflectors (Figure 4). These
were found to have high face runout and were located
in very close proximity (~ 2 mm) to the radial probes. The
deflector is shrunk fit to the shaft and the face runout (i.e.,
wobbling action) of this ring was within the observable
sideview field of the radial probe; consequently, it intro-
duced erroneous readings into the radial vibration signal.
Based on these findings, it was decided to revert back to

the previous labyrinth seals due to time constraints and
the practical difficulties in straightening and correcting
Figure 7. Bode plots during uncoupled run from
the perpendicularity of the welded oil deflector rings. turbine exhaust (top) and inlet (bottom) bearing
radial probes respectively. The amplitudes were
within expected ranges.
Continuing Problems
The turbine rotor was dismantled to revert back to the
exhaust end bearings as shown in Figure 7, staying
previous labyrinth seals. The outage was also used to
below 40 microns pk-pk (1.6 mils pk-pk).
perform an overhaul of the governor actuator to correct
“hunting” of the governor valve that had been observed In addition to the Bode plots of Figure 7, spectrum plots
during the previous start-ups. were also examined. These showed a high-amplitude
component occurring at a very low frequency
Following this work, the turbine was restarted on 9 April
(approximately 0.625 Hz). This was initially thought to
2006 for a coupled run.
be spurious signal noise; however, analysis of the shaft
Unfortunately, the machine experienced what appeared centerline plots revealed a different scenario.
to be very high vibration amplitudes of 150 microsn
The shaft centerline plot is polar representation of the
pk-pk (6 mils pk-pk) immediately after start-up at the
shaft’s centerline as a function of time or changing
steam end x-probe as shown in Figure 5. As a result,
speed. It is often used during startup or coastdown to
three separate startup attempts had to be aborted.
show how the shaft climbs up the oil wedge to assume
Further start-up attempts were abandoned until a stable position within the bearing clearance, graphi-
detailed vibration analysis could be conducted. The cally depicting the average radial position of the shaft
slow-roll runout levels were again checked on the steam within its bearings at various speeds.
and exhaust ends at very low speeds of around 44 rpm
The shaft centerline plot of Figure 8a does not show
(Figure 6). The runout levels were 33 and 13 microns
expected behavior; instead, it depicts an almost instan-
pk-pk at steam and exhaust ends respectively.
taneous (note that the time stamps are all within two
Though the magnitude of this runout was above the seconds of one another) change in shaft position from
API limits, it was not enough to explain the excessive the bottom of the bearing clearance at the 6:00 position
momentary vibration increase at start-up during the to an unstable position in the top half of the bearing
coupled run. Consequently, the root cause of the high clearance circle. This abrupt movement of the shaft
vibration remained unanswered. towards the X-probe during the coupled startup is highly
unusual and the timebase plot of Figure 8c confirms
An external speed probe was temporarily installed to
the nearly instant step-change in the average value.
allow the capture of filtered vibration data, and the tur-
Essentially, it shows a DC step change (the gap voltage)
bine was tested uncoupled by running up to full speed.
upon which is superimposed the AC vibration waveform.
The vibration levels were acceptable at both steam and
Continued on page 42.
4 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

SIDEBAR ARTICLE
Considered one of the world’s leading petrochemical Diethylene Glycol (DEG), which are marketed by
producers, EQUATE Petrochemical Company is a MEGlobal, a separate PIC and Dow joint venture.
Kuwait-based international joint venture between
To meet ever-increasing worldwide demand
Petrochemical Industries Company (PIC), The Dow
for excellent petrochemical products, EQUATE’s
Chemical Company (Dow), Boubyan Petrochemical
shareholders have completed a multi-billion
Co m p any (BP C) an d Q urain Pet ro ch emical
expansion project which greatly increases the
Industries Company (QPIC).
existing production of PE and EG.
As a world-class petro-
Emerging as Greater EQUATE,
c h e m i c a l p r o d u c e r, EQ UAT E
this $3 billion global-scale
currently provides markets in
venture added SM to EQUATE’s
the Middle Eas t, A sia, Africa
product por tfolio. Paraxylene
and Europe with high-quality
and Benzene are also produced
petrochemical products.
at the same location from a new
E Q U AT E p r o d u c e s — a n d i t s wo r l d - cl a s s A ro m a t ic s p l ant
commercial face, the EQUATE which is managed by EQUATE.
Marketing Company (EMC),
Hand-in-hand with being a
markets—a wide range of
leading market player, EQUATE is
p o lyet hy l en e (PE ), f ro m lin e ar l o w d en si t y
an empowered, competency-based organization
(LLDPE) to high molecular weight high-density
applying best practices and leading technology
resins (HDPE). Recently EMC has also begun
i n m a r ke t i n g , s a l e s , re cr u i t m e nt & ca re e r
selling Styrene Monomer (SM) produced from
development, environment, health & safety,
Greater EQUATE’s expanded facilities. EQUATE
industrial operations, and administrative affairs.
also produces Monoethylene Glycol (MEG) and
CASE HISTORY
Figure 8. The shaft centerline plot (a) at left depicts an almost instantaneous change in the shaft’s average
position as can be noted by the timestamps which are all within two seconds of one another. The amplitude
trend (b) at upper right provides another view of this sudden change, as does the timebase waveform (c) at
lower left which assumes the shape of a step change upon which is superimposed the AC vibration signal.
This sudden change in gap voltage as the shaft

abruptly shifted towards the X-probe was detected and
interpreted as vibration by the X-probe, resulting in the
spiking vibration of Figure 5.
Since the phenomenon was observed only during

the coupled startup, it was apparent that the shaft
movement was steam-induced (the steam throughput
is much higher in a coupled run than in an uncoupled
run due to the additional load imposed by the pump).
As such, attention was focused on the turbine governor
control as the potential source of problems (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Governor actuator assembly.
Root cause Investigation
Investigation revealed that when the governor actuator speed. As a result, the sudden inrush of the excessive
had been overhauled during reinstallation of the original steam flow momentarily pushed the rotor upward.
labyrinth seals, the actuator stroke was changed, This upward force, along with the bearing fluid forces,
altering the start-up sequence. The governor, initially caused a resultant force in the direction of the X-probe.
configured in auto-start mode, had been modified to This phenomenon did not occur during uncoupled runs,
manual mode; thus, the turbine ramped directly to mini- as the magnitude of steam throughput is much less
mum governor speed without dwelling at the slow–roll than in coupled load runs.
4 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

CASE HISTORY
Figure 10. Trend of vibration data during final startup (bottom) shows vibration levels below 60 microns
pk-pk (2.5 mils pk-pk), consistent with normal levels. The shaft centerline plot at upper left also shows normal
response, with the centerline climbing up the oil wedge as the shaft speed increases from 0 to 4200 rpm. For
a shaft rotating in the counter-clockwise direction, it will slowly climb up the right wall of the bearing with
increasing speed, exactly as shown, before assuming a stable position at running speed.
To test this hypothesis, the turbine was started slowly by units can only run when this unit runs. Without dynamic
manually controlling the steam admission. As expected, data capture and a full complement of plot types such as
the turbine ramped slowly to full speed with very low shaft centerline, slow-roll timebase, and spectrum, the
vibration levels and a normal shaft centerline response problem would have been extremely difficult to diagnose
as shown in Figure 10. and would have taken considerably longer.
As such, this case history emphasizes the importance

Conclusion of different formats of vibration data provided by
Left unchecked, the high initial steam flow caused by GE Energy’s System 1 software. The appropriate use of
the improper governor startup control has the potential this data helps the Equate condition monitoring team to
to deform the shaft. The ability to diagnose this problem fully comprehend the problem by effective and accurate
allowed us to not only prevent possible permanent dam- vibration analysis. In this case, the shaft centerline plot,
age to the shaft, it saved us approximately one week’s when examined with respect to time, was particularly
production losses due to a cascade effect whereby other instrumental in the accurate and timely diagnosis of
both the problem and its root cause.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 4 3
APPLICATIONS
APPLICATION
Considerations for
EDDY-CURRENT
Proximity Probes
he plant’s rotating machinery engineer for suitability, mounting brackets would have to be
breathed a sigh of relief. After nearly half designed, and a host of other details would have to
a decade of having his requests turned be properly engineered for the application at-hand.
down, he had finally gotten capital Unfortunately, the rotating machinery engineer
budget approval to retrofit an aging assumed that his biggest hurdle was to obtain
compressor with proximity probes. He understood budget approval; the myriad of application details
the value of the data they could provide, as many were ignored simply because he didn’t know what
of the newer machines in the plant were fitted with he didn’t know. When the items finally arrived and
probes and he used the information regularly to plan were installed, it was discovered during system
maintenance and diagnose mechanical problems. check-out and commissioning that the transducers
were calibrated to the wrong target material,
However, unlike the machines in newer sections
that the probe holes were drilled and tapped
of the plant that had been supplied from the OEM
incorrectly – introducing crosstalk and counterbore
with probes already installed, the machine he
interference – and that the cable lengths were
was now retrofitting dated back to the 1960s
mismatched. While it eventually got sorted out, the
and did not have provisions for probes. As a result,
project took three times as long as it should have
bearing housings would have to be drilled and
and cost nearly twice as much to complete.
tapped, shaft surfaces would have to be checked
Nathan Littrell – Senior Systems Engineer – GE Energy – nate.littrell@ge.com

Andrew Bell – Lead Engineer – Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring – GE Energy – andrew.bell@ge.com
4 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
APPLICATIONS
Want to avoid a similar scenario in your plant? You can, 1. Target material
but only when you have a firm grasp of the fundamen- 2. Target geometry
tals of eddy-current proximity probes and application 3. System length
considerations that can spell the difference between 4. Mounting considerations (e.g., counterbore,
failure and success when instrumenting a machine. This bracket resonances, installation convenience)
article is designed to help you do just that. 5. Environment (e.g., temperature, chemicals,
radiation)
Principle of Operation 6. Frequency response
7. Linear range
An eddy-current probe works by passing an alternating
8. Signal-to-noise ratio (e.g., device resolution,
current through a coil of wire and measuring the coil’s
electrical runout)
impedance. This impedance changes when the probe is
1
9. Field wiring
brought near an electrically conductive material and the
impedance change is proportional to the physical gap
1. Target Material
between the coil and the conductive target. The sensing
The impedance change of the probe is dependent
electronics in turn convert this impedance change to a
on the electrical properties of the target material. All
voltage, providing an electrical output directly
probe systems state the material to which they are
proportional to physical gap.
calibrated (typically AISI 4140 steel). Although some
While the operating principles are simple enough, that products claim to be insensitive to target material, these
is where the simplicity ends. A probe must be rugged, should be approached cautiously as there are usually
accurate, linear, repeatable, interchangeable, and performance compromises involved. The point here is
impervious to its environment. Building such a probe that you must know the target material and verify that
is daunting. Building millions of such probes is even the probe system is calibrated appropriately, or at least
more daunting. Advanced, proprietary manufacturing that the performance deviation is known and that the
processes involving precision winding and sealing transducer system can be compensated to account for
techniques have been perfected over more than 50 this deviation. Generally, the factory should be consulted
years to allow mass production of eddy-current probes to quantify this performance deviation and to offer
that possess all the necessary attributes demanded by advice on whether the deviation would be excessive
both industrial and laboratory applications. for the intended application. When the deviation is
unacceptably large, transducer systems calibrated
Likewise, applying eddy-current transducers requires
to the specific target material can be supplied.
careful attention to detail. Only by understanding the
factors that affect the probe’s performance and
applying the probe accordingly can one be assured
that the installation will perform as specified. This
article discusses each of the following nine basic
factors that the installer must consider:
APPLICATIONS
2. Target Geometry Probes used for differential expansion measurements
2
Typically, the eddy-current system is designed to frequently observe collars or ramped features on
operate with a flat target. Rotating shafts of sufficient the shaft. The size and shape of the collars must be
diameter introduce no significant error, but there can adequate or the probe will not function properly (Figure
be problems if the shaft is too small. The effect of an 1). The probe may have scale factor problems and can
undersized shaft is that the sensor scale factor will be also pick up radial vibration of the shaft if the probe is
reduced; consequently, vibration levels will be under too close. The probes used in these applications are
reported. The minimum shaft size or target diameter for typically larger (11, 25, and 50 mm tip diameters). The
flat targets should be stated on the product data sheet. data sheet and manuals for these products contain
Look for it and take note. the details for correct application.
Figure 1. Differential expansion probes observing a ramp (left) or collar (right) must be selected and installed
carefully to ensure that the probes observe only the intended portion of the shaft. If a radial vibration probe is
installed near a collar, it must be located adequately distant from the collar to ensure it observes only the shaft
—not the collar.
Crosstalk is another issue associated with the target The symptom is that a ‘beat frequency’ will be evident
geometry. For machines using probes in an XY configu- on the sensor output. This beat frequency is dependent
ration, the two probes can interfere with each other if on probe gap and will exhibit frequencies in the range of
they are too close. The mechanism that causes this is several hundred Hz to a few kHz.
when the magnetic fields emanating from the probes
are at approximately the same frequency (Figure 2).
4 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
3. System Length
The probe, Proximitor* sensor, and extension cable are
expressly designed to work in specific combinations.
The probe and extension cable have a very tightly
controlled impedance characteristic and the Proximitor
sensor will only work for that specific probe/cable com-
bination within a particular probe product family (e.g.
3300XL 11 mm). Mixing either the lengths incorrectly or
parts from different product families (such as a 3300XL
8 mm probe connected to a 3300XL 11 mm extension
cable) will result in problems. For this reason, the probes,
Proximitor sensors, and extension cables within a
particular product family are usually color coded [1].
The system length of a probe refers to the combined

Figure 2. These two probes are located too close length of the probe and extension cable. This length
together, allowing the fields from each to inter-
must match the system length of the Proximitor sensor
fere with one another. This results in so-called
“crosstalk.” and is typically 5 or 9 meters. For example, a 1-meter
probe must be matched with a 4 meter cable to create
a 5-meter system; likewise, a half-meter probe must be
One solution to this problem on machines with small matched with a 4.5-meter extension cable, and so on.
shafts is to displace one probe axially from the other. The situation for 9-meter systems is analogous.
This separation will remove the crosstalk while still Connecting probes and cables of the wrong lengths can
providing a useful X-Y probe pair (Figure 3). cause performance problems ranging from inaccuracy
to a complete failure. These problems are significant
and, unfortunately, common. For example, a half-meter
probe connected to a 4 meter extension cable is only 4.5
3
meters. When connected to a 5-meter Proximitor sensor,
the output will be at least 20% higher than expected.
Similarly, a 5.5-meter system would have an output
lower than nominal.
Also note that the lengths are considered as “electrical”

lengths. The probe and extension cables are physically
trimmed to meet an electrical performance character-
istic. This means that the actual physical lengths can be
different than the electrical length. As such, a 4.5-meter
extension cable may not be exactly 4.5 meters as mea-
sured by a ruler and it is necessary to allow for nominal
Figure 3. The probes of Figure 2 have now been physical length variation when planning your system’s
offset from one another axially, preventing their
cable runs. The length tolerance is always stated on the
fields from interfering with one another, allowing
X-Y radial vibration measurements without the product data sheet. When planning the installation, be
problem of crosstalk. sure that the minimum physical length of the probe and
cable will be sufficient to reach the Proximitor sensor.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 4 7
APPLICATIONS
4. Mounting Considerations pipe experiencing vibration. To avoid probe resonance,

A number of physical constraints can affect the quality mounting features should include a support secondary
of the output from a proximity transducer system: to the main fitment whenever possible for installations
that have more than a few inches of probe extending
• Counterbore beyond the bracket (see Figure 5).
Since the probe is sensitive to conductive material, any
conductive machine components (other than the shaft)
4
that are too close to the probe can affect the signal. It is
common for probes to protrude directly through metal
to view the target shaft. In this case, a counterbore
should be employed to avoid metal too close to the
probe tip (Figure 4). Any metallic machine components
that protrude into the region defined by recommended
counterbore spacing requirements should be removed if
possible. Recommendations vary by transducer model.
This issue is similar to that discussed earlier for probes

observing collar or ramps in expansion measurement
applications (refer to Figure 1).
Figure 4. Cutaway rendering showing a probe

with proper counterbore. This ensures that the
probe’s field will “see” only the rotating shaft,
not the sides or back of the hole.
• Bracket Resonances Figure 5. The probe on the top has a long unsup-
Brackets or probe mounting hardware should always ported length, resulting in mechanical resonance
be chosen to provide mounting and support that is and erroneous readings as the probe is no longer
stationary with respect to the shaft it observes.
as rigid as possible. In some instances, probes with a The probe on the bottom is identical, but has
long metal casing (for example, a probe with five or a mounting bracket to support and stiffen the
more inches of thread) can be prone to resonance at probe “stinger.” This ensures that the machine’s
vibration will not excite the probe mounting’s
transient or steady state operating speeds. This is due
resonance.
primarily to the physical behavior exhibited by a tube or
4 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
• Installation Convenience Ether Ether Ketone (PEEK) tips and are widely compatible
with steam and petroleum products. If the environment
For applications requiring long probes or installation
contains anhydrous ammonia (NH3) or other reactive
in tight spaces, a smooth body probe should be consid-
substances, probes manufactured with a ceramic tip
ered. As the name implies, smooth body probes have
can be used to resist corrosion or degradation. The
no threads and this eliminates the need to laboriously
ceramic tip probes are also excellent for highly pres-
thread the probe into a bracket. The probe may be
surized applications where the probe is required to seal
slid into place and secured in position using a special
differential pressure.
clamping-type bracket. For threaded installations,
brackets should be designed to match the thread For nuclear power plant or research applications involv-
6
tolerance of the probe in order to avoid binding. It is also ing exposure to radiation, specially designed probes are
good design practice to ensure that there is sufficient available which can withstand Gamma radiation.
threaded material for a solid joint. A good rule of thumb
is five full threads of engagement. 6. Frequency Response
Typical machinery vibration monitoring applications
5. Environmental Considerations require the probe to provide vibration data at one or
A key consideration when selecting probes is the two times the running speed of the machine. This is
5
temperature for each location on the machine that will normally well within the ability of the probe to respond.
be occupied by the sensors. The temperature ratings of Occasionally there are machines that run very fast
the probe tip, cable, and Proximitor sensor are all differ- or have a need to monitor at a higher multiple of the
ent and should be considered separately. The machine running speed (e.g., blade pass frequencies for pumps
temperatures must be within the rated temperature or turbines). The response of the proximity probe will be
limits of the probe, extension cable, and Proximitor sen- attenuated at higher frequencies. Check the data sheet
sor during idle, startup, shutdown, and (especially) base of the probe to find the maximum frequency response.
running conditions. This can be particularly important for speed sensing
applications when a sharp trigger is required and
The system must also be undamaged by any of the
multiple harmonics of running speed are required
process gases or liquids present. Standard probes
to give a crisp square wave output [2].
commonly feature PolyPhenylene Sulfide (PPS) or Poly
THERE ARE MANY CONSIDERATIONS WHEN SELECTING

EDDY-CURRENT PROXIMITY PROBES AND DESIGNING THE
INSTALLATION. AT FIRST GLANCE, IT MAY SEEM THAT MUCH
OF THE INFORMATION INCLUDED IN THE DATASHEET IS
EXTRANEOUS, BUT—AS DISCUSSED IN THIS ARTICLE—THIS
INFORMATION IS PRESENTED FOR GOOD REASON.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 4 9
APPLICATIONS
7. Linear Range For a thrust or differential expansion measurement,

it is even more critical that the probe has the ability to
For a vibration measurement, it is critical that the probe
measure the entire motion of the shaft. The selection
has enough range to measure the motion of the shaft.
process is similar in that the probe is chosen based on
To pick the correct probe, estimate the maximum peak-
the expected shaft movement. The difference with a
to-peak vibration level that is expected and choose a
thrust application is that the gapping of the probe needs
probe that has at least that much linear range. When
to be considered relative to the often asymmetrical
installing the probe it is important to gap the probe in
motion of the shaft. A complete discussion of gapping
the middle of the linear range in order that the vibration
for thrust is beyond the scope of this article, but suffice
will “fit” into the probe’s linear range. It is good practice
to say that careful attention must be paid to ensure
to select a probe that has more linear range than is
that the probe will remain in the linear range during all
strictly required by the application to allow for some
operating conditions [3,4,5].
flexibility when gapping the probe. Figure 6 shows the
typical voltage response versus gap for a probe system. The consequence of an error in application of probes for
7
The probe must stay in the linear range at all times in thrust or expansion measurements is severe as it will
order to provide a valid measurement. typically mean that the machine can fail in a manner
that allows rotating and non-rotating parts to contact,
The consequence of choosing a probe with insufficient
such as blades and casings.
linear range or gapping the probe incorrectly is that the
monitor system will enter a “NOT OK” condition or there
will be data errors instead of protecting the machine.
Figure 6. Actual probe voltage versus gap response (red) overlaid on expected output (blue) showing that the
probe response is highly linear.
5 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
8. Signal-to-Noise Ratio 9. Field Wiring

Eddy-current proximity probes are amazingly accurate Proximity sensors are low-voltage devices—the output
8
devices, but they do not have infinite resolution. There of a typical sensor is usually only a few volts. As such,
is always a noise floor for any electrical device below it is important to maintain a clean signal path to the
which any measurement is not reliable. Typically this monitoring system. Magnetic fields from power cabling
value is several tens of millivolts for a proximity probe and transformers can cause a significant voltage to be
system. Check the data sheet of the product and induced in the sensor system, introducing noise that
9
consider the resolution required of the system. can cause erroneous readings. Cabling for sensors
should always be routed away from power cables. If the
“Electrical Runout” is another problem that may be
instrumentation field wiring must cross power cables it
encountered in an installation. This phenomenon is
should cross perpendicular to the power cables in order
caused by variation in the material properties of the
to avoid coupling the electromagnetic field.
shaft appearing as a spurious vibration signal. The
magnitude of electrical runout can be quite high The frequency response of the sensor is also strongly
depending on the quality of the shaft material. The affected by the amount of capacitance in the wiring
causes and cures of electrical runout have been between the sensors and the monitor [8]. Extra
discussed in previous ORBIT articles [6,7]. capacitance on the output of the sensor acts as a filter
and reduces the magnitude of the high frequency
components of the signal. DC and low frequency
components are not affected. Reference Figure 7 to see
a graph showing the effects of added capacitance.
Figure 7. Added capacitance of long field wiring lengths will affect the frequency response of the probe system,
behaving essentially as a low-pass filter. This effect must be carefully considered, particularly when the probe
system will be required to detect very high frequencies, such as observing a toothed wheel or detecting vibra-
tion harmonics on a high-speed machine such as a turbo-expander.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 1
APPLICATIONS
In summary, long wire runs can cause attenuation of References

high frequency signals in addition to increased risk of
1. “Transducer Color Codes Help Eliminate Installation
noise. Long runs of instrumentation cabling should be
Errors,” ORBIT magazine, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2006, pg. 20
avoided whenever possible by locating the monitor near
the machine. Digital communication from the monitor 2. Nurcombe, B., “Considerations When Retrofitting
to the control room via IP-based ethernet or other Overspeed Dection Systems,” ORBIT magazine, Vol.
protocols is not as susceptible to noise issues. 25, No. 1, 2005, pp. 16-28
3. Sabin. S, “Voting Thrust Measurments with Other

Conclusion Parameters,” ORBIT magazine, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2001,
Eddy-current proximity probes offer excellent sensitivity pp. 51-54
and robust performance when installed correctly.
4. “Axial Thrust Position Monitoring – Part 1,” ORBIT
However, there are many considerations when selecting
magazine, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1987, pp. 21-22
probes and designing the installation. At first glance, it
may seem that much of the information included in the 5. “Axial Thrust Position Monitoring – Part 2,” ORBIT
datasheet is extraneous, but—as discussed in this article magazine, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1989, pp. 27-29
—this information is presented for good reason.
6. Littrell, N., “Understanding and Mitigating Shaft
An abundance of resources exist in addition to the Runout,” ORBIT magazine, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2005, pp.
product datasheet and this article, as noted in the 4-17
references at right, and the reader is strongly encour-
7. DeBlock, M., McDonnell, J.W., Wood, B., “Predicting
aged to make use of these items. In addition, your local
Proximity Probe Track Runout on API Motors and
GE Energy sales professional specializing in the Bently
Generators,” ORBIT magazine, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2007, pp.
Nevada* product line has deep knowledge of applica-
36-49
tion considerations and pitfalls, and can be a valuable
asset when planning your installation. 8. Angel, J., “Considerations When Using Extended Field
* denotes a trademark of Bently Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned Wiring Lengths With Bently Nevada Transducers,”
ORBIT magazine, Vol. 27, No. 1, 2007, pp. 52-59
9. Machinery’s Handbook 28th Edition, Oberg, Jones,

Ryffel, McCauley, Heald and Hussain. Published:
February, 2008. ISBN (978-0-8311-)2800-5
5 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

NEW PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS
Predictive Emissions Monitoring

Designed for offshore platform applications of selected GE LM-series engines, installed costs
of this System 1-based solution can be just one-third those of a similar-accuracy CEMS
The Mandate
Emerging European legislation will soon require offshore
operators to monitor and report gas turbine emissions,
with numerous other countries expected to follow suit
(see sidebar article on page 55).
Continuous vs. Predictive Emissions

Monitoring Systems
In the past, offshore platforms relied primarily on tem-
porary instrumentation to perform as-needed emissions
estimates. However, this approach lacks the necessary
models to extend results to other operating regimes and
ambient conditions. As such, there are today only two
viable options for compliance with regulations requiring
higher accuracy: a Continuous Emissions Monitoring
System (CEMS) or a Predictive Emissions Monitoring
System (PEMS).
While a CEMS affords many advantages, including

continuous and direct measurement of emissions, it
is very costly. Further, the capabilities of a CEMS may
exceed the requirements of offshore operators, making
a CEMS financially unjustifiable.
A PEMS approach, in contrast, can approach the

accuracy of a CEMS for as little as one-third the cost
while adequately meeting the specific needs of offshore
EMERGING EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
operators. Fortunately, such a PEMS solution is now
available for the large installed base of GE LM2500 SAC
WILL SOON REQUIRE OFFSHORE
aeroderivative gas turbines used in offshore service,
and is easily extensible to LM6000 SAC units. OPERATORS TO MONITOR AND
REPORT GAS TURBINE EMISSIONS.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 3
System 1 Display
— Real time and
historical data
DCS Multiple Locations

• Gas turbine-specific
process data
• Site-specific operating
conditions
Server PC
• Database
• Rules Engine
— Real time emissions
calculations
• System 1 PEMS Solution
• Bently PERFORMANCE
Solution Details
GE’s PEMS solution is implemented in System 1* A calibration feature allows customization to a specific
software and requires the following: installation along with post-installation refinement of
model outputs based on tuning adjustments derived from
• System 1 software, version 5.x or later
temporary CEMS and corresponding turbine data sets.
• Bently PERFORMANCE* System Extender module
Other Gas Turbines
• PEMS configuration, tuning, and installation services
In addition to the LM2500 SAC, a model specific to the
For users with existing System 1 and Bently
LM6000 SAC engine is also available. However, the flex-
PERFORMANCE software installations, the PEMS option
ibility of our PEMS solution allows us to accommodate
is a simple add-on module. In most cases, it can even be
other gas turbines as well. We invite you to contact us
installed remotely from an onshore location.
regarding your specific requirements and engine type(s).
The PEMS module employs a GE-developed “first
principles” emissions model for the LM2500 SAC gas Features and Benefits
turbine. This physics-based model uses fundamental • Lower Cost of Regulatory Compliance
engine parameters and conditions known to correlate to A PEMS solution reduces the installation and operating
emissions output, drawing on extensive test results from costs compared with a CEMS-only solution. The installed
the large installed base of LM2500 SAC units. It uses capital costs for CEMS on a remote platform can be as
ambient conditions, various turbine operating param- much as three times higher than PEMS.
eters, and fuel properties as inputs and is valid for both
gas and diesel fuels. The model computes emissions • Local and Remote Access
estimates for NOX, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons, The PEMS and System 1 Display client can be installed
while providing calculated values for CO2 and SO2. wherever (i.e., on or off platform) access to the required
5 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Legislation UP Emissions DOWN

Governments around the world have been planning more stringent legislation to measure
and regulate the level of emissions by industrial processes. In Europe, there are various
legislations coming into enforcement (some based on the Kyoto Protocol) with respect to
gas turbine emission monitoring. The most important of these for the offshore industry is
the Offshore Combustion Installations (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Regulations.
These regulations, and others anticipated, will require offshore operators to monitor,
self-certify, and justify emissions of NOX, CO, CO2, SO2, and unburned hydrocarbons to
their country’s Department of Trade and Industry (DTI).
data is desired. System maintenance and configuration • Enhanced Condition Monitoring

updates do not require visits to the platform, helping to Because PEMS predictions are directly related to the
keep annual PEMS-related support costs low. combustion dynamics of the gas turbine, they can be
Note: Periodic calibration via a portable CEMS is required to ensure used in combination with other System 1 measurements
the PEMS remains accurate. This CEMS testing should be conducted by and calculations to give greater insight into mechanical
locally certified professionals and must be done at the gas turbine.
and thermodynamic condition.
• Potential Enabler for Emissions Credits Trading
• 24/7/365 Emissions Prediction
Meaningful emissions reductions within a trading sys-
A PEMS solution provides reliable emissions prediction
tem can only occur if measured at the level of operator
at all times, and can account for engine performance
or installation, and with the necessary past and future
degradations, variations in ambient conditions, and
estimation accuracy. A PEMS solution delivers both.
changes in operating conditions. In contrast, a portable
• Improved Operational Planning CEMS approach is sporadic, requiring “guesstimates” or
Cumulative PEMS results can be used for daily, weekly, simple interpolation between measurement intervals.
monthly, and annual operational planning. For example,
Learn more by contacting your nearest GE sales profes-
if a monthly emissions limit exists, cumulative results
sional specializing in Bently Nevada* Asset Condition
from the first week of the month may indicate that
Monitoring solutions or by visiting www.ge-energy.com/
engine operations be monitored carefully and possibly
bentlyapplications. You can also request hardcopies of
adjusted for the remaining three weeks.
relevant literature via the Reader Service Card in this
• Tailored Notifications issue of ORBIT.
PEMS results can be used in System 1 software’s * denotes a trademark of Bently Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned
Decision Support* engine to generate highly intelligent, subsidiary of General Electric Company.
emissions-related alarm notifications that are tailored to

the recipient, providing specific recommended actions
and guidance.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 5
Rightrax Online Corrosion/Erosion Monitoring

Now Supported in System 1* Software
In industries where the integrity of piping, vessels, and How it works
other fixed assets can be compromised by corrosion or
Developed by GE’s Sensing & Inspection Technologies
erosion, the consequences of failure can be both serious
division, the Rightrax system uses non-invasive, ultra-
and costly. Historically, time-based, manual inspection
sonic sensing technology that attaches to the outside of
methods have been employed to mitigate these risks;
the asset and measures wall thickness. Rightrax sensors
unfortunately, this is a very costly approach, frequently
can be polled periodically, allowing users to assess not
involving excavation, scaffolding, special permits, and
only useful life remaining by comparing current values
other expenses. As a result, the annual maintenance
to minimum thickness limits, but to establish historical
costs for assets relying on manual inspection methods
trends. This ability to trend data is extremely powerful
are among the highest in the operation.
and sets it apart from even the most frequent manual
GE’s Rightrax system solves these problems using inspection regimens. The benefits are two-fold:
innovative online technology that eliminates the need
First, users can understand the rate at which corrosion/
for costly, time-based inspections while simultaneously
erosion is progressing, allowing better maintenance
providing better, more timely, and more frequent corro-
planning. Second, users can correlate Rightrax data with
sion/erosion information that dramatically decreases
process data, providing powerful insight into cause-
the risk of asset failure. With ROI for the Rightrax
effect relationships that can help operators understand
system typically less than a year, the economics of
and avoid the conditions that accelerate corrosion/
going “online” are compelling. And with support for the
erosion rates and corresponding asset degradation.
Rightrax system now available in System 1 software,
going “online” has never been easier or more powerful.
5 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Integration: 1+1=3 The High Cost of

Many facilities already rely on System 1 software to
manage the condition of their rotating machinery assets. Corrosion…
Ironically, many of the fixed assets in these same facilities
warrant online corrosion/erosion monitoring. Previously,
In the oil and gas industry alone,
this meant two separate software systems with corrosion- and erosion-related
attendant user interfaces, databases, IT support costs, losses total billions of dollars every
and learning curves. By providing support for the Rightrax
year through unscheduled plant or
system in System 1 software, users can now manage
both rotating and non-rotating assets in a single system, pipeline shutdowns, lost production,
eliminating the costs and complexities of learning, using, high repair costs, and imposed fines.
and maintaining two separate software platforms. In addition, incalculable damage
Integration also provides Rightrax users with all the can result from potential employee
powerful capabilities native to System 1 software for
injuries and the effect of spillage on
displaying, trending, analyzing, plotting, and correlating
data. It provides powerful import/export functionality
an organization’s reputation.
for integration with reporting tools and programs, such
as Crystal Reports® and Microsoft® Excel®. But what
truly sets the power of the System 1 environment apart
is its decision support technology: powerful automa-
tion capabilities that can automatically analyze data
using sophisticated, user-written rules and embedded
knowledge. When specific conditions, or even anomalies
of an unknown origin are detected, the system can send
intelligent advisories to appropriate personnel.
Learn more by contacting your nearest GE sales

professional specializing in Bently Nevada Asset
Condition Monitoring solutions or by visiting
www.ge-energy.com/bently and entering
“Rightrax” in the search
box to navigate to
our Rightrax landing
page. You can also
request hardcopies
of Rightrax literature
via the Reader Service
Card in this issue
of ORBIT.
* denotes a trademark of Bently
Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned
subsidiary of General Electric
Company.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 7
An All-New Monitoring Solution for Wind Turbines

As this issue of ORBIT goes to press, we’re pleased to Specifically designed with flexibility in mind, the system
announce ADAPT*.wind, an all-new platform designed to can be used on any OEM’s wind turbine following an
economically address the unique condition monitoring appropriate application review for transducer placement,
requirements of wind turbines and wind farms. Mounted signal processing particulars, and other configuration
uptower to minimize wiring costs, the Bently Nevada* details that are unique to each turbine design.
ADAPT.wind system provides sophisticated, continuous
The system has already been adapted for use on GE’s 1.5
monitoring capabilities for the gearbox, generator, main
MW wind turbines and is available to ship on those units.
bearings, and tower sway while tightly integrating with
the turbine control system via a single network con- Watch for more information in the next issue of ORBIT
nection. SCADA connectivity allows easy and effective where we will feature an in-depth look at this new
deployment in wind farm applications, particularly those product along with a case study examining the innova-
with hundreds of turbines. tive GE technology that makes it so remarkably effective.
* denotes a trademark of Bently Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary
of General Electric Company.
5 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

GEnyus* System for GE Reciprocating Compressors

The GEnyus* System embeds the extensive reciprocat- their GE reciprocating compressors with the rest of
ing compressor knowledge of GE Oil & Gas engineers their rotating and reciprocating machinery in a single,
into a highly sophisticated software engine that auto- plant-wide condition monitoring system—while enjoying
matically detects more than 50 different anomalies on all of the powerful automated diagnostic capabilities of
critical compressor components. The system is designed the GEnyus package.
exclusively for use on GE-manufactured reciprocating
Conversely, GEnyus-equipped reciprocating compres-
compressors in API and hyper compression services.
sors can benefit from all of System 1 software’s
With an installed base exceeding 6,000 reciprocating powerful features such as remote access and notifica-
compressors and 40 years of OEM experience, GE is tion, unparalleled data plotting and reporting features,
uniquely qualified to understand the behavior of your and tight integration with process control and automa-
GE-manufactured recip. The GEnyus System harnesses tion systems, maintenance management systems, and
all of this accumulated knowledge into an extremely process historians.
powerful package that is capable of creating more than
Learn more by contacting your nearest GE sales
10,000 associations between individual measurement
professional specializing in Bently Nevada Asset
parameters and correlating more than 100 symptoms to
precisely pinpoint malfunctions.
www.ge-energy.com/bently and entering “17788”
Previously available only as a stand-alone package, we in the search box to download our informative
are pleased to announce that the GEnyus System is now brochure. You can also request a
available in a tightly integrated component of System hardcopy of this brochure via
1 software. Existing GEnyus installations can be retrofit the Reader Service Card in this
with System 1 connectivity; likewise, existing System 1 issue of ORBIT.
installations can be retrofit with GEnyus capabilities. * denotes a trademark of Bently
Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned
The majority of GE’s reciprocating compressors are subsidiary of General Electric
Company.
installed in large plants with numerous other machines
that require condition monitoring. Through integration
with the System 1 platform, customers can now include
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 5 9
Relief Valve Leak Detection

New online monitoring solution reduces risks and costs
P ressure Relief Valves (PRVs) are used extensively in oil

refineries, chemical plants, pipelines, power plants,
and other industrial applications as part of pressure-
relieving systems to protect piping, boilers, vessels, and
other pressurized assets from dangerous over-pressure
conditions. To help users ensure that these systems are
supplied in accordance with recognized good engineering
practices, a number of industry-specific standards exist.
For example, American Petroleum Institute standards API
521 (ISO 23251), API 526, and RP 520 all deal specifically
with PRVs and pressure-relieving systems as used in the
petroleum industries.
The Problem
PRVs are particularly susceptible to leaks and the
consequences of such leaks can be quite serious:
• Dangerous operating conditions, increasing the The Solution
risk to plant and personnel
Cost-effective and reliable online technology is now
• Damage to the environment
available to monitor critical PRVs for the presence of
• Regulatory fines/penalties
leaks. An online approach means that leaks are caught
• Negative public image/reputation
within minutes, incident severity (and associated
• Reduced process efficiency and profitability
consequences) is minimized, and costly routine inspection
• Loss of raw, intermediate, or finished materials
regimens are eliminated.
While most companies expend considerable resources
GE’s PRV Leak Detection System (see overview diagram
to detect and mitigate leaks, usually in the form of
on facing page) uses the Bently Nevada Trendmaster*
routine inspection or observation regimens, current
Pro architecture to gather periodic, online temperature
approaches have not proven entirely effective and
and acoustic measurements and automatically analyze
PRV leaks remain a significant challenge for industry.
them in System 1* software. By using both temperature
Additionally, PRVs are frequently subjected to unneces-
and acoustic measurements in complementary fashion,
sary maintenance. This occurs when a leak cannot be
more reliable detection is available than when using
confirmed, but to err on the side of caution, preventive
either technology alone. These measurements are
repairs, replacements, or overhauls are carried out “just
then processed through a special RulePak in System 1
in case.” This can drive the relative maintenance costs
software’s decision support engine. This RulePak contains
for PRVs very high.
sophisticated, embedded knowledge of PRV leak behavior,
automatically detecting the presence of a leak.
Continued on page 62.
6 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Vent to atmosphere
Pressure relief valve

Ultrasonic
acoustic sensor
Outlet Ultrasonic Amp
temperature in 3300XL JB
FlexiTIM for
Ultrasonic
Inlet
temperature
ProTIM-C for
thermocouples
DSM supports up to 8
lines with up to 63
valves per line
Existing DSM dedicated

to other plant area
Pressurized asset
Trendmaster Pro
platform
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 6 1
PRV BASICS…
PRVs are designed to open at approximately Leaks can also result from other conditions,
10–20% above normal design pressures for not just a failure to reseat properly. For
the protected asset, venting excess pressure example, PRV internals can slowly corrode
to the atmosphere, a flare stack, lower- over time, eventually developing a leak. This
pressure containment system, or other means. failure mechanism is a particular concern
Once pressure returns to normal ranges, the when highly corrosive process fluids are
PRV is designed to reseat itself using a self- present. In such situations, a so-called “rupture
closing mechanism, typically incorporating disk” is often used to isolate the PRV from the
an internal preloaded spring or weight. process fluid, helping to preserve PRV integrity.
Unfortunately, PRVs can fail to reseat properly, [Editor’s Note: When a rupture disk is used in conjunction
with a PRV, online technology can be used to detect
resulting in leaks. While failure to reseat can be leaks in both the PRV and its associated rupture disk. For
caused by many conditions, one of the most more information on the role of rupture disks, and how
common is the presence of particulates (such an innovative customer is monitoring their disks, see
as rust or scale) suspended in the process gas the article “Using Decision Support to Reduce OpEx at
Valero Paulsboro” on page 64 in this issue of ORBIT.]
that becomes lodged between the valve
nozzle and the sealing disk.
Features and Benefits • Improved compliance – less severe incidents translate

to less severe fines/penalties from regulatory agencies.
• Non-intrusive installation – all sensors are
mounted externally. • Lower maintenance costs – maintenance personnel
are deployed to fix leaks, rather than find leaks;
• Highly Adaptable – addresses nearly any PRV
costly “just in case” maintenance is eliminated
design provided the leak generates detectable
because personnel will know with a high degree
acoustic energy and a sufficient temperature gradi-
of confidence what is—and what isn’t—leaking.
ent (ΔT) across the valve; software can be fine-tuned
via “Custom Properties” configuration screen to • Less waste – leaks can result in two types of waste:
reflect unique thresholds for ΔT and acoustic levels energy losses through thermodynamic inefficiencies
required by different valve types and process fluids. introduced into the process, and raw material losses
when feedstock, catalyst, or even finished product
• Timely notification – online technology checks for
escapes. Timely leak and reliable detection
leaks several times per hour and alarm annunciation
prevents both.
can be integrated into the process control system,
assuring that operators are made aware of leaks • Increased peace of mind – valves are continuously
within minutes of onset—not days or weeks. monitored, reducing the likelihood of leaks and
attendant consequences
• Alarm integrity – dual independent measurements
and knowledge-based algorithms help assure that Learn more by contacting your nearest GE sales
alarms are the result of genuine leaks. professional specializing in Bently Nevada Asset
• Reduced emission severity – rapid detection and
www.ge-energy.com/bentlyapplications. You can
annunciation of leaking valves allows corrective
also request hard copies of relevant literature via the
actions to be taken immediately, minimizing the
Reader Service Card in this issue of ORBIT.
severity of the incident.
6 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
ANNOUNCEMENT
Get together with other users of GE’s

Bently Nevada products and services…
without leaving the office
Now, discussing your Bently Nevada

Asset Condition Monitoring products with
other users is just a mouse click away.
• Share questions and answers, best practices,
likes/dislikes, tips, experiences, and more
• A true user forum—you decide what you want

to discuss with other users of GE’s Bently
Nevada products worldwide
• GE hosts the site, but you create the content
• Categories for every type of Bently Nevada

product—from services to software, probes to
portables, racks to relays, cables to cabinets
• Collaborate, compare, compliment

(and yes, even complain)
• Post what you want, when you want
www.bentlyuserforum.org
Vo l 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 6 3
COVER STORY
Using Decision Support to Reduce

OpEx at Valero Paulsboro
Op Ex
Valero’s Paulsboro refinery makes innovative
use of the Decision Support capabilities within
System 1* software to proactively manage
both rotating and non-rotating production
assets. As a result, operating expenses—not
just maintenance expenses—are reduced.
Jayesh Patel – Reliability Engineer – Valero Energy Company – Paulsboro Refinery – jayesh.patel@valero.com
Al Gomes – Manager – Reliability and Inspection – Valero Energy Company – Paulsboro Refinery – al.gomes@valero.com
John Kingham – Field Applications Engineer – Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring – GE Energy – john.kingham@ge.com
6 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

COVER STORY
V
alero’s Paulsboro Refinery, Managing Below the Alert Level
located on 950 acres in
One of the keys to Paulsboro’s success with condition-
Paulsboro, NJ, was first
based maintenance is their practice of managing
commissioned in 1917, and
machinery “below the alert level”—a euphemism
currently has a capacity of
describing the use of condition-based alarms that
195,000 barrels per day. The
are well below operator-level “alert” or “danger”
refinery has a fuels crude
alarms normally associated with pre-shutdown and
unit, lube crude unit, distillate hydrotreater, FCC
shutdown conditions respectively. Alarms set purely
complex, Delayed Coker, Reformer, Lube Plant and
to notify machinery specialists of impending problems
Alkylation unit. The refinery employs nearly 550
allow operations to continue uninterrupted while
individuals and is an OSHA VPP Star site.
appropriate actions are taken “behind the scenes,”
Throughout the refinery’s years of operation, such as scheduling appropriate maintenance, planning
its maintenance strategies and practices have an outage, or recommending changes to operating
continually evolved. Today, condition-based or process conditions that will slow or halt failure
maintenance is used extensively and employs progression on the affected asset. This level of “preemptive”
a mix of permanent and portable technologies, maintenance drives the Paulsboro refinery to the far left
depending on asset criticality. Low criticality limits of the P-to-F curve (Figure 1). In addition to fewer
assets are addressed by a portable data process interruptions, operating at this end of the P-to-F
collection system. High- and mid-criticality assets curve results in higher product quality, improved asset
are addressed by online systems. For its most availability, and increased operating profits.
critical assets, Paulsboro uses Bently Nevada*
continuous machinery protection systems in IN THE TWO YEARS SINCE
conjunction with System 1 software. The assets
in this category include the plant’s gas turbines THIS SIMPLE—BUT EFFECTIVE—
in power generation service, steam-driven and
motor-driven centrifugal compressors, hydrogen DECISION SUPPORT RULE
reciprocating compressors, utility air compressors,
and liquid ring compressors for flare gas recovery. HAS BEEN IMPLEMENTED,
Mid-criticality assets in the refinery’s coker unit
are addressed by a Bently Nevada Trendmaster*
IT HAS BEEN INVOKED TEN
system, a permanently wired “sensor bus”
TIMES, RESULTING IN TEN
architecture that takes condition monitoring
measurements several times per hour. Both PLANNED, ROUTINE, FILTER
the continuous monitoring systems and the
Trendmaster architecture are tied into System 1 REPLACEMENTS WITHOUT A
software for a unified online condition
monitoring environment. SINGLE “URGENT/EMERGENCY”
WORK ORDER BEING NECESSARY.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 6 5
COVER STORY
Point where impending

failure is detected is Vibration
Oil Analysis
Potenial Failure (P) 1–9 months Thermography
1–6 months
3–12 weeks
Quantitative PM
P0 P1 5–8 weeks
P2
P3 Audible Noise
1–4 weeks
P4
Heat by touch
P5
1–5 days
P6
Smoke
0–0 days
P7
Point where asset
stops doing what its
P–F Interval users want it to do is
Failure (F)
Figure 1. The so-called “P-F curve” showing qualitative time relationship between Potential Failure (P) and
Functional Failure (F). P0 represents the earliest time at which an impending failure could conceivably be
detected. P1 through P7 represent various detection methodologies and their typical capacity for advance
warning. The further to the left (closer to P0) one can operate for any given asset, the easier it is to plan
maintenance and lower the likelihood of “surprise” functional failures.
While establishing a sufficient number of condition Historian into the System 1 database, Paulsboro is able
monitoring alarms can be very effective for the reasons to apply the Decision Support engine in innovative ways
noted above, managing too many alarm levels can such as:
become quite onerous and a balance must be found in
• Analyzing and detecting anomalies on assets for
the quest to move “farther to the left” on the P-F curve.
which only process measurements are available
One way to achieve this is by relying not only on level-
—such as filters, heater tubes, and pressure relief
type alarms, but also on technologies that automate
valve rupture disks.
the data analysis and anomaly detection processes that
human experts would use if manually reviewing data. • Addressing applications outside of conventional
Paulsboro has been particularly innovative in their use “condition monitoring,” such as stack emissions
of System 1 software’s Decision Support capabilities in monitoring.
this respect. The Decision Support module in System 1
• Detecting problems in non-rotating portions of
allows users to embed their subject matter expertise for
turbomachinery, such as gas turbine hot gas path
a particular asset (or class of assets), and detect asset
components.
problems automatically. While many users employ the
Decision Support module to detect anomalies with the To address this mix of conventional rotating machinery,
rotating machinery monitored by System 1 software, fixed equipment, and process-related applications,
what has set the Paulsboro facility apart is their use of Paulsboro uses both GE’s machinery expertise in the
the system on non-rotating assets as well. By bringing form of pre-configured RulePaks, and their own exper-
process data from the plant’s Distributed Control tise in the form of custom rules written by their resident
System (DCS), turbine control systems, and Process subject matter experts. In this way, Valero has created
6 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

COVER STORY
Decision Support capabilities tailored specifically to Should the differential reach 15 PSI, an alert, or severity
the needs of their Paulsboro operations. As detailed in level 3 alarm is sent. At this level, the work order will be
the following six case history synopses, the system is upgraded to “urgent/emergency.” Finally, if the differential
delivering substantial value and has become an integral pressure reaches 30 PSI, a level 4 “Danger” notification
part of their operating and maintenance decisions. is sent, instructing the operator to immediately open the
bypass valve to prevent damage to the unit.
Case Histories In the two years since this simple—but effective—
Decision Support rule has been implemented, it has
CASE HISTORY #1:
Naphtha Hydrotreater Feed Filter been invoked ten times, resulting in ten planned, routine,
The filter at the front end of the Naphtha Reformer filter replacements without a single “urgent/emergency”
has a direct effect on the quality of the final product. work order being necessary.
Bypassing this filter, or choking the process by operating

with a clogged filter, both have serious operational CASE HISTORY #2:
CCR – Recycle Gas Compressor
consequences, making the filter’s condition a critical
Commissioned in 2004, this unit is relatively new.
part of the Reformer process.
However, within nine months of operation, the unit
A review of historic data showed that these filters are needed to be shut down due to high vibration levels. A
replaced every 45 to 90 days; however, 35% of the work water wash was performed and the unit was returned
orders initiated for filter replacements were categorized to operation. However, as part of Valero’s efforts to
as “urgent/emergency.” Work performed under such “manage below the alert level,” the team examined data
conditions interrupts the maintenance team’s planned from the machine to see if they could be more proactive
activities for the day, diverting resources, disrupting in the future. They found that a particularly reliable
schedules, and adding both maintenance and opera- advance indicator of the need for a water wash was a
tional costs. Valero saw an opportunity to monitor filter change in the compressor’s balance condition. They
degradation and shift from “unplanned and urgent” to further found that, for this machine, the inboard bear-
“planned and routine.” ing’s X-Y probe pair was the most sensitive to balance
condition changes from compressor build-up. After
Two pressure sensors on either side of the filter are fed
consulting with one of GE’s Bently Nevada machinery
into a Paulsboro-written rule in the System 1 Decision
diagnostics engineers, Valero formulated a customized
Support module. The rule first subtracts the two pres-
algorithm that looked at orbit shape, vibration levels,
sure signals to create a “virtual” differential pressure
and rate-of-change in vibration levels to provide early
signal. This differential signal is then trended and
detection of changes in balance condition, and thus to
compared to empirically derived “normal” values. For
help schedule water washes.
example, experience had shown that 6 PSI of differential
is the point at which maintenance personnel should While the off-the-shelf RulePak for centrifugal compres-
be initially advised. This was configured as a “level 1” sors is able to detect and isolate unbalance, Valero’s
severity in the system, triggering a notification to main- algorithm provides even more sensitive detection
tenance planning engineers to watch the differential because it accounts for the idiosyncrasies of this
pressure twice a day. At 9 PSI, the severity is upgraded particular machine and its changes in balance when
from 1 to 2 (which is still below the Alert level – level 3). compressor build-up is the root cause. The ability to
Once at severity 2, another notification is sent; this time, “personalize” the system in this manner is particularly
to enter a work order for a planned filter replacement. valuable to Valero.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 6 7
COVER STORY
CASE HISTORY #3: 1. Overfiring

Gas Turbine Burner Monitoring Overfiring results in loss of creep strength and can lead
The gas turbine used for generating power at Valero has to premature tube failure. Fortunately, it is relatively
10 burner cans and 13 thermocouples for measuring easily addressed. The seven heater tube temperatures
exhaust gas temperature (EGT). The thermocouple are brought in to the System 1 database via an interface
corresponding to a particular burner can is a function of with the plant’s distributed control system. A simple rule
generator load and is defined on a “Swirl Chart.” Valero in the Decision Support module then compares tube
has configured the swirl chart for this particular turbine in temperatures against empirically derived maximum
System 1 software, allowing the data from each thermo- limits, obtained by examining historical operating and
couple to be associated with the correct burner can. maintenance data for the tubes. Depending on the
[Editor’s Note: For more information on exhaust gas temperature severity of the temperature violation, a level 3 or 4 alarm
measurements and swirl chart compensation, refer to the article
is generated. An inspection engineer then uses this data
“Exhaust Gas Temperature Capabilities Now in System 1 Software”
pp. 88-89, ORBIT Vol. 25, No. 1, 2005] to assess the situation and tailor appropriate actions,
such as creep strength analysis.
The temperature spreads between these various ther-
mocouples are then analyzed by the Decision Support 2. Clogging
engine to detect combustion problems or thermocouple Clogging affects unit efficiency, and although more
(TC) problems. The higher the temperature spreads, the complex to address than overfiring, it is still straight-
higher the alarm severity. forward to implement in the System 1 Decision Support
engine. The algorithm computes the average weekly
During startup and run-in following Valero’s last outage,
temperature of the unit and compares the present week
the system notified them that two adjacent TCs on the
against the previous week. Increases above certain
EGT (Exhaust Gas Temperature) map were experiencing
limits are cause for concern and trigger a notification for
higher temperatures than the rest, and the plenum area
the process engineer to review operating parameters.
was subsequently investigated for damage. Although
He uses this data to analyze inlet conditions and feed
some insulation faults were found and corrected,
compositions, determining their affect on decoking time.
the higher temperatures remained. Normally, Valero
By triggering notifications to the process engineer at
would have been hesitant to produce full load from the
the right time, the decoking process is optimized, saving
machine under such conditions. However, the EGT map
time and money.
capabilities showing Exhaust Gas Spread and adjacent
TC differentials provided personnel with the confidence
CASE HISTORY #5:
they needed to conclude that full load conditions were
Rupture Disk Monitoring
not damaging the machine. This hot gas path monitor-
Pressure relief valves (PRVs) protect piping, vessels,
ing is all accomplished through the System 1 Decision
compressors, and other pressurized assets from exces-
Support module. Based on the severity of the alarm,
sive pressure conditions. While a PRV is intentionally
e-mail and text messaging notifications are generated
designed to open under over-pressure conditions (i.e.,
and routed to the correct level of the organization, from
120% of design process pressure), the process condi-
operations and maintenance personnel all the way up to
tions are often extremely corrosive. If the process gas
the Plant Manager level when the severity is high enough.
were allowed to continuously contact the PRV, the valve
would quickly corrode, resulting in leakage or seizure.
CASE HISTORY #4: Both conditions are unacceptable as leakage results
Asphalt Heater – Decoking Plant
in reportable incidents and associated penalties from
The asphalt heater tubes can be affected by two
regulatory agencies, while valve seizure could cause the
potential problems:
pressurized asset to fail catastrophically.
6 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

COVER STORY
To isolate the PRV from the corrosive process gas, • Even a defective PRV (such as one that does not
a rupture disk is used. The disk is a sacrificial, thin fully seal itself in its valve seat) will not leak to the
metal membrane designed to fail at a predetermined atmosphere under normal process conditions
pressure. Further, it is designed using materials that are
Under normal conditions, an intact rupture disk isolates
impervious to the corrosive process gases. As shown
the PRV from seeing process pressures; thus, PPRV ≈ 0.
in Figure 2, the disk is placed in series with the PRV. This
A fully ruptured disk results in PPRV = PProcess. A faulty
arrangement ensures the following:
disk, such as with a pinhole leak, results in PPRV ≠ 0. Thus,
• The PRV will not normally be exposed to the cor- anytime PPRV is non-zero under normal process condi-
rosive process fluid/conditions, thus preserving the tions, the disk is either ruptured or faulty (e.g., pinhole
PRV’s integrity leak, etc.) and corrective action needs to be taken.
Figure 2. Pressure relief system consisting of a rupture disk in series with a Pressure Relief Valve (PRV). Both
rupture disk and PRV are designed to open at over-pressure conditions, protecting the pressurized asset by vent-
ing to the atmosphere. By using a rupture disk made of corrosion-resistant materials, the PRV is isolated from the
corrosive effects of the process gases, preserving the integrity of the PRV. The rupture disk has the added benefit
of ensuring that process gases will not leak to the atmosphere at normal pressures, even if the PRV is leaky.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 6 9
COVER STORY
To help Paulsboro manage their rupture disks and ensure Further, using the Decision Support module’s ability to
regulatory compliance, a pressure sensor (or switch) is generate management-level alarms, violations are kept
installed in the spool piece to measure PPRV. A simple rule in check by notifying personnel whenever emissions
in the System 1 Decision Support engine detects when approach maximum allowable limits. At 80% of the
PPRV is non-zero, and sends an e-mail notification to the violation value, an alarm occurs, automatically notifying
engineers responsible for the affected area of the plant. the unit supervisor and process engineer via pager.
They then inspect the disk and replace it with a new one This warns them of a possible environmental violation
if found ruptured or otherwise defective. before it occurs, providing sufficient time to proactively
intervene by adjusting the process.
A failed rupture disk does not result in an atmospheric
leak unless the PRV is itself leaky. However, the PRV will
corrode unless the rupture disk is promptly replaced.
Thus, even if it is not now leaking, the PRV will eventually
leak as a result of contact with corrosive process gases.
For this reason, regulatory agencies require a ruptured
disk to be replaced within 15 days and appropriate
records kept. As such, the Decision Support rule also
Rule Testing and
sends an e-mail notification to operation supervisors who
are responsible for submitting an ICV (inter-lock control
valve) bypass form. The ICV bypass form allows continued
VALIDATION
operation until the rupture disk is replaced. These records The Decision Support module in
are audited by relevant regulatory agencies and Valero’s System 1 software allows user-
ability to show these agencies that a process is in place to
written rules to be tested against
constantly monitor the integrity of the rupture disk helps
avoid violations and associated penalties.
historical data. This feature greatly
aids the Valero team in validating
CASE HISTORY #6: new rules before they are deployed.
Stack Analyzer Monitoring
The Paulsboro facility is required by law to monitor flue
It also allows them to fine tune their
gas from their FCC (Fluid Catalytic Cracker) unit for CO, rules, ensuring that a rule triggers
SO2, and NOX—all environmentally sensitive emissions not just when needed, but only when
regulated by law. The emission levels must be recorded
needed. This reduces false notifica-
and kept within allowable limits at all times. Monitoring
is accomplished using a real-time gas analyzer that tions and inspires confidence in
computes the concentrations of these emissions. the system.
However, to avoid violations and associated fines, it is
necessary to periodically compare the gas analyzer’s
results with laboratory results, verifying that the
analyzer is not underreporting. Paulsboro uses System 1
software to capture both the gas analyzer outputs and
laboratory results, and compare them to one another.
Discrepancies are flagged and appropriate personnel
are notified using the Decision Support engine.
7 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

COVER STORY
Summary and Best Practices Best Practice #3: Involve the Whole Plant
As these case histories have shown, Valero Paulsboro Another key to Paulsboro’s success is that a much wider
uses the flexibility and functionality of System 1 circle of plant personnel have been exposed to the
software and its Decision Support capabilities to reduce capabilities of System 1 software and encouraged to
both operating and maintenance expenses. The quality identify opportunities where it can be applied. As a result,
of results achieved is in direct proportion to Valero’s engineers throughout the complex are now making
deliberate and conscientious application of several “best requests for custom rules that address various failure
practices” which have been summarized in conclusion: modes, ensuring that the system’s usefulness does not
remain confined to a single individual’s perspective or
Best Practice #1: Allocate Necessary Resources
scope. Valero’s assigned Reliability Engineer is typically
While the technology of System 1 software is important, able turn these requests around in a matter of hours,
it is merely an enabling factor. Without the resources configuring the requested rules along with testing and
to actually use the system, it cannot deliver its full validation using historical and/or current data.
potential. Understanding the importance of this human
Best Practice #4: Customize Notifications, not just Rules
factor—not just the technology factor—Valero allocates
a full-time Reliability Engineer to use and optimize the While customized rules are an important part of Valero’s
system. This individual is responsible for monitoring the success, rules deal only with detection. Once a condition
health of the system, identifying new and innovative uses has been detected, no matter how simple or complex
of the system, and developing/deploying custom rules. the underlying rule, notifying the right people at the
right time with the right recommended actions is key
Best Practice #2: Think Beyond Vibration and Rotating
to whether the system is perceived as merely an alarm
Machinery
generator or as an indispensible tool. Valero gives
Paulsboro has been particularly innovative in broaden- deliberate thought to the optimal number of severity
ing their system beyond the normal confines of vibration levels that an escalating condition should have, to the
data and rotating machinery to include fixed assets and individuals that should be notified with each severity
even process-related applications. As a result, the value level, to the way in which they should be notified (e-mail,
they extract is correspondingly broader. text messaging, pager, etc.), and to the actions that the
recipient should take once notified. This is perhaps the
single biggest part of successfully “managing below the
alert level” and achieving widespread visibility of system
usefulness across the plant.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7 1
APPLICATIONS
RELATIONSHIP
of Influence Coefficients Between
Static-Couple and Multiplane
Methods on Two-Plane Balancing
This article was originally published in Vol. 131, Issue 1 of the Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) International. It is reprinted here with the permission of ASME, which retains all copyrights.
nbalance accounts for the majority synchronous vibration levels. Topics on balancing
of high vibration problems in rotating have been of great interest to rotor dynamic
machines. High synchronous forces researchers and engineers [1,2]. Typically a turbine,
and vibration amplitudes due to mass compressor, or generator section is supported
unbalance produce excessive stresses by two bearings. This often requires two-plane
on the rotor and also affect bearings and casing, balancing for most cases where cross-effects
thus reducing the life span of the machine. The among different sections through couplings
source of unbalance may be imperfect manu- are trivial. There are a few papers discussing
facturing processes including assembly variation two-plane balancing with amplitude [3] or phase
and material nonhomogeneity. Though rotors [4] only. These approaches would often require
are typically balanced by manufacturers before more runs in the field and may increase both the
they are installed for service, unbalance may still time and the cost for users of rotating machinery.
occur afterward for various reasons. These include The influence coefficient method is typically used
deposits or erosion on (and shifting of) rotating for field trim balancing. There are basically two
parts, as well as thermal effects. Therefore, in approaches to apply this method. The first one is to
many cases, field balancing is required to reduce treat it as a multiplane balance problem involving
John J. Yu, Ph.D. – Senior Engineer, Machinery Diagnostics – Bently Nevada Asset Condition Monitoring – GE Energy – john.yu@ge.com
7 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
a 2X2 matrix of complex influence coefficients, as relationship of influence coefficients was given
Thearle [5] first presented in 1934. In this approach, between these two approaches. It was also some-
two direct influence coefficients along with two times believed that static-couple balance could
cross-effect influence coefficients are generated not reduce both static and couple vibration vectors
so that correction weights at two balance planes successfully because static (couple) weights
can be determined. The second one is to treat affect couple (static) response. In this paper, the
it as two single-plane balance problems using multiplane approach with a 2X2 influence coef-
static and couple components, respectively. The ficient matrix is first presented, followed by the
latter approach has been used extensively in the static-couple approach. In the latter approach,
field [6,7]. Having valid influence coefficient data cross-effects between the static (couple) weights
makes balancing much easier. Influence coefficient and the couple (static) component are introduced.
data can be employed to save trial runs for many Then, an analytical relationship of influence coef-
machines of the same design or for future balanc- ficients between these two approaches is derived
ing on the same machine. For two-plane balancing for two-plane balancing. Real examples are given
with influence coefficients, either static-couple or to verify the developed analytical conversion
multiplane approaches can be used. However, no formulas as well as to show their application.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7 3
APPLICATIONS
Multiplane Method where superscript (0) represents status without weights

and superscripts (1) and (2) denote status with the first
As shown in Figure 1, synchronous 1X vibration vectors
and second sets of weights. Note that the two sets of
are expressed as A1 and A2 measured by probes 1 and 2,
weights must be chosen in a way that the weight matrix
respectively.
is not singular.
Their orientations a1 and a2 are defined by phase
lagging relative to their probe orientation (Figure 1 Static-Couple Method
shows the instant when the Keyphasor* pulse occurs). In the static-couple approach, as shown in Figure 2,
Balance weights at weight planes 1 and 2 are expressed vibration vectors at both ends of the shaft are
as W1 and W2 with their orientations b1 and b2 refer- expressed as the combination of static and couple
enced to the probe orientation, respectively. Assuming components as follows:
that the system is linear, changes in 1X vibration vectors (3)
due to weight placement can be given by
where S and C are defined as static and couple
(1) components, respectively.
The static influence coefficient is computed based on

vectorial changes in S due to the static weights WS
where h11, h12, h21, and h22 form the 2x2 influence coeffi- (which can be sometimes placed as one weight in the
cient matrix. Superscripts “(0)” and “(1)” represent status middle balance plane), as shown in Figure 2. The couple
without and with weights W1 and W2, respectively. influence coefficient is calculated based on vectorial
Typically, the four influence coefficients, through two changes in C due to the couple weights WC (180 deg
trial runs, can be computed as follows: apart at two ends). When the static (couple) component
is dominant, the static (couple) weight approach alone
may be adopted. In the case that both components are
high, up to four runs are often used to balance both
static and couple components.
(2)
Figure 1. Diagram of vibration and weight vectors when the Keyphasor pulse occurs.
7 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
However, cross-effects of static weights to the couple where ∆SS is the static vibration component with static
component or couple weights to the static component weight(s)—static vibration component without static
have often been neglected when performing balancing. weight(s) and ∆CS is the couple vibration component
A nonsymmetric rotor with respect to its two ends, or with static weight(s)—couple vibration component
strongly influenced by its adjacent section via coupling, without static weight(s).
might have significant cross-effects.
Similarly, having vibration data before and after couple
This article introduces the following static-couple weight placement WC (without static weights) yields
balance model to include these cross-effects:
(7)
(4) and
(8)
where superscripts (0)and (1) represent status without

and with static weight(s) WS and/or couple weights WC.
where ∆CC is the couple vibration component with
Equation (4) also applies to the case where the static
couple weight(s)—couple vibration component without
weight WS is placed in the middle plane instead of two
couple weights and ∆SC is the static vibration compo-
end planes. The above four influence coefficients can be
nent with weight(s)—static vibration component without
computed by placing static/couple weights.
couple weights.
Having vibration data before and after static weight(s)
Equations (5) and (7) have been widely used to compute
placement WS (without couple weights) yields
the effect of static weight(s) to the static component and
the effect of couple weights to the couple component,
(5)
respectively. However, the cross-effect of static
and weight(s) to the couple component or couple weights
to the static component has not been introduced so
(6)
far and has often been assumed to be zero. In a real
Figure 2. Diagram of static/couple vibration and weight vectors when the Keyphasor pulse occurs.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7 5
APPLICATIONS
rotor where asymmetry exists due to rotor structure or

coupling effects, the cross-effect could be significant. (11)
Equations (6) and (8) include these cross-effects. After and
both static and couple balancing without considering

the cross-effects, residual unbalance response could
where (12)
still be high. However, if these four influence coefficients
are obtained, both the static and couple vibration ∆A1,C = A1 with couple weights − A1 without couple
components can be effectively reduced by applying weights
appropriate static and couple weights. Thus synchro- ∆A2,C = A2 with couple weights − A2 without couple
nous vibration levels at plane 1 (A1=S +C) and plane 2 weights
(A2=S −C) will be reduced accordingly.
Combining Equations (5), (9), and (10) yields (note that
Equation (4) shows that vibration can be effectively
∆SS=∆A1,S+∆A2,S/2)
reduced using the static-couple approach by including
(13)
cross-effects. There appears no need to reduce the
static (or the couple) component perfectly with the static Combining Equations (6), (9), and (10) yields (note that
(or the couple) weights before making a trial run with ∆CS=(∆A1,S −∆A2,S)/2)
the couple (or the static) weights, if both the static and
(14)
couple weights are going to be tried. After trial runs with
static and couple weights, respectively, all direct and Combining Equations (7), (11), and (12) yields (note that
cross-effects can be obtained, as shown in Equation 4. ∆CC=(∆A1,C −∆A2,C)/2)
When the static or the couple component appears to (15)

be larger, only static weight(s) or couple weights are Combining Equations (8), (11), and (12) yields (note that
sometimes used. An optimized static or couple weight ∆SC=(∆A1,C +∆A2,C)/2)
solution can be obtained to include the cross-effect.
(16)
Sometimes one needs to know individual probe influ-
ence due to static or couple weights. The static weight Using Equations (13)–(16), individual probe influence
influence to probes near planes 1 and 2 can be given by vectors near plane 1 or 2 due to static or couple weights
can also be expressed in terms of static or couple influ-
(9) ence vectors as follows:
and (17)
(18)
(10)
where
∆A1,S = A1 with static weight(s) − A1 without static (19)
weight(s)
(20)
∆A2,S = A2 with static weight(s) − A2 without static
Note that all the above equations apply to cases where
weight(s)
static weights are placed either at the middle balance
Similarly, the couple weight influence to probes near weight plane only or at two end balance weight planes
planes 1 and 2 can be given by with the same amount of weights in the same orienta-
tion. Couple weights are always defined throughout the
paper as placement at two end balance planes with the
same amount of weights in the opposite orientation (180
deg apart).
7 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009
APPLICATIONS
Relationship of Influence Coefficients Applying arbitrary static weights WS only at planes 1

Between the Two Methods and 2, Equation (1) after replacing W1 and W2 each with
WS can be reformulated to
When performing balancing in the field, sometimes the
number of weights or the amount of weights (heavy (21a)
metal weights may not be allowed due to high tempera-
ture on some rotors such as high pressure (HP) section) (21b)
is limited at balance planes. In this case, even if a 2X2
influence coefficient matrix is available that may lead Applying the same static weights WS only at planes
to placement of a large amount of weights at two end 1 and 2, Equation (4) after setting WC=0 can be
planes, one would prefer to use less amounts of static reformulated to
or couple weights only to reduce vibration to acceptable (22a)
levels. Using either static or couple weights would
depend on which component is dominant and which (22b)
weight placement is more efficient (having sensitivity of
Addition of Equations (21a) and (21b) followed by
static and couple influence vectors would help to deter-
subtraction of Equation (22) with application of Equation
mine). Having influence vectors for static and couple
(3) yields
weights with the same phase lag reference for weights
and vibration vectors (suggested to use for balancing, (23)
preferably aligned to the probe orientation), one would
Subtraction of Equation (21) from Equation (21) followed
be able to see how the rotor is running before, after,
by subtraction of Equation (22) with application of
or close to the translational, pivotal, or other bending
Equation (3) yields
modes based on phase lag angle of static and couple
influence vectors. The above-mentioned questions can (24)
be answered by conversion of influence vectors from
the multiplane method to the static-couple method. Similarly, applying arbitrary couple weights WC only at
planes 1 and 2, Equation (1) after replacing W1 with WC
On the other hand, one would also need to know
and W2 with −WC can be reformulated to
influence vectors expressed in terms of the multiplane
method from known static and couple influence vectors (25a)
in some cases. Sometimes only one end balance plane
can be used due to unavailable empty holes or slot (25b)
section for weights, or difficult access on the other Applying the same static weights WC at planes 1 and 2,
end plane. In thermal bow/rub situations, calculating Equation (4) after setting WS=0 can be reformulated to
additional unbalance (caused by thermal bow) using
vibration excursion vectors compensated by the normal (26a)
running condition vectors based on the multiplane
influence model would help to determine the thermal (26b)
bow/rub location (close to balance plane 1 or 2). Using Addition of Equations (25a) and (25b) followed by
the 2X2 multiplane method would also directly lead subtraction of Equations (26a) with application of
to weight placement at planes 1 and 2. Those would Equation (3) yields
require conversion of influence vectors from the static-
(27)
couple method to the multiplane method.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7 7
APPLICATIONS
Subtraction of Equation (25b) from Equation (25a) Note that all the above equations in this section apply
followed by subtraction of Equation (26b) with to cases where static weights are placed at two end
application of Equation (3) yields balance weight planes. In case the static weight is
defined as placement at the middle balance plane,
(28)
Equations (27), (28), (39), and (40) are still valid.
Thus, conversion equations of influence vectors from

the multiplane method to the static-couple method are
given by Equation (23) (direct static influence vector),
Equation (24) (cross-effect of the couple component due
to static weights), Equation (27) (cross-effect of the static
component due to couple weights), and Equation (28) Figure 3. Rotor kit for balance calculations.
(direct couple influence vector). Combining Equations
(23), (24), (27), and (28), conversion of influence vectors
from the static-couple method to the multiplane method Example 1 – Rotor Kit Verification
can also be given by The first real example presented here is mainly to verify
the above-developed equations of influence coefficient
(29)
conversion between multiplane and static-couple
(30) methods. In this example, a Bently Nevada* RK-4 rotor
kit was used, as shown in Figure 3. A shaft with the
(31) diameter and length of 0.01 m and 0.56 m, respectively,
was supported by two brass bushing bearings and
(32)
driven by a 75 W motor. Three 0.8 kg disks were
attached to the shaft with one close to bearing No. 1
Combining Equations (13)–(16) and (29)–(32) yields
and two close to bearing No. 2, thus having asymmetri-
influence vectors with the multiplane method expressed
cal mass distribution with respect to the two bearings.
by individual probe influence vectors due to static and
The rotor was also supported by a midspan spring to
couple weights as follows:
prevent excessive bow in the middle of the shaft. The
(33) data acquisition and processing system consisted of
two pairs of X-Y displacement proximity probes, one
(34) speed probe, and one Keyphasor* probe for speed and
phase measurement. Two balance weight planes 1 and
(35)
2 are located adjacent to bearing Nos. 1 and 2 as well
(36) as their corresponding proximity probes. The shaft was
rotated in the counterclockwise direction when viewed
Combining Equations (33)–(36), individual probe from the motor to bearing #2.
influence vectors due to static or couple weights can
In this example, the running speed for balance was set
also be expressed in terms of influence vectors with
at 4800 rpm for demonstration. Since higher amplitudes
the multiplane method as follows:
occurred in the horizontal direction at the running speed,
(37) influence coefficient calculations were carried out in
terms of vibration readings measured by the two hori-
(38)
zontal probes located 90 deg right of top, as shown in
(39) Figure 3. From an initial run without any balance weight
placement, synchronous vibration vectors at bearing
(40) Nos. 1 and 2 in the horizontal direction were as follows:
7 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
Figure 4 shows polar plots and vibration vectors at

approximately 4800 rpm for three different runs as well
as two sets of weight placement. Using Equation (2), the
With the following two 0.4 g weights placed at planes 1 influence coefficient matrix for the multiplane method
and 2 (see Figure 4): is computed as
the corresponding vibration vectors became
Assuming that synchronous vibration vectors are lin-

early proportional to applied balance weights, arbitrary
Placing the following two 0.8 g weights at planes 1 and 2
two weight placement sets (as long as its weight matrix
(see Figure 4) after removing the above two 0.4 g weights
is not ill conditioned or singular) should yield the same
influence coefficient matrix for this multiplane method at
this running speed. Actually, the other two sets of weight
corresponded to the following vibration vectors:
placement (placing only one weight at one time at one
plane followed by the other plane) were tried, which
produced the results very close to the above ones.
Figure 4. Polar plots and vibration vectors at approximately 4800 rpm for initial run, and first and second trial
runs with weight placements.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 7 9
APPLICATIONS
Thus, the above four values within the matrix are the It is shown from this real example that influence vectors
influence coefficients for the multiplane method at for the static-couple method can be calculated from
this running speed. It is noted that the above two sets known influence coefficients h11, h12, h21, and h22 in a
of weight placement were also just for couple and 2X2 matrix for the multiplane method, without having to
static weights, respectively. Therefore, the influence place trial static or couple weights. Since Eqs. (29)–(32)
coefficients for the static-couple method can be directly are equivalent to Equations (23), (24), (27), and (28), and
computed. Using Equation (3), static and couple vibra- Equations (33)–(36) are equivalent to Equations (37)–(40),
tion vectors for the initial run without weight placement, Equations (29)–(36) also hold true in this example.
the first trial run with couple weights Therefore, influence coefficients h11, h12, h21, and h22
can also be obtained from influence vectors for the
static-couple method without having to place two sets
and the second trial run with static weights
of trial weights.
In this example, it is found that static weights affect the

can be computed, respectively, as follows:
couple vibration vector (HCS is about 2.8 mils pp/g < 24
deg) and that couple weights affect the static vibration
vectors HSC is about 4.0 mils pp/g < 39 deg). These
cross-effects are even higher than the direct static
influence vector HSS about 1.1 mils pp/ g < 161 deg).
The high influence vector HCC about 16.6 mils pp/g < 44
deg) indicates a very sensitive couple weight effect. The
phase readings in HSS and HCC indicate that the rotor kit
runs after the first bending resonance speed and before
Note that the second bending resonance speed. This is in good
agreement with the polar plots of Figure 4.
Using either Equation (1) for multiplane method or

Equation (4) for static-couple method, the required
and
balance weights to offset the initial vibration at two
planes can be determined. The former approach yields
the following balance weights:
The influence vectors due to static and couple weights

placed at two ends are computed directly from their
definition, as shown in the right column of Table 1.
The left column of Table 1 shows calculated results,

using Equations (23), (24), (27), (28), and (37)–(40),
based on known h11, h12, h21, and h22 values from the
multiplane method. It is found that the results in the left
column are the same as those in the right column; small
differences appear just due to rounding errors during
computations.
8 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
Table 1. Verification of influence coefficient conversion between multiplane and static-couple

methods on a real example.
The latter approach yields the following weights:
Note that
The above two sets of weights are identical. Among

available weights and holes, the final weights and their
orientations were chosen as follows:
Figure 5 shows synchronous orbits before and after

the balance with the above weights. The synchronous
vibration level has been reduced from around 6 mils to Figure 5. Synchronous orbits before and after
less than 1 mil after placing the above weights. balance at bearing Nos. 1 and 2.
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 8 1
APPLICATIONS
Example 2 – Steam Turbine

Generator Application
The second example is to demonstrate how to apply
the developed conversion between the two methods
when an influence coefficient matrix for the multiplane
method is known. In this example, high synchronous
vibration due to unbalance was observed via proximity
probes on a 66 MW hydrogen-cooled generator driven
by a steam turbine. The machine is a two-pole genera-
tor and was run at 3600 rpm. It rotates clockwise when
viewed from the turbine towards the generator. The
two generator bearings were named as bearing Nos.
5 (drive-end) and 6 (nondrive-end). A pair of X-Y probes Figure 6. Polar plots and vibration vectors at
was installed at 45 deg left and right at bearing No. 5 3600 rpm before and after balance.
while another pair of X-Y probes was installed at 60 deg
left and 30 deg right at bearing No. 6.
Table 2. Calculated influence vectors in static and

couple methods from the known influence vectors
in the multiplane method, without placing static Figure 7. Synchronous orbits at 3600 rpm before
or couple trial weights. and after balance.
8 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
Synchronous vibration amplitudes were higher on These large amounts of weight at two planes were
Y-probes than on X-probes at the two bearings on unable to be placed into empty holes or achieved by
the generator. Balance calculations were therefore adjustment of existing weights. An alternative needed
conducted on Y-probes only. In order to use the to be found. The study of influence data was then
same nomenclature and subscripts for the equations performed. Influence coefficients for static and couple
developed earlier, probes and weight plane at bearing weights were calculated based on known h11, h12, h21,
No. 5 are denoted as 1 while those at bearing No. 6 are and h22 values without placing static or couple trial
denoted as 2. As shown in Figure 6, Y-probe readings at weights. Note that the Y-probe at bearing No. 6 was
bearing Nos. 5 and 6 were not parallel to the Y-probe at bearing No. 5. In order to
evaluate static and couple effects better, the synchro-
nous vector at bearing No. 6, as though it was measured
by a proximity probe at 45 deg left, needed to be known,
and h11, h12, h21, and h22 needed to be applicable to this
change. Although the above-mentioned synchronous
vector at bearing No. 6 could be determined by using
The previous influence coefficients used for the
vectors from both X and Y probes, h11, h12, h21, and h22
multiplane method were given by
might not fit the new defined vector. Therefore, the origi-
nal vector was used as the new vector except its phase
was lagged an addition 15 deg. Thus, the two vibration
vectors referenced to 45 deg left became
where h11, h12, h21, and h22 were applied to Equation (1)
in which synchronous vibration vectors were defined as and the influence matrix with both vibration and weight
original ones from the two Y-probes 1 was referenced vectors referenced to 45 deg left became
to 45 deg left and 2 was referenced to 60 deg left, while
weights at both ends were all referenced to 45 deg left.
The balance plane radius where weights were placed
was about 0.254 m (10 in.) with the one at bearing No.
5 slightly larger than that at bearing No. 6 (about 1%
difference). Note that the radius difference between the Table 2 shows calculated influence vectors for static
two weight planes would not affect the validity of all and couple weights from known influence vectors
the equations developed in the paper. Weight planes h11, h12, h21, and h22 used for the multiplane method,
at bearing Nos. 5 and 6 had 44 and 36 holes for weight without having to place static or couple trial weights.
placement, respectively. Their weight sizes were also The direct couple influence vector HCC was the most
different between two planes. sensitive one (0.0111 mil pp/g 131 deg), indicating that
appropriate couple weights would effectively reduce the
Using Eq. (1), the required balance weights at two planes
current synchronous vibration level, especially to bear-
appeared to be
ing No. 5 (h1,C=0.0135 mil pp/g 131 deg). Static weights
appeared not to be sensitive to synchronous vibration
vectors at the running speed for this generator, as
shown in Table 2. The current static and couple vibration
vectors were as follows:
Vo l . 2 9 N o. 1 2 0 0 9 ORB I T 8 3
APPLICATIONS
2. Conversion equations of influence vectors between

the static-couple and multiplane methods are
given in this paper. Equations (23), (24), (27), and (28)
Using Equation (4) by setting WS=0 and neglecting HSC are used for conversion from multiplane format to
effect, the required couple weights were calculated as static-couple format and Equations (29)–(32) are
follows: used for conversion from static-couple format to
multiplane format.
or
3. Individual probe influence vectors due to static or
couple weights can be vital information. Static and
couple influence vectors as well as cross-effects can
be evaluated from them by using Equations (13)–(16)
Based on available weights and holes on the two
and multiplane influence vectors can be evaluated
balance planes as well as the above estimation, the
from them by using Equations (33)–(36).
following chosen weights
4. The above analytical findings have been confirmed
by experimental results.
would yield synchronous vibration vectors of about 0.2
mil pp and 0.7 mil pp at bearing Nos. 5 and 6, predicted 5. The analytical findings can be applied to real rotat-
from the original multiplane influence coefficient matrix. ing machinery balancing as shown in this article.
Effective balance weights can be best evaluated
After placing the above weights, synchronous vibrations
by using conversion equations of influence vectors
at bearing Nos. 5 and 6 were reduced to 0.2 mil pp and
between multiplane and static-couple formats.
0.4 mil pp, respectively, as shown in Figures 6 and 7.
Knowing influence vectors in both formats can also
help troubleshoot unbalance changes as well as
Conclusions running modes.
Based on both analytical and real case studies pre- * denotes a trademark of Bently Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned
sented in this article, the following five conclusions are
stated regarding influence vectors using static-couple
and multiplane methods for two-plane balancing: Acknowledgment
1. For the static-couple method, cross-effects between The author is grateful to Robert C. Eisenmann, Sr. of
static weights and couple response as well as GE Energy for his support and comments on the current work.
between couple weights and static response can be
included so that a good combination of static and
couple weights can be applied to offset synchronous
vibration more effectively.
8 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

APPLICATIONS
Nomenclature Greek
Superscripts
References
[1] Ehrich, F. F., 1999, Handbook of Rotordynamics,
Krieger, Malabar, FL.
[2] Foiles, W. C., Allaire, P. E., and Gunter, E. J., 1998,

“Review: Rotor Balancing,” Shock Vib., 5, pp. 325–336.
[3] Everett, L. J., 1987, “Two-Pane Balancing of a Rotor

System Without Phase Response Measurements,”
Trans. ASME, J. Vib., Acoust., Stress, Reliab. Des., 109,
pp. 162–167.
[4] Foiles, W. C., and Bently, D. E., 1988, “Balancing With

Phase Only (Single-Plane and Multiplane),” Trans.
ASME, J. Vib., Acoust., Stress, Reliab. Des., 110, pp.
151–157.
[5] Thearle, E. L., 1934, “Dynamic Balancing of Rotating

Machinery in the Field,” Trans. ASME, 56, pp. 745–753.
[6] Wowk, V., 1995, Machinery Vibration: Balancing,

McGraw-Hill, New York.
[7] Eisenmann, R. C., Sr., and Eisenmann, R. C., Jr., 1997,

Machinery Malfunction Diagnosis and Correction:
Vibration Analysis and Troubleshooting for the
Process Industries, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
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ORBIT

Volume 29 • Number 1 • 2009

Volume 29 • Number 1 • 2009

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

A Technical Publication for Advancing

Vol.29 No.1 2009

Publisher Your Feedback: Helping Us Help You

As a thank you, each survey participant will be given advance access to

ORBIT is published three times per year

Vol.29 No.1 2009

Cover Story CONTRIBUTORS

Case Histories Power & Water Corporation

Microsoft and Excel are trademarks or

TaylorMade and Noodle are trademarks or

Woodward and Peak are trademarks or

Modern, tropical, and multicultural, Darwin’s wharf precinct

Keeping the Lights on in

POWER & WATER CORPORATION

6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Vibration Measurements Trim balancing of the LP rotor is rarely performed in-situ,

Figure 1. Data acquisition instrumentation set

Figure 2. Typical frequency spectrum for the TRF

8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

The latest addition to this family, the ADRE 408, takes

Final selection of weights, of course, comes down to the

While industrial gas turbines usually are (or can be)

1 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Multiple Operating State Challenges Results

Table 1. Summary of trim balancing results

Original Run 3/11/06 0.78 @ 224º 0.48 @ 358º

Conclusion PWC was able to avoid an unplanned outage to swap

Field Balancing Calculations –

i.e., GE provides technical training that covers the funda-

Reducing OpEx Through Condition Monitoring

Valve Temperature Measurement

Measurement Application When reciprocating compressor valves fail, they can

1 6 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Relating Valve Temperature

INTO THE COMPRESSION

HEATED AGAIN. THE

INCREASE NEAR THE VALVE.

Figure 1. Reciprocating compressor suction

LP Stg 2 DischW NA Temperature 12NOV2002 08:56:20 177 deg F NA

LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH GAUGE

LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch LP Stage 2 West (CE) Synch

Figure 2. Failing discharge valve.

1 8 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

ValveTempEffects - Trend Plot [Figure03] Plot Number:__________

2 0 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

LP Stage 1 CE Synch 358.3 psig LP Stage 1 CE Synch 358.5 psig

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH GAUGE

2 2 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

Figure 6. Valve cover skin temperature.

Table 1. Valve Temperature Installation Arrangement Comparisons.

Installation effort Minor Moderate Major

Effect of variables other

Neither radiative nor conductive heat transfer modes

LP Stg 1 Disch NE NA 24JUN2006 04:45:03 106 deg F NA LP Stage 1 East Synch

2 4 O R B I T Vol.29 No.1 2009

LP Stage 1 East Synch

POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH GAUGE

LP Stage 1 East Synch

3. Sabin. S, “Voting Thrust Measurments with Other

9. Machinery’s Handbook 28th Edition, Oberg, Jones,