Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Prepared by
Dr. K. RAJENDRAN
SLAEC
08/06/2014 GE2021-EVS 1
ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY
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ECOSYSTEM
Defined area in which a community lives with
interaction taking place among the organisms
between the community and its non-living physical
environment
• An ecosystem is formed by the interaction between
all living and non-living things
Structure:
– Living (biotic)
– Nonliving (abiotic)
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ABIOTIC components:
• Solar energy provides practically all the
energy for ecosystems.
• Inorganic substances, e.g., sulfur, boron and
carbon cycle through ecosystems.
• Organic compounds, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and other complex
molecules, form a link between biotic and
abiotic components of the system.
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BIOTIC components:
The biotic components of an ecosystem can be classified
according to their mode of energy acquisition.
In this type of classification, there are:
Autotrophs
• Organisms that produce their own food from an energy
source, such as the sun, and inorganic compounds.
Heterotrophs
• Organisms that consume other organisms as a food
source.
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Producers are able to capture the sun's energy through
photosynthesis and absorb nutrients from the soil,
storing them for future use by themselves and by
other organisms. Grasses, shrubs, trees, mosses,
lichens, and cyanobacteria.
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Secondary succession.
If the area under established has been cleared by
whatsoever agency (such as burning, grazing, clearing, felling
of trees, sudden change in climatic factors, etc.) of the
previous plants, it is called secondary succession.
Autogenic succession.
After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is
the community itself (as a result of its reactions with the
environment) modifies its own environment and, thus,
causing its own replacement by new communities. This course
of succession is known as autogenic succession.
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ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM :
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. For living
organisms, it is the basic force responsible for running all the
metabolic activities. The flow of energy from producer level
to top consumer level is called energy flow.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. It
flows from producer level to consumer level.
The process of energy flow involves transfer of energy from
autotrophs to various components of heterotrophs and help
in maintaining bio diversity. The main source of energy in the
ecosystem is sunlight. About 80% of energy is lost during flow
of energy from one tropic level to the next one.
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Food Chain in Ecosystem
In an ecosystem one can observe the transfer or flow of energy
from one tropic level to other in succession.
A tropic level can be defined as the number of links by which it
is separated from the producer, or as the which position of the
organism in the food chain.
Thus, primary producers trap radiant energy of sun and transfer
that to chemical or potential energy of organic compounds such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
When a herbivore animal eats a plant (or when bacteria
decompose it) and these organic compounds are oxidized, the
energy liberated is just equal to the amount of energy used in
synthesizing the substances (first law of thermodynamics), but some
of the energy is heat and not useful energy (second law of
thermodynamics).
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If this animal is eaten by another one, along with transfer of
energy from a herbivore to carnivore a further decrease in
useful energy occurs as the second animal (carnivore) oxidizes
the organic substances of the first (herbivore or omnivore) to
liberate energy to synthesize its own cellular constituents.
Such transfer of energy from organism to organism
sustains the ecosystem and when energy is transferred from
individual to individual in a particular community, as in a pond
or a lake or a river, we come across the food chains.
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Ecological Pyramids
In the successive steps of grazing food chain
producers, herbivorous, carnivores and decay
bacteria-the number and mass of the organisms in
each step is limited by the amount of energy
available. Since some energy is lost as heat, in each
transformation the steps become progressively
smaller near the top. This relationship is sometimes
called "ecological pyramid". The ecological pyramids
represent the tropic structure and also tropic
function of the ecosystem.
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Definition:
Graphical representation of structure and
function of tropic levels of an ecosystem.
Types of Ecological Pyramids
The ecological pyramids may be of following
three kinds
• Pyramid of number
• Pyramid of biomass
• Pyramid of energy
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• Pyramid of number
It depicts the number of individual organisms at different
tropic levels of food chain. The animals at the lower end (base
of pyramid) of the chain are the most abundant. Successive
links of carnivores decrease rapidly in number until there are
very few carnivores at the top. The pyramid of number ignores
the biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the
energy transferred or the use of energy by the groups involved.
The grassland ecosystem provides a typical example for
pyramid of number.
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Pyramid of biomass
The biomass of the members of the food
chain present at any one time forms the pyramid of
the biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease
of biomass in each tropical level from base to apex.
For example, the total biomass of the producers
ingested by herbivores is more than the total
biomass of the herbivores in an ecosystem. Likewise,
the total biomass of the primary carnivores (or
secondary consumer) will be less than the herbivores
and so on.
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Pyramid of energy
When production is considered in terms
of energy, the pyramid indicates not only the
amount of energy flow at each level the
actual role the various organisms play in the
transfer of energy. the pyramid of energy is
constructed is the quantity of organisms
produced per unit time.
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Classification of Ecosystems / Ecology
• Terrestrial Ecosystems -which encompass the activities that
take place on land.
• Aquatic ecosystems - the system that exists in water bodies.
Terrestrial ecosystem
• Forest ecosystem
• Desert ecosystem
• Grassland ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystem
• Pond ecosystem
• River or stream ecosystem
• Marine ecosystem
• Estuarine ecosystem
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FOREST ECOSYSTEM
A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and dense
trees grow that support many animals and birds.
Forest occupies 40% of the o ld’s la d.
Total land area is 19% in India.
There are three important types of forests are
• Tropical rain forests.
• Temperate deciduous forests.
• Coniferous forests.
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Tropical rain forests
• They are found near the equator.
• These forests have a warm annual mean temperature.
• These forests have high humidity and heavy rainfall almost
daily.
• These forests consists of broadleaf ever green plants.
• These trees have larger surface on their leaves that allows
them to collect more sunlight and do photosynthesis
extensively.
• Tropical rain forests have wide varieties of species.
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Temperate Deciduous forests:
• Temperate deciduous forests can be found in the eastern part
of the United States and Canada, Europe ,China and Japan
• Winter, spring and summer. Winters are cold and summers
are warm.
• Temperate deciduous forests have a great variety of plant
species.
• Conifers like spruce, fir and pine trees can also be found
mixed in with the hardwood trees.
• There is great diversity of life. Insects, fox,deer etc., are
common.
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Coniferous forests:
• The temperate coniferous forest includes areas South
America, New Zealand North America, northwest Europe and
Iceland and southern Japan
• Many softwood trees such as fir, pine, spruce.
• Most animals are herbivores, however some carnivores and
omnivores are thrown in. Animals in Coniferous Forests
include the red fox, moose and owl.
• Coniferous Forests are the largest land of the World.
• A Conifer is a tree that produces its seeds in cones. The Pine
tree is the most common example. Conifer leaves conserve
water with the thick, waxy layer that covers their leaves.
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STRUCTURE OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall)
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1.Producers: Trees,shrubs etc.,
2.Consumers:
Primary consumers : ants,flies & insects
Secondary consumers : snakes,birds.
Tertiary consumers : tiger,lion.
3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi
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GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
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There are three types of grasslands
• A. Tropical grasslands
• B. Temperate grasslands
• C. Polar grasslands
Tropical grasslands
They has high temperature and moderate rain fall, 40-
100cm.They have tall grasses with scatteres shrubs.They are
the shelter for animals like zebras, giraffes and African
elephant. Savanna grassland in Africa is good example for
tropical grassland.
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Temperate grasslands:
Cold in Winters and hot in summers, annual
precipitation is less and falls unevenly through the
year. Pampas in South America and Veldt in Africa
are examples for temperate grasslands.
Polar grasslands:
It is also known as arctic polar region.
Severe cold and strong winds along with ice
and snow. They have animals like arctic fox.
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STRUCTURE OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall),C,H,O,N.,
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1.Producers: Grass,shrubs etc.,
2.Consumers:
Primary consumers : cow,deer.
Secondary consumers : snakes,birds.
Tertiary consumers : hawks,eagle
3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi
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DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Deserts are dry places with unpredictable and infrequent
precipitation.
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STRUCTURE OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
Climate factors(Temp,light,rainfall)
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
2.Consumers:Squirrels,foxes,rabbits.
3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi
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WATER or AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
The aquatic system deals with water bodies.The
major types of organism found in this ecosystem.
POND ECOSYSTEM:
It contains algae,plants,insects,fish.
Characteristic :
1.Pond is temporary,seasonal,get polluted easily.
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Lake ecosystem:
• Littoral zone
light penetrates to the bottom, allowing aquatic
plants to grow.
• Limnetic zone
the open water area where light does not generally
penetrate all the way to the bottom.
• Euphotic zone
the layer from the surface down to the depth where light
levels become too low for photosynthesis.
• Benthic zone
the bottom sediment.
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• LAKE ECOSYSTEM:
Lakes are natural shallow water bodies.
Characteristic:
1.Permanent water body.
2.It helps in irrigation and drinking.
3.It is fresh water body.
RIVER ECOSYSTEM or STREAM ECOSYSTEM:
Well oxygenated,no.of animals are less.
1.It is fresh,flowing water,DO is high,rich in nutrients.
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ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM:
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the
mouth of river, where river joins the sea.
Characteristic:
1.Estuaries are transition zone.
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STRUCTURE OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
• ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
Climate factors(Temp,light,water,organic and inorganic compounds.
• BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1.Producers: phytoplankton
2.Consumers:
Primary consumers : zooplankton
Secondary consumers : small fish
Tertiary consumers : big fish
3.Decomposers: Bacteria,fungi
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
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Pollution
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Types of pollution
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Land or soil pollution
• Noise pollution
• Thermal pollution
• Marine pollution
• Nuclear pollution
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AIR POLLUTION
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Classification of Air pollutants:
1.Primary air pollutants: CO,NO & SO2.
Emitted directly in the atmosphere.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS:
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Sulphur dioxide:
• The combustion of sulphur containing fuels such as coal and oil.
• It can be converted into sulphuric acid.
Human Sources :
• Coal burning in power plant (88%)
• Industrial processes (10%)
• Environmental effects :
• In humans : it causes eye irritation, cough, lung diseases including
lung cancer and asthma
• In plants: it causes damage of leaves, bleaching of chlorophyll
which turns leaves brown, damage to crops and to growth of plants.
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Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous oxide are the
three main oxides of nitrogen found in the atmosphere
Sources:
The sources for the oxides of nitrogen are:
• Bacterial decomposition of nitrogenous compounds
• Combustion during lightning : During lightning, oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere combine to give oxides of
nitrogen.
• Industries and automobile exhaust - Air is sucked into the IC
engines. At high temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen in the air
combine to form nitric oxide.
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Effects:
The oxides of nitrogen combine with moisture in the
atmosphere to form nitrous and nitric acid. This leads to
increase in the acidity of rain water.
Formation of photochemical smog: oxides of nitrogen
combine with hydrocarbons present in the atmosphere
forming peroxyacyl nitrate.
Control:
Using catalytic converter in automobiles, Catalytic
converters use Pt/ Rh catalyst. the presence of these catalysts,
the oxides of nitrogen are converted to nitrogen and oxygen .
2NOx ---- N2 + x O2
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Carbon monoxide
Sources:
• Cigarette smoking,incomplete burning of fuels.
• Automobile exhaust- carbon monoxide is formed
during the combustion of fuel such as petrol.(77%)
• Industries: carbon monoxide is released by industries
such as iron and steel and petroleum .
CO2 + C ------- 2CO
2CO2 --------- 2CO + O2
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Effects:
In humans:
• When the atmosphere is polluted with carbon
monoxide, on inhalation, CO combines with the
hemoglobin to form car boxy hemoglobin and hence
oxygen carrying capacity of the blood decreases.
• This causes, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness.
• When inhaled for a long duration it may cause even
death.
• In environment : it increase globe temp.
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Lead pollutant:
Sources:
The exhaust from automobiles which use lead tetraethyl as
antiknocking agent.
Paint pigments : Litharge and red lead ( oxides of lead ) and
lead chromate are used as pigments. These cause lead
pollution.
Effects:
• It leads to anaemia and blood cancer in human beings.
• Lead enters the blood and various organs of the body
including the brain and the Kidneys leading to dysfunction of
the kidney and damage to the brain.
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Control of air pollution
Source Control:
• Use only unleaded petrol.
• Use petroleum products and other fuels that have low
sulphur and ash content.
• Reduce the no. of private vehicles
• Ensure the houses, schools are not located on busy
streets.
• Plant trees along busy streets to reduce particulates, CO
and noise.
• Industries should be situated outside the city
• Use catalytic converters to control CO &hydrocarbons
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Control measures in industries
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Bag house filter/cyclone separator
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Wet scrubber
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WATER POLLUTION
Any alteration in physical, chemical or biological properties of water, as well as the
addition of any foreign substance makes it unfit for health and which decreases the
utility of water, is known as water pollution.
Definition of effluent: Liquid waste flowing out of a factory, farm, commercial
establishment, or a household into a water body such as a river, lake, etc.,
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Main sources of water pollution are:
• Domestic and municipal sewage
• Industrial waste
• Agricultural waste
• Radioactive materials, etc.,
POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES
Two types of water pollutants exist;
Point source
Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are
emitted directly into water.
e.g.,Oil spill
Nonpoint source.
A non-point source delivers pollutants indirectly through
environmental changes.
e.g., Fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain
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Types of pollutant:
1.Infectious agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa
source : animal waste.
Effect : variety of diseases
2.Oxygen demanding waste:
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved
in given quantity of water at a particular P and T. The
saturation point 8-15mg/lit.
Sources: Sewage, paper waste, food processing waste.
Effects: affect to water quality, affect fish survival and
migration.
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3.Inorganic chemicals : Acids, pb, arsenic, selenium,
sodium chloride and fluorides.
Causes : surface runoff, effluents
Effects: Cause skin cancer, damage nervous system,harm to
fish and aquatic life, lower crop yields.
4.Organic chemicals:Oil, gasoline,plastics,
solvents ,detergents.
Causes: Industrial efflents, surface runoff forms.
Effects: Causing effect nervous system ,cancer, harm fish
and wild life.
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5.Plant nutrients:
Nitrate, phosphate and ammonium ions
Causes: sewage, runoff water from agriculture,fertillizer.
Effects: Excessive growth of algae, lower the oxygen
carrying capacity.
6.Sediment: Soil
Causes: Land erosion.
Effects: Can reduce photosynthesis, Affect aquatic food
webs.
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Sewage treatment
In primary treatment, the suspended solids and
floating objects are removed using coarse screens
and sieves.
In secondary treatment, the maximum proportions
of the suspended inorganic/ organic solids are
removed from the liquid sewage. The liquid material
passes into the sedimentation tank and finely
suspended particles are allowed to settle by adding
coagulants like Alum.
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Tertiary treatment
Remove detergents, metal ions, nitrates and
pesticides, as these are not removed in the earlier
treatments.
The phosphates are removed as calcium phosphates
by adding calcium hydroxide at pH 10-11. At this pH,
ammonium salts are also converted into ammonia.
The effluent is chlorinated to remove pathogenic
bacteria's and finally passed through activated
charcoal to absorb gases.
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Control of water pollution:
• Avoid Pesticides and fertilizers on sloped land areas.
• The nutrient rich water can be used as fertilizer in the
fields.
• Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be
provided to prevent overflow of sewage with rain water.
• Planting more trees.
• Use nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of
fertilizers.
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SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of human-made chemicals
or other alteration in the natural soil environment.
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This type of contamination typically arises from,
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Control of soil pollution :
• Effluents should be properly treated before
discharging on the soil.
• Solid waste should be properly collected and
disposed off by appropriate method.
• From the waste, recovery of useful products should
be done.
• Cattle dung should be used for methane generation.
• Microbial degradation of biodegradable substance
for reducing soil pollution.
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NOISE POLLUTION
Definition: Noise Pollution can be defied as unwanted or unpleasant sounds
that causes discomfort for all living things.
• The various sources of noises are associated with urban development;
road-air and rail transport; Industrial noise.
• In our country, indiscriminate use of loud speakers, generator sets and
firecrackers has given new dimensions to the noise pollution problem.
• The commonly used parameter for noise is the sound level in
decibel(dB). Human ears are sensitive in the frequency range of 20Hz to
20000Hz
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Major Noise Sources:
1. Road Traffic:
Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread
and growing environmental problems in urban area. The
impact of road traffic noise on the community depends an
various factors such as road location and design, land use
planning measures, building design, Vehicle standards and
deriver behavior. Motor vehicle ownership in India has
increased substantially over the last 30 years and general
levels of road traffic noise throughout India have increased
through out the period.
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2. Air Traffic:
The extend of aircraft noise impact depends on the
type of aircraft flown, the number of flights and flight paths.
The increase in number of flights, an important factor is
overall noise levels, the led to an increase in general noise
levels associated with air traffic.
3. Rail Traffic:
The two main sources of noise and vibration relating to
the operation of the rail network is
1. The operation of trains and the maintenance
2. Construction of rail infrastructure.
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4.Neighborhood & Domestic Noise:
Other significant source of noise
annoyance is car alarms, building construction
and household noise,Celebrations- religious
function,social and elections.
5.Noise generated by noise levels of 125dB as
per Environmental rules 1999.
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Effects:
1. Noise can disturb out work, rest, sleep and
communication.
2. It can damage our hearing and evoke other
psychological, physiological and possibly pathological
reactions.
3.It effects health efficiency and behaviour.It may cause
damage to heart,brain,kidneys and liver.
4.It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous
breakdown, tension.
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5.Change in hormone content of blood, which turn increase the
rate of heart beat.
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The CPCB-The central pollution control board recommended noise levels.
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CONTROL MEASURES OF NOISE POLLUTION:
1.REDUCTION IN SOURCE OF NOISE : Heavy vehicles and old
vehicles may not be allowed in populated areas.
2. Noise making machines should be kept in containers with sound
absorbing media.
3. Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machinery.
4. Use sound absorbing silencers: Silencers can reduce noise by
absorbing sound.
5. Planting more trees having broad leaves.
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6. Through law:
sound production is minimized at various social
function.
7. The use of fireworks or fire crackers shall not be
permitted except between 6.00a.m and 10.00p.m.No
fireworks or fire crackers shall be used between
10.00p.m and 6.00a.m.
8. Silence zone in area comprising not less than
100meters around hospitals, educational institutions
,courts and religious places.
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THERMAL POLLUTION
• Energy is the basic necessity for the economic
development of a country.
• The electrical energy is produced in power plants or
generating stations. The conventional power plants
are:
- Steam or Thermal Power station,
- Hydro-electric Power station,
- Nuclear Power station
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Steam or Thermal Power station
In the thermal power station, the steam is
produced in the boiler, using the heat released by the
combustion of coal, oil or natural gas.
The steam is used to rotate the steam turbine
(impulse/ reaction).
The steam turbine drives the alternator, which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.10-
16oC higher than initial temp.
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Hydro-electric Power station
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Nuclear Power station
Nuclear power is produced by controlled
(i.e., non-explosive) nuclear reactions.
Commercial and utility plants currently
use nuclear fission reactions to heat water to
produce steam, which is then used to generate
electricity.
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Effects of thermal pollution
• Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved
oxygen (DO) in water.
• Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic
animals.
• A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of
life.-barrier for oxygen penetration
into deep cold water.
• Fish migration is affected due to formation of various thermal
zones.
• Discharge of hot water near the shores can be disturb and even
kill young fishes.
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• Toxicity of pesticides ,detergents and chemicals into the effluent
increases with increase in temp.
• The composition of flora and fauna changes.
Control of thermal pollution
• Thermal pollution from industrial sources is generated mostly by
power plants, petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical
plants, steel mills and smelters.
• Cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by
evaporation, convection, and radiation.
• Cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through
evaporation and/or heat transfer.
• Cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic
and/or industrial heating purposes.
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RADIO ACTIVE OR NUCLEAR POLLUTION