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strong>INTERCOSTAL
Composed of separate parts, non-continuous
CENTER OF FLOATATION
It is the center of the waterplane area and is the axis about which a ship changes trim.
CENTER OF BUOYANCY
It is the center of the underwater volume of the ship where the force of buoyancy acts.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
It is the point at which the whole weight of the object may be regarded as acting. If the object is suspended
from this point, it will remain balanced and not tilt.
TONNAGE MEASUREMENT
This is often referred to when the size of the vessel is discussed, and the gross tonnage is quoted from
Lloyd’s register.
Tonnage is a measure of the enclosed internal volume of the vessel, 100 cubic feet representing one ton
Its normally divided into categories as follow:
1. DISPLACEMENT TONNAGE
A ship’s displacement is the sum of the ship’s actual weight (lightweight) and it’s contents (deadweight).
The metric unit of measurement is 1 tonne (= 1000 Kg).
The displacement represents the amount of water displaced by the ship expressed in tonnes.
The weight of water displaced therefore equals the weight of the ship
LOAD DISPLACEMENT
The weight of the ship and its content, measured in tonne. The value will vary according to the ship’s draught.
DEADWEIGHT SCALE
It is a scale diagram indicating the deadweight of the ship at various draughts.
FORM COEFFICIENT
It is devised to show the relationship between the form of the ship and the dimension of the ship.
The lightweight is the weight of the ship as built (hull, machinery) including boiler water, lubricating oil and
the cooling water system.
Lightweight like displacement is expressed in units of tones.
It assumes importance in a commercial sense only when considering the value of the vessel which is to be
broken up for scrape.
Deadweight is the weight of the cargo which a ship carries plus weights of fuel, stores, water ballast, fresh
water, crew and passengers and baggage.
It is the difference between the loaded ship displacement and the lightweight.
Ship measurement derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces allowed for crew and propelling power.
100 cubic feet of space being reckoned as 1 ton
LOAD LINE
The marking on the ship side that relate to the loading condition of the ship termed as the load line mark.
Margin Plate:
Keel is a horizontal plating of increased thickness, which runs along the centre line, for complete length of
bottom shell plating.
Types of keel: (1) Bar keel (2) Flat plate keel (3) Duct keel.
Bar keel:
A keel of welded ship. The centre girder is attached to the keel and inner bottom plating by continuous welds.
Keel plate width is about 1 to 2 meter
It must be full thickness, for 3/5 of length amidship and then thickness may reduce towards the ends of
ship.
Duct keel:
1. An internal passage of watertight construction, running same distance along the length of ship, often from
fore peak to forward machinery space bulkhead.
2. It is to carry pipeworks, and entrance is at forward machinery space bulkhead through a watertight manhole.
Bulkhead
Class A bulkhead
Constructed to prevent passage of flame for 1 hour standard fire test at 927°C
It must be insulated so that the unexposed sides will not rise more than 139°C above the original temperature
within the time, as follows:
Class B bulkhead:
Class C bulkhead:
Collision Bulkhead:
Foremost major watertight bulkhead, which extends from bottom to main deck (upper deck).
It is at a distance of L/20 from forward perpendicular.
Corrugated bulkhead:
Non-watertight bulkhead:
Any bulkhead, which does not form, part of a tank or part of a watertight subdivision of a ship, may be non-
watertight.
Wash bulkhead:
A perforated bulkhead fitted into a cargo tank or deep tank, to reduce sloshing or movement of liquid through
the tank.
Functions of bulkhead:
Construction of bulkhead:
In the events of collision and grounding, standard of subdivision has to give good chance, that the ship
remains afloat under such emergencies.
Longitudinal Bulkheads are avoided, as far as possible, as they might cause dangerous angles of heel, in the
event of flooding of large compartment through damage.
Transverse Bulkheads are reliable in this case, and Classification Society requires a watertight Collision
Bulkhead within reasonable distance from forward.
If the ship is supposed to have wave trough amidships, there will be excess weight amidships and excess
buoyancy at the ends, hence the ship will be (Assuming wave length = length of ship)
If the ship is supposed to have wave crest amidships, there will be excess weight at the ends, and excess
buoyancy amidships; hence the ship will be
By “Trochoidal Theory”, wave height from trough to crest is 1/20 of the wave length, therefore maximum
shearing force usually occurs at about L/20 of ship from each end.
For this reason, Collision Bulkhead is located at L/20 of the ship, so that it is not so far forward, as to be
damaged on impact. Neither should it be too far aft, so that the compartment flooded forward causes
excessive trim by bow.
Panting:
As wave passes along the ship, they cause water pressure fluctuation, which tends to create in and out
movement of the shell plating, especially at forward end.
This in and out movement is called panting.
Resisting structures against panting are beams, brackets, stringer plates, etc.
Racking:
When a ship rolls, there is a tendency for the ship to distort transversely.
This is known as racking.
Resisting structures are beam knee, tank side bracket, and especially transverse
Slamming or Pounding:
When ship is heaving and pitching, the fore end emerges from water and re-enter with a slamming effect.
It is called pounding.
Resisting structure: extra stiffening at the fore end.
Hogging:
When buoyancy amidships exceeds the weight due to loading, or when the wave crest is amidships, the ship
will hog.
Sagging:
When the weight amidships exceeds the buoyancy, or when the wave trough is amidships the ship will sag.
Transverse section of a ship is subjected to transverse stresses, i.e. static pressure due to surrounding
water, as well as internal loading due to weight of structure, cargo, etc.
Structures or parts, that resist transverse stresses:
Transverse bulkhead
Floors in double bottom
Brackets between deck beams and side frame
Brackets between side frame and tank top plating
Margin plates
Pillars in holds and tween deck.
Local stresses:
Causes:
Dynamic forces:
When ship is carrying timber, the deck cargo gives additional buoyancy and a greater degree of protection
against the sea.
The ship has smaller freeboard than normal (type-B) vessel.
Bulbous Bow:
Bow Thruster:
Lateral Bow Thrusters are particularly useful, for manoeuvring in confined water at low speed.
For large vessel, used at channel crossing, and docking.
For research vessels and drilling platform, etc. very accurate positioning
Bow Thruster consists of: (As a Rule)
A controllable pitch or reversible impeller, in athwartship watertight tunnels.
Bridge controlled and driven by
Thrust provided is a low thrust, about 16 tons.
Greatest thrust is obtained, when ship speed is zero.
Less effective, when ship gets underway.
Athwartship tunnels appreciably increases hull resistance.
Close the tunnels at either end, when not in use, by butterfly valve or hydraulic valve.
Cofferdam:
A narrow void space between two bulkheads or floors that prevents leakage between the adjoining
compartments.
In tankers, between cargo tanks: In ER, between DB LO tank (sump tank) and adjacent tanks. Maximum
width = 760 mm.
Double Bottom:
The double bottom consists of outer shell and inner skin, 1m and 1.5 m above the keel and internally
supported by
Double bottom space is subdivided longitudinally and transversely, into large tank, by means of watertight
structures. Its functions are:
Wing Tank:
Purpose:
Freeboard:
Vertical distance from water load line, up to the main deck [freeboard deck], measured at the shipside
amidships.
Main deck is the highest deck that is water sealed. Water falling on upper decks may run down companion
ways, but it cannot go any further down into the ship than the main deck.
Freeboard has considerable influence on seaworthiness of the ship. The greater the freeboard, the larger is
the above water volume of the ship and this provides reserved buoyancy, assisting the ship to remain afloat
in the event of damage.
Reserved buoyancy:
Watertight volume of a ship above the water line is called the reserved buoyancy.
It can be defined as the buoyancy, a ship can call upon, to meet losses of buoyancy in case of damage to
main hull. [Water plane area, multiplied by freeboard.]
Purpose:
Marking of freeboard:
Hatchways:
These constructions must be in accordance with standards, such as heights of coamings, covers, and fittings
exposed. They have standard of strength and protection.
Machinery Casing:
Machinery space openings on exposed portion of freeboard deck (superstructure deck), must be provided with
Steel Casing, with any opening fitted with Steel Doors. Fiddley Opening is to have permanently attached Steel
Covers.
Tonnage:
Tonnage is a measure of cubic capacity, where one ton represents 100 ft³ or 2.83 m³. It is a measure of the
ship’s internal capacity.
Gross Tonnage:
Gross tonnage is the total of the Underdeck tonnage & the tonnage of the following spaces:
Exempted spaces:
1. If machinery space tonnage is between 13% and 20% of gross tonnage, PPA is 32% of gross tonnage.
2. If machinery space tonnage is less than 13% of gross tonnage, PPA is the amount expressed as a proportion
of 32% of gross tonnage.
3. If machinery space tonnage is more than 20% of gross tonnage, PPA is 1.75 times the machinery space
tonnage.
4. There is a maximum deduction for propelling power of 55% of gross tonnage, remaining after all other
deductions have been made.
Tonnage Deck: The tonnage deck is the second deck, except in single deck ships.
Rubber jointing is used, and the hatch being pulled down by cleats and cross joint wedges. Cleats are placed
about 2 m apart with minimum of two cleats per panel. Cross joint wedges should be 1.5 m apart.
2. Cover or door seals, painted with chalk powder, and close the cover or door tightly.
3. Open the cover or door, and check whether the chalk painted is cut off or not.
Timing can be altered by shifting the camshaft to the position relative to crankshaft, after removing the idler
gear between crankshaft and camshaft.